Multicultural Education & Technology Journal

The impact of culture on learning: exploring student perceptions

Prem Ramburuth Massimiliano Tani
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To cite this document:
Prem Ramburuth Massimiliano Tani, (2009),"The impact of culture on learning: exploring student
perceptions", Multicultural Education & Technology Journal, Vol. 3 Iss 3 pp. 182 - 195
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METJ
3,3 The impact of culture on learning:
exploring student perceptions
Prem Ramburuth
182 Australian Business School, University of New South Wales,
Sydney, Australia, and
Massimiliano Tani
Department of Economics, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
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Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to analyse similarities and differences in perceptions of
learning among students from diverse cultural backgrounds, using the responses of 2,200
undergraduate students surveyed at an Australian University.
Design/methodology/approach A survey questionnaire is designed to elicit perceptions about
the impact of prior learning, competence in language and communication, quality of student-staff
relations and cultural interactions, on student learning. It draws from disciplines including cognitive
psychology, social sciences, higher education and economics. The questionnaire is implemented to
approximately 2,200 undergraduate students at one of the Australias largest and most diverse
universities. The results are analysed through quantitative techniques.
Findings There are statistically significant differences between the experiences and learning
perceptions of students born in Australia, Asian countries and elsewhere. Differences emerge in prior
learning and preparation before entry into university, self-confidence and the ability to participate in
classroom discussions, interacting with peers, and engaging with teaching staff from similar and
different language backgrounds.
Research limitations/implications The quantitative approach to exploring the student
experience provides data across a broad spectrum of issues but does not probe into causal factors.
A mixed method approach provides such information.
Practical implications Students from diverse backgrounds need to be provided with appropriate
institutional and academic support to acculturate to their new learning and language environments.
Originality/value The paper provides valuable insights into the learning experiences of students
from diverse backgrounds, an increasingly important area as the number of students seeking higher
education across boarders and cultures continues to rise.
Keywords Higher education, Culture, Learning, Students, Australia
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
The globalisation of higher education has intensified the movement of students across
cultures and boarders in pursuit of international education and credentials. Evidence of
these trends can be seen in the fact that, currently, more than 1.5 million students are
studying outside their home-countries, mostly in English-speaking countries (Altbach,
2004). In Australia, international student numbers have risen dramatically over the last
Multicultural Education & decade, increasing from approximately 20,000 in 1988 to over 450,000 in 2008
Technology Journal (Australian Education International, 2000). The indications are that the numbers will
Vol. 3 No. 3, 2009
pp. 182-195 continue to rise, with Australia now hosting one of the most diverse student populations
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited in the world. The major source countries of international students have traditionally
1750-497X
DOI 10.1108/17504970910984862 been in Asia, with the top five countries for enrolment in higher education being China,
 India, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Singapore (Australian Education International, 2009). The impact
Similar trends in international enrolments in the UK are reported by Kingston and of culture
Forland (2008, p. 205), who refer to the explosion in international student enrolments,
particularly the most expanding East Asian group of students [. . .]. on learning
A major outcome of these trends is the high levels of student diversity in higher
education institutions and at the learning and teaching interface. The diversity brings
together a rich mix of cultures, multiplicity of ideas, new ways of thinking, and new 183
skills, norms and values. It also presents challenges by highlighting cultural
differences, creating new expectations and requiring more inclusive approaches to
learning and teaching. This paper reports on a study that sought to capture the
experiences of students from diverse cultural backgrounds, and provide insights into
their perceptions of factors that might facilitate and/or hinder their learning and
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cultural interaction. Data were gathered from students at one of the Australias largest
and most diverse universities, which has a current student mix of approximately 28 per
cent international students and over 60 per cent speaking a language other than
English at home. Specifically, the paper focuses on students perceptions about the
extent to which their prior learning backgrounds, their competence in language and
communication, their ability to interact with local students and their attitude to
teaching staff, impacted on their learning. These culturally oriented factors have been
frequently identified in the literature as causal factors in a positive (or negative)
student experience (Briguglio, 1998; Kingston and Forland, 2008; Wong, 2004).
The changing student mix has led to fundamental changes in the learning and
teaching dynamics of higher education institutions. In Australia, Phillips (1990 p. 765)
saw the impact of these developments as changing the nature of higher education
classrooms, and a major shift in the character of the student population, from one of
primarily Anglo-Celtic English speaking origins, to one which also includes a large and
increasing percentage of students who come from a NESB background. Similar
sentiments were expressed in the UK (Humfrey, 1999; Twigg, 2005), the USA (Lin and
Yi, 1997) and other countries enrolling large numbers of students from diverse cultural
backgrounds. How these students from diverse background acculturate to their new
learning environments has been the focus of studies in course or discipline specific areas
(Niles, 1995; Ramburuth and McCormick, 2001), in culture and country specific cohorts
(Kingston and Forland, 2008; Wong, 2004) or in university support services (Briguglio,
1998; Burke, 2001). There are, however, few studies that have investigated and
comparatively analysed the student experience across the faculties and departments of
a university, to capture and monitor broader trends in student views and perceptions
about what impacts on their learning in their cross-border study environment.

Prior learning approaches and implications

All our students enter university with expectations, knowledge and behaviour which have
been shaped not merely by their individual personalities, but, more fundamentally, by their
previous educational experiences [. . .] (Ballard and Clanchy, 1991, p. 10).
The observation by Ballard and Clanchy, supported by researchers such as Altbach
(2004) and Humfrey (1999), necessitates an understanding of approaches to learning
and teaching supported and nurtured in the diverse backgrounds of students enrolling
in our institutions. In seeking to provide this understanding, Phillips (1990) drew
 METJ attention to the surface and non-critical approaches to learning observed in some
3,3 Asian education systems, in contrast to the more reflective and analytic approaches to
learning and teaching required in Australian or Western education systems, with
implications for students studying across cultures. Biggs (1990), however, refuted such
perspectives, labelling them as stereotyping, particularly the inference that students
from Asian backgrounds are essentially surface learners, pointing instead to their
184 high-academic achievements in their home-countries and abroad, and to research in
Hong Kong and Australia. Ramburuth and McCormick (2001) and Niles (1995)
identified similarities and differences in approaches to learning and motivation
between Asian and Australian students, but caution about the generalisations offered
on the basis of differences between countries and cultures in Asia.
Similarly, in a study of East Asian students at a UK Higher Education Institution,
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Kingston and Forland (2008) found tensions resulting from the expectations of
students from an East Asian collectivist culture and academic staff from a western
individualistic culture. Perhaps, the underlying differences in the approaches to
learning of students from diverse cultural backgrounds can be summed up by the
observation by Sovic (2008, p. 13), in a qualitative study of students in a higher
education institution in the UK:
What is not coming across to these international students is the specific pedagogical
approach in the UK (there is not) an emphasis on teaching skills that are associated with what
is known as the surface approach to learning and a transmission approach to teaching.
There is more likely to be an emphasis on the conceptual development of the person and
a creative and explorative approach to practice [. . .]
Of concern is students lack of preparedness for the approaches to learning they may
encounter when they transition from prior experiences in their home countries to their
new learning environments. Sovic (2008, p. 12) provides evidence of the challenge and
academic shock that students experience when faced with different approaches to
learning and teaching:
I have experienced something called academic cultural shock. Unlike Taiwan, here in the UK
I have learned what they are really concerned about is more students learning process, and
less learning outcomes [. . .] where my ideas come from, how I develop and what research
I initiate with my ideas [. . .] I am still trying to accommodate this major difference in relation
to the teaching and learning approach here [. . .] (Taiwanese student).
The strong sense of cultural and learning disorientation, and the implications for teaching
students from diverse backgrounds are clearly evident in this students response reported
in an Australian qualitative study (Ramburuth and Birkett, 2000, p. 39):
Its a very different way to do things [. . .] International students dont know how to start or
where to start, and what are the expectations [. . .] They (lecturers) should understand we
have no experience in this way [. . .] We want to learn the correct way so we can do well [. . .]
But how can we, if dont know? [. . .] (Thai student).

Language and communication competence

Language is the tool of communication and permeates all aspects of learning. It is also a
tool of human interaction Wierzbicka (1991, p. 453), as, through language, we not only
convey our thoughts, feelings and intentions, but also relate to other people. It has been
 identified as a major factor impacting on the learning and confidence of students, The impact
especially those from diverse backgrounds who may who have English as a second of culture
language and struggle with gaining competence in the everyday, academic and
disciplines specific languages (Hirsch, 2007; Sovic, 2008; Wong, 2004). Prior approaches on learning
to English language learning do not always help students in their transition to an
English-speaking environment as was explained by this student (Twigg, 2005, p. 104):
Although I had studied [English] for 10 years, it is totally different when you first arrive
185
[in the UK], because we are used to listening up to three hours a week with a Thai teacher,
from a book. But when you come here, it changes and it is difficult as you have to listen all the
time. The first couple of months was a horrible life.
Ryan (2000, p. 29) points to issues such as the nuances in meaning of words that appear
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to be synonyms, or obscure cultural references and literary references [. . .] professional

jargon, the use of slang, and individual peculiarities of accent [. . .] that compound the
language difficulties of students from diverse backgrounds. She and others (Humfrey,
1999; Briguglio, 1998) suggest that, where there are gaps, institutional support and skills
development initiatives are essential to bridge the gaps so that students can attain the
required levels of language competence to maximise their learning. Other researchers
(Ballard and Clanchy, 1991; Ryan, 2000; Wong, 2004) highlight a psychological factor
impacting on students learning, that is, students who have English as a second
language are often afraid to speak in class or seek help because of lack of confidence in
their ability to communicate and fear of embarrassing themselves or their teachers,
as indicated in this comment (Ramburuth and Birkett, 2000, p. 22):
The main reason why students are reluctant to speak or ask for help is because of their
non-English speaking background. They are not able to present their problems or they are just
afraid to present their problems and risk someone having to ask them again and again. This
would be very embarrassing for the students [. . .] and for the person they are speaking to [. . .]
Students in this and other studies (Briguglio, 1998; Ryan, 2000; Twigg, 2005; Sovic,
2008) also had recommendations for teaching staff about monitoring their language
and communication effectiveness with suggestions to slow down their pace,
understand the impact of their accents, avoid slang and colloquialisms, clarify
disciplinary terminology, and generally understand the difficulties of their students in
this essential aspect of learning. The further disadvantage experienced by students is
captured in this response (Ramburuth and Birkett, 2000, p. 35):
The first thing for teachers, especially Australian teachers, is that they should understand the
difficulty that an international student has [. . .] especially our language our problems [. . .]
They should speak and explain more clearly [. . .] They are really good lecturers, but they
dont understand our difficulties. They speak very fast with an accent [. . .] and use some
words [. . .] and slang we dont understand [. . .]

Cultural interaction
Cultural diversity on university campuses creates ideal social forums for intercultural
learning yet, one of the most disturbing aspects of the internationalisation of higher education
in Australia is the lack of interactions between local and international students from Asian
backgrounds (Volet and Ang, 1998, p. 5).
 METJ Students from diverse backgrounds arrive at their chosen higher education institutions
3,3 with the expectation that they will be able to gain exposure to the local culture, engage
in classroom (and social) interactions with local students, and enhance English
language communication. Researchers and practitioners (Bruch and Barty, 1998; Smart
et al., 2000; Twigg, 2005) view the opportunities for cultural exchange as one of the
most beneficial outcomes of the globalisation of higher education, with opportunities
186 for forging new friendships, developing new networks, and communicating with
native speakers of English. However, studies involving diverse background students
in the UK (Kingston and Forland, 2008), the USA, and Australia (Smart et al., 2000;
Volet and Ang, 1998), have found that students experience great difficulty in bridging
the cultural divide between local and international students. In an extensive study on
campuses across Australia, Smart et al. (2000) captured the difficulties encountered:
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When I first came, I had the expectation to meet many Australians but did not. Only hi-bye
friends, not close friends [. . .] We do not have much interaction with the locals. We would like
to mix more. We are the shy sort but there are no opportunities to mix.
They identified factors that inhibit intercultural interactions on campuses as being
cultural differences, lifestyle differences, negative stereotyping and ethnocentrism.
Students interviewed by Briguglio (1998, p. 10) revealed their experiences of group
selection:
Some of them (Australian students) want to mix with you [. . .] others cant be bothered. I dont
know why [. . .] thats really what happens in tutorial groups. They sit apart, each group sits
together [. . .] white hair with white hair, dark hair with dark hair [. . .]
Smart et al. (2000, p. 28) also identified lifestyle factors such as the drinking and
partying culture of some Australian students as a strong inhibitor to socio-cultural
interactions. On the other hand, reluctance by students from diverse cultural
backgrounds to participate in these types of social activities, has led to negative
stereotyping:
The Australian attitude is that they have tried to include the Asians in the past, and they
have now given up on including them they expect a negative response [. . .] Some people
wont interact because they are solely here to get a degree and go back home. They arent
concerned with a social life [. . .]
Australian student responses were reiterated in interviews by Ramburuth and Birkett
(2000, p. 41) with comments on the generally poor language and communication skills
as a major problem in group assignments. It is interesting to note that, whilst local
students viewed poor language and communication in group-work as a hindrance to
their learning, students from diverse backgrounds saw it as a lost opportunity for their
language development and learning:
It is so hard to make local friends, especially for the group project [. . .] their English is better,
and I think that if we group with them, well do much better. They seem not to like to group
with us. They like to group with their own culture people [. . .] I would like to talk to them
directly, and invite them to be a member in my group [. . .] I could learn a lot.
It is also interesting to note that, despite the desire to interact with and learn from local
students, many students from diverse backgrounds, tend to feel most comfortable with
their own cultural kind, and Asian people (who) are similar in their thinking and
 feeling (Ramburuth and Birkett, 2000, p. 58). Bruch and Barty (1998), Ryan (2000) and The impact
others advocate the establishment of formal institutional structures to foster of culture
intercultural interactions on campus or risk losing potential benefits of students
interacting across cultures. on learning

Methodology
The aim of the study reported in this paper was to investigate students perceptions 187
about factors that impacted on their learning. It forms part of a larger quantitative
study that sought to investigate student perceptions about their higher education
experience in three phases:
(1) decision making in the pre-university phase;
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(2) perceptions about their learning experiences; and

(3) expectations in the post-university phase.

This paper focuses on students perceptions about factors that impacted on their
learning (including prior learning, language and communication, opportunities for
intercultural interactions and engagement with teaching staff). The paper also reports
on the diversity in student perceptions, and, through comparative analyses, highlights
differences on the basis on national culture background.

Sample
To explore the extent of differences in perceptions and experiences of university life
among students of different cultures, we collected data through the implementation of
a survey to approximately 2,220 undergraduate students, across nine faculties, at one
of the Australias most diverse universities (in 2006). The demographic data revealed
that respondents had on average 21.2 years, with 55 per cent being female and
45 per cent male. Approximately, 40 per cent of respondents were enrolled in their first
year of study, while students in second and third year account for 22 and 21 per cent of
the total number of respondents, respectively. About 17 per cent were enrolled in fourth
and fifth year, being students undertaking a double degree (for example in Law) or
fields of studies characterised by a longer curriculum, such as Medicine. Respondents
were enrolled in all faculties, including Fine Arts (23 per cent), Engineering (21 per cent),
Law (14 per cent), Commerce and Economics (14 per cent), Arts and Social Sciences
(13 per cent), Medicine (12 per cent) and Sciences (3 per cent).
Because of Australias multicultural society, which includes second and third
generation students of immigrant parents, the survey asked the country of birth and
the nationality of students, as well as the cultural background. The latter was
attained by asking students to identify up to five words commonly used to define their
cultural backgrounds or ethnicity). To manage the complexities of identifying cultural
background (van de Vijver and Leung, 1997), and for the purposes of this study, we
have used country of birth and nationality to analyse demographic diversity.
Table I provides a break down of the sample by country of birth including Australia,
countries in Asia and the rest of the world. The focus on the countries in Asia is
because these countries have traditionally been, and continue to be, the main source
countries for international students in Australia (Figure 1).
Australian-born respondents constitute just over half of the sample (52.5 per cent),
followed by respondents from Hong Kong (9.2 per cent), China (6.2 per cent),
 METJ
Country of birth
3,3 Statements Australia Asia Rest of world Pooled

A. Prior learning 2.83 (91) 2.62 * * * (88) 2.78 (83) 2.76

B. Communication 2.73 (90) 2.49 * * * (75) 2.74 (82) 2.67
C. Lang. difficulties 2.55 (12) 2.24 * * * (39) 2.34 * * (25) 2.34
188 D. Group work/English 2.46 (7) 2.32 (36) 2.38 (18) 2.36
E. Group work/NESB 2.39 (60) 2.18 * * * (52) 2.28 * * (51) 2.31
F. Cultural interaction 2.23 (35) 2.29 * (61) 2.17 (44) 2.25
G. Teaching/English 3.25 (80) 2.95 * * * (85) 3.07 * * * (76) 3.12
Table I. H. Teaching/NESB 2.46 (58) 2.49 (71) 2.60 * * * (58) 2.48
Student perceptions of Max. no. respondents 1,126 658 350 2,143
their learning (presented
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by country of birth) Note: Values in parentheses are calculated in percentage

60%
52.5%
50%
% respondents in sample

40%

30%
16.8%
20%
9.2%
10% 6.2% 4.5% 3.7% 3.7%
1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 0.6%
0%
lia

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in
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In
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Figure 1.
on
A

th
In
Si

Ph
H

Undergraduate students of
st
Re

sample by country of birth

Country of birth

Malaysia (4.5 per cent), Singapore (3.7 per cent) and Indonesia (3.7 per cent).
Those born in other countries of the world (16.8 per cent) are mainly from the USA,
Canada, South Africa, Europe and South America. This demographic breakdown
reflects closely the country of birth distribution of the universitys total undergraduate
student population. Based on Student Statistics (2006) data (Australian-born
students accounted for 49.6 per cent, followed by students born in Asian countries
(31.1 per cent), among which the main source countries were China, Hong Kong,
Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. Students born in non-Asian countries accounted
for 19.3 per cent of the universitys student population.

Instrument
The survey was developed with the aim of investigating students perceptions
about factors that impacted on their learning, with of focus on areas frequently
referred to in the literature on the student experience and issues of diversity
 (Kingston and Forland, 2008; Sovic, 2008; Twigg, 2005; Wong, 2004). The issues The impact
highlighted in this paper include those related to prior learning, language and of culture
communication, opportunities for intercultural interactions and engagement with
teaching staff. Among the range of questions related to perceptions about learning, on learning
students were asked to rate the extent to which the following qualitative statements
related to their learning experience in their program of study at their university.
The sub-set of questions used in this analysis cover aspects related to: 189
. Learning. On the whole, I am confident that I will be able to cope with the
academic requirements of my degree because of my pre-university education.
.
Communication. I am comfortable about speaking in class (including asking
questions during a lecture).
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.
Language difficulties. I cannot understand the lecture or instructions given by
teaching staff due to my language difficulties.
.
Group work/English. I have difficulty working in groups when they involve
students from English-speaking backgrounds.
.
Group/non-English speaking background (NESB). I have difficulty working in
groups when they involve students from a NESB.
.
Cultural interaction. I find it difficult to socialize with students from different
cultural backgrounds.
.
Teaching staff/English. I find English-background teachers helpful.
.
Teaching staff/NESB. I find non-English background teachers helpful.

The questionnaire was validated with experts in psychometrics and pilot studies were
carried out with a small sample of cross disciplinary students at the university
involved in this study. The sample comprised students from both English and NESBs.
Following satisfactory preliminary testing, the survey was implemented to
approximately 2,200 undergraduate students across the university.

Approach to data analyses

Table I summarises the means corresponding to each statement across countries of
birth and the number of students in each sub-sample (this is labelled Max. no.
respondents as the number of respondents varies across statements). Three broad
groups are reported according to whether respondents were born, that is, in Australia,
Asia, or the rest of the world. The last column to the right, labelled pooled, reports the
means across all countries of birth. The mean value is obtained from answers where
students indicate whether a certain statement applies to them on the basis of five
possible options: 0 irrelevant, 1 never, 2 sometimes, 3 often and 4 always.
As the number of students to whom each statement applies differs, each cell in Table I
also reports the proportion of students (in brackets) who answered with values
between 2 and 4, to whom the statement positively applies. For example, the value 2.83
(91 per cent) in row A for Australia-born students means that the average rank of
statement A (On the whole I am confident I will be able to cope with the academic
requirements of my degree because of my pre-university education) is 2.83, which
corresponds to a value between sometimes and often, and 91 per cent of
respondents born in Australia indicated that the statement applies to them.
 METJ To test whether the distribution of answers across the three groups of students are
3,3 similar or differ, we applied the Wilcoxon rank sum test and the Kruskal-Wallis tests
(Keller and Warrack, 2000). These non-parametric techniques are suitable to compare
two populations independently sampled using ranked or quantitative data. Both tests
compare the median of the answers distribution given by the groups of students. In
particular, the Wilcoxcon rank sum test determines whether two populations have
190 identical location (median) as well as spread (variance) and shape (distribution), or
whether one is located to the left/right of the other. The Kruskal-Wallis test instead
determines only whether two (or more) populations have the same location (median)
and is equivalent, in the case of two groups, to a two-tail Wilcoxon rank sum test. The
null hypothesis, for both tests, is of identical locations. Each cell of Table I indicates
whether the answers among the three groups of students are different using a * * *
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next to the mean value reported, if the test rejects the null hypothesis at the 1 per cent
level of statistical significance (this means that there is less than a 1 per cent
probability that the mean values is identical among groups), or with * * and * when
the statistical significance is either 10 or 5 per cent, respectively. The reference group
for each test is the Australian-born.
Table I shows that there are significant differences among students born in different
countries. Differences arise with respect to the applicability of the statement, as measured
by the proportion of students answering the statement with a value of 2 or above, and the
frequency with which the statement applies (the mean value reported). The most answered
statements across all groups are A (prior learning), B (communication), and G (teaching
staff/English-speaking background). The least answered statements are D (group
work/English language students) and C (language/difficulties), particularly among the
Australian and foreign born students from non-Asian countries, whose native language is
mainly English and for whom the statements did not really apply.
Notwithstanding these caveats, students with an Asian country of birth emerge as
significantly less confident of the preparation gained before university (statement A)
than their Australian peers or students from other countries, with the lowest means
value of 2.62.
Furthermore, students with an Asian country of birth emerge as more reticent about
speaking in class (statement B) than students born in Australia or in other countries,
confirming findings in the literature (Ballard and Clanchy, 1991; Ramburuth and Birkett,
2000; Ryan, 2000). These differences are statistically significant at the 1 per cent level.
As one would expect, language and comprehension difficulties are more common
among students born abroad than students born in Australia (statement C). Only
12 per cent of Australian-born students do not seem to understand the instructions
given by teachers due to language difficulties, vis-a-vis 39 per cent of students born in
Asia and 25 per cent of students born in the remaining parts of the world. These are
massively different proportions, and ought not to be overlooked. It is interesting to note
that the mean value of the Australian-born students is higher than those of
foreign-born, and that these differences are statistically significant. This result is partly
due to the small sample of Australian-born students on which the mean is calculated,
which is more sensitive to extreme values, and partly a reflection of Australias
multicultural society. About a third of Australian-born students experiencing language
difficulties claim to have only an average knowledge of English and do not seem to
speak English at home and with friends; these students might indeed struggle with the
 language used at university. The remaining two-thirds report excellent knowledge of The impact
spoken and written English but might experience difficulties with teachers who use of culture
English as a second language (this is consistent with their answers to H). Language
and comprehension difficulties among Australian and foreign-born students do not on learning
differ with respect to peer interactions (statement D mean values are similar across
groups). These difficulties are uncommon among the Australian born (only 7 per cent
face these issues at times or more frequently), but are relevant for substantial 191
proportions of foreign students, especially if born in an Asian country (36 per cent). It is
interesting to note that Asian students find it easier than Australian-born students to
work with other students from a NESB (E, difference is statistically significant), and
they appear somewhat limited in their ability to socialise outside their country of birth
cluster (F, difference is statistically significant at the 10 per cent level).
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Students born in Asia find English-speaking teachers more helpful than

Australians (G, statistically significant), as much effort is placed by Australian
universities on catering for students of various cultural backgrounds. At the same
time, it is interesting to note that, regardless of the country of birth, students generally
do not find non-English speaking teachers particularly helpful (H). This may be related
to the specific education system where the teacher gained higher and postgraduate
education, which might share only few similarities with Australias, though more
research on this topic is needed.
Analogous to the statistics and format displayed in Tables I and II report the results
obtained on the sub-group of students born in the five most common Asian countries in
the sample (Hong Kong, China, Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore) using the
Australia-born sample as the reference group.
Whilst the analyses in Table I clustered students from Asian countries for observation
of broad and general trends in students perceptions of their learning, there are
intra-country variations between the countries, cultures and education systems of Asia
(Au, 1997; Wong, 2004). The results in Table II illustrate that statistically significant
differences emerge within the Asian-born cohort, with reference to the mean value
recorded as well as the proportion of students to which the statements apply. It is
interesting to note that differences with the Australia-born cohort are less common if
English is the official language in the country of origin. For example, students born in
Singapore, where English is one of the countrys official languages as well as the language
of administration, tend to have less pronounced differences with the Australia-born
students relative to students from the other main Asian countries of birth. This is evident
in the students confidence about the preparation gained before university (statement A)
and speaking in class (statement B), which are higher than for students born in Hong Kong,
China, Malaysia and Indonesia, and similar to the values reported by the Australia-born in
Table I. Language or comprehension difficulties with teachers and peers (C and D,
respectively) are also lower among respondents born in Singapore than those born in the
other Asian countries. Asian students find it easier to work with other NESB students than
the Australian born (statement E), though only students born in Hong Kong seem to
restrict their socialisation with students from the same place of birth (statement F).
Students from all five main Asian countries of birth find English-speaking teachers more
helpful than Australians (statement G, statistically significant), and, with the exception of
students born in Malaysia, they do not find non-English speaking teachers particularly
helpful (statement H), similarly to what is reported by students born in Australia.
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3,3

192
METJ

Table II.
Asian students

country of birth)
perceptions of their
learning (presented by
Statements from Country of birth
Question N Hong Kong China Malaysia Indonesia Singapore

A. Prior learning 2.49 * * * (88) 2.56 * * * (84) 2.69 * * (92) 2.64 * * (85) 2.72 (85)
B. Communication 2.46 * * * (71) 2.57 * (75) 2.37 * * * (81) 2.22 * * * (62) 2.56 * (75)
C. Lang. difficulties 2.28 * * * (42) 2.44 (36) 2.22 * * * (39) 2.13 * * * (59) 2.04 * * * (28)
D. Group work/English 2.36 (40) 2.34 (35) 2.60 (26) 2.20 * (70) 2.00 * * (15)
E. Group work/NESB 2.21 * * * (52) 2.20 * * * (41) 2.17 * * * (59) 2.13 * * * (67) 2.17 * * (51)
F. Cultural interaction 2.36 * * * (59) 2.24 (56) 2.26 (55) 2.23 (86) 2.23 (61)
G. Teaching/English 2.83 * * * (84) 3.03 * * * (82) 3.08 * * (93) 2.83 * * * (96) 3.01 * * * (91)
H. Teaching/NESB 2.48 (71) 2.37 (65) 2.71 * * (78) 2.49 (92) 2.31 (66)
Max. no. respondents 198 133 96 79 79
Note: Values in parentheses are calculated in percentage
 Discussion and conclusion The impact
These results highlight the fact that experiences and perceptions of learning in higher of culture
education vary amongst students born in different countries even when quantitative
approaches and basic statistical techniques are applied. They support and complement on learning
much of the findings of the qualitative studies reported. Self-reported measures of
perceived learning are at times criticised for being affected by issues of selectivity.
However, the consistency in the findings of qualitative and statistical techniques, 193
constitute a valid platform from which more research can be built.
The findings also have implications for institutions taking action where students
encounter difficulties in making the transition to new and/or different approaches to
learning and teaching, communicating in the classroom, and interacting with students
from different language backgrounds. Researchers and practitioners (Burke, 2001;
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Grace and Gravestock, 2009; Humfrey, 1999), stress the importance of appropriate
preparation for entry into new and foreign learning environments, and recommend the
establishment of effective acculturation programs, both at the stages of pre-departure
and on arrival to assist students in making the transition. As Sovic (2008) asserts,
students need to be made aware of the different approaches to learning and teaching
that they will encounter, especially students from diverse backgrounds in Asia,
arriving to study in countries such as the UK and Australia. Academic development
programs should also be offered to ensure that teaching staff are able to understand
and manage the diversity they encounter in their classrooms. Academic development
initiatives could include strategies for facilitating inclusive teaching and intercultural
interactions between students from diverse backgrounds and local students, an issue
that is not easy to resolve, as indicated in the literature (Grace and Gravestock, 2009;
Kingston and Forland, 2008; Smart et al., 2000). The findings suggest the need for
support and training in communication, so that students (especially those with English
as a second language) may more confidently engage classroom discussions and in the
interactive approaches to teaching they will encounter in an Australian university.
Students from diverse backgrounds should also be encouraged to take responsibility
for their own learning and cultural adaptation (meta-learning). They need to ensure that
they are well prepared for entry into their new learning environments, have appropriate
prior knowledge and skills in the disciplinary area in which they choose to study, and
develop some competence in English language. As the qualitative studies (Ramburuth
and Birkett, 2000; Twigg, 2005) suggest, students who make the effort to continuously
improve their language competence and socio-cultural interaction, benefit in both the
quality of their work and in their self-confidence. As the number of students seeking
education across borders and countries continues to rise, research into the student
experience must also continue, to ensure understanding of factors that impact on their
learning, so that they can achieve at their maximum potential.

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of International Student Enrolment Data, Australian Government, Canberra, March.
Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (2009), Summary
of International Student Enrolment Data, Australian Government, Canberra, March.
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Education, Vol. 29, pp. 77-92.
Willis, M.K. and Kennedy, R.E. (2004), An evaluation of how student expectations are formed
in a higher education context: the case of Hong Kong, Journal of Marketing for Higher
Education, Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 1-21.

Corresponding author
Prem Ramburuth can be contacted at: p.ramburuth@unsw.edu.au

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