PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

Focus: PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING

By: DR. HELEN F. DELOS SANTOS
DR. LYDIA L. HILBERO

Competencies:
1. Select activities, teaching methods, instructional materials & technology, classroom
management techniques appropriate for chosen subject areas
2. Apply appropriate principles in the preparation and utilization of the conventional and non-
conventional technology tools as well as traditional and alternative teaching strategies.

PART I CONTENT UPDATE

I. Teaching: Nature/Characteristics/Principles

What is teaching?

A process of interacting; tutoring or educating

Stands for pedagogy, training and nurturing
The process of engaging students in activities that will enable them to acquire knowledge,
skills, as well as worthwhile values and attitudes
An aggregate of organized strategies and activities aimed at inducing learning
Overall cluster of activities associated with a teacher, and including explaining,
questioning, demonstrating and motivating
Is both science and art; science as it is based on psychological research that identifies
cause-effect relationships between teaching and learning; art as it shows how those
relationships are implemented in successful and artistic teaching.
Involves values, experiences, insights, imagination and appreciation --- the stuff that
cannot be easily observed or measured (Greene)
Involves the interplay among such factors as the teacher, the learner, the teaching
content and strategies as this diagram shows:

THE LEARNER

THE TRIADIC ELEMENTS OF TEACHING Most important element

of teaching
The natural
characteristics of
THE TEACHER students- age, maturity,
A key factor in any teaching grade level, health,
learning process abilities, family
Constructs well designed plan background, experiences
to achieve objectives of the
lesson
Prepares learning environment
 THE CONTENT TEACHING
STRATEGIES
The choice of content/ subject
matter to be taught to achieve
desired objectives of the
lesson

PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING INSTRUCTION

Principle of Context - learning depends largely on the setting particularly including use of
materials in which the process goes on with this scales of application:

Textbook only
textbook with a supplementary material
non-academic and current materials (newspaper, clippings, articles, magazine)
multi-sensory aids
field experiences; personal, social and community understanding

Principles of Focus instruction must be organized about a focus or direction. Following

these scales of application, and where focus is established by:
page assignment in textbook
announced topic together with page or chapter references
broad concept or a problem to be solved, or a skill to be acquired to carry on
understanding

Principle of Socialization Instruction depends upon the social setting in which it is done ,
with these scales of application and where social patterns are characterized b:
submission
contribution
cooperation

Principle of Individualization instruction must progress in terms of the learners own

purposes, attitudes, abilities, and experimental procedures, following there scales of
application and where individualization may be done through:
differential performance in uniform tasks
 homogenous grouping
control plan
individual instruction
large units with optional related activity
individual undertakings, stemming from and contributing to the joint undertaking of
the group of learners.

Principle of Sequence instruction depends on effective ordering of a series of learning

tasks who moves
from meaningless ------- emergence of meaning
from immediate --------- remote
from concrete --------- symbolic
from crude --------- discriminating

and where sequence comes through:

logical succession of blocks of content (lesson/courses)
knitting learning/lesson/course together by introductions, previews, pretests,
reviews
organized in terms of readiness
organized in terms of lines of emerging meanings

Principle of Evaluation learning is heightened by a valid and discriminating appraisal of

all its aspects, following these scales of application:
evaluation or direct results only
evaluation related to objectives and process
evaluation on total learning process and results

II. Management of Instruction: instruction may be well-managed using any of these classifications of
students:
Homogenous learners are classified/grouped in terms of similar elements; such as age,
abilities, interests, physical characteristic, etc.
Heterogeneous, no definite bases for clustering or putting learners together; could be on
random sampling, alphabetized by family names, time of enrollment, etc.
Non-graded, no fixed grade/level assignment of children. They come to the center of
learning by small groups or individually depending on their pacing in the accomplishment
of tasks.

Difference among the terms technique, strategy, method, and approach

Technique
The personal art and style of the teacher in carrying out the procedures of teaching.
The teachers unique way, style or act of executing the stages of a teaching method

Strategy
A set of decisions on what learning activities to provide achieve an objective
An overall or general design of how the lesson will be executed or delivered
 Can be a substitute to methodology

Approach
A set of correlative assumptions or viewpoints dealing with nature of teaching and
learning
The procedure that employs a variety of strategies to assess better understanding and
effective learning

Method
A series of related and progressive acts performed by a teacher and pupils to achieve
the desired objectives of the lesson
The established way or procedure of guiding the mental processes in mastering the
subject matter.
A well-planned step-by-step procedure that is directed towards desired learning
outcomes

II. Methods: Purposes, Principles, Factors to consider, Classification

Purpose of Methods
Make learning more efficient
Enable the learner to think logically
Facilitate smooth transition from activity to another
Serve as a guide in preparing all the needed materials, tasks and equipment
Serve as a guide in preparing all the needed materials, tasks and equipment
Approximate time to be allotted for each activity to avoid waste of time and lapses
Make planning clear and precise , to prevent confusion, unnecessary delays and time
wastage
Help in planning for assessment and evaluation of the lesson
Add to a feeling of confidence and security for the teacher and students

Principles for selecting Methods

Must be based on sound principle, laws, and theories of learning
Must assist learners to define their purposes and motive
Must originate from learners past experiences
Must suit individual differences, needs, interests, and developmental maturity
Must bring the learners to the world of diverse learning experiences\must stimulate the
learners to think critically, analytically, and creativity
Must be challenging
Must be flexible
Must be consistent with the requirements of the objectives
Must be appropriate with the content
Must give way to varied students participation
Must consider to be undertaken to ensure gainful learning

Factors to Consider in Choosing a Method

Learners ability first and foremost consideration based on the nature characteristics,
age, maturity, abilities, etc.
 Teachers ability- must be personally and professionally qualified to teach
Objective expected outcome of the lesson in terms of knowledge/skills and attitudes
Classroom set-up must be inviting to students and conducive to learning
School facilities / equipments / technologies the availability of the needed equipment,
technologies, tools for learning found in the right places
Time allotment specified target time frame for chosen activities properly distributed
to the entire period
Safety precautions students should feel that they are safe and out of danger in the
school
School Climate learner should feel the warmth of the teachers and classmate

Two approaches in teaching and the methods of teaching used in each one:

A Comparison Between Direct and Indirect Approaches

Direct Approach Indirect Approach
Makes use of expository strategies Makes us of exploratory strategies
Aimed at mastery of knowledge and skills Aimed at generating knowledge for
Teacher-oriented experience
Direct transmission of information from Learner-centered
teacher Students search for information with
Teacher-controlled teachers supervision
Highly structured Learner-controlled
Content-oriented Flexibility organized
Learner is passive, receives ready Experience-oriented
information for the teacher Learner is active in search of information

A. Methods of teaching used in the Direct Instruction Approach

1. Deductive Method: Follows these steps in instruction
I. Statement of the Problem : Teacher tells what the problem is
II. Statement of the Generalization : recall of rule/principle/generalization that may
help solve problems identified
III. Inferring: looking for the principle/rule/generalization that fits the solution of the
problem
IV. Verification: establishing validity using references / materials

2. Showing Method/Direct Method : a teacher-centered strategy that uses teacher

explanation and modeling combined with student practice and feedback to teach concepts
and skills; follows these steps:

I. Introduction: review of prior learning

II. Presentation: explaining the new concept/modeling skill
III. Guided practice with necessary feedback: practice exercises to firm up learned skills
IV. Independent Practice:
More practice of the skill on concept learned for retention and transfer
3. Lecture-Discussion/Expository Method : designed to keep learners understand
relationships among organized bodies of knowledge; follows these steps:

I. Planning
Identifying goals
Diagnosing student background
Structuring activities
Preparing advance organizers

II. Implementing
Introduction defining the purpose of the lesson, sharing or objectives and
overview to help students see the organization of the lesson.
Presentation
Defining/explaining major ideas
Comprehension monitoring: determining whether or not student
understand concepts and ideas
Integration: exploring interconnections between important ideas
Review and closure
Summarizing lecture

4. Demonstration Method: a tell and show method; follow these steps:

I. Preparation
Motivation
Identify objectives/problem/procedure
II. Explanation of Concepts/Principles/Process/Theory, etc.
III. Demonstration of concept/process by the teacher while students observe and take
down notes
IV. Discussion of students observations
V. Verification/justification/conclusion

5. Concept Teaching Methods

May either be the concept attainment method or concept formation method
Concept attainment focuses on teaching pupils the concepts that the teacher has
selected for study and follows these steps:
Introduce the concept by name
Present examples
Introduce non-examples
Present a mixture of examples and non-examples and ask questions which
are the correct examples
Ask pupils to define the concept
Ask pupils to find other examples of the concept
Concept information method:
Focuses on the process of concept development/thinking skills
development
Follows three basic steps
Teachers provides stimulus in the form of a question or problem
Pupils provide a number of answers and categorize them
 Pupils label the categorized responses

B. Methods of teaching used in the Indirect Instruction Approach:

1. Inductive Method Strategies: it is a discovery learning strategy where lesson progresses

from observations to generalizations: involves many observable cases or instances that can
be compared by the learners where students form own
conclusions/generalization/rules/principles or formulas; used when generalizations are
important enough to justify the time spent to the lesson.
2. Inquiry/Problem Solving Method: engages learners in critical thinking analysis and problem
solving/investigate work; follows these steps:

I. Presentation and clarification of a problem/issue of inquiry

Presentation of objectives
Statement of the problem, issue or query
Clarification of the problem
II. Formulation of Hypotheses
Giving tentative solutions to the problem/ query
Clarify hypotheses
III. Gathering Data
Select references/sources of data/ information
Appraise and organize the needed information to answer the problem solving
IV. Testing Hypothesis
V. Formulation of conclusions
VI. Application
Solving problems using rule/principle etc. in new situations
3. Laboratory/Investigative Method: provides hands-on experiences about materials or facts
obtained from research, investigation or experiences; follows the follows the following
steps:

I. Preparatory
Motivation
Orientation to the work/activity
Presentation of materials
Precautionary measures

II. Supervised Work Period/Laboratory

Students work on the Problem
Teacher supervises the students work

III. Culminating Activities

Reporting of group work/result/findings
Formulation of generalization, rule, concepts, etc.
Application of the discussed concepts/ generalization to new situation

4. Discovery Teaching Method:

Teacher facilities discovery
 Learners participate actively in the learning process
Learning participate actively in the learning process
Learning depends on students own insights, reflections and experiences (discovery
learning)
May use either the
Inductive discovery and deductive discovery, each one following specific steps:

Steps followed in the Inductive Discovery method:

I. Observe and discuss specific examples
II. Identify and describe common elements of features
III. Discuss other examples and note common elements
IV. State main idea based on the common elements against the new examples elements
Check item
Steps followed in the Deductive Discovery Method:
I. Present an idea that can be verified against evidences
II. Learners gather/collect finds supporting evidences or examples
III. Reasoning/Justifying why certain evidence found is supported to the main idea.
IV. Students continue searching/finding other evidences to support the given idea.

5. Project Method
Features
A significant practical unit of activity
Involves planning and carrying out of the
planned activities
Students complete certain task in a
natural manner
Involves the use of physical materials to
complete the unit of experience
Develops sense of cooperation,
responsibility to complete a task
Energizes students to evaluate own and
others works (projects) ibjectuvely based
in develop criteria
Steps
I. Purposing
Statement of objectives of the projects
Explain the nature of the project
Teacher and students decide on the
activities cooperatively
II. Executing
Student carry out the activities as planned
under the guidance of the teacher
III. Evaluation
Viewing of finished project
Evaluation by teacher and students based
on some decided criteria for the project
evaluation

6. Discussion
A question or problem is considered and sifted by the class in order to reach a
conclusion
Class setting may be formal or informal, with the teacher having more or less a non-
role
How/When used:
o Multiple opinions shared; everyone examines and respond
o Question stimulate and focus thinking
o Multiple views are encouraged
Usually student-led, but may also be leaderless or teacher-led.
C. Other Indirect Models/Strategies of Teaching

Problem-Based Instructional (PBI)

The essence of PBI consists of presenting students with authentic/meaningful situation that
can serve as springboards for investigations and injury.
Is highly effective approach for teaching higher-level thinking processes involving:
Deriving questions on problem both socially important and personally meaningful to
students.
Interdisciplinary focus on a particular subject but solutions requires students to deliver
into many subject
Authentic investigation necessitates students to pursue investigation that see real
solution to real problems.
Production of articrafts and exhibits requires students to construct products in the
form of articrafts and exhibits that represents their solutions.

Metacognitive Strategy
Students are trained to become aware of and control their own learning through the
metacognitive process.
Used when students:
o Plan what strategies to use to meet goal
o Decide what resources are needed
o Monitor own progress
o Evaluate progress

Reflective Teaching Method

Process that enables individual to continually learn from own experiences by considering
alternative interpretations of experiences, actions, discussions, beliefs, using introspection
and analysis
Used when students:
o Have already acquired concrete experiences
o Analyze these experiences and form abstractions/generalizations
o Apply generalizations to actual situation

Jigsaw Method
A group activity for learning a particular materials
How/when used:
o Groups are formed
o Learning material is divided into sections
o One member takes care of a section of the material
o Each member meets whit those from other groups who are assigned to a similar
section
o Members discuss/work on the material and return to their previous group to inform
others in their group
o Students are tested after the puzzle is completed
 Brainstorming
a strategy that utilizes pupils knowledge and ideas
helps pupils explore creative alternatives
provides environment where pupils are free to contribute ideas without fear of ridicule or
failure
How/when used
o Pupils are presented with problem or situation
o They are encouraged to share as many ideas as they can generate.
o All ideas are accepted and recorded, reviewed, discussed and organized for
investigation.

Student Teams Achievement Strategy (STAS)

A type of group activity in which students interact together to master a specific academic
material.
How/When used:
o Information is presented
o Students are divided into learning teams to master lessons using worksheets
through discussion, tutoring, and quizzing one another.
o Scores from these tests are recorded ; and if there is improvements from the
previous achievement score of the team, additional points are given

Teacher Questioning Strategies

Questioning is:
o An important key technique in teaching
o Used for a variety of purposes, such as to-
Stimulate thinking
Arouse interest and curiosity
Review learned content
Elicit questions from students
Promote thought and understanding of ideas
Change the mood/tempo, direction of discussion
Encourage reflection and self-evaluation

Types of question
A. Questions according to thinking process
Low level questions
Factual + memory questions
Require only one correct answer
Example:
Who is the father of kindergarten?
How many regions comprise the Philippines?

High level questions

Go beyond memory and factual information
Require varied points of view/opinions/abstraction/answers/challenging and
stimulating questions
Example:
 Why cant we go away from the traditional strategies
In what classroom activity would constructivism be demonstrated?

B. Questions according to answers required

Cognitive-Memory Questions
o Referred to as low-level questions
o Have one correct and best answer
o Used to drill vocabulary, spelling, mathematical facts, and oral skills
o Usually start with what, who, when, where
o Require short and specific answers

Divergent thinking Questions

o Associated with high-level thinking questions
o Have many acceptable answers
o Used to encourage creative thinking and discovery learning
o Usually requires synthesis thinking by combining related ideas learned
Example: what could you do if _____? / what do you think about _____?

Convergent thinking questions

o Require application of information and analysis of factors involved
o Example: If A is this, what will happen to B?

C. Open-Discussion Questions
Eliciting Question
o Used to encourage initial response
o Encourage students participation
o Rekindle a lagging or dying out discussion

Probing Question
Seeks to : -expand ideas
-justify given ideas
-clarify ideas
Evaluative-Thinking Questions
o Require students to judge, value, choose, criticize, defend, or justify some
information

Closure-Seeking Questions
o Used to help students make conclusions, concepts rules, formula, and
solutions or plans for investigating, problems

D. Other Questioning Strategies

Observing Strategy -What did you see/observe/feel ?

Recalling Strategy -When did it happen?
Inferring Strategy -What do you think happened here?
Analyzing Strategy -How many processes were involved?
Verifying Strategy -How many processes were involved?
 Predicting Strategy -What will happen if -----?
Evaluating Strategy -Which one is similar to your idea? Why?
Synthesizing/Applying Strategy -Should the city build a dam? Why?

Tips on Asking Questions: Ask questions that are:

o Stimulating/challenging/thought provoking
o Within the students level/abilities
o Relevant/timely
o Properly sequenced
o Specific/clear/simple
o Varied

III. The Instructional Act Requirements

A. Instructional Objective(s)
A statement of what the learner is to be able to do upon completion of the
learning experience;
A demonstrable behavioral change in the learner
Referred to as behavioral or performance objectives
May be expressed in statement or question form
Must be:

S - Specific
M - Measurable
A- Attainable
R- Result-oriented
T- Time-bound

Three elements to consider in writing instructional objectives:

1. Performance behavior that the learner is expected to display
2. The condition(s) under which the behavior is to occur
3. The criterion of success- the standard against which the learners
performance is evaluated

May contain either or both of the following in a lesson

Knowledge Content, which may be-
A. Cognitive- Knowledge of concepts/principles/facts
B. Affective attitude/values
C. Psychomotor motor skills

Skills content, which may include one or a combination of the following in

a lesson:
1. Work Habits, Discussion, reading, writing, note-taking
2. Dictionary reference and library skills
3. Reporting, research and computer skills
4. Interpreting skills for maps, charts, tables, graphs
5. Inquiry skills- problem solving, experimenting, hypothesizing
6. Social Skills- respecting rules, accepting criticism, maturity
 7. Cooperative and competitive skills leadership and participation

Taxonomy of Objectives
Objectives are classified into three domains, namely:

Cognitive Taxonomy Psychomotor Taxonomy Affective Taxonomy

(Involves mental process) (involves manipulation of (Involves
materials through motor feelings/emotions/attitudes/val
control) ues)
Knowledge or recall of learned Perception Receiving: show
Terminology/facts/events/ use of senses to become Awareness,
persons aware of doing a motor Willingness to receive,
trends and sequences activity Selective attention
classifications and
categories Set Responding
criteria readiness to take an action Willingness to respond
methodologies requires perception Show feelings of
principles, theories, Satisfaction in responding
structures Guided response
Concerned with early stage Valuing
Comprehension of learning a skill Acceptance of the worth
translation Includes imitation, trial and of a
interpretation error person/object/situation
extrapolation Commitment to positive
Mechanism value
Application Concerned with habitual
abstractions in particular responses done with Organization
situations proficiency and confidence Conceptualization of
values
Analysis Complex overt response organization of a value
Involves breaking a whole Skillful performance of an system
into parts and act
understanding their Act done with accuracy, Characterization
relationships high level proficiency and Ones values become the
less effort basis of ones philosophy
Synthesis in life
Putting parts together in a Adaptation
new form Skills learned can be
modified in this stage to
Evaluation meet certain requirement
Judging quality or worth of
something based on Origination
established criteria New movements may be
created to fit certain
situation
 B. LESSON PLANS

One of the most important aspects of instructional planning, considered as the blue
print of what the teacher and students intend to accomplish after a teaching-
learning episode
Written outline of instructional objectives, activities, methods and strategies on
how stated objectives will be achieved with the help of appropriate instructional
materials to be used
Lesson plans vary in type:
o Brief an outline of teachers activities usually done by neophyte teachers
o Detailed all activities, teachers questions and students expected answers
are reflected and usually done by pre-service teachers
o Semi-detailed include all activities, questions and statements

Suggested Format/Parts of a Lesson Plan

I. Objectives
II. Subject Matter
Topics/Concepts
Values Integrated
References
Materials (include one or a combination of written materials, audio-visuals, computer
materials, models, charts, etc)
III. Learning Activities
A. Preparatory Activities
Drill; Review; Introduction; or Motivation
B. Developmental Activities
1. Presentation of the Lesson
2. Discussion/ Analysis
3. Practice drill/try-out activities
4. Abstraction/Generalization
5. Exercises to fix skills learned
C. Application may be in the form of demonstration, debates, tests, exhibits to
determined what has been learned (should be related to the present lesson)
D. Evaluation

IV. Assignment/Agreement

C. Determining Appropriate Learning Activities

1. Learning activities described

Consist of all classroom action and interaction that happen during the teaching- learning
process, done to achieve the objective for certain lesson or to promote learning and
retention
Made up of tasks that students engage in order to learn, including those that
Accomplish routines (keeping room space safe, collecting papers,
distributing materials, etc.)
Make students ready for new lesson
 Develop students knowledge, skills and attitudes as related to lesson
objectives
Enhance or reinforce and evaluate newly acquired learning
Should consider integration appropriate sequence, variety, meaningfulness and
immediacy in relation to their use

2. Types of learning activities

Introductory/preliminary/opening activities:
a. Refers to the tasks that the teacher provides the learners to prepare them for the
new lesson:
b. May be done by:
Gaining students attention (interest to the lesson)
Informing them of the lesson objective
Recalling of prerequisite learning

Developmental Activities
A. Refer to all the tasks that learners engage in to attain the objectives for which the present
lesson is taught.
B. Considered as the heart of good instruction
C. Usually carried out by a presentation of the new information, considering
Appropriateness of models or methods of teaching used
High involvement of students
Use of varied thought stimulating and interest maintaining tasks
Logical organization and connection among the contents of the lesson and point to
point smooth transitions
The relation of the new lesson to previous learning
Clarity of presentation
D. may follow a sequence
Teacher
1. provides initial shared experiences
2. engage students in relevant activities
3. provides further input
4. fosters closure by providing
A. Follow- up and concluding activities
B. Synthesizing the results of the learning gained from the work study done;
C. Determining what has been learned so far
D. Providing constant student feedback

The students move from activities involving experiencing, observation,

recording/expression, questioning/analyzing, hypothesizing, generalizing, and engaging
in her guided or independent practice
An evident interaction between teachers and students, between student and materials,
and among students, is fairly evident throughout the learning process

Concluding Activities - should be kept briefly and tightly focused on content and should
involve most pupils; include such activities as synthesis of lesson highlights concepts
learned, evaluation of learning, and/or reinforcement of the lesson thought
3. Principles in selecting learning activities

A. Learning activities should relate back to the lesson objectives; in all cases, they should
contribute to the attainment of lesson objectives.
B. Learning activities must suit the learners level in terms of needs, interests,
experience, comprehension, ability and even number
C. Learning activities must also jibe with the teaching method used.
D. Learning activities must also suit the subject matter at hand
E. Learning activities should fit the time and context to the teaching situation.
F. Learning activities have to be interactive that is, they should not only be cognitive
development focused but also values and skills enhancing to ensure a holistic kind of learner
development
G. Learning activities must be multi level varies and well sequenced.
H. Learning activities should consider the laws of learning (readiness, effect, exercise)
and the principles of multiple sense appeal, and the development of values and mental, and
motor abilities and skill
I. Learning activities should engage students with the most direct experience possible
that is, they must allow students to utilize all their senses.

D. Determining Appropriate Instructional Materials and tools

1. What Instructional Materials tools are for

To enrich instruction through added/unique dimensions
To make instruction more accessible to a greater number of students
To make instruction more effective at less cost
To accommodate various student learning styles for improved learning
To increase student interest and enthusiasm for learning
To present abstract ideas in more concrete and contextualized terms

2. Types of instructional materials and tools

Visuals representations of objects, persona or events in realistic or precise
expression on canvas, paper or other surfaces. Include the following:

Still pictures/photographic prints include textbook, periodicals and similar printed

materials; serve as efficient substitutes for first-hand experience; are relatively cheap and
convenient to use
Graphics make use of symbols representing the phenomena they portray come in
many forms ; maps diagrams, charts, tables, graphs, posters, cartoons that illustrate
lessons for better understanding, with less use of unnecessary teacher talk
Realia refers to all objects as they exist in natural context
Models - refer to objects that are constructed when realia are unavailable
Drawings may be the likeness of the real things or symbolic representations such as
maps, charts, graphs, cartoons
Visual display devices come in the form of chalkboards, marker boards, flip charts,
bulletin boards are valuable in emphasizing the major points of a lesson
 Projection devices may be slide and film strips projector or opaque/overhead projectors
which provide colorful and realistic production of original subjects

Sound recordings (audio media) include phonograph records, audio tapes, compact
discs, radio, recorder and player that has playback capability
Film, television, and computer mediated programs are mostly audio-visiual media
that magnify visual images
Computers and internet can be used even in the absence of teacher; allow one to
learn at his/her own pace; provide wide range of inline information

3. Principles in the selection of Instructional Materials

Appropriateness/Instructional Materials: must be appropriate to the
o Objectives and content of the reason
o Ability and interest levels of learners
Authenticity: They must relay accurate, up to date, and reliable information
Meaningfulness: They must be meaningful and stimulating to the learners
Core-effectiveness: This means that the cost of media utilization must diminish as the number
of students using them increases
Breadth: They must encompass varying groups of learners and satisfy many different purposes

E. Determining Appropriate Evaluation Instruments

1. The concept of evaluation

-aims basically to determine student mastery of what has been taught.
- Is a two-part process:
1.) measuring pupils individual performance
2.) judging about the adequacy of the may use one of two major approaches in
determining how well a pupil has performed:

1. norm-reference assessment, where a pupils performance is compared to the average

performance of his/her classmates;
2. criterion reference assessment, where the rating is based on comparison of a
students performance with a pre-determined standard- instruments used for evaluation may
be:
1.) informal evaluation depends on teachers observations of a variety of pupil
performances as they do learning tasks, complete projects, or interact with others; requires
teachers to make judicious inferences about what learners can and cannot do; may use this
question as a basic guide in selecting informal assessment techniques, Will the procedure
provide the information/ need to make an adequate judgment about a childs performance?

2.) formal evaluation includes teacher-prepared tests and commercially-available

standardized tests, such as rating scales, learning checklists, essay tests, true-false test, multiple-
choice tests, completion tests, matching tests, etc.
-may also be used to:
1.) assess progress of individual learners
2.) evaluate own performance of teacher
 3.) refine instructional plans and/or provide instruction to clear up
understandings of certain topics taught
4.) provide basis for instructional planning when the same content
tested is taught again

-has a need for good record keeping to monitor the

progress/development of learners overtime

3. When to use some test types

Use informal evaluation tools when looking for specific behaviors that learners are expected to
demonstrate
Use rating scales and checklist when judgment about several levels of performance quality is
needed
Use essay tests especially for upper grade levels when determining students to put together
isolated process of information in a meaningful way
Use true-false test when covering a broad range of content
Use matching test if pupils grasp of association is to be tested
Use completion test to sample only a cross-section of content and to eliminate guessing among
pupils

4. What evaluation type to use during the instructional act:

A. Prior to Instruction: Pre assessment

Done to determine the learners entry behavior (what knowledge/skills/attitudes they already
know or still need to know) before objective are set or before instruction begins for maximum
learning purposes
Involves use of such instruments as readiness test, aptitude test, pre test on course objectives,
or observational techniques

B. During Instruction: Formative Evaluation

Provides on-going feedback to the teachers and students regarding their success or failure
during instruction
Helpful in deciding whether changes in subsequent learning experiences are needed
Helpful in determining specific learning errors that need correction
Usually makes use of paper and pencil tests and observational methods

C. After instruction: Summative Evaluation

Is provided to determine
How well students have learned/attained instructional objectives
What rating the students deserve to get
How well instruction was done
Includes the use of achievements tests, rating scales, or evaluation of students products

F. Classroom Management
 1. Focuses on what a teacher must do to organize and manage time, materials and space
efficiently and smoothly to prevent classroom problems or reduce their frequency.
Focuses on what a teacher must do to organize and manage time, materials and space
efficiently and smoothly to prevent potential classroom problems or reduce their frequency.
-organization, teachers behavior, and classroom organizational patterns (eg. How teaches
structures activities) and discipline
Includes classroom climate, which has to do with the emotional tone and quantity of human
relationships in the classroom
Helps both students and teachers as it-
Enhances mental and social development of learners in a room that is confidence building and
where children grow in their competence as human beings
Facilitates the achievement of instructional goals/objectives, which, however, requires the
development of a systematic way of organizing classroom activities
Provides intellectual and physical freedom with in specified limits, that is, learning knowledge,
skills, and values without having to fear or be embarrassed by mistakes committed but also
guided by rules and regulation
Allows children to develop skills of self direction and independence: requires a good balance
between permissiveness and highly- directed instruction
Works towards a warm, but firm, relationship between teachers and students, which means
that while teachers extend human-ness to children, they still maintain the basic firmness
needed/wanted in teacher-student relationship
Includes management of time, discipline physical environment, routines and procedures and
instructional management
2. Physical Environment
refers to that kind of classroom environment that permits orderly movements, reduced distractions and
best use of available space
Includes good room arrangement (Evertson, 1989), where
-high traffic areas are free of congestion
-students are easily seen by the teacher
-frequently used materials and supplies are readily accessible
-students can easily see instructional presentations and display
May have to answer these important questions, among others, to ensure good classroom
management:
-how are the desks to be arranged? What seating arrangement should be follow?
-where should the teachers desk be located?
-where is the pencil sharpener and other equipment and how does the location affect the
students in class?
-where should the reading group meet?
-where can students work cooperatively?
-how should materials be distributed and collected?
-should ventilation and light be adjusted?

3. Time Management
Refers to effective allocation of class time to minimize time spent on non-instructional tasks, to
keep pupils attention engaged when formal instruction is being presented, or when they are
working on assignments and other learning activities, and, to reduce the total amount of time
spent on non-productive kind of activities (Savage & Armstrong, 1987)
 Includes such aspects as:
-transitions smooth and efficient movement from one aspect of lesson to another so that
slack time and classroom-control problems are reduced
-beginning of class activities- include role taking materials development, announcement-
making, and other administrative and non-teaching procedures done before instructional
activities start.
-pacing the lesson the rate at which a teacher helps learners to move through the lesson,
which needs to be break enough to provide a sense of productive movement but not so quick
that the students cannot cope
-providing assistance- involves developing procedures for responding to pupils who need help
but not to a point where other pupils become frustrated and are tempted to misbehave too
because the teachers attention may have been concentrated on only one student.

4. Instructional Management
Involves gaining and maintaining the cooperation of students in activities that make full use
of class time
Includes the development of the following skills:
-movement management- maintaining the momentum and making transitions between
lesson topics smooth
-group focus- maintaining group alertness and concerted effort
-avoidance of satiation impediments- to maximize learning by providing challenging and
varying activities.
Can be made effective by
-giving clear instruction that specify exactly how they should change seats, enter and leave
the room, move through corridors to other designated areas, change activity types
-agreeing on specific signals for students to know when formal instruction is about to begin
(e.g. teachers quiet gaze)
-assigning teacher helpers or peer helpers either to distribute materials or return/collect
papers or to help classmates needing assistance
-providing other stimulating activities for early finishers

Routines and Procedures

Have to be planned and made systematic for recurring and predictable classroom events to
be effectively managed
Classified into three types
-routines related to administrative matters, such as checking attendance, collecting and
returning accomplished work
-routines related to pupils behavior, such as behaviors when entering/leaving classroom,
when using classroom resources, etc.
-routines related to special information that students need while doing learning tasks, such
as directions in working with others expectations regarding work outputs, etc.
Need to be reasonable (i.e., normal, natural, not regimented, and implemented sensibly)
Discipline
Has the primary goals of teaching students self-control and responsibility and the methods
used to respond to disciplinary problems; need to be evaluated in terms of how well they
respond to the goals.
Can be effectively managed if teachers
 Regard discipline management as in integral part of their roles as teachers
Develop a plan of classroom control as much as they plan content lessons
Develop a plan of classroom control as much as they plan content lessons
Seek long- term solution to misbehavior problems by attempting to address their
underlying causes (Brpohy, 1983)
Follow this basic principles:
Respect pupil dignity- comments and responses to misbehavior are directed
towards a specific behavior and never to the general character or worth of
the child.
Private correction is preferable to public correction dealing with the
problems as quietly as possible
Identify and address causes of misbehavior more than the misbehavior itself
Distinguish between trivial and serious problems
The responses to misbehavior must be consistent fair
Students must be helped to recognize that their misbehavior
IV. Modes of Instructional Delivery
Formal Education
Is highly institutionalized established, and, therefore, traditional mode of delivery, with
organized content, methods, and activities to follow.
Is hierarchically structured/chronologically graded
Spans all educational levels: elementary through college
Is carried out mostly in schools/educational institutions on a face-to-face teacher-
student encounter
Non-Formal Education
Carried out outside the formal school
Is provided to particular types of learners who may be out of school youth, illiterate,
underemployed, unemployed, school leavers, and professional or technical workers
needing training in certain occupational skills
Includes organized educational activities or programs such as functional education and
literacy, continuing education, and livelihood skills training
Distance Study/Distance Education/Open Learning
Is basically the kind of study characterized by the physical separateness of learners and
teachers (Moore, 1975) for much, most, or even all of the time during the whole
reaching learning process
Is often conducted through the use of print, mechanical or electric media/devices (TV,
radio, audio/video, tapes, computers, internet, etc.) outside the school premises
Includes such instructional materials as learning modules instruction, learning package
materials, and the like on line instructional programmed
Based on a pre-produced course that may either be self-instructional or self-contained,,
with, without, or with less teachers guidance

PART II- ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

Lets analyze these items together:

1. Ms. Moster was having discipline problem with her English class. What questioning technique should
she considered to sustain students attention?
A. ask low-level thinking questions C. ask varied questions
B. Ask difficult questions D. ask stimulating questions
Analysis: Options A, B & C would probably not sustain students attention; in fact they might create
problem on students who may either be fast or slow in comprehension.
2. Teacher Abby is partial to experiential or learner-centered teaching. Which of the following strategies
will she least engage in?
A. deductive discovery C. lecture-discussion
B. problem solving D. Laboratory
Analysis: Options A, C, & D could be what Teacher Abby will choose because she can more or less
predict what could happen and therefore would know how to handle it.
Option B would be one thing she would least engage in because she would not know what
solution the students could arrive at and she might not have any explanation for this.
3. Choose two questions that could promote development of critical thinking.
A. those that ask for factual information C. those that require description
B. those that call for application D. those that require use of a rule
Analysis: Options A and C do not promote critical thinking because they simply require recalling of what
may have been learned
Options B and D can promote critical thinking especially because they require students to use something
that have learned to other or real-life situations.

Start analyzing on your own:

4. What lesson would be very useful in mastering science and mathematical facts, social science
concepts, oral spelling skill and vocabulary development?
A. development C. drill
B. review D. appreciation
5. Which strategy provides the learners with more information rather than application?
A. deduction C. lection
B. induction D. discussion
6. Teacher Justin often use the inquiry approach in Science teaching. What would be the emphasis in
this approach?
A. verbal interaction with classmate
B. verbal interaction with the teacher
C. pupils manipulation of several materials
D. testing tentative solutions to a problem
7. Which type of lesson requires viewing old facts and concepts in a new setting?
A. development C. drill
B. review D. supervised study
8. A teaching approach that brings the learners to continuously learn from their experiences through
analysis of their own actions, decisions, and beliefs in the light of alternative hypotheses is referred to as
_____________
A. creative teaching C. problem solving
B. discussing D. explaining
9. An act which involves activities armed at effecting learning is:
A. modeling C. teaching
B. discussing D. explaining
10. which teachers statement illustrates a reduction technique of questioning?
A. another, Paulo? C. Well, do you think they are the same
B. What is conservation? D. What can you say about this?
11. which objective could be taught best using inquiry method?
A. to interpret the first stanza of the poem
B. to illustrate how magnet is being used
C. to distinguish living form from non-living things
D. to summarize the story
12. the closure of a lesson is as important as set induction. Which of the following statement would be
an effective way of closing a lesson?
A. Its already time. See you tomorrow
B. theres the bell. Good bye!
C. Time is over, get ready
D. Before we end, state our science concept again
13. in which of the following classroom activities would process approach be appropriate?
A. when the learners observe and take donw observations of samples
B. when the class closes a lesson with the learned concept
C. when the teacher asks the class to enumerate the processes used
D. when the teacher introduces the new lesson
14. Ms. Kris, an Araling Panlipunan teacher begins her lesson with the identification of a problem to let
the students gain some control of the learning situation. What exploratory method of teaching is used?
A. project C. inductive
B. inquiry D. discovery
15. Ms. Jocson often teaches content-oriented subject matter in a traditional way. Which of these
strategies dies she therefore often use?
A. expository C. inductive
B. exploratory D. Problem solving
16. In her TLE class, Ms, Jane provides her students enough practice often showing and explaining
formal and informal table settings. What method could she have used?
A. deductive discovery C. demonstration
B. metacognitive D. lecture-discussion

17. Teacher Cholly has been teaching Social Studies with the intent of providing the students with more
knowledge and information even with less student participation, but a lot of content be covered in a
short period of time. What method is applied?
A. inquiry C. indirect
C. lecture D. explanatory

18. to make sure of a 100% student participation, Teacher Andrew grouped this class into several small
groups tom make them talk about family practices during All Saints Day. What discussion is shown?
A. panel C. symposium
B. lecture D. buzzing

19. The class is divided into two opposing teams on a topic discussing the effects of technology. One
team takes the positive stand, where the other one deals on the negative effects. What discussion is
this?
A. interview C. forum
B. debate D. buzzing

20. which step of the lesson would ask for a conclusion or generalization from the students after a
lesson has been taught?
A. applications C. synthesis
B. evaluation D. comprehension
21. Which of the following theories supports John Deweys learning by doing?
A. constructivism C. experiential
B. metacognition D. concept teaching

22. Students expect to get the latest and most reliable information from an expert, their teacher, about
s certain topic. For this purpose, which would be the best strategy that a teacher must use?
A. interview C. lecture
B. field trip D. demonstration

23. Which method would promote rapport, respect for others viewpoints, submission to majoritys
choice and concern for individual differences?
A. group discussion C. peer mediated
B. laboratory method D. cooperative learning

24. Which method involves having the students engaged in meaningful experiences that effectively
results to the development of Higher-level thinking and scientific process skills.
A. inquiry method C. concept learning
B. project method D. problem solving method

25. Which of the following principles of effective instruction concerns the proper ordering of learning
tasks?
A. Principle of Context C. Principle of Individualization
B. Principle of Focus D. Principle of Sequence

PART III ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

1. To determine whether or not her students gained mastery of learning, Mrs. Salve gave a long test
after finishing several lessons in a unit on matter. What kind of evaluation did she give?
A. Summative evaluation C. Preassessment
B. Formative evaluation D. Diagnostic evaluation

2. All of the following items, EXCEPT ONE, are questions to consider in selecting instructional material.
Which is the exception?
A. Is it up-to-date?
B. Does it match the instructional objectives?
C. Is it durable and audible?
D. Is it suited to the levels of the students?

3. Which of the following is the aim of Classroom Management?

A. Minimize Classroom noise
B. Increase occurrence of discipline problems
C. Maximize the use of classroom time for productive activities
D. Decrease time spent on tasks

4. When Mr. Garcia tells his class what the objective of the present lesson is, what type of learning
activities is he using?
A. Developmental C. Evaluation
B. Introductory D. Closure

5. Mrs. Blanco prepared an instructional material that she thinks can be used for several types of
learners and for different purposes. The principle she considered here is that of _____
A. meaningfulness C. cost
B. breadth D. authenticity

6. A non-traditional teacher, Mr. Alba likes to use control and discipline in his class not necessarily to
eliminate misbehaviors but, as classroom management emphasizes, to
A. make the students prim and proper at all times
B. help them obey all school rules and regulations
C. reduce the frequency of occurrence of inappropriate behaviors
D. increase quality of learning

7. Mrs. Adante often scolds students who commit mistakes even in front of the other members of the
class. What basic principle in discipline is she going against?
A. students must be helped to recognize their misbehavior
B. respect pupil dignity
C. private correction is better than public correlation
D. the response to misbehavior must be consistent and fair

8. Because Arnulfo is seriously ill and has to stay at home, his teacher prepared a learning kit containing
activities that cover all lessons his classmates are also having in school. What mode of instructional
delivery is used in this situation?
A. Informal Education C. Non-formal Education
B. Distance Education D. Mastery Learning

9. Mr. Baja provides lesson activities for each of the different groups of learners in his class. What basic
principle in selecting learning activities does he employ?
A. Learning activities should consider the laws of learning
B. Learning activities have to be interactive
C. Learning activities must suit the subject matter
D. Learning activities must be multi-level and varied

10. The items that follow state the reason for using instructional materials and/or tools, EXCEPT ONE.
Which is the exception?
A. make instruction effective at less cost
B. increase student interest for learning
C. provide entertainment to students
D. present abstract ideas in more concrete items

11. Mrs. Tinio wants to use more concrete things that are the equivalent of real objects for her grade 1
class. Their lesson is about animals and their kids. However, she cannot possibly take the class out since
no prior arrangement has been done for this. What is the closest possible type of instructional materials
can she use instead?
A. audio tapes C. photographic prints
B. graphics D. radio
12. Ms. Cabral wants to know what knowledge and skills her students already have about the Philippines
during the American period. What kind of evaluation instrument would she possibly use?
A. formative evaluation C. summative evaluation
B. pre assessment D. Achievement test

13. This type of classroom management involves attention to that which creates the best use of
available space. Which type is it?
A. time management C. Discipline
B. routines and procedures D. physical environment

14. What routinary activity would be best to use to start the class?
A. ringing the bell
B. greeting each other
C. making the students line up
D. asking the students to clean the room

15. If a pupil asks permission to go to the rest room while the class is going on, which may be done to
avoid class disruption?
A. Stop the lesson and let all the students go to the rest room
B. Stop the lesson and let the pupil to go
C. Tell the pupil to seat down instead
D. Simply nod while continuing the lesson

16. After presenting the lesson to class, what could be the logical step to take to develop a lesson well?
A. provide concluding activities
B. Evaluate the learning gained
C. provide further input
D. engage students in doing relevant activities

17. One of the following items is NOT among the considerations that a teacher should make in the
presentation of a new lesson, Which is it?
A. the relation of the new information to previous learning
B. information regarding the lesson objective
C. high involvement of students
D. logical organization and a smooth transition

18. Time management is one important aspect of classroom management. Which of the following
teacher behaviors is part of time management?
A. maintaining group alertness
B. creating orderly movement in class
C. checking attendance
D. keeping pupils attention engaged during instruction

19. Which behavior is NOT an acceptable routine procedure when distributing list of activities that
students need to do?
A. Give the activity cards one by one
B. Have the pupils come to you one by one
C. Ask a leader to distribute them
D. Give the cards to the first pupil in each row with the instruction for him/her to get one and pass the
others

20. Which of the following statements is NOT true?

A. Evaluation helps determine how well students learned
B. Evaluation provides feedback regarding success or failure
C. Evaluation is used only as basis of student grade.
D. Evaluation helps in determining specific learning errors that need correction

21. Which statement about lesson plan is LEAST accepted?

A. Lesson plan should be in constant state of revision
B. A god daily lesson plan ensures a better discussion
C. Students should never see a teacher using a lesson plan
D. All teachers regardless of their experience should have daily lesson plan.

22. Which objective is in lowest level in Blooms taxonomy of cognitive domain?

A. To draw conclusions from a set of data
B. To identify places mentioned in the story
C. To differentiate low from high level of degrees
D. To explain the procedure in changing improper fraction to mixed number

23. Aims are general statement of objectives which are derived from the Philosophy of Education. Which
is an example of this kind of objectives?
A. Show the difference between men and women in the universe
B. Develop responsible citizens of the country
C. Identify the strategies in problem solving
D. Develop physical skills

24. When you observed the teacher reviewing the plan with the class and assigning students to check
the activities on the days agenda that are completed, what form of a plan is being described?
A. Yearly C. Daily
B. Weekly D. Quarterly

25. In planning instruction, there are common errors that teachers make which weaken the
effectiveness of their plans. Which of these will you avoid so that your instructional plans will become
successful?
A. considering the needs and characteristics
B. relying entirely on textbooks and other aids when planning
C. using varied teaching strategies and activities in ones plan
D. emphasizing the use of higher level objectives in lesson planning