11/27/2017 Sulfuric acid - Wikipedia

Sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid (alternative spelling sulphuric acid) is a mineral acid with the molecular formula H2SO4. It is a colorless odorless syrupy
Sulfuric acid
liquid that is soluble in water.[4]

Its corrosiveness can be mainly ascribed to its strong acidic nature. It is also hygroscopic, readily absorbing water vapour from the air.[4]
Sulfuric acid at even moderate concentrations is very dangerous upon contact with skin.[5][6]

Sulfuric acid has a wide range of applications including in domestic acidic drain cleaners,[7] as an electrolyte in lead-acid batteries and in
Ball-and-s ck
various cleaning agents. It is also a central substance in the chemical industry. Principal uses include mineral processing, fertilizer Space-lling
model
manufacturing, oil refining, wastewater processing, and chemical synthesis. It is widely produced with different methods, such as contact model
process, wet sulfuric acid process, lead chamber process and some other methods.[8]

Contents
1 Physical proper es
1.1 Grades of sulfuric acid
1.2 Polarity and conduc vity

2 Chemical proper es
2.1 Reac on with water and dehydra ng property
2.2 Acid-base proper es
2.3 Reac ons with metals and strong oxidizing property
2.4 Reac ons with non-metals
2.5 Reac on with sodium chloride
2.6 Electrophilic aroma c subs tu on
Names
3 Occurrence IUPAC name
3.1 Stratospheric aerosol
Sulfuric acid
3.2 Extraterrestrial sulfuric acid
3.2.1 Venus Other names
3.2.2 Europa Oil of vitriol
Iden ers
4 Manufacture
4.1 Contact process CAS Number 7664-93-9 (h p://w
4.2 Wet sulfuric acid process ww.commonchemist
4.3 Other methods ry.org/ChemicalDeta

5 Uses il.aspx?ref=7664-93-
5.1 Industrial produc on of chemicals 9)
5.2 Sulfuriodine cycle 3D model (JSmol) Interac ve image (h
5.3 Industrial cleaning agent p://chemapps.stola
5.4 Catalyst f.edu/jmol/jmol.ph
5.5 Electrolyte p?model=OS%28%3
5.6 Domes c uses DO%29%28%3DO%2
6 History 9O)
7 Safety ChEBI CHEBI:26836 (h p
7.1 Laboratory hazards s://www.ebi.ac.uk/c
7.2 Dilu on hazards hebi/searchId.do?ch
7.3 Industrial hazards ebiId=26836)
8 Legal restric ons
ChemSpider 1086 (h p://www.c
9 See also hemspider.com/Che
10 References mical-Structure.108
11 External links 6.html)

ECHA InfoCard 100.028.763 (h p

s://echa.europa.e
Physical properties u/substance-inform
a on/-/substancein
fo/100.028.763)
Grades of sulfuric acid EC Number 231-639-5
Although nearly 99% sulfuric acid can be made, the subsequent loss of SO3 at the boiling point brings the concentration to 98.3% acid. The E number E513 (acidity
98% grade is more stable in storage, and is the usual form of what is described as "concentrated sulfuric acid". Other concentrations are used regulators, ...)
for different purposes. Some common concentrations are:[9][10]
Gmelin Reference 2122
KEGG D05963 (h p://ww
w.kegg.jp/entry/D05
963)
PubChem CID

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Mass frac on Density Concentra on 1118 (h ps://pubch

Common name
H2SO4 (kg/L) (mol/L) em.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/compound/1118)
10% 1.07 1 dilute sulfuric acid
RTECS number WS5600000
ba ery acid
2932% 1.251.28 4.25
(used in leadacid ba eries) UNII O40UQP6WCF (h p
chamber acid s://fdasis.nlm.nih.go
6270% 1.521.60 9.611.5
fer lizer acid v/srs/srsdirect.jsp?re
gno=O40UQP6WCF)
tower acid
7880% 1.701.73 13.514
Glover acid

98% 1.84 18 concentrated sulfuric acid UN number 1830

InChI
"Chamber acid" and "tower acid" were the two concentrations of sulfuric acid produced by the lead chamber process, chamber acid being the
SMILES
acid produced in lead chamber itself (<70% to avoid contamination with nitrosylsulfuric acid) and tower acid being the acid recovered from
the bottom of the Glover tower.[9][10] They are now obsolete as commercial concentrations of sulfuric acid, although they may be prepared in Proper es
the laboratory from concentrated sulfuric acid if needed. In particular, "10M" sulfuric acid (the modern equivalent of chamber acid, used in Chemical formula H2SO4
many titrations) is prepared by slowly adding 98% sulfuric acid to an equal volume of water, with good stirring: the temperature of the
Molar mass 98.079 g/mol
mixture can rise to 80 C (176 F) or higher.[10]
Appearance Clear, colorless
Sulfuric acid reacts with its anhydride, SO3, to form H2S2O7, called pyrosulfuric acid, fuming sulfuric acid, Disulfuric acid or oleum or, less liquid
commonly, Nordhausen acid. Concentrations of oleum are either expressed in terms of% SO3 (called% oleum) or as% H2SO4 (the amount Odor odorless
made if H2O were added); common concentrations are 40% oleum (109% H2SO4) and 65% oleum (114.6% H2SO4). Pure H2S2O7 is a solid
Density 1.84 g/cm3, liquid
with melting point of 36 C.
Mel ng point 10 C (50 F; 283 K)
Pure sulfuric acid has a vapor pressure of <0.001 mmHg at 25 C and 1 mmHg at 145.8 C,[11] and 98% sulfuric acid has a <1 mmHg vapor Boiling point 337 C (639 F;
pressure at 40 C.[12] 610 K) When
Pure sulfuric acid is a viscous clear liquid, like oil, and this explains the old name of the acid ('oil of vitriol').
sulfuric acid is
above 300 C
Commercial sulfuric acid is sold in several different purity grades. Technical grade H2SO4 is impure and often colored, but is suitable for (572 F), it will
making fertilizer. Pure grades, such as United States Pharmacopeia (USP) grade, are used for making pharmaceuticals and dyestuffs. decompose slowly
Analytical grades are also available. Solubility in water miscible,
exothermic
Nine hydrates are known, but three of them were confirmed to be tetrahydrate (H2SO44H2O), hemihexahydrate (H2SO4 612H2O) and
octahydrate (H2SO48H2O). Vapor pressure 0.001 mmHg (20
C)[1]
Acidity (pKa) 3, 1.99
Polarity and conduc vity
Viscosity 26.7 cP (20 C)
Anhydrous H2SO4 is a very polar liquid, having a dielectric constant of around 100. It has a high electrical conductivity, caused by dissociation
through protonating itself, a process known as autoprotolysis.[13]
Thermochemistry
Std molar 157 Jmol1K1[2]
2 H2SO4 H3SO4+ + HSO4- entropy (So298)
Std enthalpy of 814 kJmol1[2]
The equilibrium constant for the autoprotolysis is[13] forma on
(fHo298)
Kap(25 C)= [H3SO4+] [HSO4-] = 2.7 104 Hazards

The comparable equilibrium constant for water, Kw is 1014, a factor of 1010 (10 billion) smaller. Safety data sheet External MSDS (h
p://www.sciencela
In spite of the viscosity of the acid, the effective conductivities of the H3SO4+ and HSO4- ions are high due to an intra-molecular proton- b.com/msds.php?
switch mechanism (analogous to the Grotthuss mechanism in water), making sulfuric acid a good conductor of electricity. It is also an msdsId=9925146)
excellent solvent for many reactions.
GHS pictograms

Chemical properties
GHS signal word Danger
GHS hazard H314
Reac on with water and dehydra ng property statements

Because the hydration reaction of sulfuric acid is highly exothermic, dilution should always be performed by adding the acid to the water
GHS P260, P264, P280,
precau onary P301+330+331,
rather than the water to the acid.[14] Because the reaction is in an equilibrium that favors the rapid protonation of water, addition of acid to statements
the water ensures that the acid is the limiting reagent. This reaction is best thought of as the formation of hydronium ions: P303+361+353,
P363, P304+340,
+ P305+351+338,
H2SO4 + H2O H3O + HSO4 K1 = 2.4 106 (strong acid)
P310, P321, P310,
+ P405, P501
HSO4 + H2O H3O + SO2
4 K2 = 1.0 102 [15]
NFPA 704
HSO 2
4 is the bisulfate anion and SO4 is the sulfate anion. K1 and K2 are the acid dissociation constants. 0
3 2
Because the hydration of sulfuric acid is thermodynamically favorable and the affinity of it for water is sufficiently strong, sulfuric acid is an W
excellent dehydrating agent. Concentrated sulfuric acid has a very powerful dehydrating property, removing water (H2O) from other
compounds including sugar and other carbohydrates and producing carbon, heat, steam. Flash point Non-ammable
Threshold limit 15 mg/m3 (IDLH), 1
value mg/m3 (TWA), 2
mg/m3 (STEL)

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In the laboratory, this is often demonstrated by mixing table sugar (sucrose) into sulfuric acid. The sugar changes from white to dark brown Lethal dose or concentra on (LD, LC):
and then to black as carbon is formed. A rigid column of black, porous carbon will emerge as well. The carbon will smell strongly of caramel LD50 (median 2140 mg/kg (rat,
due to the heat generated.[16] dose) oral)[3]
LC50 (median 50 mg/m3 (guinea
concentra on) pig, 8 hr)
510 mg/m3 (rat, 2
hr)
Similarly, mixing starch into concentrated sulfuric acid will give elemental carbon and water as absorbed by the sulfuric acid (which becomes 320 mg/m3
slightly diluted). The effect of this can be seen when concentrated sulfuric acid is spilled on paper which is composed of cellulose; the cellulose (mouse, 2 hr)
reacts to give a burnt appearance, the carbon appears much as soot would in a fire. Although less dramatic, the action of the acid on cotton, 18 mg/m3 (guinea
even in diluted form, will destroy the fabric. pig)[3]
LCLo (lowest 87 mg/m3 (guinea
published) pig, 2.75 hr)[3]
US health exposure limits (NIOSH):
PEL TWA 1 mg/m3[1]
The reaction with copper(II) sulfate can also demonstrate the dehydration property of sulfuric acid. The blue crystal is changed into white (Permissible)
powder as water is removed.
REL TWA 1 mg/m3[1]
(Recommended)
IDLH 15 mg/m3[1]
(Immediate
danger)
Related compounds
Related strong Selenic acid
acids Hydrochloric acid
Acid-base proper es
Nitric acid
As an acid, sulfuric acid reacts with most bases to give the corresponding sulfate. For example, the blue copper salt copper(II) sulfate,
Chromic acid
commonly used for electroplating and as a fungicide, is prepared by the reaction of copper(II) oxide with sulfuric acid:
Related Sulfurous acid
compounds Peroxymonosulfuric
CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
acid
Sulfuric acid can also be used to displace weaker acids from their salts. Reaction with sodium acetate, for example, displaces acetic acid, Sulfur trioxide
CH3COOH, and forms sodium bisulfate: Oleum
Except where otherwise noted, data are
H2SO4 + CH3COONa NaHSO4 + CH3COOH given for materials in their standard
state (at 25 C [77 F], 100 kPa).
Similarly, reacting sulfuric acid with potassium nitrate can be used to produce nitric acid and a precipitate of potassium bisulfate. When
verify (what is ?)
combined with nitric acid, sulfuric acid acts both as an acid and a dehydrating agent, forming the nitronium ion NO+
2 , which is important in
nitration reactions involving electrophilic aromatic substitution. This type of reaction, where protonation occurs on an oxygen atom, is Infobox references
important in many organic chemistry reactions, such as Fischer esterification and dehydration of alcohols.

When allowed to react with superacids, sulfuric acid can act as a base and be protonated, forming the [H3SO4]+ ion. Salt of [H3SO4]+ have been prepared using Equilibrium of anhydrous
sulfuric acid[13]
the following reaction in liquid HF:
Species mMol/kg
((CH3)3SiO)2SO2 + 3 HF + SbF5 [H3SO4]+[SbF6] + 2 (CH3)3SiF -
HSO4 15.0

The above reaction is thermodynamically favored due to the high bond enthalpy of the SiF bond in the side product. Protonation using simply HF/SbF5, H3SO4+ 11.3
however, have met with failure, as pure sulfuric acid undergoes self-ionization to give [H3O]+ ions, which prevents the conversion of H2SO4 to [H3SO4]+ by the
H3O+ 8.0
HF/SbF5 system:[17]
HS2O7- 4.4
2 H2SO4 [H3O]+ + [HS2O7] H2S2O7 3.6

H2O 0.1
Reac ons with metals and strong oxidizing property
Dilute sulfuric acid reacts with metals via a single displacement reaction as with other typical acids, producing hydrogen gas and salts (the
metal sulfate). It attacks reactive metals (metals at positions above copper in the reactivity series) such as iron, aluminium, zinc, manganese,
magnesium and nickel.

Fe (s) + H2SO4 (aq) H2 (g) + FeSO4 (aq)

However, concentrated sulfuric acid is a strong oxidizing agent[5] and does not react with metals in the same way as other typical acids. Sulfur
dioxide, water and SO42 ions are evolved instead of the hydrogen and salts.

2 H2SO4 + 2 e SO2 + 2 H2O + SO42 Drops of concentrated sulfuric acid

rapidly decompose a piece of co on
It can oxidize non-active metals such as tin and copper, depending upon the temperature. towel by dehydra on.

Cu + 2 H2SO4 SO2 + 2 H2O + SO42 + Cu2+

Lead and tungsten, however, are resistant to sulfuric acid.

Reac ons with non-metals

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Hot concentrated sulfuric acid oxidizes non-metals such as carbon[18] (as bituminous coal) and sulfur.

C + 2 H2SO4 CO2 + 2 SO2 + 2 H2O

S + 2 H2SO4 3 SO2 + 2 H2O

Reac on with sodium chloride

It reacts with sodium chloride, and gives hydrogen chloride gas and sodium bisulfate:

NaCl + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HCl An experiment that demonstrates the dehydra on

proper es of concentrated sulfuric acid. When
concentrated sulfuric acid comes into contact with
Electrophilic aroma c subs tu on sucrose, slow carbonica on of the sucrose takes
place. The reac on is accompanied by the
Benzene undergoes electrophilic aromatic substitution with sulfuric acid to give the corresponding sulfonic acids:[19] evolu on of gaseous products that contribute to
the forma on of the foamy carbon pillar that rises
above the beaker.

Occurrence
Pure sulfuric acid is not encountered naturally on Earth in anhydrous form, due to its great affinity for water. Dilute sulfuric acid is a constituent
of acid rain, which is formed by atmospheric oxidation of sulfur dioxide in the presence of water i.e., oxidation of sulfurous acid. Sulfur dioxide
is the main byproduct produced when sulfur-containing fuels such as coal or oil are burned.

Sulfuric acid is formed naturally by the oxidation of sulfide minerals, such as iron sulfide. The resulting water can be highly acidic and is called Solid state structure of the [D3SO4]+
acid mine drainage (AMD) or acid rock drainage (ARD). This acidic water is capable of dissolving metals present in sulfide ores, which results in ion present in [D3SO4]+[SbF6],
2+ synthesized by using DF in place of
brightly colored, toxic streams. The oxidation of pyrite (iron sulfide) by molecular oxygen produces iron(II), or Fe :
HF. (see text)
2+ +
2 FeS2 (s) + 7 O2 + 2 H2O 2 Fe + 4 SO2
4 +4H

2+ 3+
The Fe can be further oxidized to Fe :

2+ + 3+
4 Fe + O2 + 4 H 4 Fe + 2 H2O
3+
The Fe produced can be precipitated as the hydroxide or hydrous oxide:

3+ +
Fe + 3 H2O Fe(OH)3 + 3 H

The iron(III) ion ("ferric iron") can also oxidize pyrite:

Rio Tinto with its highly acidic water
3+ 2+ +
FeS2(s) + 14 Fe + 8 H2O 15 Fe + 2 SO2
4 + 16 H

When iron(III) oxidation of pyrite occurs, the process can become rapid. pH values below zero have been measured in ARD produced by this process.

ARD can also produce sulfuric acid at a slower rate, so that the acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) of the aquifer can neutralize the produced acid. In such cases, the total dissolved solids
(TDS) concentration of the water can be increased from the dissolution of minerals from the acid-neutralization reaction with the minerals.

Sulfuric acid is used as a defence by certain marine species, for example, the phaeophyte alga Desmarestia munda (order Desmarestiales) concentrates sulfuric acid in cell vacuoles.[20]

Stratospheric aerosol
In the stratosphere, the atmosphere's second layer that is generally between 10 and 50 km above Earth's surface, sulfuric acid is formed by the oxidation of volcanic sulfur dioxide by the
hydroxyl radical:[21]

SO2 + HO HSO3
HSO3 + O2 SO3 + HO2
SO3 + H2O H2SO4

Because sulfuric acid reaches supersaturation in the stratosphere, it can nucleate aerosol particles and provide a surface for aerosol growth via condensation and coagulation with other
water-sulfuric acid aerosols. This results in the stratospheric aerosol layer.[21]

Extraterrestrial sulfuric acid

Venus
Sulfuric acid is produced in the upper atmosphere of Venus by the Sun's photochemical action on carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and water vapor. Ultraviolet photons of wavelengths less
than 169 nm can photodissociate carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and atomic oxygen. Atomic oxygen is highly reactive. When it reacts with sulfur dioxide, a trace component of the
Venusian atmosphere, the result is sulfur trioxide, which can combine with water vapor, another trace component of Venus's atmosphere, to yield sulfuric acid. In the upper, cooler
portions of Venus's atmosphere, sulfuric acid exists as a liquid, and thick sulfuric acid clouds completely obscure the planet's surface when viewed from above. The main cloud layer
extends from 4570 km above the planet's surface, with thinner hazes extending as low as 30 km and as high as 90 km above the surface. The permanent Venusian clouds produce a
concentrated acid rain, as the clouds in the atmosphere of Earth produce water rain.

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The atmosphere exhibits a sulfuric acid cycle. As sulfuric acid rain droplets fall down through the hotter layers of the atmosphere's temperature gradient, they are heated up and release
water vapor, becoming more and more concentrated. When they reach temperatures above 300 C, sulfuric acid begins to decompose into sulfur trioxide and water, both in the gas
phase. Sulfur trioxide is highly reactive and dissociates into sulfur dioxide and atomic oxygen, which oxidizes traces of carbon monoxide to form carbon dioxide. Sulfur dioxide and water
vapor rise on convection currents from the mid-level atmospheric layers to higher altitudes, where they will be transformed again into sulfuric acid, and the cycle repeats.

Europa
Infrared spectra taken by NASA's Galileo spacecraft show distinct absorptions on Jupiter's moon Europa that have been attributed to one or more sulfuric acid hydrates. Sulfuric acid in
solution with water causes significant freezing-point depression of water's melting point, down to 210 K (63 C), and this would make the existence of liquid solutions beneath Europa's
icy crust more likely. The interpretation of the spectra is somewhat controversial. Some planetary scientists prefer to assign the spectral features to the sulfate ion, perhaps as part of one
or more minerals on Europa's surface.[22]

Manufacture
Sulfuric acid is produced from sulfur, oxygen and water via the conventional contact process (DCDA) or the wet sulfuric acid process (WSA).

Contact process
In the first step, sulfur is burned to produce sulfur dioxide.

S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)

This is then oxidized to sulfur trioxide using oxygen in the presence of a vanadium(V) oxide catalyst. This reaction is reversible and the formation of the sulfur trioxide is exothermic.

2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2 SO3 (g) (in presence of V2O5)

The sulfur trioxide is absorbed into 9798% H2SO4 to form oleum (H2S2O7), also known as fuming sulfuric acid. The oleum is then diluted with water to form concentrated sulfuric acid.

H2SO4 (l) + SO3 (g) H2S2O7 (l)

H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l) 2 H2SO4 (l)

Note that directly dissolving SO3 in water is not practical due to the highly exothermic nature of the reaction between sulfur trioxide and water. The reaction forms a corrosive aerosol
that is very difficult to separate, instead of a liquid.

SO3 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (l)

Wet sulfuric acid process

In the first step, sulfur is burned to produce sulfur dioxide:

S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)

or, alternatively, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas is incinerated to SO2 gas:

2 H2S + 3 O2 2 H2O + 2 SO2 (518 kJ/mol)

This is then oxidized to sulfur trioxide using oxygen with vanadium(V) oxide as catalyst.

2 SO2 + O2 2 SO3 (99 kJ/mol) (reac on is reversible)

The sulfur trioxide is hydrated into sulfuric acid H2SO4:

SO3 + H2O H2SO4(g) (101 kJ/mol)

The last step is the condensation of the sulfuric acid to liquid 9798% H2SO4:

H2SO4(g) H2SO4(l) (69 kJ/mol)

Other methods
Another method is the less well-known metabisulfite method, in which metabisulfite is placed at the bottom of a beaker, and 12.6 molar concentration hydrochloric acid is added. The
resulting gas is bubbled through nitric acid, which will release brown/red vapors. The completion of the reaction is indicated by the ceasing of the fumes. This method does not produce
an inseparable mist, which is quite convenient.

SO2 + HNO3 + H2O H2SO4 + NO

Sulfuric acid can be produced in the laboratory by burning sulfur in air and dissolving the gas produced in a hydrogen peroxide solution.

SO2 + H2O2 H2SO4

Prior to 1900, most sulfuric acid was manufactured by the lead chamber process.[23] As late as 1940, up to 50% of sulfuric acid manufactured in the United States was produced by
chamber process plants.

In early to mid nineteenth century "vitriol" plants existed, among other places, in Prestonpans in Scotland, Shropshire and the Lagan Valley in County Antrim Ireland where it was used
as a bleach for linen. Early bleaching of linen was done using milk but this was a slow process and the use of vitriol sped up the bleaching process.

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Uses
Sulfuric acid is a very important commodity chemical, and indeed, a nation's sulfuric acid production is a good indicator of its
industrial strength.[24] World production in 2004 was about 180 million tonnes, with the following geographic distribution: Asia
35%, North America (including Mexico) 24%, Africa 11%, Western Europe 10%, Eastern Europe and Russia 10%, Australia and
Oceania 7%, South America 7%.[25] Most of this amount (60%) is consumed for fertilizers, particularly superphosphates,
ammonium phosphate and ammonium sulfates. About 20% is used in chemical industry for production of detergents, synthetic
resins, dyestuffs, pharmaceuticals, petroleum catalysts, insecticides and antifreeze, as well as in various processes such as oil
well acidicizing, aluminium reduction, paper sizing, water treatment. About 6% of uses are related to pigments and include
paints, enamels, printing inks, coated fabrics and paper, and the rest is dispersed into a multitude of applications such as Sulfuric acid produc on in 2000
production of explosives, cellophane, acetate and viscose textiles, lubricants, non-ferrous metals and batteries.[26]

Industrial produc on of chemicals

The major use for sulfuric acid is in the "wet method" for the production of phosphoric acid, used for manufacture of phosphate fertilizers. In this method, phosphate rock is used, and
more than 100 million tonnes are processed annually. This raw material is shown below as fluorapatite, though the exact composition may vary. This is treated with 93% sulfuric acid to
produce calcium sulfate, hydrogen fluoride (HF) and phosphoric acid. The HF is removed as hydrofluoric acid. The overall process can be represented as:

Ca5F(PO4)3 + 5 H2SO4 + 10 H2O 5 CaSO42 H2O + HF + 3 H3PO4

Ammonium sulfate, an important nitrogen fertilizer, is most commonly produced as a byproduct from coking plants supplying the iron and steel making plants. Reacting the ammonia
produced in the thermal decomposition of coal with waste sulfuric acid allows the ammonia to be crystallized out as a salt (often brown because of iron contamination) and sold into the
agro-chemicals industry.

Another important use for sulfuric acid is for the manufacture of aluminium sulfate, also known as paper maker's alum. This can react with small amounts of soap on paper pulp fibers to
give gelatinous aluminium carboxylates, which help to coagulate the pulp fibers into a hard paper surface. It is also used for making aluminium hydroxide, which is used at water
treatment plants to filter out impurities, as well as to improve the taste of the water. Aluminium sulfate is made by reacting bauxite with sulfuric acid:

2 AlO(OH) + 3 H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + 4 H2O

Sulfuric acid is also important in the manufacture of dyestuffs solutions.

Sulfuriodine cycle
The sulfur-iodine cycle is a series of thermo-chemical processes used to obtain hydrogen. It consists of three chemical reactions whose net reactant is water and whose net products are
hydrogen and oxygen. Step one of cycle is the Bunsen reaction.

2 H2SO4 2 SO2 + 2 H2O + O2 (830 C)

I2 + SO2 + 2 H2O 2 HI + H2SO4 (120 C)
2 HI I2 + H2 (320 C)

The sulfur and iodine compounds are recovered and reused, hence the consideration of the process as a cycle. This process is endothermic and must occur at high temperatures, so
energy in the form of heat has to be supplied.

The sulfur-iodine cycle has been proposed as a way to supply hydrogen for a hydrogen-based economy. It does not require hydrocarbons like current methods of steam reforming. But
note that all of the available energy in the hydrogen so produced is supplied by the heat used to make it.

The sulfur-iodine cycle is currently being researched as a feasible method of obtaining hydrogen, but the concentrated, corrosive acid at high temperatures poses currently
insurmountable safety hazards if the process were built on a large scale.[27]

Industrial cleaning agent

Sulfuric acid is used in large quantities by the iron and steelmaking industry to remove oxidation, rust and scaling from rolled sheet and billets prior to sale to the automobile and major
appliances industry. Used acid is often recycled using a spent acid regeneration (SAR) plant. These plants combust spent acid with natural gas, refinery gas, fuel oil or other fuel sources.
This combustion process produces gaseous sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3) which are then used to manufacture "new" sulfuric acid. SAR plants are common additions to
metal smelting plants, oil refineries, and other industries where sulfuric acid is consumed in bulk, as operating a SAR plant is much cheaper than the recurring costs of spent acid
disposal and new acid purchases.

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) can be added to sulfuric acid to produce piranha solution, a powerful but very toxic cleaning solution with which substrate surfaces can be cleaned. Piranha
solution is typically used the microelectronics industry, and also in laboratory settings to clean glassware.

Catalyst
Sulfuric acid is used for a variety of other purposes in the chemical industry. For example, it is the usual acid catalyst for the conversion of cyclohexanone oxime to caprolactam, used for
making nylon. It is used for making hydrochloric acid from salt via the Mannheim process. Much H2SO4 is used in petroleum refining, for example as a catalyst for the reaction of
isobutane with isobutylene to give isooctane, a compound that raises the octane rating of gasoline (petrol). Sulfuric acid is also often used as a dehydrating or oxidising agent in industrial
reactions, such as the dehydration of various sugars to form solid carbon.

Electrolyte
Sulfuric acid acts as the electrolyte in leadacid batteries (lead-acid accumulator):

At anode:

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Pb + SO42 PbSO4 + 2 e

At cathode:

PbO2 + 4 H+ + SO42 + 2 e PbSO4 + 2 H2O

Overall:

Pb + PbO2 + 4 H+ + 2 SO42 2 PbSO4 + 2 H2O

Acidic drain cleaners usually contain
sulfuric acid at a high concentra on
Domes c uses which turns a piece of pH paper red
Sulfuric acid at high concentrations is frequently the major ingredient in acidic drain cleaners[7] which are used to remove grease, hair, tissue and chars it instantly, demonstra ng
paper, etc. Similar to their alkaline versions, such drain openers can dissolve fats and proteins via hydrolysis. Moreover, as concentrated both the strong acidic nature and
dehydra ng property.
sulfuric acid has a strong dehydrating property, it can remove tissue paper via dehydrating process as well. Since the acid may react with
water vigorously, such acidic drain openers should be added slowly into the pipe to be cleaned.

History
John Dalton's 1808 sulfuric acid
molecule shows a central sulfur atom
bonded to three oxygen atoms, or
sulfur trioxide, the anhydride of sulfuric
acid.
The study of vitriol, a category of glassy minerals from which the acid can be derived, began in
ancient times. Sumerians had a list of types of vitriol that they classified according to the
substances' color. Some of the earliest discussions on the origin and properties of vitriol is in the
works of the Greek physician Dioscorides (first century AD) and the Roman naturalist Pliny the
Elder (2379 AD). Galen also discussed its medical use. Metallurgical uses for vitriolic substances
were recorded in the Hellenistic alchemical works of Zosimos of Panopolis, in the treatise Phisica
An acidic drain cleaner can be used to
et Mystica, and the Leyden papyrus X.[28]
dissolve grease, hair and even ssue
paper inside water pipes.
Medieval Islamic era alchemists, Jbir ibn Hayyn (c. 721 c. 815 AD, also known as Geber), Razi
(865 925 AD), and Jamal Din al-Watwat (d. 1318, wrote the book Mabhij al-fikar wa-manhij
al-'ibar), included vitriol in their mineral classification lists. Ibn Sina focused on its medical uses and different varieties of vitriol.[28]

Sulfuric acid was called "oil of vitriol" by medieval European alchemists because it was prepared by roasting "green vitriol" (iron(II) sulfate) in an iron retort. There are references to it in
the works of Vincent of Beauvais and in the Compositum de Compositis ascribed to Saint Albertus Magnus. A passage from Pseudo-Gebers Summa Perfectionis was long considered to
be the first recipe for sulfuric acid, but this was a misinterpretation.[28]

In the seventeenth century, the German-Dutch chemist Johann Glauber prepared sulfuric acid by burning sulfur together with saltpeter (potassium nitrate, KNO3), in the presence of
steam. As saltpeter decomposes, it oxidizes the sulfur to SO3, which combines with water to produce sulfuric acid. In 1736, Joshua Ward, a London pharmacist, used this method to begin
the first large-scale production of sulfuric acid.

In 1746 in Birmingham, John Roebuck adapted this method to produce sulfuric acid in lead-lined chambers, which were stronger, less expensive, and could be made larger than the
previously used glass containers. This process allowed the effective industrialization of sulfuric acid production. After several refinements, this method, called the lead chamber process
or "chamber process", remained the standard for sulfuric acid production for almost two centuries.[2]

Sulfuric acid created by John Roebuck's process approached a 65% concentration. Later refinements to the lead chamber process by French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and British
chemist John Glover improved concentration to 78%. However, the manufacture of some dyes and other chemical processes require a more concentrated product. Throughout the 18th
century, this could only be made by dry distilling minerals in a technique similar to the original alchemical processes. Pyrite (iron disulfide, FeS2) was heated in air to yield iron(II)
sulfate, FeSO4, which was oxidized by further heating in air to form iron(III) sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3, which, when heated to 480 C, decomposed to iron(III) oxide and sulfur trioxide, which
could be passed through water to yield sulfuric acid in any concentration. However, the expense of this process prevented the large-scale use of concentrated sulfuric acid.[2]

In 1831, British vinegar merchant Peregrine Phillips patented the contact process, which was a far more economical process for producing sulfur trioxide and concentrated sulfuric acid.
Today, nearly all of the world's sulfuric acid is produced using this method.[29]

Safety

Laboratory hazards
Sulfuric acid is capable of causing very severe burns, especially when it is at high concentrations. In common with other corrosive acids and
alkali, it readily decomposes proteins and lipids through amide and ester hydrolysis upon contact with living tissues, such as skin and flesh. In
addition, it exhibits a strong dehydrating property on carbohydrates, liberating extra heat and causing secondary thermal burns.[5][6]
Accordingly, it rapidly attacks the cornea and can induce permanent blindness if splashed onto eyes. If ingested, it damages internal organs
irreversibly and may even be fatal.[4] Protective equipment should hence always be used when handling it. Moreover, its strong oxidizing
property makes it highly corrosive to many metals and may extend its destruction on other materials.[5] Because of such reasons, damage
posed by sulfuric acid is potentially more severe than that by other comparable strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid and nitric acid.

Sulfuric acid must be stored carefully in containers made of nonreactive material (such as glass). Solutions equal to or stronger than 1.5 M are
Drops of 98% sulfuric acid char a piece
labeled "CORROSIVE", while solutions greater than 0.5 M but less than 1.5 M are labeled "IRRITANT". However, even the normal laboratory
of ssue paper instantly. Carbon is le
"dilute" grade (approximately 1 M, 10%) will char paper if left in contact for a sufficient time.
a er the dehydra on reac on staining
the paper black.
The standard first aid treatment for acid spills on the skin is, as for other corrosive agents, irrigation with large quantities of water. Washing is
continued for at least ten to fifteen minutes to cool the tissue surrounding the acid burn and to prevent secondary damage. Contaminated
clothing is removed immediately and the underlying skin washed thoroughly.

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Dilu on hazards
Preparation of the diluted acid can be dangerous due to the heat released in the dilution process. To avoid splattering,
the concentrated acid is typically added to water and not the other way around. Water has a higher heat capacity than
acid, and a vessel of cold water will absorb heat as acid is added.

Also, because acid is denser than water, it sinks to the bottom. Heat is generated at interface between acid and water, which is at the bottom of
the vessel. Acid will not boil, because of its higher boiling point. Warm water near the interface rises due to convection, which cools the
interface, and prevents boiling of either acid or water.

In contrast, addition of water to concentrated sulfuric acid results in a thin layer of water on top of the acid. Heat generated in this thin layer
of water can boil, leading to the dispersal of a sulfuric acid aerosol or worse, an explosion.

Supercial chemical burn caused by
two 98% sulfuric acid splashes (forearm
skin).
Preparation of solutions greater than 6 M (35%) in concentration is most dangerous, because the heat produced may be sufficient to boil the
diluted acid: efficient mechanical stirring and external cooling (such as an ice bath) are essential.
Reaction rates double for about every 10 degree Celsius increase in temperature.[30] Therefore, the reaction will become more violent as
dilution proceeds, unless the mixture is given time to cool. Adding acid to warm water will cause a violent reaction.

On a laboratory scale, sulfuric acid can be diluted by pouring concentrated acid onto crushed ice made from de-ionized water. The ice melts in an endothermic process while dissolving
the acid. The amount of heat needed to melt the ice in this process is greater than the amount of heat evolved by dissolving the acid so the solution remains cold. After all the ice has
melted, further dilution can take place using water.

Industrial hazards
Sulfuric acid is non-flammable.

The main occupational risks posed by this acid are skin contact leading to burns (see above) and the inhalation of aerosols. Exposure to aerosols at high concentrations leads to
immediate and severe irritation of the eyes, respiratory tract and mucous membranes: this ceases rapidly after exposure, although there is a risk of subsequent pulmonary edema if tissue
damage has been more severe. At lower concentrations, the most commonly reported symptom of chronic exposure to sulfuric acid aerosols is erosion of the teeth, found in virtually all
studies: indications of possible chronic damage to the respiratory tract are inconclusive as of 1997. Repeated occupational exposure to sulfuric acid mists may increase the chance of lung
cancer by up to 64 percent.[31] In the United States, the permissible exposure limit (PEL) for sulfuric acid is fixed at 1 mg/m3: limits in other countries are similar. There have been
reports of sulfuric acid ingestion leading to vitamin B12 deficiency with subacute combined degeneration. The spinal cord is most often affected in such cases, but the optic nerves may
show demyelination, loss of axons and gliosis.

Legal restrictions
International commerce of sulfuric acid is controlled under the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 1988, which lists
sulfuric acid under Table II of the convention as a chemical frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances.[32]

See also
Diethyl ether also known as "sweet oil of vitriol"
Aqua regia
Piranha solu on
Sulfuric acid poisoning
Sulfur oxoacid

References
1. "NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards #0577" (h ps://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd057
7.html). Na onal Ins tute for Occupa onal Safety and Health (NIOSH).
2. Zumdahl, Steven S. (2009). Chemical Principles 6th Ed. Houghton Miin Company. p. A23.
ISBN 0-618-94690-X.
3. "Sulfuric acid" (h p://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/7664939.html). Immediately Dangerous to Life
and Health. Na onal Ins tute for Occupa onal Safety and Health (NIOSH).
4. "Sulfuric acid safety data sheet" (h p://www.arkema-inc.com/msds/01641.pdf) (PDF).
arkema-inc.com. "Clear to turbid oily odorless liquid, colorless to slightly yellow."
5. "Sulfuric acid uses" (h p://www.dynamicscience.com.au/tester/solu ons/chemistry/sulfuric
acid1.html). dynamicscience.com.au.
6. "BASF Chemical Emergency Medical Guidelines Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)" (h p://www.basf.ca/g
roup/corporate/ca/en_GB/func on/conversions:/publishdownload/content/sustainability/em
ployees/occupa onal-medicine/responsible-care-les/BASF_medGuidelines_E015_Sulfuric_ac
id_C.pdf) (PDF). BASF Chemical Company. 2012. Retrieved December 18, 2014.
7. "Sulphuric acid drain cleaner" (h p://www.staplesdisposables.com/uploads/products/B470FF
98A27F414881DB3FE1A1116C93.pdf) (PDF). herchem.com.
8. Hermann Mller "Sulfuric Acid and Sulfur Trioxide" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. 2000 doi:10.1002/14356007.a25_635 (h ps://doi.org/10.1
002%2F14356007.a25_635)
9. "sulfuric acid". The Columbia Encyclopedia (h p://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/sulfuric_acid.
aspx) (6th ed.). 2009. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
10. "Sulphuric acid". Encyclopdia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). 19101911. pp. 6569.
11. "Sulfuric acid". Determina on of Noncancer Chronic Reference Exposure Levels Batch 2B
December 2001 (h p://oehha.ca.gov/air/chronic_rels/pdf/sulfuric.pdf) (PDF). 2001. Retrieved
2012-10-01.
12. "Sulfuric Acid 98%" (h p://www.rhodia.com/our_company/businesses/documents/Sulfuric_A
cid_98.pdf) (PDF). rhodia.com. 2009. Retrieved 2014-07-02.
13. Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.).
Bu erworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-08-037941-9.
14. Consor um of Local Educa on Authori es for the Provision of Science Equipment -STUDENT
SAFETY SHEETS 22 Sulfuric(VI) acid (h p://www.cleapss.org.uk/a achments/ar cle/0/SSS22.p
df?Secondary/Science/Student%20Safety%20Sheets/)
15. "Ioniza on Constants of Inorganic Acids" (h p://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/Virt
TxtJml/acidity.htm). .chemistry.msu.edu. Retrieved 2011-05-30.
16. Sulphuric acid on sugar cubes chemistry experiment 8. Old Version (h ps://www.youtube.co
m/watch?v=UcpodCsTxtc). YouTube. Retrieved on 2011-07-18.
17. Housecro , Catherine E.; Sharpe, Alan G. (2008). "Chapter 16: The group 16 elements".
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18. Kinney, Corliss Robert; Grey, V. E. (1959). Reac ons of a Bituminous Coal with Sulfuric Acid (h
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(PDF). Pennsylvania State University.
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original on 6 July 2008. Retrieved 27 January 2008.

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20. Pelletreau, K.; Muller-Parker, G. (2002). "Sulfuric acid in the phaeophyte alga Desmares a
munda deters feeding by the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis". Marine Biology.
141 (1): 19. doi:10.1007/s00227-002-0809-6 (h ps://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00227-002-0809-
6).
21. Kremser, S.; Thomson, L.W. (2016). "Stratospheric aerosolObserva ons, processes, and
impact on climate". Review of Geophysics. 54 (2): 278335. doi:10.1002/2015RG000511 (h p
s://doi.org/10.1002%2F2015RG000511).
22. Orlando, T. M.; McCord, T. B.; Grieves, G. A. (2005). "The chemical nature of Europa surface
material and the rela on to a subsurface ocean". Icarus. 177 (2): 528533.
Bibcode:2005Icar..177..528O (h p://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Icar..177..528O).
doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2005.05.009 (h ps://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.icarus.2005.05.009).
23. Jones, Edward M. (1950). "Chamber Process Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid". Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry. 42 (11): 22082210. doi:10.1021/ie50491a016 (h ps://doi.org/10.102
1%2Fie50491a016).
24. Chenier, Philip J. (1987). Survey of Industrial Chemistry. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 45
57. ISBN 0-471-01077-4.
25. Davenport, William George & King, Ma hew J. (2006). Sulfuric acid manufacture: analysis,
control and op miza on (h ps://books.google.com/books?id=tRAb2CniRG4C). Elsevier. pp. 8,
13. ISBN 978-0-08-044428-4. Retrieved 23 December 2011.
26. Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.).
Bu erworth-Heinemann. p. 653. ISBN 0-08-037941-9.
27. Ngo, Chris an; Natowitz, Joseph (2016). Our Energy Future: Resources, Alterna ves and the
Environment (h ps://books.google.com/?id=D-yPCwAAQBAJ&dq=oxygen+from+sulfur-iodine+
cycle+danger). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 418419. ISBN 9781119213369.
28. Karpenko, Vladimir and Norris, John A. (2001). Vitriol in the history of Chemistry (h p://www.
chemicke-listy.cz/docs/full/2002_12_05.pdf), Charles University
29. Philip J. Chenier (1 April 2002). Survey of industrial chemistry (h ps://books.google.com/book
s?id=KlziQA-yx3gC&pg=PA28). Springer. pp. 28. ISBN 978-0-306-47246-6. Retrieved
23 December 2011.
30. Pauling, L.C. (1988) General Chemistry, Dover Publica ons
31. Beaumont, JJ; Leveton, J; Knox, K; Bloom, T; McQuiston, T; Young, M; Goldsmith, R; Steenland,
NK; Brown, DP; Halperin, WE (1987). "Lung cancer mortality in workers exposed to sulfuric
acid mist and other acid mists". J Natl Cancer Inst. 79 (5): 91121. PMID 3479642 (h ps://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3479642).
32. Annex to Form D ("Red List") (h ps://web.archive.org/web/20080227224025/h p://www.inc
b.org/pdf/e/list/red.pdf), 11th Edi on, January 2007 (p. 4). Interna onal Narco cs Control
Board. Vienna, Austria.

External links
Interna onal Chemical Safety Card 0362 (h p://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics0362.htm)
Sulfuric acid (h p://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/mv_sulfuric_acid.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of No ngham)
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards (h ps://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0577.html)
CDC Sulfuric Acid NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic (h ps://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/sulfuric-acid/)
External Material Safety Data Sheet (h p://ptcl.chem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/SU/sulfuric_acid_concentrated.html)
Calculators: surface tensions (h p://www.aim.env.uea.ac.uk/aim/sur ens/sur ens.php), and densi es, molari es and molali es (h p://www.aim.env.uea.ac.uk/aim/density/density_electrolyte.ph
p) of aqueous sulphuric acid
Sulfuric acid analysis tra on freeware (h p://www2.iq.usp.br/docente/gutz/Cur pot_.html)
Process owsheet of sulfuric acid manufacturing by lead chamber process (h p://www.inclusive-science-engineering.com/manufacture-of-h2so4-by-chamber-process/manufacture-of-h2so4-by-ch
amber-process-2/)

Salts and esters of the sulfate ion

H2SO4
(NH4)2SO4
esters
[N2H5]HSO4
Li2SO4 BeSO4 B ROSO3 HOSO4
(NH3OH)2SO4
(RO)2SO2
NOHSO4
SO42
Na2SO4 Al2(SO4)3
MgSO4 Si P HSO3HSO
NaHSO4 Al2SO4(OAc)4
(HSO4)2
VSO4 CuSO4
K2SO4 Ti(SO4)2 CrSO4 MnSO4 FeSO4 CoSO4
CaSO4 Sc2(SO4)3 V2(SO4)3 NiSO4 Cu2SO4 ZnSO4 Ga2(SO4)3 Ge As Se
KHSO4 TiOSO4 Cr2(SO4)3 Mn2(SO4)3 Fe2(SO4)3 Co2(SO4)3
VOSO4 [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)]SO4
RbHSO4
SrSO4 Y2(SO4)3 Zr(SO4)2 Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh PdSO4 Ag2SO4 CdSO4 In2(SO4)3 SnSO4 Sb2(SO4)3 Te
Rb2SO4
Hg2SO4 Tl2SO4
Cs2SO4 BaSO4 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au PbSO4 Bi2(SO4)3 Po
HgSO4 Tl2(SO4)3
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv

Ce2(SO4)3
La Pr (SO ) Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb2(SO4)3
Ce(SO4)2 2 4 3
U(SO4)2
Ac Th Pa Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
UO2SO4

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