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CHAPTER 4 IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS Page 1/7

CLOSED-BOOK PRACTICE
CHAPTER 4: IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS
CONCEPT CHECK
1. Is it possible for three or more element to form solid a solution? Explain your answer.
Ans:
Yes, it is possible for three or more elements to form a solid solution. For three or more elements, the same
criteria apply as for two elements, as stipulated by the Hume-Rothery rules.
2. Explain why complete solid solubility may occur for substitutional solid solutions but not for interstitial
solid solutions.
Ans:
One requirement for the formation of a solid solution is that solute atoms fit into the crystal lattice without
introducing significant lattice distortions. For a substitutional solid solution, complete solubility results
whenever the difference in atomic radii between host and impurity atoms is less than about 15% and the
other three Hume-Rothery rules are satisfied. It is not unusual to find substitutional impurity atoms that
meet these criteria. On the other hand, for interstitial solid solutions, diameters of solute atoms are normally
greater than the sizes of interstitial sites. Consequently, relatively large lattice distortions are created when
solute atoms occupy interstitial sites, with the result that solubilities are limited.
3. The surface energy of a single crystal depends on crystallographic orientation. Does this surface energy
increase or decrease with an increase in planar density? Why?
Ans:
The surface energy of a single crystal depends on the planar density (i.e., degree of atomic packing) of the
exposed surface plane because of the number of unsatisfied bonds. As the planar density increases, the
number of nearest atoms in the plane increases, which results in an increase in the number of satisfied
atomic bonds in the plane, and a decrease in the number of unsatisfied bonds. Since the number of
unsatisfied bonds diminishes, so also does the surface energy decrease. That is, surface energy decreases
with an increase in planar density.
4. Does the grain-size number, G of Eq (4.17) increase or decrease with decreasing grain size? Why?
Ans:
Taking logarithms of Eq (4.17): n 2G 1 and then rearranging such that the grain size number G is the
ln n
dependent variable leads to the expression: G 1 . Thus, G increases with increasing n, which is the
ln 2
average number of grains per square inch at a magnification of 100. But as n increases, the grain size
decreases. In other words, the value of G increases with a decreasing grain size.

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QUESTIONS & PROBLEMS


Vacancies and Self-Interstitials
The Arrhenius-type equation can be used to describe the temperature (T) dependency of both number of
Q Q
vacancies: NV N exp V and number of self-interstitials: N SI N exp SI , where N is the total
kT kT
number of atomic sites, k is the Boltzmanns constant, and QV and QSI are the energies of activation for
vacancy and self-interstitial, respectively. Under the same condition (i.e., the same N and T) in metals, is QV
higher or smaller than QSI ? Determine which type of defects will form more? That is, if NV is larger than
N SI or not? Explain why.
Ans:
In metals, a self-interstitial point-impurity introduces relatively large distortions in the surrounding lattice
because the self-interstitial atom is substantially larger than the interstitial position, in which it is situated.
Consequently, the formation of this point-defect is not highly probable, and self-interstitials exist in very
small concentrations, which are significantly lower than for vacancies. Thus, NV N SI QSI QV .

Impurities in Solids
Which of these elements: carbon (C), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), nitrogen (N)
and zinc (Zn) would you expect to form an interstitial solid solution with iron (Fe)? Justify your reason.
Ans:
Following the Hume-Rothery Size Factor Rules for Complete Substitutional Solid Solutions: The size
difference between the solute and solvent must be no greater than 15% to minimize lattice strain. Thus, both
carbon (C, atomic number 6) and nitrogen (N, atomic number 7) can form an interstitial solid solution with
iron (Fe, atomic number 26) because of the relatively smaller sizes of C and N compared to Fe.

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The atomic radius, crystal structure, electronegativity, and the most common valence are given in the
following table for several elements; for those that are nonmetals, only atomic radii are indicated.
Atomic Crystal Electro-
Element Valence
Radius () Structure negativity
Ni 1.246 FCC 1.8 2
C 0.710
H 0.460
O 0.600
Ag 1.445 FCC 1.4 1
Al 1.431 FCC 1.5 3
Co 1.253 HCP 1.7 2
Cr 1.249 BCC 1.6 3
Fe 1.241 BCC 1.7 2
Pt 1.387 FCC 1.5 2
Zn 1.332 HCP 1.7 2
Which of these elements would you expect to form the following with nickel (Ni):
(a) A substitutional solid solution having complete solubility.
(b) A substitutional solid solution of incomplete solubility.
(c) An interstitial solid solution.
Ans:
For complete substitutional solubility the four Hume-Rothery rules must be satisfied:
(1) the difference in atomic radii between Ni and the other element (R%) must be less than 15%;
(2) the crystal structures must be the same;
(3) the electronegativities must be similar (i.e., less than 0.3); and
(4) the valences should be the same.
Crystal Electro-
Element R% Valence
Structure negativity
Ni FCC 1.8 2
C 43
H 63
O 52
Ag 16 FCC 0.4 1
Al 15 FCC 0.3 3
Co 0.6 HCP 0.1 2
Cr 0.2 BCC 0.2 3
Fe 0.4 BCC 0.1 2
Pt 11 FCC 0.3 2
Zn 7 HCP 0.1 2
(a) Pt is the only element that meets all of the criteria and thus forms a substitutional solid solution having
complete solubility. Note: At elevated temperatures Co and Fe experience allotropic transformations to
the FCC crystal structure, and thus display complete solid solubility at these temperatures as well.

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(b) Ag, Al, Co, Cr, Fe, and Zn form substitutional solid solutions of incomplete solubility. All these metals
have either BCC or HCP crystal structures, and/or the difference between their atomic radii and that for
Ni are greater than 15%, and/or have a valence different than 2.
(c) C, H and O form interstitial solid solutions. These elements have atomic radii that are significantly
smaller than the atomic radius of Ni.
Dislocations - Linear Defects
The figures at right show metallic
lattice microstructures with (i) an
edge dislocation line and (ii) a screw
dislocation line, respectively. Prove
graphically that the Burgers vector b
runs perpendicular to the edge
dislocation line while runs in parallel
with the screw dislocation line.
Ans:
As shown in the figures at right, for
each case the resultant Burgers vector Burgers vector, b

b in red together with the loop in


green form a closed path and the
Burgers vector b runs perpendicular
to the edge dislocation line whereas
runs in parallel with the screw Burgers vector, b

dislocation line.
Interfacial Defects
For a given material, if all other conditions are the same,
(i) will the surface energy be (a) greater than, (b) about the same as, or (c) less than the grain-boundary
energy?
(ii) will the grain-boundary energy of a small-angle grain boundary be (a) greater than, (b) about the same
as, or (c) less than the grain-boundary energy for a high-angle grain boundary?
Ans:
(i) For a given material, if all other conditions are the same, the surface energy is (a) greater than the
grain-boundary energy. At grain boundaries, some atoms on one side of a boundary will bond to atoms
on the other side; such is not the case for surface atoms. Therefore, there will be fewer unsatisfied bonds
along a grain boundary, implying less grain-boundary energy.
(ii) For a given material, if all other conditions are the same, the grain-boundary energy of a small-angle
grain boundary is (c) less than the grain-boundary energy for a high-angle grain boundary because there
are more atoms bond across the grain boundary for the small-angle than for the high-angle. Thus, fewer
unsatisfied bonds will be left for the small-angle grain boundary, implying less grain-boundary energy.

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For a BCC single crystal as shown at right, would you expect the surface energy for a
(100) plane to be (a) greater than, (b) about the same as, or (c) less than that for a
(110) plane? Why?
Ans:
The surface energy for a crystallographic plane will depend on its packing density
[i.e., the planar density PD]. That is, the higher the packing density, the greater the
number of nearest-neighbor atoms, and the more atomic bonds in that plane that are
satisfied, and, consequently, the lower the surface energy. By visualizing the figures below, one can easily
see that PDBCC 100 PDBCC 110 ; thus, the Plane (100) will have a surface energy (a) greater than that of the
3 0.1875 3 0.2651
Plane (110). Note: PDBCC 100 2
2
& PDBCC 110
16R R 8 2R2 R2

R
R
a a

a 2a
BCC (100) plane BCC (110) plane
For a FCC single crystal as shown at right, would you expect the surface energy for a
(100) plane to be (a) greater than, (b) about the same as, or (c) less than that for a
(110) plane? Why?
Ans:
The surface energy for a crystallographic plane will depend on its packing density
[i.e., the planar density PD]. That is, the higher the packing density, the greater the
number of nearest-neighbor atoms, and the more atomic bonds in that plane that are
satisfied, and, consequently, the lower the surface energy. By visualizing the figures below, one can easily
see that PDFCC 100 PDFCC 110 ; thus, the Plane (100) will have a surface energy (c) less than that of the
1 0.25 1 0.1768
Plane (110). Note: PDFCC 100 & PDFCC 110
4R2 8 2R 2
4 2R2 R2

R R

a a

a 2a
FCC (100) plane FCC (110) plane
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FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING/SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES


Calculate the number of vacancies per cubic meter at 1000C for a metal that has an energy for vacancy
formation of 1.22 eV atom , a density of 6.25 g cm3 , and an atomic weight of 37.4 g mol .
(A) 1.491018 vacancies m3
(B) 7.181022 vacancies m3
(C) 1.491024 vacancies m3
(D) 2.571024 vacancies m3
Ans: C. Determination of the number of vacancies per cubic meter at 1000C (1273K) requires the
utilization of Eqs (4.1) and (4.2) as follows:
Qv
N v N exp kT
N N A exp Qv

N N A
v
A kT
A

N =
6.022 10 23
atoms mol 6.25 g cm3
exp
1.22 eV atom

8.62 10 eV atom-K 1000 273 K
v 5
37.4 g mol
N v 1.49 1018 vacancies cm3 1.49 1024 vacancies m3
It is possible to produce a perfect crystalline solid that does not contain any vacancies.
(A) True
(B) False
Ans: B. False. It is not possible to produce a solid material that is totally free of vacancy defects.
The solute is an element or compound present in the greatest amount.
(A) True
(B) False
Ans: B. False. The solute is an element or compound present in a minor concentration. The solvent is the
element or compound present in the greatest amount.
The surface energy of a single crystal depends on the crystallographic orientation with respect to the
surface.
(A) True
(B) False
Ans: A. True. The surface energy of a single crystal depends on crystallographic orientation because the
atomic packing is different for the various crystallographic planes; therefore, the number of unsatisfied
bonds will vary from plane to plane.

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Two metal specimens, A and B, have ASTM grain size numbers of 3 and 8, respectively. Which specimen
has the larger grain size?
(A) Grain sizeA Grain sizeB
(B) Grain sizeA Grain sizeB
Ans: B. The ASTM grain size number (G) is related to the number of grains per square inch (n) according to
Eq. (4.17): n 2G 1 . So, as n increases, so also does the value of G. However, as G increases, the grain
size diminishes. Since GA 3 GB 8 ; thus, Grain sizeA Grain sizeB .

ME 46100: ENGINEERING MATERIALS CLOSED-BOOK PRACTICE

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