CHAPTER 6 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS Page 1/8

CLOSED-BOOK PRACTICE
CHAPTER 6: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
CONCEPT CHECK
1. Cite the primary differences between elastic, anelastic, and plastic deformation behaviors.
Ans:
Elastic deformation: time-independent and nonpermanent (i.e., reversible)
Anelastic deformation is time-dependent and nonpermanent (i.e., also reversible)
Plastic deformation is permanent, (i.e., irreversible)
2. Of those materials listed in the table below,
(a) Which will experience the greatest percent reduction in area? Why?
(b) Which is the strongest? Why?
(c) Which is the stiffest? Why?
(d) Which is the hardest? Why?

Yield Tensile Strain Fracture Elastic

Strength Strength at Strength Modulus
Material (MPa) (MPa) Fracture (MPa) (GPa)

A 310 340 0.23 265 210

B 100 120 0.40 105 150
C 415 550 0.15 500 310
D 700 850 0.14 720 210
E Fractures before yielding 650 350
Ans:
(a) Material B will experience the greatest percent area reduction since it has the highest strain at fracture,
therefore the most ductile.
(b) Material D is the strongest because it has the highest yield and tensile strengths.
(c) Material E is the stiffest because it has the highest elastic modulus.
(d) Material D is harder than A, B and C since it has higher yield and tensile strengths. However, E could
be the hardest if it is a ceramic whose yield strength is much higher than its fracture strength; thus, the
material fractures before yielding.

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3. Make a schematic plot showing the tensile engineering stress-strain behavior for a typical metal alloy to the
point of fracture. Now superimpose on this plot a schematic compressive engineering stress-strain curve for
the same alloy. Explain any differences between the two curves.
Ans:
The schematic stress-strain graph on which is plotted the two curves is shown on next page. The initial
linear (elastic) portions of both curves will be the same. Otherwise, there are three differences between the
two curves which are as follows:
(1) Beyond the elastic region, the tension curve lies below the compression one. The reason for this is that,
during compression, the cross-sectional area of the specimen is increasing; that is, for two specimens
that have the same initial cross-sectional area A0 , at some specific strain value the instantaneous
cross-sectional area in compression will be greater than in tension. Consequently, the applied force
necessary to continue deformation will be greater for compression than for tension; and, since stress is
F
defined according to Eq (6.1) as: , the applied force is greater for compression. Since A0 is the
A0
same for both tensile and compressive cases, so also will the compressive stress be greater.

(2) The compression curve will not display a maximum inasmuch as the specimen tested in compression
will not experience necking; thus, the cross-sectional area over which deformation is occurring is
continually increasing for compression.
(3) The strain at which failure occurs will be greater for compression. Again, this behavior is explained by
the lack of necking for the specimen tested in compression.

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QUESTIONS & PROBLEMS

Elastic Deformation
A square specimen of an alloy having an elastic modulus E of 100GPa, a Poissons ratio of 0.2 and an
original edge length b0 of 10mm will experience only elastic deformation when a tensile load F of 2,000N is
applied. Compute the maximum length of the specimen before deformation if the maximum allowable
elongation l is 0.1 mm. Also, what is the lateral contraction b at the end of this elastic deformation?
Ans:
We are asked to compute the maximum length of a square alloy specimen (before deformation) that is
deformed elastically in tension. For a square specimen: A0 b02 , where b0 is the original edge length.
F F 2,000 N
From stress definition (Eq 6.1): 2 20 MPa
A0 b0 10 103 m 2
20 MPa
From Hookes law (Eq 6.5): E 200
E 100 GPa
l - l0 l l 0.1 mm
From strain definition (Eq 6.2): l0 500 mm
l0 l0 200
lateral
From Poissons ratio definition (Eq 6.8): lateral 0.2 200 40

lateral contraction: b lateralb0 b 40 10 mm 0.4 103 mm 0.4 m

A cylindrical metal bar of a length l0 of 100mm and a diameter d 0 of 4mm is pulled in tension with a load
F of 10,000N to experience an elongationl of 1mm. Assuming that the deformation is entirely elastic,
calculate the elastic modulus E of the metal. Also, what is the lateral contraction b at the end of this elastic
deformation? Assume a Poissons ratio of 0.3.
Ans:
This problem asks us to compute the elastic modulus of a metal. For a cylindrical cross-section,
2
d0
A0 , where d0 is the original diameter.
2
F F 10,000 N
From stress definition (Eq 6.1): 2
2
796 MPa
A0 d0 4 103 m

2 2
l - l0 l 1 mm
From strain definition (Eq 6.2): 0.01 10,000
l0 l0 100 mm
796 MPa
From Hookes law (Eq 6.5): E E 79.6 GPa
10,000
lateral
From Poissons ratio definition (Eq 6.8): lateral 0.3 10,000 3,000

diametrical contraction: d lateral d0 d 3,000 4 mm 1.2 102 mm 12 m
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Plastic Deformation
The figure below shows the tensile engineering stressstrain behavior for an alloy obtained from a tension
test. The tensile specimen is square with an original edge length of 20 mm and has an original length of
300 mm. Determine the following and show calculations if needed:
(a) What is the modulus of elasticity?
(b) Mark on the figure the point representing the yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002? How the point is
determined and what is the yield strength value?
(c) What is the maximum load the specimen can sustain?
(d) What is the maximum elongation the specimen has been stretched before fracture?
(e) If the tensile specimen is unloaded right before it fractures, find the remnant elongation, which is called
permanent set, when the specimen is unloaded completely? Find also the elastic recovery.
Ans:
(a) The proportional limit (point P) is at 600 560
M
P , P 300 MPa,0.001 .
The elastic modulus is the slope of the Y
546
initial linear portion of the curve: F
P 300 MPa 400
E 300 10 MPa
(MPa)

P 0.001 P
300 GPa 300

(b) The 0.002 strain offset line intersects the 200 E

stress-strain curve with same slope as E E E
1
at point Y, which represents a yield 1 1

strength of approximately 546 MPa. 0.00667

(c) The tensile strength TS occurs at point M
with TS 560 MPa . 0.001 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008

Hence, the maximum load the tensile
specimen can sustain is:
Fmax TS A 560 MPa 20 mm 224,000 N 224 kN
2

(d) Fracture occurs at point F, which corresponds to a ductility in percent elongation of max 0.008 . The
maximum elongation is, thus, Lmax max L0 0.008 300 mm 2.4 mm .
(e) Since unloading is elastic and the stress level right before fracture (i.e., point F) is about 400 MPa, hence
when unloaded fully, the plastic strain is:
400 MPa
plastic fracture elastic fracture fracture 0.008 0.00667
E 300 GPa
and the remnant elongation/permanent set will be:
Lpermanent set plastic L0 0.00667 300 mm 2 mm
That is, the elastic recovery: Lelastic recovery Lmax Lpermanent set 2.4 mm 2 mm 0.4 mm

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The idealized linearly elastic-perfectly plastic stressstrain behavior shown below is often used to
approximate the tension test result of an aluminum alloy. As shown in the figure, it consists of a straight line
followed by a horizontal line until fracture. If the tensile specimen is square with an original edge length of
10 mm and has an original length of 200 mm, determine the following and show calculations when needed:
(a) What is the modulus of elasticity?
(b) What is the maximum load the specimen can sustain?
(c) What is the maximum elongation the specimen has been stretched before fracture?
(d) If the tensile specimen is unloaded right before it fractures, find the remnant elongation, which is called
permanent set, when the specimen is unloaded completely? Find also the elastic recovery.
(e) Find the total strain energy absorbed in the tensile specimen right before it fractures.
Ans:
(a) As shown in the figure, plastic deformation starts 300
at point Y: Y , Y 250 MPa,0.0025 . Y F
250
The elastic modulus is the slope of the initial
linear portion of the curve: 200

(MPa)
Y 250 MPa
E 100 103 MPa 100 GPa
Y 0.0025
(b) The maximum stress the idealized alloy can 100 E E
reach is Y 250 MPa . Hence, the maximum 1 1
load the tensile specimen can sustain is:
Fmax Y A 250 MPa 10 mm
2

0.0025 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.0175 0.020

25,000 N 25 kN

(c) Fracture occurs at point F, which corresponds to a ductility in percent elongation of max 0.020 . The
maximum elongation is, thus, Lmax max L0 0.020 200 mm 4 mm .
(d) Since unloading is elastic and the stress level right before fracture (i.e., point F) is 250 MPa, hence when
unloaded fully, the plastic strain is:
250 MPa
plastic fracture elastic fracture fracture 0.020 0.0175
E 100 GPa
and the remnant elongation/permanent set will be:
Lpermanent set plastic L0 0.0175 200 mm 3.5 mm
That is, the elastic recovery: Lelastic recovery Lmax Lpermanent set 4 mm 3.5 mm 0.5 mm
(e) The toughness uF is the area under the - curve up to fracture:
F 1 1
uF d Y Y F F Y 250 MPa 0.0025 250 MPa 0.020 0.0025
0 2 2
4.69 MJ 3
m
The total strain energy absorbed is:
U F uF V uF a 2 L0 4.69 MJ 3 10 mm 200 mm 93.75 J
2

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The bi-linear stressstrain behavior shown at

right is the tensile test result of a hypothetical F
300
metallic alloy, where F represents fracture. If
the tensile specimen has an original cross-
sectional area of 100mm2 and an original
length of 200mm, determine the following and Y
200

(MPa)
show calculations when needed.
(a) What is the modulus of elasticity?
(b) What is the maximum load the specimen
can sustain?
100
(c) What is the maximum elongation the E E

specimen has been stretched before 1 1

fracture?
(d) If the tensile specimen is unloaded right
before it fractures, find the remnant 0.01 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.04
elongation, which is called permanent set,
when the specimen is unloaded completely? Find also the elastic recovery.
(e) Find the total strain energy absorbed in the tensile specimen right before it fractures.
Ans:
(a) As shown in the figure, plastic deformation starts at point Y: Y , Y 200 MPa, 0.01 .
The elastic modulus is the slope of the initial linear portion of the curve:
200 MPa
E Y 20 103 MPa 20 GPa
Y 0.01
(b) The maximum stress the idealized alloy can reach is F 300 MPa . Hence, the maximum load the
tensile specimen can sustain is:
Fmax F A 300 MPa 100 mm2 30, 000 N 30 kN
(c) Fracture occurs at point F, which corresponds to a ductility in percent elongation of max 0.04 . The
maximum elongation is, thus, Lmax max L0 0.04 200 mm 8 mm
(d) Since unloading is elastic and the stress level right before fracture (i.e., point F) is 300 MPa, hence when
300 MPa
unloaded fully, the plastic strain is: plastic fracture elastic fracture fracture 0.04 0.025
E 20 GPa
and the remnant elongation/permanent set will be: Lpermanent set plastic L0 0.025 200 mm 5 mm
That is, the elastic recovery: Lelastic recovery Lmax Lpermanent set 8 mm 5 mm 3 mm
(e) The toughness uF is the area under the - curve up to fracture:
F 1 1 1 1
uF d Y Y Y F F Y 200 MPa 0.01 200 MPa 300 MPa 0.04 0.01
0 2 2 2 2
uF 8.5 MJ 3
m
The total strain energy absorbed is: U F uF V uF a 2 L0 8.5 MJ 100 mm2 200 mm 170 J
m3

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Hardness Tests
Describe the principles of a typical hardness test. In general, what is the relation between the hardness and
the tensile strength of an alloy?
Ans:
Hardness is a measure of a materials resistance to localized plastic deformation (e.g., a small dent or a
scratch). For a typical hardness test, a small hard indenter (e.g., a hardened steel sphere, a diamond cone or
a diamond pyramid) is forced into the surface of the specimen under controlled conditions of load and rate
of application. The depth or size of the resulting indentation is measured, which in turn is related to a
hardness number; the softer the material, the larger and deeper the indentation, and the lower the hardness
index number. In general, the hardness index number is directly proportional to the tensile strength of the
material.
Cite three reasons why hardness tests are performed more frequently than any other mechanical test (e.g.,
tensile, compressive, shear, etc.).
Ans:
i) Hardness tests are simple and inexpensive. Typically, there is little, if any, need for special specimen
preparation and the testing apparatus costs less relatively.
ii) The test is nondestructive. The specimen is neither fractured nor excessively deformed; a small
indentation is the only deformation.
iii) Other mechanical properties, such as yield and tensile strengths, often may be estimated from hardness
data.
The table shown below lists the indenters and loads of four common hardness tests. Which one(s) of these
four will be suitable for hardness test of ceramics? Explain why.
Test Indenter Load
Brinell 10-mm sphere of steel 500-3,000 kg
Vickers diamond pyramid 0.001-1 kg
Knoop diamond pyramid 0.001-1 kg
Rockwell E 8 -in. steel ball 100 kg
1

Ans:
Because of the brittle nature of ceramics, they are relatively high in stiffness and low in fracture strength.
Hence the suitable hardness tests of ceramics can only apply a small indentation load (e.g., less than 1 kg) to
avoid fracturing the brittle specimen during indentation. In addition, the indenter must be made of a
diamond pyramid to overcome the high stiffness due to brittleness. Thus, in the above table, both Vickers
and Knoop microhardness test methods are suitable microindentation techniques for measuring the hardness
of a ceramic.

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Describe the principles used in the microhardness testing. Draw the top view of the indented impression.
(a) Vickers and (b) Knoop.
Ans:
(a) The Vickers microhardness test is a microindentation technique for measuring
hardness of materials, especially those of brittle nature, e.g., ceramics and glasses or
thin sheets, where only a small indentation may be made for testing purposes. A
pyramidal diamond point is pressed into the polished surface of the test material with
a known (often 100g) load P, for a specified dwell time, and the resulting indentation is measured using
a microscope. As shown on the right, the top view of the indented impression is a square shape with an
1.854 P
edge length d1 . The Vickers hardness number is: HV .
d12
(b) The Knoop microhardness test is a microindentation technique for measuring hardness of
materials, especially those of brittle nature, e.g., ceramics and glasses or thin sheets, where
only a small indentation may be made for testing purposes. A pyramidal diamond point is
pressed into the polished surface of the test material with a known (often 100g) load P, for
a specified dwell time, and the resulting indentation is measured using a microscope. As
shown on the right, the top view of the indented impression is a long rhombus/diamond shape with the
14.2 P
length l to width b ratio being approximately 7:1. The Knoop hardness number is: HK 2 .
l

FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING
A steel rod is pulled in tension with a stress that is less than the yield strength. The modulus of elasticity
may be calculated as:
(A) Axial stress divided by axial strain
(B) Axial stress divided by change in length
(C) Axial stress times axial strain
(D) Axial load divided by change in length
Ans: A. The modulus of elasticity of a steel rod placed under a tensile stress that is less than the yield

strength (i.e., when deformation is totally elastic) may be calculated using Eq (6.5) as: E . That is, the

modulus is equal to the axial stress divided by axial strain. Therefore, the correct answer is A.
Name the three principal ways in which a load may be applied to a specimen.
Ans: The three principal ways in which a load may be applied to a specimen are tension, compression, and
shear.

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