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GAS TURBINES IN SIMPLE CYCLE & COMBINED

CYCLE APPLICATIONS*

Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle Mode

Introduction
The gas turbine is the most versatile item of turbomachinery today. It can be used in several
different modes in critical industries such as power generation, oil and gas, process plants,
aviation, as well domestic and smaller related industries.

A gas turbine essentially brings together air that it compresses in its compressor module, and
fuel, that are then ignited. Resulting gases are expanded through a turbine. That turbines shaft
continues to rotate and drive the compressor which is on the same shaft, and operation
continues. A separate starter unit is used to provide the first rotor motion, until the turbines
rotation is up to design speed and can keep the entire unit running.

The compressor module, combustor module and turbine module connected by one or more
shafts are collectively called the gas generator. The figures below (Figures 1 and 2) illustrate a
typical gas generator in cutaway and schematic format.

Fig. 1. Rolls Royce RB211 Dry Low Emissions Gas Generator


(Source: Process Plant Machinery, 2nd edition, Bloch & Soares, C.
pub: Butterworth Heinemann, 1998)

* Condensed extracts from selected chapters of Gas Turbines: A Handbook of Land, Sea and Air Applications by
Claire Soares, publisher Butterworth Heinemann, BH, (for release information see www.bh.com) Other references
include Claire Soares other books for BH and McGraw Hill (see www.books.mcgraw-hill.com) and course notes
from her courses on gas turbine systems. For any use of this material that involves profit or commercial use
(including work by nonprofit organizations), prior written release will be required from the writer and
publisher in question.
Please note that several topics in the gas turbine handbook, for instance Turbine Controls, Instrumentation and
Diagnostics; as well as Performance Optimization and Environmental issues are not covered in this authors material
on this CD. The Gas Turbines book in question is several hundred pages long and besides the basics, covers some of
the more complex and lengthy work in recent gas turbine development. Condensing it all here was not practical. What
is here however, does give the reader the basic theory and practice of gas turbines in simple cycle and combined cycle
mode, in power generation service.

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Fig. 2. Schematic of modules: f: fan section, ag: low pressure compressor, bg: high pressure compressor,
nd
c: turbine, e: shaft, h: combustor (Source: Process Plant Machinery, 2 edition, Bloch & Soares, C. pub: Butterworth Heinemann, 1998)

Figure 3 below shows a gas turbine cutaway with its basic operating specification. Note this particular turbine model can be used for
both 50 and 60Hz power generation.

Fig. 3. Alstoms GT-8C2, 50/60Hz gas turbine with basic specification


(Table 1: base load at ISO conditions) (Source: Alstom Power)

Table 1. GT8C2 (60Hz) (ISO 2314: 1989)


Fuel Natural Gas
Frequency 60 Hz
Gross electrical output 56.2 MW
Gross electrical efficiency 33.8%
Gross Heat Rate 10,098 Btu / kWh
Turbine speed 6204 rpm
Compressor pressure ratio 17.6:1
Exhaust gas flow 197 kg/s
Exhaust gas temperature 508 C
NOx emissions, gas dry (corr. to 15% O2, dry) < 25 vppm

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Figure 4 shows another cutaway of another gas turbine. This gas turbine is used in 60Hz power generation service.

Fig. 4. Siemens V84.3A, 60Hz gas turbine. Note partial hybrid burner (24 burners) ring

Fig. 5. The basic gas turbine cycle (Source: The Aircraft Engine Book, Rolls Royce UK)

The basic gas turbine cycle is illustrated (PV and T-s diagrams) in Figure 5. A comparison can be drawn between the gas turbines
operating principle and a car engines. See Figures 5 and 6. A car operates with a piston engine (reciprocating motion) and typically
handles much smaller volumes than a conventional gas turbine.

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1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Fig. 6. Comparison of the gas turbine and the reciprocating engine cycles (Source: The Aircraft Engine Book, Rolls Royce UK)

GT Applications (Simple Cycle)

Direct drive and mechanical drive


With land-based industries, gas turbines can be used in either direct drive or mechanical drive application. With power generation, the
gas turbine shaft is coupled to the generator shaft, either directly or via a gearbox direct drive application. A gearbox is necessary in
applications where the manufacturer offers the package for both 60 and 50 cycle (Hertz, Hz) applications. The gear box will use
roughly 2 percent of the power developed by the turbine in these cases.

Fig. 7. A simple cycle gas turbine plant,


100 MW simple cycle power plant,
Charleston, South Carolina USA, powered
by Siemens gas turbines. (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)

Power generation applications extend to offshore platform use. Minimizing weight is a major consideration for this service and the gas
turbines used are generally aeroderivatives (derived from lighter gas turbines developed for aircraft use).

For mechanical drive applications, the turbine module arrangement is different. In these cases, the combination of compressor module,
combustor module and turbine module is termed the gas generator. Beyond the turbine end of the gas generator is a freely rotating
turbine. It may be one or more stages. It is not mechanically connected to the gas generator, but instead is mechanically coupled,

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sometimes via a gearbox, to the equipment it is driving. Compressors and pumps are among the potential driven turbomachinery
items. See Figure 8 below.

Fig. 8. A typical free power turbine. (Source: Rolls-Royce, UK)

In power generation applications, a gas turbines power/ size is measured by the power it develops in a generator (units watts,
kilowatts, Megawatts). In mechanical drive applications, the gas turbines power is measured in horsepower (HP), which is essentially
the torque developed multiplied by the turbines rotational speed.

In aircraft engine applications, if the turbine is driving a rotor (helicopter) or propeller (turboprop aircraft) then its power is measured
in horsepower. This means that the torque transmission from the gas turbine shaft is, in principle, a variation of mechanical drive
application. If an aircraft gas turbine engines operates in turbothrust or ramjet mode, (i.e. the gas turbine expels its exhaust gases and
the thrust of that expulsion, propels the aircraft forward), its power is measured in pounds of thrust. See Figure 9 below.

Fig. 9. Propulsive efficiency is high for a propeller and low for a jet. (Source: Rolls-Royce, UK)

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1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Fig. 10. Gas turbines in offshore service: Offshore platforms


produce their own power. Power plant selection is generally an
aeroderivative (for weight considerations) gas turbine in simple
cycle operation. (Source: GE Power Systems)

In marine applications, the gas turbine is generally driving the ships or ferrys propellers, via a gear box.

Fig. 11. Gas turbines in marine service: SGT-500 Industrial Gas Turbine 17 MW,
Application: Two SGT-500 power packages for FPSO vessel in the Leadon oilfields
(Note the SGT-500 was Alstoms, formerly ABBs GT-35, designation changed after
Siemens acquisition). The Global Producer III from the Swan Hunter shipyards at
Tyneside, UK, heads for the Leadon oil field in the UK Sector of the North Sea. This
vessel is an FPSO (Floating Production, Storage and Offloading) vessel, and power
on board is provided by two SGT-500 gas turbines. One WHRG (Waste Heat Recovery
Generator) for each gas turbine heats process water. The SGT-500 is a light-weight,
high-efficiency, heavy-duty industrial gas turbine. Its special design features are high
reliability and fuel flexibility. It is also designed for single lift, which makes the unit
suitable for all offshore applications. The modular, compact design of the GT35C
facilitates onsite modular exchange. (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)

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GT24/26 GT11N2

Fig. 12a. Pictorial Examples of gas turbines, some with main operational parameters (Source: Alstom)

Table 2. Alstoms GT 24/ GT 26 (188MW 60Hz, 281MW 50Hz). Both


used in simple cycle, combined cycle and other co-generation applications.

GT24 (ISO 2314:1989)


Fuel Natural gas
Frequency 60 Hz
Gross Electrical output 187.7 MW*
Gross Electrical efficiency 36.9 %
Gross Heat rate 9251 Btu/kWh
Turbine speed 3600 rpm
Compressor pressure ratio 32:1
Exhaust gas flow 445 kg/s
Exhaust gas temperature 612 C
NOx emissions (corr. to 15% O2,dry) < 25 vppm

GT26 (ISO 2314:1989)


Fuel Natural gas
Frequency 50 Hz
Gross Electrical output 281 MW*
Gross Electrical efficiency 38.3 %
Gross Heat rate 8910 Btu/kWh
Turbine speed 3000 rpm
Compressor pressure ratio 32:1
Exhaust gas flow 632 kg/s
Exhaust gas temperature 615 C
NOx emissions (corr. to 15% O2, dry) < 25 vppm

In combined cycle, approximately 12 MW (GT26) or 10 MW (GT24) is indirectly produced by the steam turbine through the heat released in the gas
turbine cooling air coolers into the water steam cycle.

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1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Table 3. Alstoms GT 11N2, either 60Hz or 50 Hz (with a gear box).


Used in simple cycle, combined cycle and other cogeneration applications.

GT11N2 (50Hz)
Fuel Natural Gas
Frequency 50 Hz
Gross Electrical output 113.6 MW
Gross Electrical efficiency 33.1%
Gross Heat rate 10,305 Btu/kWh
Turbine speed 3600 rpm
Compressor pressure ratio 15.5:1
Exhaust gas flow 399 kg/s
Exhaust gas temperature 531 C
NOx emissions (corr. to 15% O2,dry) < 25 vppm

GT11N2 (60Hz)
Fuel Natural gas
Frequency 60 Hz
Gross Electrical output 115.4 MW
Gross Electrical efficiency 33.6%
Gross Heat rate 10,150 Btu/kWh
Turbine speed 3600 rpm
Compressor pressure ratio 15.5 : 1
Exhaust gas flow 399 kg/s
Exhaust gas temperature 531 C
NOx emissions (corr. to 15% O2,dry) < 25 vppm

Fig. 12b. SGT-600 Industrial Gas Turbine - 25 MW (former designation, Alstoms GT10) (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)

Technical Specifications
Dual Fuel natural gas and liquid
Frequency 50/60 Hz
Electrical output 24.8 MW
Electrical efficiency 34.2%
Heat rate 10,535 kJ/kWh
Turbine speed 7,700 rpm
Compressor pressure ratio 14.0:1
Exhaust gas flow 80.4 kg/s
Exhaust gas temperature 543 deg C
NOx emissions (corr. to 15% O2, dry) <25 vppm
Figures 13 and 14 depict a cutaway and an external view respectively, of two aeroderivative engine models.

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Fig. 13. The GE LM6000 (aeroderivative of the CF6-80C2). (Source: GE Power Systems)

Fig. 14. The GE LM2500 (aeroderivative of the CF6-80C2). (Source: GE Power Systems)

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1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Figure 15 shows an industrial gas turbine during assembly at the OEMs facility.

Fig. 15. GE-9H gas turbine is prepared for testing (Source: GE Power Systems)

Fig.16. A GE Frame 9H during test/manufacture. (Source: GE Power Systems)

Figure 17 shows an industrial gas turbine on a trestle in preparation for shipping.

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Fig. 17. A GE Frame 9F ready for shipping. (Source: GE Power Systems)

Figure 18 shows a large GE Frame 7F industrial gas turbine on a test bed in the OEMs facility.

Fig.18. GE Frame 7F during manufacture/test showing rotor in half the casing (Source: GE Power Systems)

Applications versatility of the gas turbine


The gas turbines operational mode gives it unique size adaptation potential. The largest gas turbines today are over 200 MW
(megawatts) which then places gas turbines in an applications category that until recently, only steam turbines had owned.

The smallest gas turbines are microturbines. The smallest commercially available microturbines are frequently used in small power
generation (distributed power) applications and can be as small as 50 kW (kilowatts). Work continues on developing microturbines
that will be thumbnail size. The world of personal turbines where one might plug this turbine into a drive slot in their car, come
home from work and plug it into a household slot for all ones household power, is a discernable, if as yet unpredictable, target.

The content on this CD deals mainly with power generation, however with the gas turbine, understanding its origins and other
applications, gives the gas turbine community a better handle on optimized design, operation and maintenance. Gas turbines came into

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1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

their own in the Second World War In peacetime; NASA took over the research that led to better alloys, components, and design
techniques. This technology was then handed down to military aviation, and eventually commercial aviation. However, since the same
manufacturers also make gas turbines for land and marine use, aeroderivative gas turbines were a natural offshoot of their flying
forerunners.

However, the same manufacturers also make gas turbines for land and marine use. So aeroderivative gas turbines were a natural
offshoot of their flying forerunners.

Aeroderivative gas turbines are essentially aviation gas turbines that are installed on a light frame and installed on a flat surface
(ground based, marine craft or offshore platform). Aeroderivatives are commonly used in power generation service, particularly where
a relatively light package is required, such as in offshore service.

The Rolls Royce Spey and Olympus engines for instance, are both aero engines but are also popular when packaged as aeroderivatives
in land based and offshore platform service.

Pratt and Whitneys (PW) JT- 8D was once the largest (in terms of fleet size) aircraft engine family in existence. The engine first
made its appearance in the 1950s and delivered about 10,000 pounds of thrust, then. Several variations on the basic core produced a
version that delivered roughly 20,000 pounds of thrust about twenty years later. This incremental power development around the same
basic design is common and saves on development costs, spares stocking costs and maintenance. PWs FT- 8D is their aeroderivative
equivalent used in both power generation and mechanical drive application.

Similarly General Electrics (GEs) LM2500 and LM6000 family (aero derivative) are essentially CF6-80C2 (aero) engines that have
been adapted for land based use. What was ABBs GT35 (land based), then Alstoms GT35 (change of corporate ownership), then
Siemens Westinghouses SGT500 (yet another corporate purchase) is another example of an aeroderivative. Most aeroderivatives can
also be used in marine (ferry, ship) applications. Some of them are also used on mobile land applications, such as in military tanks.

Aero and aeroderivative gas turbine engines are likely to be built in modular construction. This means that one module of the gas
turbine engine may be removed from service and the other modules left in place. A substitute module may be inserted in place of the
removed module so the gas turbine can resume service. An industrial engine is more likely to be constructed in a non-modular format.
If part of an industrial engine has serious problems, it is likely that the entire engine will be down for maintenance.

The term industrial gas turbine implies a heavier frame and a gas turbine model that was not intended for service where the mass
(weight) to power ratio (in other words weight minimization for the power plant) was of paramount concern. That said, the
metallurgical selections for contemporary industrials reflect the best developments in metallurgical selections. The gas turbine field is
a highly competitive one, and the highest turbine inlet temperatures (TITs) that can be tolerated by the metallurgical and fuel
selections, are sought as this optimizes the gas turbines peak power rating. In other words, GEs industrial Frame 7s and 9s (be they
- F, - G or - H technology) may incorporate similar metallurgy to that used on their aircraft engines. The letters F, G and H refer
to temperature ceilings and therefore imply higher power (with later alphabet letters).

Some turbine model designations can appear confusing due to several changes in corporate ownership. This is partly due to the fact
that the OEM (original equipment manufacturer) gas turbine scene changes constantly with corporate mergers, partial mergers,
buyouts of specific divisions and joint ventures. This section and the one on combined cycles therefore have several notes about
specific engines model designation history and previous ownership. This has considerable relevance when it comes to noting the finer
points of any gas turbines design. This is critical to operators as they can then make better decisions regarding the overhaul,
performance optimization, component updates and retrofit systems on their turbine systems.

Any application of a gas turbine could have a great deal to offer end-users in other industrial sectors. Power generation is often the
least demanding application for a given gas turbine, unless it used in variable load/ peaking service. Mechanical drive units are more
likely to experience load swings. One example would be turbines driving pumps that injects (into the soil) varying volumes of sea
water that accompany mixed field (oil, gas and seawater deposits) oil and gas production.

Aircraft engine turbines may see varying stresses depending on their service. If for instance, one considers an aerobatic squadron, one
needs to be aware that the engines on the planes trying to stay a fixed distance from the wing tip of the formations leader may
accumulate life cycle losses of twenty times that of the formation leaders engines.

In other words, the variations in all parameters that pertain to a gas turbines overall life, component lives or time between overhauls
(TBOs) offer insight to gas turbine operators regardless of whether that turbine operates in their industry or not. Lessons which are

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learned in one sector of industry on gas turbine metallurgy and operating systems, such as controls or condition monitoring, can be
applied in some way, to other gas turbine applications.

The History of the Gas Turbine

The development of the gas turbine took place in several countries. Several different schools of thought and contributory designs led
up to Frank Whittles 1941 gas turbine flight. Despite the fact that NASAs development budget now trickles down to feed the
improvement of flight, land based and marine engines, the worlds first jet engine owed much to early private aircraft engine pioneers
and some lower profile land-based developments.

The development of the gas turbine is a source of great pride to many engineers world wide and, in some cases takes on either industry
sector fervor (for instance the aviation versus land based groups) or claims that are tinged with pride with ones national roots. People
from these various sectors and subsectors can therefore get selective in their reporting.

So for understanding the history of the gas turbine, one would have to read several different papers and select material written by
personnel from the aviation, and land-based sectors. At that point, one can fill in the gaps.

What follows therefore are two different accounts of the gas turbines development. Neither of them is wrong. The first of these
presents an aircraft engine development perspective. *

* Reference: The History of Aircraft Gas Turbine Development in the United States, St. Peter, J., Published IGTI, ASME, 1999.

Attempts to develop gas turbines were first undertaken in the early 1900s, with pioneering work done in Germany. The most
successful early gas turbines were built by Holzwarth, who developed a series of models between 1908 and 1933. The first industrial
application of a gas turbine was installed in a steel works in Hamborn, Germany, in 1933. In 1939 a gas turbine was installed in a
power plant in Neuchtel.

1931 U.S. army awards GE a turbine-powered turbosupercharger development contract

1935 U.S. Army, Northrop, TWA, and GE combine to test fly a Northrop Gamma at 37,000 feet from Kansas City to Dayton. This led
to a production contract for GE to build 230 units of the Type B supercharger and led to establishment of the GE Supercharger
Department in Lynn, Massachusetts (later the site of the I-A development based on the Whittle engine).

1938 Wright Aeronautical Corporation designs its own vaned superchargers for its own engines, although the superchargers were
manufactured for Wright by GE.

1940 NACA joins with Wright, Allison and P&W to standardize turbo supercharger testing techniques.
1.1 Simple and Combined Cycles
1925 R.E. Lasley of Allis-Chalmers receives the first of several patents on gas turbines.
Around 1930 he forms the Lasley Turbine Motor Company in Waukegan, IL. with the goal of producing a gas turbine for aircraft
propulsion.

1934 U.S. Army personnel from Wright Field visit Lasleys shop and inspected his hardware and the engine which he had filmed in
operation earlier that year. However, neither the Army nor Navy would fund Lasley.

1939 GE studies gas turbine aircraft propulsion options and concludes the turbojet is preferable to the turboprop. Note, however, that
two years later they changed their minds and proposed a turboprop to the Durand Committee.

1941 GE Steam Turbine Division (Schenectady) participates in the Durand Special Committee on Jet Propulsion and proposes a
turboprop, designated the TG-100 (later the T31), which ran successfully in May 1943 under Army sponsorship.

1941 GE Turbo Supercharger Division (Lynn, Massachusetts) receives the Whittle W.1.X engine and drawings for the W.2.B
improved version. A top secret effort begins to build an improved version, known as the I-A, for flight test in the Bell P-59.

1941 Durand Committee also awards Navy contracts to Allis-Chalmers and Westinghouse. The Westinghouse W19, a small booster
turbojet, resulted from this but Allis-Chalmers dropped out of the gas turbine race in 1943.

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1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

1942 In April, the GE I-A runs for the first time in a Lynn test cell. In October, it powers the Bell P-59 on its first flight at Muroc Dry
Lake, CA.

1929 Haynes Stellite develops Hastelloy alloy for turbine buckets, allowing operation up to gas temperatures of over 1800 F. This
superior alloy was later crucial to the successful operation of the I-A and it gave U.S. turbine manufacturers the ability to use uncooled
designs rather than include the complexity of blade cooling.

By the latter part of 1942, the following native aircraft gas turbine efforts were proceeding. These projects included:
1. Northrop Turbodyne turboprop
2 .P&W PT-1 turboprop
3. GE/Schenectady TG-100 turboprop
4. Allis-Chalmers turbine-driven ducted fan
5. NACA piston-driven ducted fan
6. Westinghouse 19A turbojets
7. Turbo Engineering Corporations booster-sized turbojet

The following timeline contains many of the relevant land based gas turbine design developments. *
Note that this also contains some timeline references to aircraft engine development.
* Reference: ASME 2001 - GT- 0395 Advanced gas turbine technology ABB/ BBC historical firsts by Eckardt, D., and Rufli,
P., ALSTOM Power Ltd.
Note: BBC = Brown Boveri Company, ABB = Asea Brown Boveri

Switzerland (& Swiss Abroad)

1921 J. Ackeret, high-speed aerodynamics scientist at ETH Zurich, arrives at L. Prandtls AVA Aerodynamische Versuchs-Anstalt
Gottingen; stays seven years

1925 CEM (G. Darrieus) - a French subsidiary of BBC (Brown Boveri Company) produces a series of windmills, using airfoil design
theory.

1926 BBCs 4 stage axial test compressor designed, first with untwisted blades, later swirl adapted.

1932 BBC sold a number of 11 stage axial compressors, PR= 3.4, for the Mondeville project and high-speed windtunnels at ETH-
Zurich and Rome.

1934 C. Keller, assistant to J. Ackeret at ETH Zurich, designed one of the windtunnel blowers (2nd blower for high speed tunnel came
from BBC).

1939 A. Meyer, BBCs Technical Director, presents a comprehensive paper on GT design achievements (including GT usage for
compact & lightweight ship/destroyer propulsion) at the Institute of Mechanical Engineering, London
First commercial industrial GT from BBC is operational at Neuchatel
BBC delivers 1st Industrial GT to RAE, 1.6 MW 20 stage axial compressor
In 1940 BBC delivers axial aircraft superchargers, 190 hp, PR=2.5 to complete a RR purchase order

Germany (& Germans Abroad)

1922 W. Bauersfeld suggests the use of airfoil theory for fluid machinery

1935 At AVA Gottingen, a 4 stage axial turbocharger, 7 stage compressor design undergoes development (Encke et al. design),
PR=3.8 [in production PR=3.1].

1935 H.P. von Ohain gets a secret turbo-engine patent no.317/38

1937 H.P. von Ohains test engine HeS313 runs

1939 The first jet-powered flight He 178 aircraft with HeS313, on Sunday Aug 27, 1939.

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R. Friedrich, Junkers Magdeburg, design the 14 st. axial compressor for the RTO engine (Riickstoss-Turbine ohne
Leistungsabgabe with a Propeller), for the Helium aircraft S30 engine, based on Gottingen airfoil design

1942 Me 262 fighter aircraft entered service with two Jumo 004 engines, first test flight on August 18.

England (& English Abroad)

1926 A.A. Griffith releases An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design, which discusses a GT as an aircrafts power plant

1930 F. Whittle gets the first patent for a turbo aeroengine


Tizard, Gibson & Glauert committee denies that the gas turbine could be superior to the piston engine

1937 F. Whittle, radial compr. engine, test run on December 4

1938 A delegation at BBC decides that Exclusivity on the BBC (axial) compressor design would not be granted

1941 The Whittle engine has its first flight

Note that in the early 1930s, BBC designed components used for the Velox project boilers. They developed a turbine that had enough
power to drive the compressor, and could also generate excess power through the inverse operation of the electric starter motor. Also,
in 1936, BBCs '34MW all-axial process gas turbine/ blower train with a PR = 4, was supplied to a US refinery.

In July 1939, BBC commissioned the worlds first utility gas turbine at Neuchatel, Switzerland. The gas turbine had one 23 stage axial
compressor, one single-can combustor, one 7 stage axial turbine, and a synchronously operated generator on the same shaft.

Fig. 19. BBC - First Utility GT Power Plant, 4 MW, Neuchatel, Switzerland, 1939 (courtesy Alstom Power)

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1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Gas Turbine Major Components, Modules, and Basic Systems

Fig. 20. Modules in a gas turbine Source: Courtesy of Butterworth


nd
Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2 edition, Bloch, H.
and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce UK

Primary Modules

The primary modules in a gas turbine are the:


Compressor module
Combustion module
Turbine module

A gas turbine also has an inlet section/ module and an exhaust section/ module. See Figure 20.

Most advanced and large gas turbines have compressors that are the axial design type. Some of the earlier, smaller or deliberately
compact gas turbines have centrifugal compressors. See Figures 21, 22, 23.

Each compressor stage provides an opportunity for stepping up the overall compressor pressure ratio (PR), so although an axial stage
may not offer as much of a PR as a centrifugal stage of the same diameter, a multistage axial compressor offers far higher PR (and
therefore mass flow rates and resultant power) than a centrifugal design.

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Fig. 21. Centrifugal-compressor flow, pressure, and velocity changes


(a) Airflow through a typical centrifugal compressor,
(b) Pressure and velocity changes through a centrifugal compressor.
Courtesy Rolls Royce UK

Fig. 22. A modern high-performance compressor assembly.


(General Electric) (Source: Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine Technology McGraw Hill)

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1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Fig. 23. Stator case for the General Electric 179 engine.
(Source: Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine Technology McGraw Hill)

Therefore most gas turbine designs incorporate axial compressors. In newer designs, the compressor and turbine modules may be split
into further submodules, to lessen the stress on individual components and achieve better efficiencies.

So a compressor may have a low pressure (LP) module or LPC, and a high pressure module (HPC). In this case there will be
equivalent high and low pressure turbine modules (LPT and HPT). The LPC and LPT will operate on one long shaft at the same
speed. The HPC and HPT will operate on a shorter shaft that fits around and concentric to, the low pressure shaft, and at a higher
speed than the low pressure module. See Figure 21.

Some contemporary gas turbines have three modules, designated low, intermediate and high pressure, each with their own shaft.

This modular concept allows for module replacement or exchange, if maintenance to a module is required, without taking the entire
gas turbine out of service.

Module component aerodynamic and thermodynamic basics

Air inlet section

A gas turbine takes in many multiples of what an equivalent size reciprocating engine can. The air inlet is generally a smooth, bell
shaped, aluminum alloy duct. It leads air into the compressor with minimized turbulence. Typically, struts brace the outer shell of the
front frame to minimize air flow vibration.

An anti-icing system directs compressor air (at discharge or some pressure higher than atmospheric) that is bled off an appropriate
compressor stage, into these struts. The temperature of this air prevents ice formation. Ice ingestion can and has destroyed many gas
turbine engines.

Compressor module

The compressor is made up of rotating blades on discs and stationary vanes that direct the air to the next row of blades. The first stage
compressor rotor blades accelerate the air towards their trailing edges and towards the first stage vanes. The first stage vanes slow the
air down and direct it towards the second stage compressor rotor blades, and so on through the compressor rotor stages (each stage is
one rotating stage and one stationary stage).

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Then air enters the diffuser section. The highest total air velocity and maximum compressor pressure is at the inlet of the diffuser. Air
moves through the diffuser, which presents the air with an increasing cross sectional area, so the airs velocity decreases and the static
pressure increases. The highest static pressure is at the diffuser outlet.

The compressor rotor can be described as an air swallower. The volume of air swallowed by the compressor rotor is proportional to
the lowest pressure (in a multiple shaft gas turbine) rotor rpm.

However, the altitude at which the gas turbine is located will alter the horsepower (for a mechanical drive) or the power (in watts,
kilowatts or Megawatts) that the gas turbine develops. This is because air density decreases with altitude and with increasing air
temperature and humidity. That means when the compressor swallows a certain volume of air, that air will be a smaller weight of air,
if the gas turbine is at a high altitude, still less if it is a hot day, and still less if it is also a humid day. This smaller weight of air
requires a smaller weight of fuel to combine with, and the mixture then produces less power when burned. Note however, that
humidity, in comparison with temperature, and pressure altitude, has a much smaller effect on density.

In aircraft engine applications, with increased forward speed, ram air pressure increases and air temperature and pressure increase.
Ram air pressure is defined as the free stream air pressure created by the forward motion of the aircraft engine. The effect of rise in air
intake temperature on power developed by a gas turbine can be noted in figure 24.

Fig. 24. Variation of shaft power with inlet air temperature for different configurations of the Rolls Royce Avon
nd
Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2 edition, Bloch, H. and Soares C., 1998

There are many different compressor designs that result from the manufacturers balance of several design factors, including target gas
turbine power developed, cost of manufacture, anticipated serviceability factors and so forth. As previously discussed, when the gas
turbine is started up, the turbine section will keep the compressor section rotating. The compressors efficiency is a key factor in

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1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

determining the power necessary to create the pressure rise of a given airflow. This pressure rise will in turn affect the temperature
difference between the compressor inlet and outlet.

As mentioned previously, the main types of compressor design are centrifugal and axial flow. The axial-centrifugal-flow compressor
is a combination of both and operates with a combination of their characteristics. It is a less common design.

Centrifugal-flow compressor

As the rotor turns, air is drawn into the blades near the center of the front rotor stage. Centrifugal force accelerates this air as it moves
outward from the axis of rotation towards the edge of the rotor.

It is then forced through the diffuser section at high velocity (high kinetic energy). A pressure rise results when the air slows in the
diffuser (some velocity energy becomes pressure energy). One centrifugal compressor stage is capable of a relatively high
compression ratio per stage. It is not practical to use on larger engines because of its size and weight, relative to axial stages.

Because of the high tip speeds it develops, the centrifugal compressor is most used on smaller engines where simplicity, flexibility of
operation, and ruggedness outweigh its characteristics of less overall pressure ratio than that developed by an axial compressor.

Axial-flow compressor

The air is compressed, in a direction parallel to the longitudinal axis of the engine. Axial flow compressors consist of several stages
that collectively create high compression ratios with high efficiencies. The streamlined shape of this type of compressor make is
suitable for use on high speed (ram jet) aircraft. Its design is less rugged than that of the centrifugal compressor though, making it
more susceptible to foreign object damage (FOD).

The required efficiency and power rating then mean that the design parameters that govern its design, such as rotor dynamics
characteristics, clearances and fits, also make it more expensive to manufacture. With the rising cost of fuel, most gas turbine
designers use axial compressors, as features such as power delivered per unit weight of the gas turbine outweigh initial manufacture
costs.

Axial-centrifugal-flow compressor

The axial-centrifugal-flow compressor, also called the dual compressor, is a combination of the two types. Its operating advantages
and characteristics are also a combination of both rotor types. It is useful is specialized application designs, such as those for US Army
helicopters.

Typically the compressor is five- to seven-stage axial-flow compressor and one centrifugal-flow compressor. The compressors are
mounted on the same shaft and therefore turn in the same direction and at the same speed. The centrifugal compressor is situated aft of
the axial compressor stages.

Most high performance gas turbines today also have inlet guide vanes (IGVs) and/ or variable inlet guide vanes (VIGVs) at the
compressor inlet. This is to ensure that the air flow hitting the rotor blades does so at an acceptable angle of attack that does not cause
the blade to stall.

If we consider a cross section through the wing of an aircraft, we note that the section is similar in shape (if not size) to that of an
airfoil in a gas turbine. All airfoils provide lift by producing a lower pressure on the convex (suction) side of the airfoil than on the
concave (pressure) side. With any airfoil, lift increases with an increasing angle of attack, but only up to a critical angle. Beyond this
critical angle of attack, lift falls off rapidly. This is due mostly to the separation of the airflow from the suction surface of the airfoil.

In simpler terms, we know that when the cushion of air under the aircraft wing is reduced to a certain level, the wing has inadequate
lift. It (and the aircraft) tend to drop from their existing level. The airfoils in a gas turbine can stall in exactly the same way, one blade
at a time. If a whole row of blades stalls, we have a condition called rotating stall, at which point surge occurs. Surge causes a rotor to
go back on itself, in an attempt to regain the lift under the airfoil. In flight, the pilot then pushes the nose down to recover from stall, as
this then restores the air cushion under the wing.

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Claire Soares

Combustor module
There are three main combustion chamber types in use today (See figures 25-29):
annular combustor chambers
can (multican) combustor chambers
can-annular combustor chambers

Fig. 25. A combustion chamber. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process
Plant Machinery 2nd Edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998

Fig. 26. Flame stabilizing and general airflow pattern. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from
nd
Process Plant Machinery 2 Edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998,

21
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Fig. 27. Flame tube cooling methods Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process
Plant Machinery 2nd Edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998

Fig. 28. Multiple Combustion Chambers Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process
Plant Machinery 2nd Edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998

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Claire Soares

Fig. 29. Annual Combustion Chambers Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process
Plant Machinery 2nd Edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998

Some variations on these basic designs occur in specialized applications. Again, one example is US Army helicopters that use the
annular reverse-row type.

The combustor module contains the combustion chambers, igniter plugs, and fuel nozzles. The combustor burns a fuel-air mixture and
delivers the products of combustion to the turbine at temperatures within design range.

Fuel is injected at the upstream end of the burner in a highly atomized spray. Fuel nozzles may be simplex type (delivering gaseous
fuel or liquid fuel) or they may be designed to be dual fuel (delivering gas or liquid at different times in the operation). Some gas
turbines are bi-fuel. They may burn a mixture of gas and liquid fuel.
1.1 Simple and Combined Cycles
Combustion air, with the help of swirler vanes, flows in around the fuel nozzle and mixes with the fuel. This air is called primary air
and represents approximately 25 percent of total air ingested by the engine. The fuel-air mixture by weight is roughly 15 parts of air to
1 part of fuel. The remaining 75 percent of the air is used to form an air blanket around the burning gases and to lower the
temperature.

Flame temperatures in excess of 3600 F (roughly 200 degrees C) are not uncommon in high performance aircraft engines. Cooling air
drops this temperature to a value that the turbine inlet guide vanes can withstand. The air used for burning fuel is primary air.
Cooling air is secondary air and is controlled and directed by holes and louvers in the combustion chamber liner.

Certain aircraft engines are termed high bypass ratio fan engines. With this design, the gas turbine has an inlet fan upstream of the low
pressure compressor (LPC). That fans diameter is far larger than that of the LPC. Much of the air ingested by the fan is directed
through an annular sleeve type casing that fits around the compressor. This bypass air provides still more cooling but also helps with
other gas turbine performance characteristics like power developed, total mass flow and FOD ingestion capabilities.

23
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

As we read previously, igniter plugs function during start up and are cut out of the circuit as soon as combustion is self supporting (the
turbine has developed design speed and is driving the compressor on its own).

On engine shutdown, or, if start failure occurs, the combustion chamber drain pressure-actuated valve, automatically drains any raw
fuel from the combustion chamber.

The material suitable for fabricating the combustion chamber liner is typically welded high-nickel steel. The hottest zone is about the
first upstream third of its length (flame zone). The most severe operating periods in combustion chambers are during engine idle
(reduced air) and maximum rpm (power) operation. Sustained operation is generally unnecessary. Base load with a ground based
gas turbine is generally a power setting lower than this value. With aircraft engine operation, maximum rpm generally corresponds to
maximum (take off) thrust.

The annular combustion chamber can enhance a geometrically compact design. Instead of individual combustion chamber cans,
compressed air is introduced into an annular space formed by a chamber liner that may be situated in some designs, around the turbine
assembly. Annular space left between the outer liner wall and the combustion chamber housing conducts the flow of compressor
secondary cooling air. Primary air is mixed with the fuel for combustion. Secondary (cooling) air reduces the temperature of the hot
gases seen by the turbine first stage inlet nozzle guide vanes (IGVs). An annular combustion chamber provides a larger combustion
volume per unit of exposed metal area and therefore of metal weight.

The can combustion chamber design has individual combustion chambers. Air from the compressor enters each individual chamber
through a transition section. Each individual can has two cylindrical tubes, concentric in most locations, the combustion chamber liner
and the outer combustion chamber. Combustion occurs within the inner liner. Louvers and holes control airflow into the combustion
area. Continuous airflow helps prevent carbon from forming on the inside of the liner. Carbon deposits can cause hot spots or block
cooling air passages, which then shortens burner life.

Ignition occurs during the start cycle. The igniter plug(s) is (are) located in the combustion liner adjacent to the start fuel nozzle. Two
is a typical number. The flame lights off in the can closest the igniter and cross tubes rapidly conduct the flame to the other
combustion cans.

Some engines use a single can combustor. In the case of the illustration below, because of the size of the single can, the design is
referred to as a silo burner. This design can be vulnerable to one or more of the heat shield tiles that line the inside of the silo,
breaking loose and potentially proceeding downstream into the turbines gas path.

Fig. 30. GE 9H partial combustion module during manufacture (Source: GE Power Systems)

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Claire Soares

Can-annular combustion chamber


This combustion chamber is a combination of both annular and can-type designs. The can-annular combustion chamber consists of an
outer shell (annular), with a number of cans (can type) mounted about the
engine axis. The combustion chambers are cooled by air that enters the liners
through various holes and louvers. This air is mixed with fuel from the fuel
nozzles. The fuel-air mixture is ignited by igniter plugs, and the flame is then
carried through the crossover tubes to the remaining liners.

The inner combustion chamber casing serves as structural support and a heat
shield. Bearing oil supply lines run through it.

Low NOx combustors


As previously noted, raising the temperature at which the combustion gases
enter the turbine (turbine inlet temperature or TIT), will also raise the
efficiency of the gas turbine cycle. Care has to be taken however, that an
increase in TIT does not cause other operational problems, such as
overheating of turbine components and turbine lubrication oil. If the TIT
increase is not accompanied with sufficient additional cooling, this could
happen.

Also, one needs to consider that the amount of oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
produced by a combustor increases with the value of the flame temperature in
the combustor and the corresponding value of TIT. NOx emissions contribute
to acid rain and legislation against NOx production has become increasingly
stringent. Hence lower TITs, to the extent permitted by optimized efficiency,
are desirable.
Fig. 31. DLN (dry low NOx) combustor
This fact needs to be kept in focus when selecting and/or specifying gas (Source: GE Power Systems)
turbines for particular applications and specific demographics (i.e. country or
state concerned and their particular legislation). Two examples of low NOx combustors are shown in Figures 33 and 34.

The SGT-600 fleet has clocked up one and a half million operating
hours with its dry, low-emission (DLE) combustion system, which
significantly reduces environmental impact. The DLE combustion
system was developed for the SGT-600 in 1990 (original design
developed by ABB, later Alstom Power, then acquired by Siemens
Westinghouse). The SGT-600 burner lowers NOx by reducing the flame
temperature in its combustion chamber. The SGT-600 annular
combustor has a total of 18 burners. Each burner consists of a cone
split in two halves, which are slightly offset to form two slots for the
combustion air to enter (original Alstom designation was the EV
burner). The main gas supply also enters through these slots, via tubes
fitted along them. Primary fuel is injected at the tip of the cone. This
results in a richer fuel mixture, enabling a control feature to stabilize
the flame over a range of load conditions. Further combustion control
can be provided by means of an optional bypass system that allows the
amount of dilution air to be varied.
The current design achieves NOx emission levels of less than 25 ppmv
(at 15% O2), operating on natural gas in 50-100% load range. Single-
digit NOx levels have been measured in some plants. The DLE system
for the SGT-600 has been operating successfully in a variety of
applications, including mechanical drives for pipeline and gas storage
compressors; cogeneration for industrial duty as well as municipal
district-heating systems; and power generation, in both combined-cycle
and simple-cycle operation. Installations cover a range of
environments, including offshore, from arctic to tropical, at altitudes of
up to 1500 meters. Although DLE technology is suitable for dual-fuel
Fig. 32. The SGT-600 dry, low-emission (DLE) combustion system combustion, water injection is required to reduce NOx emissions when
Source: Siemens Westinghouse burning liquid fuel. Emission levels for operation on liquid fuel are
below 42 ppmv, at full load, with a modest water-to-fuel ratio of 0.8.

25
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Low NOx combustors are designed, optimized and promoted extensively for both performance and profit-based reasons. The extent of
the profit they represent varies with the demographics of the location in question. Specifically:

1. In the U.S., as flameless combustor designers are quick to point out, their ultra low single digit NOx designs succeed in getting their
operators legally permitted (to commence power production) in some cases a few months ahead of their rivals, who may have quite
respectable NOx levels ranging from 9 to 15 ppm. This represents a considerable amount of revenue.

2. Both the US and Canada deal with emissions trading. Regardless of any opinion on the technical wisdom of such measures with
respect to the overall atmospheric load, low NOx abilities represents revenue to an operator who can then sell his spare credits.
3. In Scandinavian countries, operators pay taxes per unit weight of NOx and SOx emissions. This source of revenue method may
spread through the western world.

4. Low NOx means that other emissions such as CO and CO2 are also lowered. CO2 taxes may soon be reality in global, particularly
western world terms. In this aspect, once again Scandinavian countries point the way for other operators.

5. End users may also note that reduced NOx generally means lower TITs, hence reduced wear on hot section components and
therefore reduced costs per fired hour.

Fig. 33. A GE LM6000 partially assembled.


(Source: GE Power Systems)

Turbine module
The kinetic energy of the gases entering the turbine is transformed into shaft horsepower (see Figures 34 through 38) which is then
used to drive the compressor and other support systems (via accessory system gears. Note that this turbine, combustor and compressor
modules form an assembly that is termed the gas generator. In power generation applications, the entire gas turbine is a gas
generator that is then mechanically coupled either directly or via a gear box, to the generator that in turn is coupled to the grid or
power supply system.

However, in land based mechanical drive applications, we read earlier that a free power turbine rotates downstream of the gas
generator at the turbine end and that it is on a different shaft system (with or without a gear box) together with the machinery
(typically compressors or pumps) it turns.

Aviation turboprop or helicopter applications have a transmission system (gearbox) that may be located at the compressor end of the
gas turbine, to conduct torque to the propellers or helicopter rotors. The main turbine airfoil design type used in gas turbines today is
axial flow design. Some manufacturers however, use a radial inflow design. The radial inflow turbine is rugged, less complex, less
expensive and easier to manufacture than the axial-flow turbine. This radial flow turbine design is a backwards version of the
centrifugal flow compressor. Similarly, radial turbine rotors used in small engines have a high efficiency relative to their weight and
the space they occupy.

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Claire Soares

The axial flow turbine consists of stages, each made up primarily of a set of stationary vanes followed by a row of rotating blades, also
on a disc. Turbine blades are either impulse or reaction type. Typically modern aircraft gas turbine blades have both impulse and
reaction sections.

Fig. 34. Comparison Between a pure impulse turbine and an Fig. 35. A typical turbine blade showing twisted
impulse/reaction turbine. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth contour. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth
Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2nd edition, Bloch, Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2nd
H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original
source Rolls Royce

Fig. 36. Gas flow pattern through nozzle and blade. Fig. 37. Typical nozzle guide vanes showing their
Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from shape and location. Source: Courtesy of
nd
Process Plant Machinery 2 edition, Bloch, H. and Butterworth Heinemann, from Process Plant
nd
Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce Machinery 2 edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C.,
1998, original source Rolls Royce

27
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Fig. 38. Various methods of attaching blades to turbine disks. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann,
nd
from Process Plant Machinery 2 edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce

The stationary part of the turbine assembly consists of a row of contoured vanes set at a predetermined angle to form a series of small
nozzles which direct the gases onto the blades of the turbine rotor. For this reason, the stationary vane assembly is usually called the
turbine nozzle, and the vanes are called nozzle guide vanes.

Exhaust module
The gas turbines hot gases exit via the exhaust section or module. Structurally, this section supports the power turbine and rear end of
the rotor shaft. The exhaust case typically has an inner and outer housing. Hollow struts locate its position. The inner housing typically
has a cone shape or cover that encloses a chamber for cooling the thrust bearing at the end of the shaft.

When we consider aircraft engine applications, we note that turboshaft engines (such as those used in helicopters) do not develop
thrust with the use of the exhaust duct, as they must be capable of stationary hover. So helicopters use divergent ducts that dissipate
energy in exhaust gases. On fixed wing aircraft, the exhaust duct could be convergent in design. That would accelerate exhaust gases
and produce thrust which adds additional power to the engine. Combined thrust and shaft horsepower give equivalent shaft
horsepower (ESHP).

Other Gas Turbine Systems

Cooling system
Air for cooling the hot sections of the turbine are drawn (bleed air) from various stages in the compressor. Most OEMs prefer to use
air only for cooling, even if they have a combined cycle operation and therefore a source of steam derived from water that is boiler
feed water quality. Steam cooling can be very effective, both in closed loop and open loop configurations, as some OEMs, such as
MHI have proven. If the steam quality stays uniform, deposits will not form on the insides of fine laser drilled cooling holes in the
turbine airfoils. However, if there is a divergence in required water/ steam quality, this could prove a problem. Other OEMs, such as
Rolls Royce prefer not to worry about this possibility, however remote. They configure their designs so that they only need air
cooling. See Figs 39 and 40. For a description on a successful steam cooling design, see the section on Design Development.

Air spent on cooling will cost the OEM in terms of nominal efficiency, so some designers are less keen to spend more than they
absolutely have to. In power generation machinery that generally operates at base load, this may not be of major concern. It is, in
applications with severe swings in load and/ or speed.

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Claire Soares

Fig. 39. Air system flow in the turbine. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process
nd
Plant Machinery 2 edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce

Bearing and lubrication system


Basically, sleeve bearings locate the turbine modules concentrically around the shaft(s) during operation and when the turbine is not
running. They provide the rotor with support. The thrust developed by the overall rotor is absorbed by thrust bearings at the end of the
rotor. One arrangement of key bearing positions is shown in figure 40.

Fig. 40. Main internal air system flows. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process
Plant Machinery 2nd edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce

Oil flow to the bearings is regulated. The bearings in the hot section require far more oil flow than those in the cooler compressor
section. Thermocouples or RTDs measure oil flow temperature. Sudden temperature rises in the oil trigger an alarm or shutdown.

The section on design development refers to varying design philosophies between OEMs. The lubrication system is one area where it
shows as much as anywhere else. Certain OEMs have a preference for greater lubrication flows than others, at a given temperature
range.

29
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Fuel system
As we will see in the section on design development, the gas turbine can run on a very wide variety of fuels that are gaseous, liquid,
atomized solid (coal) suspended in gas, or semi-solid (biomass waste liquor). Each of these different fuel types requires its own
customized fuel delivery systems with varying combustor residence times. However, most OEMs have standard fuel systems for
natural gas, liquid fuel (such as LNG or diesel), dual fuel (gas or liquid) and in the case of manufacturers such as Rolls Royce bi-fuel
(both gas and liquid at the same time). See figures 41 through 45.

The basic principle of most gas turbines power development revolves around temperature topping. A fuel control unit, which in
earlier gas turbines is a mechanical device with several cams and contours, controls the fuel flow. In newer engines the control is more
like an electronic brain where electronic functions take the place of the mechanical cams. In its simplest form, temperature topping
works as follows. Exhaust gas temperature readings tell the turbines control system whether the gas turbine needs to be hotter or
cooler, for a given operational requirement. That reading then is compared to the fuel flow set point and that set point raised or
lowered, as required.

Other systems essential to the gas turbines operation but not covered in this summary, include:
Compressor wash system (on-line and / or offline)
Engine Condition Monitoring System which incorporates subsystems such as Vibration Analysis, Pulsation Monitoring, and Life
Cycle Assessment.
Fuel treatment (see case study in Design Development section)

Fig. 41. Liquid fuelled phase 1 gas generator schematic. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from
Process Plant Machinery 2nd edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce

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Claire Soares

Fig. 42. Dual fuelled gas generator schematic. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from
Process Plant Machinery 2nd edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce

Fig. 43. Gas fuel burner. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Fig. 44. Liquid fuel burner. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth
nd nd
Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2 edition, Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2 edition, Bloch,
Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce

31
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Fig. 45. Dual fuel burner. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process Plant
nd
Machinery 2 edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce

Design Development with Gas Turbines 1,2


This section deals with some of the predominant trends in gas turbine and gas turbine system projects and design development.

Maximizing Rotor Component Commonality

The field of gas turbine technology increases in sophistication daily. Every manufacturer has a unique design philosophy. Primarily,
design development work concentrates on improving the core of already established designs. The market entry of a totally new gas
turbine model with a substantially different core, represents a major capital investment and is usually only done if there is a substantial
gap in that original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) product line that the specific OEM intends to cover (See Figure 46 below. >>.
Even then, an OEM takes this step only if potential revenues from the new turbine justify the development funds.

1
Gas Turbines: An applications handbook for land, air and sea, Soares, C. publisher Butterworth Heinemann.
2
Notes from the annual panel session Engine Condition Monitoring used to extend the life of gas turbine engine components, 1995
through 2003, Chair: Soares, C.
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Claire Soares

Fig. 46. Siemens gas turbine power plants range from 65 MW to 814 MW (simple cycle and
combined cycle. Power output according to applied turbine and plant type. (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)

Several gas turbines have dual frequency capability. A dual frequency power generation package is illustrated in Figure 47.

Siemens SGT-200 Industrial Gas Turbine for Power Generation


(ISO) 6.75MW (e) Power Generation Package is of light modular
construction, 50Hz or 60Hz, and suitable for small power
generation, especially in locations where power to weight ratio is
important (offshore applications) and small footprint is required.
The SGT-200 is available as a factory assembled packaged
power plant for utility and industrial power generation
applications. It incorporates the gas turbine, gearbox, generator
and all systems mounted on a base. The package is available for
either multi-point or three-point mounting for onshore or offshore
use as required. An option for acoustic treatment reduces noise
levels to 80dB (A) and is available in carbon steel and stainless
steel. Doors and panels are incorporated to provide access for
servicing.

Fig. 47. SGT-200 Modular Package - Generator Set.


(Source: Siemens Westinghouse)

The cases below include an illustration of a similar rotor [Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, MHI]5, shape using different metallurgy,
aerodynamic (including bleed air modifications) or cooling techniques to increase the power developed by that rotor. To increase
compressor discharge pressure (and therefore mass of compressor air delivered and in turn power developed by the turbine), additional
compressor stages can be added to give higher compression ratios. This can be done while leaving the core diameter the same.

Note 5: See footnote on page 38

The After-Sales Market

Generally, much of an OEMs revenue is made from the sale of new or reconditioned spare parts. End users exert pressure on OEMs
to optimize component designs and thus reduce their operational cost per fired hour.

Therefore, design development that perfects component design within economically practical limits and develops repairability
strategies, is continual. Design development also aims at offering a larger power range with models that have essentially the same core

33
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

geometry. This is done by optimizing metallurgical selections and improving cooling. The design development process is best
illustrated by case studies (see below) drawn from OEM authored papers.
OEM strategy with respect to repair development varies, sometimes even within their own divisions. Factors such as end-user group
pressure (to develop specific repairs), international economics (end users do not always pay the same rate in dollars per fired hour for
power by the hour contracts) and other reasons unrelated to the gas turbine system itself.

So when OEMs merge or acquire divisions of another OEM, this may prove very beneficial to the end user, if certain technology areas
improve. It may also prove a logistical problem with spare parts stocking and changing codes, if the new OEM also changes model
numbers.

Acquisitions and Different Design Philosophies

OEM strategy with respect to repair development varies, sometimes even within that OEMs own divisions. Factors such as end-user
group pressure (to develop specific repairs), international economics (end users do not always pay the same rate in dollars per fired
hour for power by the hour contracts) and other reasons unrelated to the gas turbine system itself.

So when OEMs merge or acquire divisions of another OEM, this may prove very beneficial to the end user, if certain technology areas
improve. It may also prove a logistical issue with spare parts stocking and changing codes, if the new OEM also changes model
numbers.

Other facts that affect design development are the continuous acquisitions that occur among gas turbine manufacturers. Totally
different design philosophies merge when this happens. Consider for instance Siemens acquisition of Westinghouse. The latters
newest models at the time had strong evidence of design methods that originated with Mitsubishi (MHI) design methods, because of
the technology cooperation they had previously had with Westinghouse. Later Siemens acquired a subsidiary of what was Alstom
Power (formerly ABB) in Sweden. ABBs Swedish developed turbines had designs that had been independently developed in Sweden
and were not always a scaled version of ABBs Switzerland designs, although they drew on specialized knowledge that had been
developed in Switzerland. At one point ABB Alstom (before the ABB was dropped from the name) had acquired what was
European Gas Turbines (EGT) which formerly was Ruston, an English manufacturer. Joint ventures from component suppliers
previous programs tend to add to the technology pool at an OEMs disposal.

Following an acquisition in 2003, the original EGT models, and the former ABB Stal (Sweden) models, are now part of Siemens.
Siemens has renamed all of their turbines, including turbines that she had originated, such as the V series (V94.3, V64.3, V84.3 and so
forth).

End users can benefit if they watch corporate evolution of this nature as it may extend, or reduce, their own constant drive to reduce
their costs per fired hour.

Fleet size can also impose design development requirements. The larger OEMs, such as General Electric, tend to have several
licensees that assemble their gas turbines. Designs that specify assembly methods which promote uniformity in terms of how a gas
turbine is assembled save money, but may have to evolve with experience. At times, as with the introduction of the GE Frame 9F in
the mid 1990s, a new design can prove vulnerable to inconsistencies in quality control systems between licensees. The 9F fleet went
through a period of severe vibration suffered, on an inconsistent basis, by certain members of the fleet; some units were relatively free
of this problem. Changes in rotor assembly methodology removed the potential for the compressor stack to be inaccurately assembled.

As personnel migrate between countries and different OEMs, design variations tend to follow. The wide chord fan blade was
pioneered by Rolls Royce and featured on engines such as their Tay and the IAE joint venture V2500. Several years later, the GE 90
featured a wide chord fan blade, which is constructed and manufactured differently from the Rolls design, but shares its performance
characteristics.

OEM methodology to solve the same issue may differ. For specific gas turbine plants sold in SE Asia in the early 1990s, both Siemens
and Alstom, then ABB, used a silo combustor design. The Siemens design had several fuel nozzles, that had a fuel distribution pattern
that reduced NOx levels to the level they had targeted. ABB chose to use a single fuel nozzle for essentially the same NOx level target
as Siemens, but used water injection to reduce NOx levels. Later, to give their client base an option that would eliminate the need for
boiler feed water quality for water injection; ABB developed a retrofit with multiple fuel nozzles.

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Claire Soares

As we will see in one of the case studies below, MHI (Mitsubishi) use a combination of air cooling, steam cooling open cycle and
steam cooling closed cycle for their hottest airfoils. This then provides their customer base with a wide range of power developed
values, all with essentially the same core geometry.

Metallurgy Limits TIT

The limiting factor to the maximum power to weight ratio a gas turbine can reach is the metallurgical tolerance of the alloys used in
the hot section of the gas turbine. Ceramic coatings on the surfaces of the turbine airfoils can increase the peak temperatures these
airfoils can tolerate, however ceramics have brittleness characteristics that have not been totally overcome yet. So the ruling
parameter is turbine inlet temperature (TIT). TIT in turn is a function of the turbine flame/ firing temperature, compression ratio,
mass flow, and centrifugal stress. So these factors limit size and ultimately, efficiency.

A rough rule of thumb is that 55C (100F) increase in firing temperature gives a 10 to 13 percent power output increase and a 2 to 4
percent efficiency increase. The combustion chambers and the turbine first stage stationary nozzles and blades are therefore the most
critical areas of the turbine that determine its power output and efficiency.

Fuel Options

Fuel selection also plays a major part in determining cost per fired hour, depending on its physical state and purity level. Natural gas is
the most desirable fuel, as it takes least toll of the gas turbines component surfaces. Diesel oil (distillate) is a liquid fuel and also takes
minimal (if not quite as good as natural gas) toll of the gas turbine components.

However, residual, also called bunker or crude oil is a viable fuel. Because of its high salt levels (sodium and potassium based),
water washing is required. Also because of its Vanadium content, fuel treatment additives are required. The Vanadium salts that result
take the Vanadium out of solution and the salts deposit on the surfaces of the turbine blades. The turbine can be washed, typically
every 100 to 120 hours, and the salts are then removed. Were it not for the fuel treatment additives, the vanadium compounds that
would form would form a hard coating on the turbine blades that could not be removed. For this entire system to work, TITs are kept
down below 900 degrees Celsius. That TIT may be valid as base load and therefore part of a design or it may be run derated at the
appropriate temperature until a cleaner fuel can be used.

Aeroderivative versus Industrial Gas Turbines

Industrial gas turbine compression ratios are in the order of 16:1 and aeroderivative (like their aeroengine parents) have compression
ratios of about 30:1 and higher. About 50 percent of the total turbine power in any gas turbine is used to drive the compressor. Aero
(and therefore aeroderivative) gas turbine designs have weight and size limitations depending on their mission profile. The minimized
weight feature makes aeroderivatives highly suitable for offshore platform use, both in power generation and mechanical drive
applications. Efficiency translates into fuel burn and this is a major and increasingly pertinent selling point. Rival OEMs in a specific
engine size category vie for even 0.5% efficiency margin over their rivals. Design features that ultimately affect operator safety such
as cooling air mass, are trimmed to the extent possible. Design engineers have been known to fight their management to get the pilots
who fly their engines more cooling air, at the cost of efficiency. In severe service, such as aerobatic combat, that small margin of
cooling air, can make the difference between the pilot getting home or not, especially if his engine is already severely stressed. War
time conditions can and has included factors such as much heavier fuel than the aeroengines were designed for, being used. Such was
the case with part of the Pegasus fleet (that power the VSTOL Harrier) during the Falklands war. In that particular case, the fleet
survived the heavier fuel well, despite the fact that its TIT was higher than the industrial and marine engines that typically use the
heavier fuel.

Industrial gas turbines have none of the weight limitations imposed on their aero counterparts. Like the LM2500, General Electrics
(GEs) 40 MW LM6000 is an aeroderivative based on GEs CF6-80C2. The LM6000 has 40 percent simple-cycle efficiency and
weighs 6 tons. If we consider GEs Frame 9F, we note an output of about 200 MW with a weight of 400 tons. The contrast in power
delivered to mass weight ratios between the aeroderivative and the industrial model is evident. Further the 9F is only about 34 percent
efficient.

High thermal efficiency (over 40 % on simple cycle and over 60 % on combined cycle are now common values for most new gas
turbine systems) contributes to minimizing fuel burn and therefore minimizing environmental emissions. Even if an engine is
officially an industrial engine, aero technology is likely to, at some point, contributed to its design. For instance, a contributor to
V84.3 (Siemens Westinghouse) efficiency is the 15 stage compressor and 3 stage turbine which use aeroengine technology to optimize

35
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

circumferential blade velocities. The turbine aeroengine technology is partially courtesy of Ansaldo, Italy (who contract manufacture
turbine sections for Siemens Westinghouse) and therefore from Pratt and Whitney, on whose design technology some elements of
Ansaldos turbine manufacture are modeled.

With a land based turbine, the designer does not have to aim for maximum pressure rise across a stage together with weight
minimization (or maximum power per pound of turbine). The priority in this case is maximum efficiency.

Repowering

Repowering is a growing trend in Europe and the US. The incentives include adherence to Kyoto objectives. Although emissions taxes
are not yet reality worldwide, they are in some European countries. The higher efficiencies available with gas turbine options are
another incentive, as they make IPPs far more competitive. A case in point is the Peterhead station in Scotland. The 2 boiler, 2 GE 115
MW Frame 9E station had been designed to operate on heavy fuel oil, LNG, sour gas, and natural gas. In 1998, the decision was made
to increase plant capacity with three Siemens V94.3 combined cycle units. The V94.3 is a scaled up version of the V84.3 which can
run at both 60 and 50 cycles. The economics of the situation are heavily influenced by the UKs gas supplies. Thus that stations
efficiency went from 38% to between 50 and 55%. NOx emissions will be reduced by 85 %.

Another major reason for repowering is that what was thought to be 60 years worth of natural gas left in global supply terms was
updated to 70 years plus recently. Evidence from ongoing exploration indicates that this figure will climb. Despite Chinas anxiety
to use its coal, and the Middle Easts desire to use its residual oil, the trend towards gas turbines burning cleaner fuels will continue as
lending agencies increasingly tie their loans up with environmental standards as conditions. However, as gas turbines get better at
burning pulverized coal dust, residual fuel and other erosive or corrosive fuels, use of the gas turbine will increase.

Environmental Factors

Legislation pressure on environmental emissions has created extensions on OEMs design staff to lower gas turbine emissions,
particularly oxides of nitrogen or NOx (See Table 4.). NOx production will tend to increase with higher flame temperatures. NOx
control techniques include a variety of techniques, such as adding cooling air, or extending the combustion process with a two stage
combustor (see Alstoms sequential burner design in the case studies), which results in lowered overall maximum combustor
temperatures. Unburned hydrocarbons, particularly carbon monoxide or CO, are undesirable. Greenhouse gases, such as carbon
dioxide and methane, are also the subject of increasing attention, as they contribute to global warming.

NOx emissions (like oxides of sulphur or SOx emissions) are now taxed in a growing number of global locations and carbon dioxide
(CO2) tax will soon be widespread. So the design development cases that follow include work on low NOx combustor development
and CO2 sequestering projects.

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Claire Soares

Table 4. Emissions Factors for Utility and Industrial Combustion Systems 3


(based on fuel energy input rather than output, i.e. not taking account of combustion efficiency)

Emissions Factors (g/GJ energy


Emissions Source
input)
CO2 CO CH4 NO2 N2O
Utility Application
Natural gas boilers 56,100 19 0.1 267 n/a
Gas turbine, combined cycle 56,100 32 6.1 187 n/a
Gas turbine, simple cycle 56,100 32 5.9 188 n/a
Residual oil boilers 77,350 15 0/7 201 n/a
Distillate oil boilers 74,050 15 0.03 68 n/a
Municipal solid waste (mass feed) n/a 98 n/a 140 n/a
Coal, spreader stoker 94,600 121 0.7 326 0.8
Coal, fluidized bed 94,600 n/a 0.6 255 n/a
Coal, pulverized 94,600 14 0.6 857 0.8
Coal, tangentially fired 94,600 14 0.6 330 0.8
Coal, pulverized, wall fired 94,600 14 0.6 461 0.8
Wood-fired boilers 26,260 1,473 18 112 n/a
Industrial Applications
Coal-fired boilers 94,600 93 2.4 329 n/a
Residual-fired boilers 77,350 15 2.9 161 n/a
Natural gas-fired boilers 56,100 17 1.4 67 n/a
Wood-fired boilers 26,260 1,504 15 115 n/a
Bagasse/agricultural waste boilers n/a 1,706 n/a 88 n/a
Municipal solid waste, mass burn n/a 96 n/a 140 n/a
Municipal solid waste, small modular n/a 19 n/a 139 n/a

Figure 48 is another example of a gas turbine and its primary operational data in simple cycle mode. Note NOx ppm value.

Fig 48. Alstoms GT13E2 (operating data below


is for simple cycle) Gas Turbine (Source: Alstom)

3
Figures quoted in Greenhouse Gas Abatement Investment Project Monitoring and Evaluation Guidelines World Bank, Global
Environment Coordination Division, Early Release Version, June 1994.

37
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

GT13E2
Fuel Natural gas
Frequency 50 Hz
Gross Electrical output 172.2 MW
Gross Electrical efficiency 36.4%
Gross Heat rate 9376 Btu/kWh
Turbine speed 3000 rpm
Compressor pressure ratio 15.4 :1
Exhaust gas flow 537 kg/s
Exhaust gas temperature 522 C
NOx emissions (corr.to 15% O2, dry) < 25 vppm

The following cases are typical of, but cannot fully represent, the end results of contemporary OEM design development projects. The
authors handbook covers several dozen, and they cannot all be condensed or repeated here. These cases feature some OEM methods
of maximizing operational convenience and efficiency, while staying within legislative environmental guidelines. They also
demonstrate how end-user requirements may shape the course of design development and can moderate an OEMs focus.

Case 1. Gas turbine system features that allow the use of residual oil as a fuel. 4

Case 2. MHI steam cooling design for their highest temperature zones. The steam circuit can be either a closed or an open system
type. In the latter case, the steam is released into the gas path of the products of combustion after it has completed its cooling task. 5

Case 3. The use of low BTU waste liquid fuel. This case involved what was originally designated Alstoms GT-10 gas turbine
model at the Petrochemical Corporation of Singapore (PCS) plant, Singapore. Highly pertinent to the operation was the use of a
stepper valve in the fuel system supply. 6
7
Case 4. Cycle modifications, involving water injection for power augmentation, to boost gas turbine performance.

Case 1: Gas turbine system features that allow the use of residual oil as a fuel.4
Mixed fields (that produce both gas and oil) often want to use their oil as fuel. These mixed fields are common in many areas of the
world including the offshore fields in Malaysia and the North Sea in Europe. The answer for some owners, who have a grade of oil
that is better than residual oil, is to use that as fuel for reciprocating engines that burn crude oil for pipeline mechanical drives. The
penalty for using this fuel in gas turbine power generation however, must be carefully weighed for the individual model in question.

With or without special design features, gas turbines designed for a (high grade) liquid fuel burn capability, can burn any liquid fuel
with a consequential penalty in parts life. It can be done for emergencies as NATO studies for contingency measures in wartime
conditions proved. However, gas turbines with oil fuel as an option (to gas), are increasingly popular in many areas of the world. If
they can burn residual fuel, they are still more popular. The world, China included, can cheaply import the Middle Easts glut of
residual oil.

Light oil: There are some gas turbines that can run on light oil with very little penalty in performance versus natural gas. Consider the
following data on what was the Alstom GT10, which burns both gas and oil.

4
The authors Power Generation course notes, extracts from the authors articles for Asian Electricity and Modern Power Systems and extracts from her
book Environmental Technology and Economics, (publisher Butterworth Heinemann), on the installation of Alstom (formerly ABB) 13-Ds at the Shunde
power plant in Guangdong province, China. Note that the 13-D application range is now fulfilled by their 11N-2 model, primarily a 60Hz model, which also
serves the 50Hz market with inclusion of a gear box
5
Cooling steam application in industrial gas turbines and field experience, Kallianpur V., et al, Mitsubishi Power Systems
6
Authors notes, Power Generation Systems course and authors articles in European Power News, Middle East Electricity and Independent Power
Generation magazines
7
The power of water in gas turbines: Alstoms experience with inlet air cooling, Lecheler S., et al (Alstom power)

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Claire Soares

In British units:

Light oil Natural gas


Power (hp) 31,641 33,022
Thermal efficiency 33.1 34.2
Heat rate (BTU/hp-hr) 7,685 7,440
Exhaust gas temperature (degrees Fahrenheit) 998 993

In Metric units:

Light oil Natural gas


Power (MW) 23,100 24,630
Thermal efficiency As above
Heat rate (kJ/KW-hr) 10,880 10,518
Exhaust gas temperature (degrees Centigrade) 537 534

This option of running on oil versus natural gas is also available for newer, more sophisticated gas turbine models, such as Alstoms
13E2 which powers several SE Asian plant locations.

The choice of using oil as a gas turbine fuel is normally decided on the answers to three questions:

i) What will the efficiency penalty be?


ii) What will the TBO (time between overhauls) and parts longevity penalties be?
iii) Which fuel is inexpensively and abundantly available?

The answer to ii) is probably the more critical one to operators in terms of their cost per fired hour figures. Some OEMs (original
engine manufacturers) therefore have a separate design to minimize the impact on ii) if the answer to iii) is residual oil (no. 4 or no.
6 oil).

China has an in-country steam turbine manufacturer, with coal reserves that outweigh its oil or gas resources, so gas turbine (or
combined cycle, CC) territory within China is hard won. A CC operation powered by residual fuel is a design and operations
achievement, due to hot section and fuel additive technology required. The ideal turbine for this application is a relatively low
temperature, sturdy, preferably cast, simple design that then results in minimal maintenance. What was the 50Hz Alstom GT13D (and
their 60Hz 11N2, which, with a gearbox, can replace the 13D) has a proven track record in these applications where far greater turbine
sophistication with respect to alloys and turbine inlet temperatures would be self-defeating. These machines track record thus far
indicates that operations have been satisfactory to the owners and could indicate further such inroads into a difficult market. China
needs to run on as cheap a fuel as possible with maximum efficiency and time between overhauls.

Production economics dictated that the -11N2 replace the -13D. They were very similar: the -11N2 package was adapted, so it could
be substituted for the earlier model. The -11N2 can run on 50Hz or 60 Hz, produces about 109 MW at base load, and can handle the
same dismal fuel quality as the -13D. The observations made in this case involve the Shunde power plant in Guangdong province
China which uses Alstom residual fuel technology in its 13D2s.

The GT13D gas turbine operates under the critical firing temperature of 1015 degrees C (Celsius) without much derating. Each turbine
develops about 90MW. 18 compressor stages and 5 turbine stages are lightly loaded, at a 43.6% gross combined cycle (LHV)
efficiency, for longer time between overhauls. (The -11N2 was previously equipped only for 60 Hz generation. With an optional
gearbox, it can also run at 50 Hz, and the -13D was phased out of production)

39
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Residual oil as a fuel is not possible without specialized gas turbine design features. Corrosion, plugging and fouling will occur.
Higher firing temperatures in most contemporary high performance gas turbines require complex blade cooling, expensive super
alloys and substantial derating. The -13D has integrally cast blade and vane cooling passages, with relatively simple geometry (versus
a high performance aerofoil which normally has laser produced cooling passages) and a large flow cross section. This provides better
resistance against plugging.

Cooling air is extracted after the last compression stage, at the blade root. The air is routed to the first stage turbine blades below the
rotor surface. The single piece welded rotor supported by two bearings is a simple, less vibration prone design. No through bolts are
used: another useful maintenance feature. This design has only one silo combustor, a solid cast design. It has one large bore fuel
nozzle, which helps avoid clogging and erosion. No air atomization is required, which means no compression air stream is required.
The nature of the burner design means that water injection is required. At Shunde, water injection is 1.3 times the fuel flow rate
(maximum 10.5litres/s). Water injection adds 9 to 10MW of power. No flow divider is required in this design, so no consequential
temperature unbalance is observed. This also helps cut down on maintenance costs.

The generator is driven from the cold end, which means turbine exhaust end inspections are easier. All bearings are accessible without
disassembly and no elbow conduits are required. As the generator is air cooled, no hydrogen system or hazards have to be allowed for.
The cooling loop is closed and maintenance free. The boiler, a vertical assisted circulation, single pressure design type, has a
preheating loop. It delivers 44kg/s of 37.5 bar steam at 475 degrees C. Sodium phosphate (Na2SO4) is used for anticorrosion measures
in steam treatment.

Although the primary focus for this case is gas turbine system design modifications, these gas turbines are part of a combined cycle
operation. (The steam turbine is a single cylinder design with a single flow low pressure section. Its gross output is 92MW. The steam
turbine at Shunde runs with 472 degree C steam (480 degrees maximum) at 36 bars. The exhaust is condensed. Total gross power
output then is 280 MW nominal. At Shunde 273 MW is guaranteed. The gross efficiency (LHV) at Shunde is 43% (43.8% nominal),
based on a guaranteed heat rate of 8376 kJ/kWh (8221 nominal). Slow roll to running speed with the gas turbine takes 5 minutes.
Getting the steam turbine running takes approximately two hours).

Combustion and fuel economics are as follows. Sodium (Na), Sulfur (S), and Vanadium (V) content in the fuel are the major
problems. Na is removed by mixing preheated fuel with water and demulsifier and then centrifuging. Potassium (K) impurities are
removed in the same manner and at the same time as the sodium down to 0.5 ppm total (for both the Na and K). The sulphur left in the
fuel becomes SOx upon combustion. The 120 meter stack at Shunde provides dispersal for the SOx. In areas where legislated SOx
limits are tighter, flue gas desulphurisation or other methods can be used.

Magnesium additives combine with the vanadium to form salts that deposit onto the blade surfaces. When the turbine is shut down,
the salt levels fall off with the drop in temperature. Remaining salts are washed off with plain water. In Shunde, the wash is done
every 100 operating hours for heavy oil. If gas or diesel fuel (back up fuel) is used, no wash is required.

For inspection of the hot gas path, the inspector visually inspects the tiles on the inside of the combustor, the transition piece, and the
first stage vanes. He uses a mirror to check the first stage blades. The other turbine and compressor stages can be observed by
borescope. For major inspections every 16 to 24,000 hours, the burner is lifted off in one piece.

The limit for magnesium addition is 1105 degrees C, as at 1120 degrees C, MgO (magnesium oxide) solidifies to the extent it can only
be chiseled off, and V2O5 (vanadium oxide) with its low melting point corrodes. (Both MgO and V2O5 are formed from the safe
additive compound after 1120 degrees C). The turbine inlet temperature of the Shunde units is maintained at 990 degrees C.

When starting the gas turbines, diesel fuel is used until synchronous speed and then heavy fuel is used. This helps prevent clogging.
The turbines are run for 5 minutes on diesel when shutting down. Again this prevents clogged nozzles and ignition problems. The -
11N2 can also handle the same rough fuel as the -13D. Peak metal temperatures, internal metallurgy and fuel treatment requirements
are all quite similar. The single burner design for this model can get NOx down to 42 ppm with water injection. An EV silo combustor
(several fuel nozzles) option is available if the end user has gas or diesel fuel. NOx can then be reduced to 15 ppm when at base load
on natural gas.

A gas turbine inlet filtration system is also necessary in this location. This particular inlet filtration system has three stages. In the first
stage the air flow direction is changed. The second stage consists of mats. The third stage is for fine filtration. The gas turbine
compressors are still washed off-line every 300 to 400 operating hours.

Cheap fuel more than offsets the capital expenditure required for fuel treatment and additives, washing the fuel and other costs. This
cost savings increases with the power capacity of a plant. Using a difference in residual oil and diesel prices of $50 per ton, a 300 MW

40
Claire Soares

facility similar in design to Shundes could save $22 million at 0.5 capacity factor and $36 million at 0.75 capacity factor. Savings of
$264 million and $432 million respectively are indicted over the life of the plant, (US dollar figure expressed at 1995 values).
Case 2: MHI steam cooling design for their highest temperature zones.5
The art of steam cooling has proved a valuable asset in the drive to maximize power per unit weight in gas turbine technology. The
current limiting factor to maximum horsepower for a given rotor size is turbine inlet temperature (TIT). Internal cooling to the gas
turbine vanes and blades, as well as the combustion liner, keeps those airfoils cooler for a given fuel flow rate. The steam cooling
circuit can be either a closed or an open design. In the latter, the steam coolant is allowed to enter the gas path, which provides a
further horsepower boost to the gas turbine.

The major manufacturers compete with design modifications like steam cooling to produce effective turbines in the various
horsepower size categories, effective in this context meaning that the turbine in question delivers its rated horsepower (and other
deliverables) without leaks or other operational problems. Table 7a shows -D, -F, -G and H category gas turbine parameters for the
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) range of gas turbines. These parameters vary for different manufacturers, but the table
nevertheless provides an illustration of the effectiveness of steam cooling in raising TITs. For illustrative purposes, this article
references parameters with MHI gas turbines. Readers may use this as a template for queries on or comparisons with other
manufacturers designs.

Note also that Table 5 mentions subcategories of the major horsepower size categories. These occur due to individual customer
requirements or conditions that create a subcategory that can then be offered to other clients. For instance, the G1 is an upgraded G,
with cooling steam applied to the blade ring in addition to the combustion liners.

Table 5. Categories of gas turbines for the Mitsubishi Gas Turbine product line 5
GT type TIT Cooling Type Performance (ISO: LHV) NOx
deg C Turbine Combustor Gas turbine Combined Cycle ppm
M501DA 1250 Air Air 114MW 34.9% 167MW 51.4% 9
M501F 1350 Air Air 153MW 35.3% 229MW 52.8% 25
M501F3 1400 Air Air 185MW 37.0% 285MW 57.1% 9
M501G 1500 Air Steam 254MW 38.7% 371MW 58.0% 25
M501G1 1500 Air Steam 267MW 39.1% 399MW 58.4% 15
M501H 1500 Steam Steam - - 403MW 60.0% 15

Steam cooling, like any other cooling technology helps alleviate the potential life cycle cost incurred with partial load cycling
operation and frequent starts and stops.

As of March 2004, MHI had 150,000 operating hours of steam cooling experience with their G units, logged. This figure includes both
50Hz and 60Hz applications. Both their G and H models have steam cooled combustion liners. The H model also has blades and vanes
in the first two rows of its turbine rotor and the blade rings, steam cooled.

Material selection

With steam cooling, as with any design feature, wear limits and future repairability are major concerns. The steam cooling feature
merits concern about corrosion rate and electrochemical reaction strength levels, which would depend on the mating materials in
question and the steam purity. Although many steam cooling designers would like to claim that the steam supply conditions are no
more stringent than the steam required for their steam turbines, higher steam quality standards make good economic sense at the
design conditions in G and H gas turbines.

Stress corrosion cracking is accelerated by long term steam exposure, particularly at high stress concentration locations like disc
dovetails, bolt holes and spigots. MHI were able to use the same low alloy steel as for their F design with their G and H models which
gave them a wealth of data. Further, they used scaled up but similar geometry for the hotter models. With respect to scale size after
steam exposure, the actual engine tests confirmed earlier laboratory prognoses closely. See Figure 49.

In MHIs design, expensive aircraft engine type alloys such as Inconel (for the rotors) and single crystal castings (for blades and
vanes) are avoided. This enhances reliability, initial capital costs and life cycle costs.

41
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Fig. 49. Scale size after steam exposure 5

Operation at load

With the H model, steam is delivered at about 5 Mpa (megapascals). Maximum steam temperature can reach around 600 degrees C.
Load testing in 1999 revealed a leakage point at 60 percent load. A redesigned connector got the model up to full load conditions with
no leaks.

Active Clearance Controls (ACC)

The term ACC was originally coined around aircraft engine design where the cooling medium was air. In this land based application,
MHI supply the steam cooling stream to the blade rings for better blade tip clearance at different load conditions. Originally developed
for the H model, this feature has also been added to the G model as an upgrade.

5
Fig. 50. Blade tip Active Clearance Control

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Claire Soares

Closed loop reliability

Steam flow is monitored continuously. Three main monitored parameters are linked to the control system via a redundant interlock.
See Figure 51.

5
Fig. 51. Steam cooling continuous monitoring and interlock

The interlock allows for both alarm and shut down functions depending on the parameter readings. The three main parameters are
(with reference to Figure 51):

1. Cooling steam temperature at the combustion liner outlet, which gives an indication of steam overheating (interlock: alarm and
runback).
2. The control system keeps the steam cooling pressure at higher than the combustor shell pressure, so low differential between these
two parameters indicates steam leaks (interlock: alarm and trip).
3. Differential pressure across the liner can indicate inadequate steam flow (interlock: alarm and trip).

Blade path temperature (BPT) spread monitoring provides a back-up indicator to this system and helps pinpoint where a combustion
liner, for instance, may have an integrity problem, such as a crack. There are redundant steam supply strainers with continuous
monitoring of the differential pressure across them, to check of obstruction of the steam cooling passages with solid carry over from
the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) or auxiliary boiler. On shutdown, an air purge sequence eliminates the potential for
condensate accumulation in the steam cooling circuit.

Combustion liner design

To allow for steam passage and for better heat transfer properties, the combustion liner design is a double walled structure. Flame
temperatures for the F, G and H turbines is the same, however with the G and H designs, the combustor exit temperature is higher. See
Figure 52. There is no cooling air mixing with the cooling steam design.

43
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Fig. 52. Schematic of an F and G combustor. 5

To date, there has been no delamination experienced with the G model liners. All 18 (as of March 2004) G models operate with
varying external temperature conditions, fuel type and other variables. Figure 53 shows the condition of a combustor liner at the
combustor interval inspection. The TBC (thermal barrier coating) is intact. Protective monitoring systems have proved effective in
ensuring the steam reliability and flow characteristics for the closed-loop cooling-steam.

Fig. 53. Condition of the Operated Combustor Liner. 5

Application case for a steam cooled G model

MHIs 501G model was installed in combined cycle (CC) application at Korean Electric Power Corporations (KEPCOs) Ilijans
power plant in the Philippines. There are 2, 600 MW blocks, each with two gas turbines and a steam turbine. Performance test results
indicated 57.8 percent efficiency (natural gas), at a net rated capacity of 1285.7MW.

At Ilijan, an auxiliary boiler is used to supply the combustor cooling of the first gas turbine unit. The gas turbine is started, run up to
synchronization speed and loaded to 50MW. At this speed, the cooling steam supply is switched to the intermediate pressure (IP)
superheater (normal combustor steam cooling supply).

All water requirements for this plant are met with sea water using reverse osmosis desalination. Water quality needs to be with in
required parameters for steam to be admitted to the steam turbine, which happens between 50 and 100MW load. When the first gas

44
Claire Soares

turbine is in combined cycle operation, the second gas turbine can be started, again using IP steam for combustor cooling. The second
gas turbine is synchronized at 100MW. Loading on the train continues at 11MW/minute up to full rating.

Case 3: The use of low BTU waste liquid fuel.6


Deregulation is now a major feature in the power production industrys development. The incentive for small power users, such as
process and petrochemical plants, to produce their own power (become small power producers or SPPs), increases. Thailand provides
an excellent illustration of this. Thailand has difficulty producing all the power the country needs with just the efforts of their national
power company. For several years now, she has allowed bids from large independent power producers (IPPs) to better match her
power demand curve growth. What she has also done is provided incentives for process plants to produce their own power, and sell
the excess back to the national grid. The amount that can be sold back is often limited by distribution line size, which is as small as 15
kV, in the case of the grid adjacent to Essos Sriracha refinery for instance, but nevertheless the scheme is in place.

Most countries in SE Asia are a work in progress in terms of their power supply and tariff infrastructure. The Petrochemical
Corporation of Singapore (PCS) decided to take advantage of pool rules for small generators which covered generators of less than
10 MW and industrial in-house generators (auto-generators), which were instituted in Singapore as of April 1, 1998.

An SPP such as PCS does not have the luxury of a known steady load for its power needs. Also, the quality, type and heating value of
their fuels will vary. This is because they use process gases and fluids for fuel whenever they can, especially if that is the most cost
effective use for what would otherwise be a waste process fluid. Due to the variations in the different characteristics of these fuels
which are in essence different process streams, two things are required:

- A gas turbine design that will accommodate fuels with a wide range of heating values. Such a turbine generally also has a more
conservative design with turbine inlet temperatures (TITs) that will not be the highest for that turbines power range.
- A very fast response valve (for cut-off of the fuel supply) is required. Without such a valve the exhaust gas thermocouples on the gas
turbine would note large swings in turbine exhaust temperature. The key to PCSs successful use of process fluids - which it didnt
have much other use for - as fuel, is valve response time and actuation characteristics. An ideal valve for this type of application is a
stepper valve or its equivalent.

The stepper valve and functional equivalents: The stepper valve is a fast response electrically operated valve which was pioneered
by Vosper Thornycroft, UK (aka HSDE, UK) in the mid 1960s. The term stepper actually refers to the motor type that drives the
valve as opposed to the valve itself. The motor is a stepper motor, as opposed to a torque or AC or DC motor. Its self-integrating
function ensures that the valve will proceed to a desired position and then the motor will stop. With other motors, the motor has to
continue to run in order to keep the valve in that position - such valves need signals to cue them: run, stop running, then start running
again, and so forth. If something were to happen causing the valve to fail, the stepper-type valve position would still lock and the
system would continue running. The valve then makes the system fault tolerant, which is critical in applications such as emergency
power supply generators. It also provides the fast response required by aeroderivative and some industrial gas turbines. This is useful
for both power generation and mechanical drive service. Before the stepper valve was introduced in the mid 1960s, hydraulic and
pneumatic actuation valves were used to provide the required response time. This increased the overall complexity of the fuel system.
As always with instances where system complexity is heightened, system cost rose, but mean time between failures (MTBF) and
availability decreased.

The valve takes up very little space on the installation and service people unused to this new design spend frustrated time looking for
the extensive old equivalent control system.

Development of valves that could compete with HSDEs original stepper arose from competition with that early design. As a result,
there are now many manufacturers who produce functional equivalents on the market, for use in gas turbine fuel systems, high
resolution controls for robots, automatic machining controls and so forth. In PCSs application, they use a Moog (German
manufacturer) valve which uses a DC motor. To get the same stay in position feature as a stepper type valve would have,
manufacturers typically use a spring to hold a position.

Design aims of fast response valves: The original design aims of the stepper type valve generally include the following safety
considerations:

A fail freeze or fail closed option, depending on whether the operator is a power generation facility (freezing at the last power
setting is then required) or a pipeline (in which case turbine shut down on valve failure is required).
The liquid fuel version of the valve incorporates a pressure relief valve protecting the system against over pressure and the fuel pump
running on empty or deadheading, caused by closure of valves downstream of the fuel valve during system operation.
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1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

High speed response of less than 60 ms required by aeroderivative gas turbines to prevent overspeed in block off-load conditions.
Explosion proof actuation to appropriate specification standards, allows operation in hazardous methane service.
Resistance to fuel contaminants including tar, shale, water, sand and so forth.
24 volts DC is the maximum drive voltage which ensures personnel safety
Corrosion resistance in components exposed to wet fuel and corrosion resistance to all parts if the service is sour gas.

Other operational objectives that dictate design features are operators requirements for:

Low mean time to repair (LMTR). The target of 1 hour, achieved with modular design, together with the target MTBF provided an
availability of 99.998% for HSDEs original stepper.
Higher Mean time between failures (MTBF). In HSDEs case, a target of 50,000 hours was set and achieved.
Low maintenance costs, since the modular design can be repaired by an individual with relatively low expertise. Service intervals are
12 months.
Large control ratio which allows control over the ignition to full load as well as full speed ranges to be possible with one fuel valve.
Fuel pressure variation compensation is provided. The additional speed ratio type control valve found in many other industrial gas
fuelled installations is not required here.
Low power consumption since an electric motor of less than 100 watts is used. This also eliminates the need for additional hydraulic
or pneumatic systems. Also black starting is more reliable if the fuel system is powered by the same batteries as the controller.

PCS applications experience with fast response valves: Power production in Phase II of the Petroleum Corporation of Singapore or
PCS, was commissioned in June 1997. PCS is part of a massive petrochemical plastics conglomerate in Singapore. Power production
was an afterthought, as when they were built, their design did not include provision for them becoming an SPP. PCS chose a
nominally 25 MW (23 MW in their normal ambient conditions) ABB GT10, although their power needs are roughly 26MW. This was
because while SP were pleased to sell them their residual requirement; they would not buy any power from SPPs at the time of
original power plant design.

The turbine is fuelled by three different types of fuel, depending on the state of the plant. The BTU for each type varies, so again the
fast response time for the stepper valve is critical.

As PCS operations found, their fast response valve proved as useful as the stepper valve has been for power generation on the North
Sea oil and gas platforms. The fast response time of the Moog (and other stepper valve manufacturers) design helps the valve avoid
the sudden burst of excess temperatures that accompany higher heating value fuel. (North Sea platform users frequently operate gas,
liquid or gas & liquid fuel mixtures).

Not all gas turbines are tolerant of a wide range of fuel types in a single application. Some of them require a whole different fuel
system - nozzles, lines and all components - to be able to handle a totally different heating value fuel. In this application in Singapore,
the ABB machine shows no sign of distress, which is interesting since the heating value of the fuel types varies as much as 50 percent.
The exact fuel composition data is proprietary to PCS.

PCSs GT10 heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) provides a reliable source of steam. The plant exports steam to the nearby Seraya
Chemicals plant in addition to fulfilling their needs.

Emissions and steam supply: The original ABB EV burner design - a low NOx burner which can be fitted and retrofitted on the GT10,
fuel types permitting - was not fitted in this case. The EV burner will handle clean natural gas and clean diesel fuel. It was not suitable
for the high hydrogen content and variations in fuel composition that this application involves. Such fuels need a more forgiving fuel
system, as well as water or steam injection to keep the NOx down. The PCS Singapore application uses steam for NOx reduction
purposes. The steam is piped in through nozzles that are adjacent to the fuel nozzles on the fuel manifold of the GT10s annular
combustor.

The source of the steam is the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) that is packaged as part of the GT-10 system. If and when
required, the plant also can draw high pressure steam from their process cracker.

In PCS case, one boiler has been found to suffice. This is noteworthy as in applications like this, a redundant packaged boiler
(running hot and on minimum load) is often found essential. This is so that it is possible to pick up the steam load should the turbine
trip or be unavailable due to maintenance. A common subject for debate is whether uninterrupted steam supply during the switch from
HRSG mode to fresh air firing is possible without flame out on the boiler supplementary burners.

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Claire Soares

The PCS plant is part Japanese owned, so the specifications the installation had to meet matched those of environmentally particular
Singapore, as well as the Japanese, who are the most environmentally strict practitioners in Asia. Steam injection reduces NOx levels
from 300 to 400 mg/MJ fuel to just below 100 mg/MJ fuel.

In this and similar cases, the GT system footprint may be of prime concern, if space comes at a high premium. The figure below
outlines what the layout for the application (and similar applications) above may look like.

Fig. 54. SGT-600 Industrial Gas Turbine - 25 MW, Power Generation Application Layout (Note: Siemens
SGT-600 was Alstoms, formerly ABBs GT-10) Dimensions in millimeters, mm (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)

In summary: The GT10s ability to use three different waste petrochemical fluids as fuel, despite the 50 % variance in these three
fluids heating value, is significant to process plants who could similarly become SPPs. Note that NOx emissions stayed below
legislated limits for countries such as environmentally strict Singapore.

Case 4. Water and/ or steam injection for power augmentation and NOx reduction 7
Gas turbines swallow air and therefore are sensitive to ambient temperature and pressure. To increase the power output of gas
turbines, especially in hot, humid (air density decreases with rising temperature and humidity) climates, water injection is used. (See
Figure 55). The location of injection is commonly the filter plane and the compressor inlet.

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1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Fig. 55. Air Inlet Cooling Principle 7

The power gain is achieved due to 3 factors:

i) The water which evaporates in the air intake increases relative humidity of the air from ambient conditions to nearly saturation. The
evaporation of water reduces the air temperature hence density and the GT swallows a higher air mass flow. Higher power generation
per unit volume of air swallowed and better efficiency result.
ii) The water which evaporates inside compressor reduces the compressor work and increases GT net power output and GT efficiency
as well.
iii) The turbine power output is increased proportionally to the increased mass flow of air and water.

Maximum power gain is achieved, if water is added at 2 locations in the air intake: just after the fine filter and additionally near the
compressor intake as shown in fig. 58. After the fine filter an evaporative cooler or a fogging nozzle rack saturates the air and near the
compressor intake a high fogging nozzle rack injects additional water, which evaporates inside the compressor.

7
Fig. 56. Evaporative Cooler System

Air chiller: An air intake chiller system consists of a heat exchanger, which is located in the air intake downstream of the filter. The
heat exchanger cools the compressor inlet flow by the transfer of heat energy to a closed cooling water circuit. The closed cooling
water is re-cooled in plate heat exchangers by one or more chillers. The closed loop cooling water is forwarded by one or more chilled
water pumps. Load control regulates the cooling energy of each chiller to the desired plate heat exchanger outlet temperature of the
cooling water. Outlet temperatures for each chiller correspond to a set point to the local control. The chillers are usually installed in

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Claire Soares

the gas turbine air intake downstream of the air filter together with a droplet separator. The latter is needed to take out water droplets
from condensation of humid air.

Evaporative coolers: Generally, they are installed in the gas turbine air intake downstream of the air filter together with a droplet
separator (see Figure 56). The evaporative cooler increases humidity close to saturation. The amount of evaporated water depends on
ambient temperature and humidity. The water evaporates mostly before entering the compressor and the air is cooled down before
compressor inlet. Thus, the air mass flow through the gas turbine is increased, which increases the power output of the unit. The
evaporative cooler is only switched on and off. The cooler media and the droplet separator produce a pressure drop between 1.5 to 3
mbar and need an axial extension of the filter-house (see Figure 57a).

The major components of an evaporative cooler are:


the evaporative cooler media (cellulose or fiber-glass, see Fig. 57b)
a water distribution manifold
a water sump tank with a recycle pump
a droplet separator (see Fig. 57c)

Water requirements

The water must be at least potable or flocculated and filtrated water quality or can be de-mineralized water. The water consumption is
higher if tap water is used. Maximum total capacity is 25,000 l/h for a GT26 or GT13 and 17,000 l/h for a GT24 or GT11, where only
1 1,000 l/h and 7,500 l/h are evaporated and the remaining blow-down water is re-circulated.

7
Fig. 57. a) Evaporative Cooler Location, b) Evaporative Cooler, c) Droplet Separator

Inlet fogging

Like evaporative coolers, this OEMs fogging systems ALFog (an Alstom trademark) are typically installed in the gas turbine air
intake downstream of the air filter (Fig.58).

Fig. 58. Fogging System Arrangement 7

The fogging system injects small water droplets into the air by nozzles to increase humidity close to saturation (90-95%). The amount
of injected water depends on ambient temperature and humidity and is controlled by logic. The water evaporates and the air is cooled
down before entering the compressor. In contrast to evaporative coolers, fogging systems have negligible pressure losses and do not
need an axial extension of the filter house and are therefore ideal for retrofitting.

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1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Fig. 59. a) Fogging Nozzle Rack, b) Fogging Pump Skid 7

The major components of a fogging unit are:


the nozzle rack with nozzles (fig. 59a)
the pump skid including a control unit and a valve skid (fig. 59b)
a water drain system for the air intake and the intake manifold.

The nozzles are mounted on tubes which are installed in the air intake downstream of the filter. Swirl nozzles are used in Alstoms
fogging system (trade name ALFog). They provide the required droplet size. Small droplets promote good evaporation in the air
intake, high power augmentation and low risk of erosion.

A high pressure piston pump feeds de-mineralized water at constant pressure (typically 140 bars) to the valve skid. The valves allow
the sequencing of the water flow rate into sub-groups (typically 15 or 31, depending on design conditions). These subgroups are
switched on and off by the control logic in order to adjust the water mass flow to ambient conditions. At lower ambient humidity and
the higher ambient temperature, higher water quantities are needed to saturate the air, so more sub-groups are switched on.

Typically 3 additional drain lines are installed in the air intake before and after the silencer and in the manifold. This is to ensure that
water films and large secondary droplets, which might be generated on obstacles inside the air flow, are extracted from the air-stream
flow. Water must be de-mineralized and 2 standard fogging systems are used, one for a design ambient humidity of 45% (design
capacity 8,000 l/h or 2.2 kg/s for GT26 or GT13) and one for a design ambient humidity of 30% (design capacity 12,000 l/h or 3.3
kg/s for a GT26 or GT 13).

High Fogging System: In order to increase power augmentation further, an additional nozzle rack is installed near the compressor
intake. These systems are called high fogging, wet compression, over-spray or over-fogging systems. ALSTOMs high fogging system
ALFog is installed horizontally in the gas turbine air intake (fig 60). The system sprays small water droplets (<50m) through nozzles
into the air. These droplets evaporate mainly inside the compressor as the air is heated up during compression.

Fig. 60. High Fogging System in Combination with Fogging or Evap Cooler 7

The power of the gas turbine is increased mainly by 2 effects:


Compressor inter-cooling, which reduces compression work and compressor discharge temperature.
The mass flow through the turbine is increased.

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While fogging and evaporative cooler power increase depends on ambient conditions, the high fogging power increase is nearly
independent of ambient humidity and temperature.

7
Fig. 61. a) High Fogging Nozzle Rack, b) High Fogging Pump Skid

The major components of a high fogging unit are


the nozzle rack with nozzles (fig. 61a)
the pump skid including a control unit (fig. 61b) and a water filtration system
the valve skid with staging valves
a water drain system for intake manifold

Swirl nozzles are used in Alstoms high fogging system for the same reasons as with the regular fogging system. The high-pressure
pump operation is also similar. The valves, located at the valve rack, allow the sequencing of the water flow rate into subgroups
(typically 5 or 10), that are switched on according to the power demand. Drains in the air intake manifold ensure that water films and
large secondary droplets are extracted from the air-steam flow.

The total water mass flow capacity of the high fogging system for a GT24 and GT26 is currently 1.2% of the air intake mass flow of
the specific engine at ISO conditions. Accordingly, the demand of de-mineralized water is about 18,000 l/h or 5 kg/s for a GT24 and
about 25,000 l/h or 7 kg/s for a GT26.

If the control system is not adjusted to take into account the effect of the water content due to high fogging the pulsation levels of the
combustion system and CO emissions may increase. Steady state cycle simulations confirmed that high fogging leads to a slight shift
in the hot gas temperature if dry TIT (turbine inlet temperature) formulas are applied without any adoption. As countermeasure a
modified TIT formula analogue to those used for oil operation with NOx water injection or operation with steam injection for power
augmentation was implemented. This takes into account the amount of water injected for High Fogging. When using the adjusted TIT
formulas high fogging has a negligible influence on CO emissions under base load operating conditions where the CO emissions are
small (typically < 5 ppm). NOx typically appears to decrease with increasing high fogging water mass flow.

Gas Turbine Performance


Ambient Condition Effects, Performance Optimization, and Extending Application Range

Certain atmospheric conditions have a critical impact on any given gas turbines available power:

a) Ambient temperature: As this rises, a gas turbine may swallow the same volume of air, but that air will weigh less with increasing
atmospheric temperature. Less air mass means less fuel mass is required to be ignited with that air and consequential lower power
developed.
b) Altitude: Increasing altitude means lower density air, so that is turn decreases power developed by the turbine.
c) Humidity: Water vapor is less dense than air, so more water vapor in a given volume means less weight of that air than if it had less
water vapor. The effect is the same as with the two above factors.

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1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

The figure below provides graphical representation of how external conditions can affect gas turbine performance. The following
conditions apply to figures 62 (a) through (d):

intake losses 10 mbar / 4" H2O


exhaust losses 25 mbar / 10" H2O
relative humidity 60%
altitude sea level

b) Heat rate and efficiency versus load


a) Generator output and heat rate versus compressor inlet air
temperature

c) Exhaust gas flow and exhaust temperature versus compressor inlet d) Nominal steam production (in combined cycle application)
air temperature capability:

Fig. 62. Performance Data: SGT-600 Industrial Gas Turbine - 25 MW (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)

The subject of performance optimization is a vast one which would include several subtopics. Inlet cooling and water/ steam injection
for power augmentation can be methods which are used to supplement power lost by factors such as high ambient temperatures, and
high altitude. See the section on Design Development.

The table below on performance for the Siemens SGT6-5000F (formerly Siemens Westinghouse W501F Econopac) indicates the
difference water injection and steam injection can make to nominal power ratings.

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Table 6. Net Ref. Performance for the Siemens SGT6-5000F.

The following figures also demonstrate the effect of atmospheric conditions on the power developed, this time for a much larger
turbine model than the SGT-600 depicted previously in this section.

Fig. 63. SGT6-5000F (formerly the W501F) Estimated Performance (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)

53
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Fig. 64. Combined Cycle Diagram with Drum-Type Boiler Source: Siemens Westinghouse

Fig. 65. SGT6-5000F (formerly the W501F) 2x1 Combined Cycle Source: Siemens Westinghouse

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Depending on how one defined performance optimization, the term could include cycle modifications and support systems that are
external to the gas turbine core. Some examples are:

cycle modifications (which may also include, but are not limited to, inlet cooling systems, that are discussed under Design
Development)
engine condition monitoring systems
life cycle counters/ assessment

In the interests of space, these topics are not discussed here but they are exhaustively covered in the authors book on Gas Turbines.

As discussed in the section on design development, performance optimization is frequently attained by maximizing the power
available using modifications to the base core. This allows the OEM to use proven technology that has long emerged from prototype
growing pains, to fulfill a broader mandate in terms of power requirements and other operational needs. A case in point, Siemens
SGT-700 (29MW) is an uprated SGT-600 (24MW), which then fills a broader range of applications.

Fig. 66. SGT-700 Gas Turbine - 29MW


(Improved power output and efficiency over the SGT-600)
(Source: Siemens Westinghouse)

The SGT-700 has simple cycle shaft output of 29.1 MW and a thermal efficiency of 36%
at base load on gas. This two-shaft machine can be used for both power generation and
mechanical drive in both combined cycle and cogeneration applications. As a skid-mounted
package with single-lift capacity and standard anti-corrosion materials and coatings, the
SGT-700 is also suitable for offshore applications. The updated machine has full dry low-
emission (DLE) capability. It can operate on both gas and liquid fuels with on-line switch-
over between fuels. To optimize performance, the SGT-700 power turbine is equipped with
advanced profile blades that improve gas flow. Its overall design ensures easy service access
to the combustor and burners. The revised 11-stage compressor produces a higher pressure
ratio and an increase in mass flow through the engine. This results in greater power output
and higher efficiency. Direct drive of pipeline or process compressor is provided for by the
free high-speed power turbine, eliminating the need for a gearbox. The digital control unit is
based on the proven design of the SGT-600.

An application case for the SGT-700 illustrates an example of extending the application of a basic gas turbine core (in this case the
SGT-600) design. We noted in the section on design development, and the Mitsubishi case study (see Case Study 2) which listed
several variations on the same GT core that additional power was added with essentially the same gas turbine core, with the addition
of design features (for instance steam cooling instead of air cooling in certain hot section areas). Frequently, these developments result
from a customers request: I really could use another x MW in that plant, if you can make that happen or Id rather have a
slightly larger version of your y model rather than two of the z model, as I only have w amount of space and I can run the larger
y at base load anyway, most of the time. This core growth design is really an extension of design development work, as any such
design modification has to be full load tested. Some air or steam leaks may not show up at 60% load, but may appear at close to 100%
load. So the OEM goes through the expense of rigorous testing to minimize the risk of warranty-period costs.

55
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

The application example below, which illustrates application of an SGT-700, is also another repowering (see the section on
Combined Cycles) case illustration.

The very first SGT-800 gas turbine was delivered to


Helsingborg Energi AB (now called resunds Kraft). This
municipal utility in the southern Swedish town of Helsingborg is
using this gas turbine to extend its Vasthamn coal-fired power
station. The SGT-800 gas turbine has been integrated with an
existing steam turbine system to create a combined cycle,
CHP plant. The project is supported by the State Energy
Authority and DESS (the Delegation for Energy Supplies for
Southern Sweden). The turbine was ordered in August 1998
and connected to the grid at 100% load in November 1999. It
burns natural gas from the pipeline which passes through
Helsingborg. Fitted with AEV burners, it provides emissions of
NOx and CO below 15 ppmv (at 15% O2).The electrical
generating capacity at Vasthamn went from 64 MW to 126
MW, and the heat production capacity from 132 MW to 186
MW.
Fig. 67. Municipal utility in the southern Swedish town of
Helsingborg (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)

Combined Cycles

Combined Cycle Basic Components, Terminology and Heat Cycle(s)


The term combined cycle (CC) refers to a system that incorporates a gas turbine (GT), a steam turbine (ST), a heat recovery steam
generator (HRSG), where the heat of the exhaust gases is used to produce steam and a generator. The shaft power from the gas turbine
and that developed by the steam turbine both run the generator that produces electric power.

The term cogeneration means generation of both work (shaft power) and heat (steam, in the case of a CC). So a combined cycle is a
form of cogeneration.

Fig. 68. Single and Multi shaft arrangements for CC plants (Reference: The World Bank)

The following figure shows a single shaft CC cycle block diagram in more detail.

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Claire Soares

Fig. 69. A schematic diagram for a single shaft combined cycle.


Source: Courtesy McGraw Hill, from Power Generation Handbook, Kiameh, P.

57
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

The following figure shows a schematic for a dual pressure combined cycle.

Fig. 70. A schematic diagram for a dual-pressure combined cycle.


Source: Courtesy McGraw Hill, from Power Generation Handbook, Kiameh, P.

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Combined cycle plants are generally open cycle systems, however CC closed systems are possible if not that common.
The plant system may also incorporate other accessories, such as a gear box (often used to convert 60 Hz models to 50Hz models),
and/ or subsystems (that may themselves be closed or open systems) such as:

condensing units, intercooling heat exchangers (for the GT compressor air),


a regeneration (heat addition) heat exchanger to preheat the GT compressor discharge air,
reheat heat exchangers (for adding heat to the GT turbine module products of combustion),
inlet cooling and/or water or steam injection on the GT for power augmentation and/or NOx reduction,
a closed or open steam (and/ or air) cooling system (for the hottest areas of the GT turbine module), and
a supplementary firing system positioned downstream of the GT exhaust to maximize combustion of the exhaust gases (which will
include unburned fuel hydrocarbons).

See the block diagram figures below for a representation of GT closed systems, one with regeneration and intercooling, and one with
reheat and regeneration. They are followed by a figure that represents a GT open system with water injection and regeneration.

Fig. 71. A Schematic of a GT closed system with regeneration Fig. 72. A Schematic of a GT closed system with regeneration
and intercooling. Source: Courtesy McGraw Hill, from Power and reheat. Source: Courtesy McGraw Hill, from Power
Generation Handbook, Kiameh, P. Generation Handbook, Kiameh, P.

59
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Fig. 73. A Schematic of a GT open system with water injection and regeneration
combined cycle plant efficiencies are now typically up to between 58% and 60%.
Source: Courtesy McGraw Hill, from Power Generation Handbook, Kiameh, P.

Gas flapper valves allow the gas turbine exhaust to bypass the heat recovery boiler (HRSG) allowing the gas turbine to operate if the
steam unit is down for maintenance. In earlier designs supplementary oil or gas firing was also included to permit steam unit operation
with the gas turbine down. This is not generally included in contemporary combined-cycle designs, as it adds to capital cost,
complicates the control system, and reduces efficiency.

Sometimes as many as four (but most frequently two) gas turbines, each with individual boilers may be associated with a single steam
turbine. As stated previously, the gas turbine, steam turbine, and generator may be arranged as a single-shaft design. A multi-shaft
arrangement can also be used: Each gas turbine drives a generator and has its own HRSG, and steam turbine, which in turn, may also
add power to the generator.

In areas such as Scandinavia, additional criteria such as cogeneration in combined heat and power plants (CHP) or district heating, as
well as demanding conditions (e.g. available space, emissions, noise level, architecture, environmental permits) associated with
existing sites and available infrastructure must also be considered. A customers preferences regarding fuel election, personnel training
level required and service requirements must also be accommodated.

Combined Cycle Module Flexibility


With combined cycles, capacity can be installed in modules or module stages. Gas turbines can be commissioned initially (1 to 2 years
project construction) and then the HRSG(s) and steam turbine(s) (an additional 6 months to 1 year).

For instance, an Alstom 13E2 CC module can consist of 2, 13E2 gas turbines with heat recovery steam generation and one steam
turbine, as in their Kuala Langat, Malaysia plant. In this way, combined cycle capacity can be installed in segments. This further
assists generation dispatching, as each gas turbine can be operated with or without the steam turbine. This then provides better
efficiency at partial load than operating one large machine with the total capacity equal to the gas turbine(s) and the steam turbine.

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Another case88 illustrating application of the 2, GT and 1, ST module is Alstoms contract for Sohar Aluminum Company for the turn
key construction of a 1000 MW gas-fired combined cycle power plant in Oman. The power plant, which will supply electricity to
power a new aluminum smelter, will include four 13E2s, four heat recovery steam generators, two steam turbines, six generators. The
size of the modules then provides the option for Sohar to add an additional 500 MW of capacity in the future (two GT13E2 gas
turbines, two heat recovery steam generators, steam turbine and three generators).

Gas turbine (GT) or combined-cycle (CC) construction cost per kilowatt cost does not increase much for smaller turbines. With steam
turbines, it would to a far greater extent, because of the high additional construction work that comes with a steam turbine plant. A CC
unit can typically be installed in two to three years, and a steam plant often takes four to five years, with no incremental power
available until the complete plant is commissioned.

An application case that illustrates the availability of power in increments is Alstoms recent project award99 from Australian energy
company Alinta Ltd, to supply 2, 172 MW GT13E2 gas turbines for the first stage of a major cogeneration facility at Alcoas Wagerup
alumina refinery in Australia. That power plant will also provide reserve capacity to the new wholesale electricity market in the state
of Western Australia. The Alstom turbines will operate initially in open cycle (Wagerup Stage 1). At a later stage, (Wagerup Stage 2),
the turbines will be part of a cogeneration plant, operating as a base load power station providing both steam and electricity.

A project1010database (developed by Siemens KWU) was used to analyze all combined, open cycle and steam power plants globally
with respect to capacity (MW), fuel requirements, power system frequency and regional location. The database lists projected orders
through 2005. Specific areas of the analysis are summarized as follows:

In terms of overall plant size, 300-600 MW combined cycle plants are the most favored plant size in both 50 and 60 Hz markets
(Figure 75). A combination of more than one block improves economics, and 300-600 MW fits well with the demand curve of most
power grids in well developed countries. Financiers are also familiar with these economies of scale.

Fig. 74. The 395 MW Combined-Cycle Power Plant Otahuhu, New Zealand uses the modular concept
Source: Siemens Westinghouse

Countries with large grids and high power demand growth prefer combined cycle plants in the range 600 to 2,500 MW. For this
combination 2 to 6 parallel units (single shaft or multi-shaft) will suffice. Power systems in countries with relatively small generating
capacity, which require smaller capacity additions, need combined cycle power plants in the range 100 to 300 MW. A large gas

8
Alstom Power Press Release 14 Dec 2005
9
Alstom Power Press Release 9 Dec 2005
10
Tailor-made Off the Shelf: Reducing the Cost and Construction Time of Thermal Power Plants. Paul I., (Siemens Power),
Karg J. (KWU), OLeary, Sr. D, (World Bank)

61
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

turbine and a steam turbine located on a single shaft can deliver this range. Countries with smaller or specialized grids buy multi-shaft
combined cycle plants with several smaller gas turbines with one or more steam turbines. Dirty fuels, for instance residual promote
requests for stolid, highly reliable trains that may run derated, over higher efficiency turbines. For peaking power or power systems
with very low cost fuels, gas turbines in an open cycle system serve the power range between 50 and 300 MW.

New order forecasts show the market evenly divided between 50 Hz or 60 Hz customers. Rising gas and oil prices everywhere,
including the USA, will mean renewed strength in technologies that use alternative fuels, such as pulverized coal, paper liquor waste
and steel mill flue gas.

Steam-only (coal fired) Power Plant: The forecast projects 10% of the new orders will be steam power plants in 60 Hz market from
1999 to 2003 (Figure 76). In the 50 Hz market, the key ranges are 300 to 500 MW and 500 to 700 MW. Above 700 MW, supercritical
technology represents a small but growing market share.

OEM Modular Strategy


As previously discussed, to save on costs to both OEMs and end users, OEMs have developed modular plants. Siemens has twelve
basic power plant combinations (Figure 79); four for open cycle gas turbine plants, six for combined cycle plants and two for coal-
fired steam power plants (with sub- and supercritical technology). Each combination covers a specific power range, efficiency, and
fuel specification, with allowance for cogeneration system additions.

For design flexibility, options to the reference version for each major functional unit (Figure 80) are provided. For example, via-ship
is the reference for the functional unit coal supply with delivery via rail as an option. Flexible design requires breaking down the
power plant into functional units, each of which will only directly affect one or two other modules. For a combined cycle plant, the
functional units are arranged around the gas turbine and steam turbine. With the gas turbine, as we saw earlier, OEMS strive to
maintain core feature commonalities.

Fig. 75. Markets for Gas Turbines (1995-2005) 10

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Claire Soares

Fig. 76. Markets for Steam Turbines (1999-2005) 10

Fig. 77. Reference Power Plant Data 10

63
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Fig. 78. 2x700 MW Steam Reference Power Plant 10

Fuels for Combined Cycles11


Gas turbine operators prefer to burn natural gas and light oil (diesel, No.2). As we saw previously, crude oil, residual and bunker fuel
contain corrosive components. They require fuel treatment equipment. Also, ash deposits from these fuels can result in gas turbine
derating of up to 15 percent. As we also saw previously (in the case of the Shunde plant in south China), they may still be
economically attractive fuels, particularly in combined-cycle plants.

Sodium and potassium are removed from residual, crude and heavy distillates by a water washing procedure. A simpler and less
expensive purification system will do the same job for light crude and light distillates. A magnesium additive system reduces
vanadium.

Note that reduced availability will result due to water cleaning shutdowns to remove blade deposits, as on-line washing, even at
reduced speeds, is not effective. A shutdown with a crank soak every 100 to 120 hours is required. Reduced component life due to hot
gas path corrosion caused by vanadium deposits and other corrosion is another factor to consider.

Table 7 provides a sample of naphtha- and heavy oil-fired power plants in operation and in the planning stage. As this table shows,
some plants (e.g., Kot Addu and Valladolid) have accumulated 30-60,000 hrs of successful operation over their first five years plus.

64
Claire Soares

1111
Table 7. Naphtha- and heavy oil-fired power plants in operation and planning stage

Design and operation of these plants requires more attention than natural gas fired plants particularly in relation to fuel variables such
as calorific content, density, composition, concentration of contaminants and emissions, as well as different burning behaviors (e.g.
ignitability, flame velocity and stability).

To overcome these difficult fuel properties, technological adaptation, additional equipment and operational requirements are
necessary. These include GT layout (compressor, turbine) for the changed mass flows, different burner technology (burner design,
burner nozzles), additional startup/shutdown fuel system, and safety measures. Performance, availability and operation & maintenance
(O&M) expenses can be affected. To illustrate this, Table 11 shows some key non-standard fuels and their effect on a standard fuel
system.

11
Gas Turbine Power Plants: A Technology of Growing Importance for Developing Countries. Taud R., (Siemens Power),
Karg J. (KWU), OLeary, Sr. D, (World Bank)

65
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Table. 8. Gas Turbines for None Standard Fuels Critical Fuel Properties11

An example of gas turbine combined cycle plant burning a non-conventional is the 220 MW Valladolid plant in Mexico. This plant,
commissioned in 1994, burns heavily contaminated fuel oil, containing 4.2% sodium and up to 300 ppm vanadium. Fuel impurities
(sodium, potassium and vanadium), tend to form ash particles in the combustion process, form deposits and corrode the gas turbine
blades. In the case of the Valladolid plant, Epsom salts, consisting mainly of magnesium sulfate (MgSO4 7 H20), is dissolved in
water injected into the gas turbine combustor through special orifices. This converts the vanadium into a stable water-soluble product
(magnesium vanadate). This is deposited downstream of the combustor on the gas turbine blades, and causes only minor blade
corrosion. To prevent major performance loss with salt build up (as with the Shunde, China plant that we read about previously);
washing every 150 hrs was necessary to restore aerodynamic performance and plant efficiency. Good manhole access was a critical
success factor for this project as servicing and maintenance during turbine washing shutdowns are simplified. (The plan is to
eventually convert the Valladolid plant to natural gas operation).

Factors that affect Costs per Fired Hour11


Fuel type and mode of operation (steady load/ partial load) will determine maintenance intervals and the maintenance work items
required. Some estimate that burning residual or crude oil will increase maintenance costs by a factor of 3, (assuming a base of 1 for
natural gas, and by a factor of 1.5 for distillate fuel) and that those costs will be three times higher for the same number of fired hours
if the unit is started every fired hour, instead of starting once very 1000 .fired hours. Peaking at 110 percent rating will increase
maintenance costs by a factor of 3 relative to base-load operation at rated capacity, for any given period.

The control system on combined cycle units is automatic. When an operator starts the unit, it accelerates, synchronizes and loads by
itself. Fewer operators are required than in a steam plant.

Trends in Global Combined Cycle Installations11


A few hundred power generation plants are ordered from about a dozen OEMs every year. This means the market is exceptionally
competitive. Given that most of the new plants are going into newly developing countries, the biggest factor in determining the winner
of each project (bid on by several OEMs or not) is the financial deal the OEM can put together for the end user.

66
Claire Soares

As one might expect, maintenance costs are higher for any type of plant in countries that have not had as much exposure to the OEMs
technology. As a significant extension of their revenue, OEMs offer overall power by the hour maintenance contracts. These costs
vary, even for the same basic modular configuration and mechanical design, depending on the locations demographics. So then will
the actual and contractually set cost per fired hour figures. There would be a significant difference between what actual operational
costs are for the same OEMs CC block in a well developed area of the USA and a remote area in Azerbaijan, for instance.
Demographics also alter construction costs. (As an illustration, in 1990s figures, costs varied from $592/kW for a new 1,080 MW
combined-cycle plant in Egypt to $875/kW for a steam addition to convert four gas turbines in Pakistan to a combined-cycle plant,
according to World Bank data). OEMs are aware that end users compare cost data at various meetings and forums, and that price
variations are a sore and much negotiated point. Therefore OEMs continually strive to optimize designs and assembly methods to
minimize the steepness of new operators learning curve.

Fig. 79. Schematic Diagram of a Parallel Combined Cycle Block with Full Flue Gas Cleaning 11

Modularization (for instance the Siemens Westinghouse GUD block which is 2, V94.3 gas turbines, their HRSG boiler capacity and
a steam turbine) reduces construction costs. Compared with the customized design and construction, modularization can reduce
project costs of detailed engineering, material price contingencies and financial loan interest during construction.

Downsizing power delivery (to the grid) requirements will change overall operational cost figures. Repowering will change
operational statistics significantly. Repowering is a term used to define
the reconfiguration of a power station. It may mean replacing a steam turbine with a gas turbine or combined cycle. One example of a
repowering option offered by an OEM is Alstoms combining their 181 MW GT24 gas turbine with a dual pressure reheat cycle
consisting of a 70 MW LP/IP steam turbine and a 20MW HP steam turbine, to generate a total of 270 MW.

The most common configuration is called (Figure 79) parallel powering, where the gas turbine exhausts are used in the existing steam
cycle. This is achieved by feeding the exhausts into a heat-recovery steam generator (HRSG) which provides additional steam to the
existing steam turbine. Typically, parallel powering requires the addition of a gas turbine, associated electrical and instrumentation
and control equipment, civil engineering, HRSG, additional piping and pumps as well upgrading the steam turbine. Generally, parallel
powering can be undertaken fairly separately from the existing part of the plant, with a final integration phase and a plant down time
of 1.5 to 2 months. The typical cost range is $US$ 300-500/kW.

In some cases, national or international markets alter a power plants budget by changing available fuels. An example would be the
United Kingdoms temporary moratorium on their indigenous natural gas (which promoted coal for that period). When the decision
was made to allow North Sea petrochemical liquid deposits to vaporize and be delivered as gas instead, that move created operational
ripples in all industries that used petrochemical fuel, including power generation.

Since the late eighties10, market growth in plant additions/ optimization technology retrofits has shifted in part, from Europe, North
America and Japan to newly industrializing countries in Asia and Latin America. Financial means keep many of the end users in these

67
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

regions from using newer technologies that would extend their power generation capacity and reduce their costs per fired hour.
Nevertheless, they are becoming increasingly aware of these design developments and do seek to incorporate them where and when
possible.

For the OEM, the main challenges are minimizing project cost, construction time and risk guarantees (Figure 80). Between the 1980s
and 2000, project cost and construction time of coal and gas fired units have dropped by 50%. However, to compete, OEMs must offer
better warranty packages. So the standardization of core design to minimize spares costs, make factory assembly methods and repair
and overhaul methods foolproof increases in importance.

Fig. 80. Driving Forces in Power Plant Construction 10

Figure 81 shows11 the cost breakdown for combined cycle plants (350 MW-700 MW capacity) based on Siemens experience into the
following categories: integrated services (project management/subcontracting; plant and project engineering/project management
software, plant erection/commissioning /training; transport/insurance) and lots (civil works; gas- and steam-turbine and generator sets;
balance of plant; electrical systems; instrumentation and control systems; and the boiler island).

68
Claire Soares

Fig. 81. Cost Breakdown for CC Power Plants 11

The Changing Power Generation Market11


From 1994 to 1999, power plant contract awards for fossil fuel-fired power plants (above 50 MW) averaged 63 GW per year. In 1999,
sales were forecasted to average about 67 GW per year over the period 1999-2004. The market in the Asia Pacific Basin was
declining, while showing a moderate growth in Europe and (starting from a low level), strong growth in North America.

In comparison with coal fuelled power plants, open and closed cycle power plants are characterized by lower investment costs.
However, USA fuel related costs (i.e. fuel price and plant efficiency) have changed with the rise in oil and gas prices in the USA that
was precipitated by the Iraq war and hurricane Katrina. At the turn of the century gas prices ranged from about US$ 2.0/GJ to US$
4.5/GJ, with the North American prices being at the lower end of the range.

The only fact that anyone will sign their name to, in terms of oil and gas prices in 2006, is that they will go up. One Canadian forecast
agency suggests that gas prices in 2006 in Canada will stay at about C$8/GJ. This then means that the fierce inter-OEM rivalry with
respect to fuel efficiency will escalate.

Three major infrastructure changes continue to drastically alter the face of the power generation industry and directly or indirectly
promote technological innovation. They are:

Deregulation: This then means that independent power producers (IPPs), some of them small power producers (SPPs), help make
large plant new construction or expansion unnecessary. Consider the earlier examples of the PCS Companys use of what were Alstom
Power GT10s (this model was part of the Siemens Westinghouse acquisition of Alstoms smaller engine divisions) in combined cycle
operation. The waste hydrocarbon fluids they used as fuel, helped further develop low BTU fuel technology experience. Many SPPs
can sell their excess power back to the utility grid.

OEMs as IPPs: Most of the major OEMs have joint ventures all over the world that involve power generation. They provide training
to their local partners and thus promote employment and technology to newly industrialized countries. Two examples are the Siemens-
YTL partnership for power stations in Malaysia and the Alstom Power-Genting joint venture for the Kuala Langat station. The Kuala
Langat station also provided a good example of cogeneration as it sells its excess steam to a nearby mill.

69
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

Oil companies as IPPs: Shell in the United Kingdom is a good example of a growing trend. As IPPs, oil companies can be their own
customer for their oil and gas. This then short circuits much of the Fuel Purchase Agreement contractual formalities that other IPPs
have to negotiate.

Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) Plants11


IGCC plants consist of three main sections:

the "gas island" for conversion of coal and/or refinery residues (such as heavy fuel oil, vacuum residues or petroleum coke). This
includes gasification and downstream gas purification (removal of sulfur and heavy metal compounds in accord with required
emissions levels),
the air separation unit and
the combined cycle plant. The modular design (gas generation, gas turbine system, HRSG and the steam turbine system) allows
phased construction as well as retrofitting of the CC plant with a gasification plant. This replaces the "standard" gas turbine fuels
(natural gas or fuel oil) by syngas produced from coal or refinery residues.

IGCC is a combination of two proven technologies, however proper integration depends on using the lessons learned form several
demonstration projects in Europe and the USA. Currently, there are more that 350 gasifiers operating commercially worldwide and at
least seven technology suppliers. There are about 100 CC units plants ordered per year, but there is limited experience of IGCC
commercial operation. Currently, we refer to operating experience at five IGCC plants: the 261 MW Wabash River plant; the 248.5
MW Tampa plant; the 253 MW Buggenum plant; the 99.7 MW Pinon Pine plant and the 318 to 300 MW Puertollano plant. IGCC will
see commercial application in developed countries, such as Italy, for residual refinery fuels and gasified coal. However, great care
needs to be taken in implementing a commercialization strategy for developing countries.

Through 2015, the potential for refinery-based integrated coal gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants is estimated to be 135 GW.
Currently over 6GW of coal and refinery residue based IGCC projects are either, under construction or are planned. Figure 85 shows
some of the IGCC plants that are planned or under construction.

Technology/Performance/Environment /Demand Trends11


Figure 82 compares the supply flows, emissions and by products of different 600 MW-class plants. With environmental emissions
(including greenhouse gases, GHG), IGCC plants compare well with pulverized coal-fired steam power plants.

Depending on the degree of integration between the gas turbine and the air separation unit (ASU), either standard gas
turbine/compressor configurations can be applied. If not, the mismatch between turbine and compressor mass flows which results
from the application of gases with low heating values, limited modifications are required to compensate.

Three options are available. The selection of the appropriate air and nitrogen integration concept depends on a number of factors to be
considered on a case by case basis. A summary of the important criteria is provided in Figure 83

Figure 84 sets out the principal criteria for selection of the different IGCC integration concepts. The fully integrated approach
(selected for the European coal-based demonstration plants) results in the highest efficiency potential, but it can prove more difficult
to operate.
Nevertheless, after some initial operational problems, the Buggenum IGCC facility has demonstrated that design can provide good
availability.

70
Claire Soares

Fig. 82. Comparison of Supply Flows, Emissions and Byproducts of Different 600 MW - Class Power Plants 11

11
Fig. 83. Main Criteria for Selection of the IGCC Integration Concept

71
1.1 Gas Turbines in Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Applications

11
Fig. 84. Integrated Options for IGCC Power Plants

The non-integrated concept with a completely independent ASU is simpler in terms of plant operation and possibly in achievable
availability. However, the loss in overall IGCC net plant efficiency compared with the fully integrated concept is 1.5 to 2.5 percent. So
this concept is of interest for applications where efficiency is not the key factor (e.g. for the gasification of refinery residues).

The concept with partial air-side integration is a compromise, with an only moderate loss in efficiency but improved plant flexibility,
when compared with the fully integrated concept.

Fig. 85. Siemens SGT6-5000F (198MW, 60Hz) Simple cycle,


Combined cycle, and other cogeneration applications
(Source: Siemens Westinghouse)

72
The SGT5-2000E is used for simple or combined-cycle processes with or
without combined heat and power, and for all load ranges, particularly peak-
load operation.

For Integrated Coal Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) applications,


Siemens Westinghouse provide the SGT5-200E (LCG) machine - the 2-type
machine with modified compressor. The SGT5-2000E has more than 120
units in operation accounting for approximately 70,000 starts and more than
4,000,000 operating hours.

(Source: Siemens Westinghouse)

73
A professional engineer registered in Texas, and a Fellow of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, Claire Soares has worked on rotating machinery for over twenty years. Soares extensive
experience includes the specification of new turbomachinery systems, retrofit design, installation,
commissioning, troubleshooting, operational optimization, and failure analysis of all types of
turbomachinery used in power generation, oil & gas, petrochemical & process plants and aviation. The
land-based turbines (gas, steam or combined cycle) in question were typically made by General Electric,
Alstom power, Siemens Westinghouse, Rolls Allison, Solar and the companies they formerly were, before
some of them merged.

Her career experience also includes intensive training programs for engineers and technologists in industry.
Her specialty areas include turbomachinery diagnostic systems as well as failure analysis and
troubleshooting.

In her years spent with large aircraft engine overhaul and aircraft engine fleet programs in the USA and
Canada, Soares worked on turbine metallurgy and repair procedures, fleet asset management and
aeroengine crash investigation. She also was engineering manager for the first overhaul program in the
USA for the V2500 engine (commissioned 1991).

Gas turbines (land, air and sea) are Ms. Soares primary area within the turbomachinery field. Her
perspective with respect to gas turbines is that of an operations troubleshooter with extensive design
experience in gas turbine component retrofits/ repair specification and retrofit system design development.

Claire has authored/ co-authored six books for Butterworth Heinemann and McGraw Hill on rotating
machinery (**See the links below for book details). She also writes as a freelancer, for various technical
journals, such as Independent Power Generation and European Power News (U.K. based publications).

Ms. Soares has an MBA in International Business (University of Dallas, TX), and a B. Sc. Eng. (University
of London, external). She is a commercial pilot. Her scuba diving certification and training were in high
altitude conditions. She has lived and worked on four continents. Her non-engineering time is partly
spent on cinematography and still photography.

**http://books.elsevier.com/bookscat/search/results.asp?country=United+States&ref=&community=listing
&mscssid=0589M7CKL658H5QPFMW2650RBQ26XGD

**http://books.mcgrawhill.com/search.php?keyword=claire+soares&template=&subjectarea=113&search=
Go

Claire M. Soares
P.E.; Fellow ASME; MBA
Email: claisoar@aol.com

74
1.2.1 1.2.1-1 Introduction
Different Types of Gasiers
and Their Integration with What is gasication?
Gas Turbines
Gasication is a process in which combustible materials are partially oxi-
dized or partially combusted. The product of gasication is a combustible synthesis
gas, or syngas. Because gasication involves the partial, rather than complete, oxi-
dization of the feed, gasication processes operate in an oxygen-lean environment.
As gure 1 indicates, the stoichiometric oxygen-to-coal ratio for combustion is al-
most four times the stoichiometric oxygen-to-coal ratio for gasication of Illinois #6
coal.

Fig. 1. Diagram showing the products of reaction as a function of oxygen-to-


coal ratio ( Reprinted from M. Ramezan, Coal-based Gasication Technolo-
gies: An Overview NETL Gasication Technologies Training Course, Sept.
2004.)

Just as most combustion-based processes such as power plants operate with


excess oxygen to ensure complete conversion of the fuel, gasication processes also
typically operate above their stoichiometric oxygen-to-fuel ratio to ensure near com-
plete conversion to syngas. The amount of oxygen used in gasication, however, is
Jeffrey Phillips always far less than that used in combustion and typically is less than half.
In addition to coal, gasication processes can use petroleum coke, biomass,
EPRI / Advanced Coal Generation heavy oil, or even natural gas as the feedstock; however, this document will focus on
P.O. Box 217097 coal gasication processes.
Charlotte, NC 28221
Comparison to coal combustion
phone: (704) 595-2250 (advantages/disadvantages)
email: jphillip@epri.com
As indicated in gure 1, the products of reaction change signicantly as
the oxygen-to-fuel ratio changes from combustion to gasication conditions. These
changes are summarized in table 1. Because the mixture under gasifying conditions
is fuel-rich, there are not enough oxygen atoms available to fully react with the feed.
Consequently, instead of producing CO2, the carbon in the feed is converted primar-
ily to CO, and the hydrogen in the fuel is converted mostly to H2 rather than H2O.
Both CO and H2 are excellent fuels for use in a combustion turbine; however, their
combustion characteristics are signicantly different from natural gas.

67
the hydrogen in the fuel is converted mostly to H2 rather than H2O. Both CO and H2 are excellent fuels for
use in a combustion turbine; however, their combustion characteristics are significantly different from
natural gas. The implications of this will be fully covered in Section 3.1.
Table 1 Comparison of the primary products created by the
Comparison of the primary products created by the main fuel constituents in combustion and
main fuel constituents in combustion and gasication
gasification

Carbon CO2 CO
Hydrogen H2O H2
Nitrogen NO, NO2 HCN, NH3 or N2
Sulfur SO2 or SO3 H2S or COS
Water H2O H2

The fate of the fuels nitrogen and sulfur in a gasication process has important and benecial consequences on the environ-
The fate of the fuels nitrogen and sulfur in a gasification process has important and beneficial
mental performance of an IGCC. Fuel-bound nitrogen, which is predominantly converted to NOx in combustion, is converted to N2,
NH3 or HCN consequences
in gasication.on the
As environmental
discussed in the performance
Syngas Clean-upof anRequirements
IGCC. Fuel-bound section ofnitrogen, which
this chapter, bothis NH and HCN can be
3
predominantly converted to NOx in combustion, is converted to N2, NH3 or HCN
removed to very low levels with the resulting cleaned syngas having essentially no fuel-bound nitrogen. This signicantly in gasification. As limits NO
x
discussed
emissions of an IGCC. in the Syngas Clean-up Requirements section of this chapter, both NH3 and HCN can be
removed
The to fuel
sulfur in veryproduces
low levelsSOxwith the resulting
in combustion cleaned
processes butsyngas having
is converted to essentially
H2S and COS noinfuel-bound
gasicationnitrogen.
conditions. As will
be described
Thisfurther on, both limits
significantly H2S and NOxCOSemissions
can be removed from the syngas using technology developed for the natural gas industry
of an IGCC.
to levels of less than 20 ppm, which means that more than 99% of the sulfur can be removed from the fuel and will not be emitted as
SOx. The sulfur in fuel produces SOx in combustion processes but is converted to H2S and COS in gasification
Another majorAs
conditions. difference
will be between
described combustion andboth
further on, gasication
H2S and is the
COS amount
can be of removed
heat that isfrom
released
the by the chemical
syngas using reactions.
In combustion, all of the
technology fuels chemical
developed for theenergy is released
natural as heatto(assuming
gas industry levels of itless
is fully
thanconverted),
20 ppm, which but in gasication
means that mostmoreof the fuels
chemical energy is not released as heat. In fact, an important measure of the
than 99% of the sulfur can be removed from the fuel and will not be emitted as SOx. efciency of a gasication process is the fraction of the
feedstocks chemical energy, or heating value, which remains in the product syngas. This fraction is termed the cold gas efciency,
and most commercial-scale gasicationbetween
Another major difference processes have a cold and
combustion gas efciency
gasificationof atisleast 65% andof
the amount some
heatexceed
that is80%.
released by the
Because signicantly less heat is released by the gasication process, it is important
chemical reactions. In combustion, all of the fuels chemical energy is released as heat (assuming to limit the amount of heatit isthat is trans-
fully
ferred outconverted),
of the zone where the gasication reactions are occurring. If not, the temperatures within
but in gasification most of the fuelso chemicalo energy is not released as heat. In fact, an the gasication zone could be too
low to allow the reactions to go forward (a minimum of 1000 C or 1800 F is typically needed
important measure of the efficiency of a gasification process is the fraction of the feedstocks chemical to gasify coal). Consequently, unlike a
boiler where the entire rebox is lined with water-lled tubes that capture the heat released by the process and produce steam, many
energy, or heating value, which remains in the product syngas. This fraction is termed the cold gas
gasiers are refractory-lined with no water cooling to ensure as little heat loss as possible. Gasiers also typically operate at elevated
efficiency, and most commercial-scale gasification processes have a cold gas efficiency of at least 65%
pressure, sometimes as high as 6.2 MPa (900 psia), which allows them to have very compact construction with minimum surface area
and some exceed 80%.
and minimal heat loss.

Because significantly less heat is released by the gasification process, it is important to limit the amount of
1.2.1-2heatGeneric Typesoutof
that is transferred of Gasiers
the zone where the gasification reactions are occurring. If not, the
temperatures within the gasification zone could be too low to allow the reactions to go forward (a minimum
MovingofBed 1000C or 1800F is typically needed to gasify coal). Consequently, unlike a boiler where the entire
Afirebox
diagramisoflined
a generic
withmoving bed gasier
water-filled tubes isthat
shown in gure
capture the 2. Moving
heat bed gasiers
released are countercurrent
by the process and produce owsteam,
reactors in which
the coal enters at the top of the reactor and air or oxygen enters at the bottom. As the coal slowly moves down through
many gasifiers are refractory-lined with no water cooling to ensure as little heat loss as possible. Gasifiers the reactor, it
is gasied and the remaining ash drops out of the bottom of the reactor. Because of the countercurrent ow arrangement, the heat of
also typically operate at elevated pressure, sometimes as high as 6.2 MPa (900 psia), which allows them to
reaction from the gasication reactions serves to pre-heat the coal before it enters the gasication reaction zone. Consequently, the
have very compact construction with minimum surface area and minimal heat loss.
temperature of the syngas exiting the gasier is signicantly lower than the temperature needed for complete conversion of the coal.



A diagram of a generic moving bed gasifier is shown in Fig. 2. Moving bed gasifiers are countercurrent
flow reactors in which the coal enters at the top of the reactor and air or oxygen enters at the bottom. As
the coal slowly moves down through the reactor, it is gasified and the remaining ash drops out of the
bottom of the reactor.

Because of the countercurrent flow arrangement, the heat of reaction from the gasification reactions serves
to pre-heat the coal before it enters the gasification reaction zone. Consequently, the temperature of the
syngas exiting the gasifier is significantly lower than the temperature needed for complete conversion of
the coal.
Fig. 2. Diagram of a generic moving bed gasier
68
Jeffrey Phillips
The residence time of the coal within a moving bed gasier may be on the order of hours.

Moving bed gasiers have the following characteristics:1

Low oxidant requirements;


Relatively high methane content in the produced gas;
Production of hydrocarbon liquids, such as tars an oils;
High cold gas thermal efciency when the heating value of the hydrocarbon liquids are included;
Limited ability to handle nes; and
Special requirements for handling caking coal.

Fluidized Bed
A diagram of a generic uidized bed gasier is shown in gure 3. A uidized bed gasier is a back-mixed or well-stirred reac-
tor in which there is a consistent mixture of new coal particles mixed in with older, partially gasied and fully gasied particles. The
mixing also fosters uniform temperatures throughout the bed. The ow of gas into the reactor (oxidant, steam, recycled syngas) must
be sufcient to oat the coal particles within the bed but not so high as to entrained them out of the bed. However, as the particles are
gasied, they will become smaller and lighter and will be entrained out of the reactor. It is also important that the temperatures within
the bed are less than the initial ash fusion temperature of the coal to avoid particle agglomeration.
Typically a cyclone downstream of the gasier will capture the larger particles that are entrained out and these particles are
recycled back to the bed. Overall, the residence time of coal particles in a uidized bed gasier is shorter than that of a moving bed
gasier.

Fig. 3. Diagram of a generic uidized bed gasier

Generic characteristics of uidized bed gasiers include:2

Extensive solids recycling;


Uniform and moderate temperature; and
Moderate oxygen and steam requirements.

Entrained Flow
A diagram of a generic entrained ow gasier is shown in gure 4. Finely-ground coal is injected in co-current ow with the
oxidant. The coal rapidly heats up and reacts with the oxidant. The residence time of an entrained ow gasier is on the order of sec-
onds or tens of seconds. Because of the short residence time, entrained ow gasiers must operate at high temperatures to achieve high
carbon conversion. Consequently, most entrained ow gasiers use oxygen rather than air and operate above the slagging temperature
of the coal.

Generic characteristics of entrained ow gasiers include:3

High-temperature slagging operation;


Entrainment of some molten slag in the raw syngas;
Relatively large oxidant requirements;
Large amount of sensible heat in the raw syngas; and
Ability to gasify all coal regardless of rank, caking characteristics or amount of nes.
69
1.2.1 Different Types of Gasiers and Their Integration with Gas Turbines

Fig. 4. Diagram of a generic entrained ow gasier

Hybrid & Novel Gasiers


In addition to the three main classications of gasier types (moving bed, uidized bed, and entrained ow) there are also gas-
iers that are based on either hybrid combinations of those three classications or novel processes such as a molten metal bath.
The transport reactor-based gasier developed by Kellogg Brown & Root (KBR) is an example of a hybrid gasier as it has
characteristics of both a uidized bed and an entrained ow gasier. The KBR gasier will be described in more detail in the sub-section
covering pre-commercial gasiers.

1.2.1-3 Other Design Options


In addition to the generic reactor designs of a gasication process, there are several other design options that a gasication
process can have. Each of these options can have important impacts on the downstream processes in an IGCC including the combined
cycle.

Atmospheric vs Pressurized
Gasiers can operate at either atmospheric pressure or at pressures as high as 62 bar (900 psia). Pressurized gasiers are better
suited for IGCC operation since the pressure of product syngas will be sufcient to be fed directly into the GT fuel control system. Low
pressure or atmospheric pressure gasiers will require a fuel gas compressor after the syngas clean-up processes.
High pressure gasiers also have a positive impact on the cost and performance of the syngas clean-up section. Because the
volumetric ow of the syngas is much smaller than it would be for an atmospheric process, the size of the clean-up equipment is smaller.
For example, Hg capture can be accomplished by passing the syngas through a sulfur-impregnated, activated carbon bed. The size of
the bed is dictated by the residence time of the syngas in the bed. Therefore, a smaller volumetric ow of syngas will result in a smaller
carbon bed.
If CO2 capture is required in future IGCCs, high pressure gasier operation will improve the performance of physical absorp-
tion processes that can remove CO2 from the syngas.

Dry Feed vs Slurry Feed


Coal is typically fed into a pressurized gasier either pneumatically as a dry solid or pumped as coal-water slurry. Slurry-fed
feed systems have a lower capital cost, but result in less efcient conversion of coal to syngas (referred to as the cold gas efciency
of the gasier). This is because some of the syngas must be burned in order to generate the heat needed to vaporize the water in the
slurry. Consequently, the syngas produced by a slurry-fed gasier typically has more CO2 in it than a dry-fed gasier. This is not det-
rimental to GT operations since the CO2 can act as an effective diluent for NOx control; however, it does impact the design of the acid
gas removal section of the IGCC as that process must use a solvent which allows the CO2 to pass through with the syngas rather than
being stripped out with the sulfur species.

Air-blown versus Oxygen-blown


Oxygen for the gasication reactions can be provided by either air or high purity oxygen produced by a cryogenic air separation
unit (ASU). Air-blown gasiers avoid the large capital cost of an ASU but produce a much lower caloric value syngas than oxygen-
blown gasiers. The nitrogen in the air typically dilutes the syngas by a factor of 3 compared to oxygen-blown gasication. Therefore,
while a syngas caloric value of 300 Btu/scf might be typical from an oxygen-blown gasier, an air-blown gasier will typically produce
syngas with a caloric value of 100 Btu/scf. This has a signicant impact on the design of the combustion system of the GT.
Because the nitrogen in air must be heated to the gasier exit temperature by burning some of the syngas, air-blown gasication
is more favorable for gasiers which operate at lower temperatures (i.e. non-slagging).
70
Jeffrey Phillips
Air-blown gasiers also have a negative impact on CO2 capture. Because of the dilution effect of the nitrogen, the partial
pressure of CO2 in air-blown gasier syngas will be one-third of that from an oxygen-blown gasier. This increases the cost and
decreases the effectiveness of the CO2 removal equipment.

Quench versus Heat Recovery


A nal design option involves the method for cooling the syngas produced by the gasier. Regardless of the type of gasier,
the exiting syngas must be cooled down to approximately 100oC in order to utilize conventional acid gas removal technology. This
can be accomplished either by passing the syngas through a series of heat exchangers which recover the sensible heat for use in the
steam cycle of the IGCC, or by directly contacting the syngas with relatively cool water. This latter process is called a quench and
it results in some of the quench water being vaporized and mixed with the syngas. The quenched syngas is saturated with water and
must pass through a series of condensing heat exchanges which remove the moisture from the syngas (so it can be recycled to the
quench zone).
Quench designs have a negative impact on the heat rate of an IGCC as the sensible heat of the high temperature syngas is
converted to low level process heat rather than high pressure steam. However, quench designs have much lower capital costs and can
be justied when low cost feedstock is available. Quench designs also have an advantage if CO2 capture is desired. The saturated
syngas exiting a quench section has near the optimum H2O/CO ratio for feed into a water-gas shift catalyst which will convert the CO
in the syngas to CO2. Non-quench designs that require CO2 capture will have to add steam to the syngas before it is sent to a water-gas
shift reactor.

1.2.1-4 Integrating with a Combined Cycle


Syngas Clean-Up Requirements
Before syngas can be fed to a GT, it must pass through a series of clean-up steps in order to remove species that would either
harm the environment or the GT itself.
Particulate Matter qualies as being both bad for the environment and the gas turbine. Particulates can be removed by dry
processes such as a cyclone and rigid barrier lter or by wet processes such as a venturi scrubber.
Gas turbines are fairly tolerant of sulfur species in the fuel. A typical OEM specication will call for no more than 250 ppmv
of sulfur in the fuel. Concentrations of sulfur greater than that will cause unacceptably rapid corrosion of hot section parts. Even
250 ppmv of sulfur in the fuel would result in a relatively high sulfuric acid dewpoint in the exhaust gas. This would limit the amount
of heat that could be recovered from the exhaust in the HRSG. To allow stack gas temperatures that are typical of natural gas red
combined cycles, the sulfur content of the syngas should be no more than 30 ppmv.
A coal with 1wt. % sulfur will typically produce a syngas with 3000 ppmv sulfur. Obviously a sulfur removal step is required
in order to meet the OEMs fuel sulfur specication. As described earlier, well-proven technologies from the natural gas industry ex-
ist that can remove more than 99% of the H2S and COS in the syngas. This also allows IGCCs to beat US New Source Performance
Standards for sulfur emissions from coal-fueled power plants by a comfortable margin.
Nitrogen-containing species other than N2 must be removed to a low level to prevent formation of fuel-bound NOx in the
GT combustor. HCN and NH3 concentrations typically are on the order of hundreds of ppmv in raw syngas. Because of its high solu-
bility in water, NH3 can be easily washed out of the syngas by contacting it with water in a counter-ow packed column (the water then
must be treated with neutralizing chemicals). Catalysts have been developed which promote the reaction of HCN with water vapor to
produce NH3 and CO. Therefore, a HCN conversion catalyst is typically installed upstream of the NH3 water wash column.
Chlorides must be removed from the syngas to prevent corrosion in the GT hot section. HCl is quite soluble in water, and
therefore the same water wash which removes NH3 for NOx control, will also remove chlorides to an acceptable level.
While it is not necessary for protection of the GT, mercury vapor in the syngas can be removed by passing the syngas through
an activated carbon bed. This bed will also remove heavy metal species such as arsenic, which can cause problems in the GT.

Air-Side Integration
For oxygen-blown gasiers in an IGCC, the air for the ASU can be supplied by a stand-alone, electric motor-driven compres-
sor or it can be extracted from the discharge of the GT compressor. It could also be supplied by a combination of those two options.
Extracting the air from the GT has efciency advantages (the electrical losses in the GT generator and compressor motor are
avoided), but experience at two European IGCCs which rely solely on GT compressor discharge air for their ASUs has shown that it
can be operationally difcult, particularly during start-up.
Consensus is growing that using a combination of a stand-alone, electric motor-driven compressor and GT air extraction is
the best option for supplying the ASU. Typical designs call for at least 50% of the air to be supplied by the stand-alone compressor.

Steam-Side Integration
For IGCC which have a syngas cooler to recover heat from the hot syngas, there are two options for the steam that is pro-
duced by the syngas cooler. The rst option is to send the steam to the HRSG of the combined cycle for superheating and reheating.
The steam is combined with the steam produced by the HRSG and drives a single steam turbine. The second option is to provide
some level of superheat within the syngas cooler and send the steam to a separate steam turbine which only accepts the steam from
71 the gasication block.
1.2.1 Different Types of Gasiers and Their Integration with Gas Turbines
To date, all IGCCs have utilized the rst option. However, with growing interest in retrotting existing natural gas red com-
bined cycles, the second option may be of interest because an HRSG and steam turbine of an existing combined cycle will have to be
modied to accommodate the additional steam produced by the syngas cooler. The separate steam turbine option may also be attractive
for applications in which the gasication block must be located considerable distance away from the combined cycle.

1.2.1-5 Commercially Available Large-Scale Gasiers


Four gasication technologies have been proven at the large scale (>1250 tpd) needed for IGCC applications:

Lurgi

Lurgi gasiers have gasied more coal than any other commercially available gasication process. Lurgi gasiers use a mov-
ing bed design and operate below the ash melting point of the feed. The coal does not have to be nely milled, only crushed. In fact,
one of the disadvantages of the Lurgi process is its inability to handle coal nes.
The coal is fed into the top of the gasier via lockhoppers. Oxygen is injected at the bottom of the gasier and reacts with the
coal which has been pre-heated by the hot syngas rising through the coal bed. Ash drops off the bottom of the bed and is depressurized
via a lockhopper.
The process was originally developed by Lurgi GmbH in the 1930s in Germany. In total more than 150 Lurgi gasiers have
been built with the largest being able to process 1000 tpd of coal on a moisture & ash-free basis.
The two most prominent applications of the Lurgi process are not IGCCs: the coal-to-gasoline reneries of Sasol in the Re-
public of South Africa and the Dakota Gasication Synthetic Natural Gas plant in North Dakota. Both applications feature a series of
oxygen-blown gasiers and use low rank coal from nearby mines as the feedstock.
A key disadvantage of the Lurgi process in IGCC applications is the production of hydrocarbon liquids in addition to syngas.
The liquids represent about 10% of the heating value of the feed and therefore must be utilized in order to achieve competitive efcien-
cies. At Sasol and Dakota Gasication the size of the gasication operations (14,000 tpd at Dakota) makes it economical to recover the
liquids and convert them into high value products such as naphtha, phenols and methanol. It is not clear that the economies of scale for
a 500 to 600 MW IGCC (4000 to 5000 tpd of coal) would allow those by-products to be recovered competitively.
The other drawback of the Lurgi process is the need to stay below the ash melting point of the coal. For lower reactivity coals
such as bituminous coal from the eastern US, this will result in lower carbon conversion due to the lower gasication temperatures.
Conversely, low rank, high ash coals provide a competitive advantage for the Lurgi process versus its higher operating temperature
competitors.

GE Energy

The GE Energy gasication process has the most extensive track record in IGCC applications. Originally developed by Texaco
in the 1950s, the technology was purchased by GE from Chevron-Texaco in 2004.
The process uses an entrained ow, refractory-lined gasier which can operate at pressures in excess of 62 bara (900 psia). The
coal is fed to the gasier as coal-water slurry and injected into the top of the gasier vessel. Syngas and slag ow out the bottom of the
gasier.
Three options are available for heat recovery from the GE Energy process: Quench, Radiant, and Radiant & Convective. In
the Quench option, both the syngas and slag are forced into a water bath where the slag solidies and the syngas is cooled and saturated
with water vapor. The slag is removed from the bottom of the quench section via a lockhopper while the saturated syngas is directed to
gas clean-up equipment.
In the radiant option, the syngas and slag enter a long, wide vessel which is lined with boiler tubes. The vessel is designed to
cool the syngas below the melting point of the slag. At the end of the radiant vessel both the syngas and slag are quenched with water.
In the radiant plus convective option instead of having a water quench for both the syngas and slag, only the slag drops into a
water bath at the bottom of the radiant vessel. The syngas exits at the side of the vessel and enters a convective syngas cooler. Both re
tube boiler and water tube boiler designs have been used for the convective cooler.
More than 100 commercial applications of the GE Energy gasication process have been licensed since the 1950s. Some of the
most notable examples are described below.
It was used in the rst US IGCC, the Cool Water project, which was built in the early 1980s by a consortium of power industry
organizations including Southern California Edison and EPRI. It also received production subsidies from the federal synfuels program
operated by the Treasury Department. The Cool Water IGCC operated for ve years starting in 1984 and gasied a total of 1.1 million
tons of bituminous coal while proving the IGCC concept. After the demonstration period, the gasication block was sold, dismantled
and moved to Kansas where it became the heart of a petroleum coke-to-ammonia plant.
The GE Energy process was also used at Tampa Electric Companys Polk County IGCC. That plant received DOE funding in
Round III of the Clean Coal Technology program. The Polk plant is designed to produce approximately 250 MW of power and began
commercial operations in July 1996. It has continued to operate after the end of the DOE-subsidized demonstration period and currently
has the lowest dispatch cost of electricity in the Tampa Electric eet.
72
Jeffrey Phillips
The GE Energy process has also been used in several coal and petroleum coke-to-chemicals applications. Besides the Kansas
coke-to-ammonia plant, GE Energy gasiers featuring the water quench design have been installed at the Ube Industries coke-to-am-
monia plant in Japan and the Eastman Chemical coal-to-chemicals facility in Tennessee. These plants have operated with the very high
availability factors expected in the chemicals industry for more than 20 years.
The GE Energy gasier can also be used to gasify petroleum renery liquid by-products such as asphalt residues. Several IGCC
projects based on these feedstocks have been built at reneries around the world.

Shell Coal Gasication Process (SCGP)

The Royal Dutch Shell group of companies (Shell) has developed two different gasication processes. The rst, called the
Shell Gasication Process or SGP, was developed to gasify liquid and gaseous feedstocks. It features a refractory-lined gasier with a
single feed injection point at the top of the gasier. The gasication products pass through a syngas cooler before entering a wet scrub-
ber.
The second process, called the Shell Coal Gasication Process (SCGP), was developed specically to gasify solid feeds. The
SCGP gasier features a water-cooled membrane wall similar to the membrane walls used in conventional coal boilers. There are four
feed injectors oriented horizontally in the mid-section of gasier vessel. Slag ows out of a slag tap at the bottom of the vessel where
it falls into a water bath and syngas ows out the top of the vessel. As the syngas exits the gasier it is quenched with cool, recycled
syngas to a temperature well below the ash melting point of the coal. The quenched syngas is still quite warm (typically 900C) and
passes through a syngas cooler and a dry solids lter before a portion of the gas is split off for recycle to the quench zone.
The coal is fed to the SCGP gasier pneumatically using high pressure nitrogen as the transport medium. The coal must rst
be dried and nely ground in a roller mill where warm, inert gas ows through the mill to remove the coals moisture. The dried coal is
then pressurized via a system of lockhoppers. SCGP gasiers operate at pressures up to approximately 40 bar.
Shell began development of the SGP process in the 1950s, and work on the SCGP process started as a joint project with Krupp
Koppers in the mid-1970s. Both companies agreed to go their separate ways in the development of coal gasication in 1981, and Krupp
Koppers developed a competing dry-feed, membrane wall gasier with the trade name PRENFLO. The only commercial application of
the PRENFLO process has been the 280 MW Elcogas IGCC in Puertollano Spain. In 1999, Shell and Krupp Uhde agreed to join forces
again in coal gasication. However, now only SCGP is being offered commercially by the two organizations.
The rst commercial application of SCGP was the 250 MW Demkolec IGCC built in 1994 in Buggenum, The Netherlands. The
plant was originally owned by a consortium of Dutch electric utilities, but was sold to Nuon in the late 1990s. It is now operating as an
independent power producer in the deregulated Dutch electricity market.
Shell has also sold licenses for 12 SCGP gasiers which will be used in coal-to-chemicals projects in China. The rst of those
projects is expected to begin operations in 2006.
Perhaps the greatest advantage of Shells coal gasication process is its feed exibility. The 240 tpd SCGP demonstration built
at Shells renery in Deer Park, Texas in the 1980s was able to process a full range of feedstocks including lignite, sub-bituminous coal,
bituminous coal and pet coke. The reason for SCGPs exibility is the coal milling and drying process which eliminates the impact of
moisture on the gasier performance (however, the fuel for the drying process has a negative impact on thermal efciency).
The biggest disadvantage of the SCGP has been its higher capital cost which is inherent in the more expensive nature of the
gasier design (boiler tubes are more expensive than refractory brick) and its dry feed system.

ConocoPhillips E-Gas

ConocoPhillips owns the E-Gas gasication technology which was originally developed by Dow Chemical. The E-Gas process
features a unique two-stage gasier design. The gasier is refractory-lined and uses coal-water slurry feed. The rst stage of the gasier
has two opposed, horizontally-oriented feed injectors. The syngas exits the top of the rst stage and slag ows out of the bottom into
a water bath. The syngas produced by the rst stage enters the second stage at temperatures comparable to the exit temperatures of the
other two entrained ow gasiers, GE Energy and SCGP. Additional coal-water slurry is injected into this hot syngas in the second gas-
ier stage, but no additional oxygen is injected. Endothermic gasication reactions occur between the hot syngas and the second stage
coal feed. This lowers the temperature of the syngas and increases the cold gas efciency of the process. Upon exiting the top of the
second stage of the gasifer, the syngas passes through a syngas cooler which features a retube design. The cooled syngas then enters a
rigid barrier lter where any unconverted char from the second stage is collected and recycled back to the rst stage of the gasier where
the hotter temperatures ensure near complete carbon conversion.
Dow began development of the E-Gas process in 1976 with a bench scale reactor. The work progressed to a 36 tpd pilot plant
and then a 550 tpd proto plant located at Dows chemical manufacturing complex in Plaquemine, Louisiana. The main feedstock
tested in these early gasiers was lignite.
In 1984 Dow entered an agreement with the federal US governments Synthetic Fuels Corporation in which Dow received a
price guarantee for syngas to be produced from a commercial scale E-Gas gasication plant built in Plaquemine. The plant began opera-
tion in 1987 and was operated by the Dow subsidiary Louisiana Gasication Technology Inc. (LTGI). The LGTI facility was designed to
process 1600 tpd (dry basis) of sub-bituminous coal from the Powder River Basin. The clean syngas was sent to two Westinghouse 501D
gas turbines which were already operating on natural gas at the Plaquemine complex. The total power output from the two turbines was
73 184 MW.
1.2.1 Different Types of Gasiers and Their Integration with Gas Turbines

LGTI operated from 1987 through 1995 and received a total of $620 million in price support payments from the Synthetic Fuels
Corporation (SFC). It was shutdown after SFC support ended. In total, more than 3.7 million tons of sub-bituminous coal was gasied
at the LGTI facility.
The E-gas process has also been used at the Wabash River IGCC repowering project in West Terre Haute, Indiana. In 1991 the
project was selected to receive partial funding from the US DOE as part of the Clean Coal Technology program. The plant featured a
new air separation unit, gasier, clean-up system, gas turbine and heat recovery steam generator, but it utilized an existing, 30-year old,
100 MW steam turbine in Public Service of Indianas coal-red Wabash River Generation Steam. The coal boiler that was originally
built to supply steam to the steam turbine was retired when the IGCC equipment started up.
The Wabash River IGCC began operation in 1995 on bituminous coal from the Illinois basin. However, today it operates ex-
clusively on petroleum coke.
Unlike the Polk County IGCC owned by TECO, ownership of the Wabash IGCC is split in two. The electric utility (Cinergy
PSI) owns and operates the combined cycle plant while SG Solutions LLC owns and operates the gasication plant including the air
separation unit. A commercial dispute between the previous owners of the gasication plant and Cinergy PSI led to a prolonged shut-
down of the gasier in 2004. However, with the recent change in ownership to SG Solutions, gasication operations began again in May
2005.
ConocoPhillips is actively developing several new IGCC projects; among those are the Mesaba IGCC and the Steelhead Energy
project.. The Mesaba project is being developed by Excelsior Energy in northern Minnesota. The project was awarded $36 million by
the US DOE in 2004 as part of Round Two of the Clean Coal Power Initiative (CCPI). The money will support the cost of the Front End
Engineering Design (FEED) and Permitting activities for the project.
The Steelhead project, located in southern Illinois, will produce 600 MW of electricity as well as synthetic natural gas. The
project recently received $2.5 million in funding from the State of Illinois to support its FEED effort.

1.2.1-6 Near-Commercial Gasiers of Interest


Several other gasication technologies, which have not yet
been tested at sizes of 1250 tpd or larger, have the potential for being
used in IGCCs or have been proposed for IGCCs that are under devel-
opment. They are reviewed in this sub-section.

KBR Transport Gasier

The Kellogg Brown and Root (KBR) Transport Gasier has


been under development at the Power Systems Development Facility
(PSDF) in Wilsonville, Alabama. PSDF is a clean coal technology
test facility built with US DOE sponsorship and has been operated by
Southern Company Services since 1996. The KBR Transport Gasier
is a hybrid gasier that has characteristics of both an entrained ow and
a uidized bed reactor. The technology is derived from KBRs cata-
lytic cracker technology which has been used for decades in petroleum
reneries. The KBR gasier operates at considerably higher circula-
tion rates, velocities, and riser densities than a conventional circulating
uidized bed, resulting in higher throughput, better mixing, and higher
mass and heat transfer rates.
What is now the PSDF transport gasifer was mechanically
completed in 1996; however, it originally operated as a combustor. In
1999 it was modied to operate as an air-blown gasier. The PSDF
also includes a small gas turbine which has been modied to burn the
low Btu syngas produced by the air gasication process.
Figure 5 is a diagram of the KBR gasier. Dried, pressurized,
pulverized coal is fed into the mixing zone of the gasier. The oxidant
is added at the bottom of the mixing zone. The gasier temperature is
maintained below the ash melting point of the coal, and this favors the
use of air rather than oxygen as the nitrogen in the air serves to mod-
erate the temperatures within the uidized bed, while also supplying
the velocity needed to entrain the solids. Oxygen-blown operation has
also been tested at the PSDF and would be the preferred mode for poly-
generation applications in which chemical products were produced as Fig. 5. Schematic Diagram of the KBR Transport Gasier
well as power.

74
Jeffrey Phillips
The riser section provides sufcient residence time at hot temperatures to crack any tars which may be produced during de-
volatilization of the coal. This gives the design a distinct advantage over xed bed gasiers which also operate below the ash melting
point.
Solids which are entrained out of the mixing zone of the gasier are captured in a hot cyclone and returned to the uidized bed.
To maintain constant reactor inventory, gasier ash is removed periodically from the lower region of the standpipe. If required, sand can
be fed to increase reactor solids inventory.
Because of its lower operating temperature and its dry feed arrangement, the KBR reactor is most attractive for lower rank, high
moisture coals. The lower temperatures also eliminate the need for refractory lining of the gasier vessel. The PSDF Transport Gasier
can process 38 tpd of coal in air-blown mode. Coals which have been gasied at the PSDF include Powder River Basin Sub-bituminous,
Illinois #6 and North Dakota Lignite.
The KBR Transport Gasier will be used in the 285 MW Stanton IGCC project which was selected by the US Department of
Energy as part of Round Two of the CCPI in 2004. Southern Company Services, KBR, and the Orlando Utilities Commission (OUC)
are sponsors of the project, which will be located at an existing combined cycle power plant owned by the OUC. Nonetheless, the IGCC
will be a Greeneld project rather than a retrot of the existing combined cycle. Powder River Basin coal will be the feedstock for the
gasier.

Future Energy

The Future Energy entrained ow gasication process, formerly known as the Noell process, employs a single stage, downward
ring gasier that operates on a variety of liquid and solid feedstocks. The reactants are fed in at the top of the gasier, which is cylin-
drical in shape and operates at temperature above ash fusion temperatures. At the bottom of the reaction chamber is a quench section, in
which water is injected to cool the slag and the syngas. The solidied and granulated slag accumulates and is discharged via a lockhop-
per; the cooled syngas then exits the gasier for further processing.
There are two variations of the gasier, depending on the ash content of the feeds. For high ash content feeds, the gasication
chamber is enclosed by a tube screen that carries cooling water to ensure a long life of the gasier. The screen wall is coated with a thin
layer of protective coating; as the slag ows down the wall towards the quench section, a layer of solid slag is formed next to the wall
due to the cooling effect. In applications with low ash content feeds, the cooling screen is replaced with a refractory lining cooled with
a water jacket screen.
Unlike other gasication processes, the Future Energy process allows the option of using either dry feed or slurry feed. The
process is currently used in a 440 MW Vresova IGCC plant in the Czech Republic. The plant has 24 Lurgi gasiers processing brown
coal and 360 tpd of tars produced by those gasiers are pumped to a single Future Energy gasier for conversion into syngas.

BGL Slagging Gasier

The British Gas/Lurgi (BGL) coal gasier is a dry-feed, pressurized, xed-bed, slagging gasier. The reactor vessel is water
cooled and refractory lined. Each gasier is provided with a motor-driven coal distributor/mixer to stir and evenly distribute the incom-
ing coal mixture. Oxygen and steam are introduced into the gasier vessel through sidewall-mounted tuyeres (lances) at the elevation
where combustion and slag formation occur.
The coal mixture (coarse coal, nes, briquettes, and ux) which is introduced at the top of the gasier via a lock hopper system
gradually descends through several process zones. Coal at the top of the bed is dried and devolatilized. The descending coal is trans-
formed into char, and then passes into the gasication (reaction) zone. Below this zone, any remaining carbon is oxidized, and the ash
content of the coal is liquied, forming slag.
Slag is withdrawn from the slag pool by means of an opening in the hearth plate at the bottom of the gasier vessel. The slag
ows downward into a quench chamber and lock hopper in series. The pressure differential between the quench chamber and gasier
regulates the ow of slag between the two vessels.
Product gas exits the gasier at approximately 1050F (566C) through an opening near the top of the gasier vessel and passes
into a water quench vessel and a boiler feed water (BFW) preheater designed to lower the temperature to approximately 300F (150C).
Entrained solids and soluble compounds mixed with the exiting liquid are sent to a gas-liquor separation unit. Soluble hydrocarbons,
such as tars, oils, and naphtha are recovered from the aqueous liquor and recycled to the top of the gasier and/or reinjected at the tuy-
eres.
A 720 tpd BGL gasier has been built recently in Germany by SVZ as part of a waste-to-methanol plant. The BGL technology
was originally developed by British Gas, which built two demonstration gasiers in the 200 to 500 tpd range in Westeld, Scotland.
Those gasiers are now owned by Global Energy of Cincinnati, OH, which for a time owned the rights to the BGL technology. The
rights were recently acquired by the Allied Syngas Corporation (ASC) based in Wayne, PA. ASC is currently pursuing projects based
on a 1000 tpd BGL gasier.

75
1.2.1 Different Types of Gasiers and Their Integration with Gas Turbines

Fig. 6. BGL Slagging Gasier Fig. 7. Diagram of the MHI air-blown


gasier (with permission from Clean
Coal Power R&D Co., Ltd.)

MHI Air-Blown Gasier

MHI has developed a two-stage, air-blown gasier which will be used in the 250 MW Clean Coal Power R&D Co. Ltd. IGCC
being built near Iwaki City in Japan. Construction began in 2004, and the plant is scheduled to begin operation in 2007.
The MHI gasier operates in slagging conditions and, like the E-Gas process, injects coal without oxidant in the second stage.
However, the gasier features a water-cooled membrane wall rather than refractory lining and uses dry feed of coal rather than coal-
water slurry. Unconverted char exiting the second stage is captured by a dry solids lter and returned to the rst stage where coal and
air are injected (see gure 7).
The MHI gasier has also been tested in the 1990s at a 200 tpd demonstration unit located at the same site where the Clean Coal
Power R&D IGCC plant is being built.

1.2.1-7 Conclusions
Four gasication technologies have been developed and demonstrated at sizes compatible with large scale IGCCs. Three of
these technologies are based on entrained ow reactors which rapidly convert coal to a hot syngas. The fourth is based on a moving
bed reactor which uses long residence times to convert the coal and produces a more moderate temperature syngas along with liquid
hydrocarbons.
Several other gasication technologies are nearing demonstrations of large scale gasier which could be used in IGCCs. The
most appropriate gasier to use in an IGCC is probably more a function of the type of coal to be gasied than anything else. Lower rank,
high moisture coals are more capable with dry-fed gasiers, while high temperature slagging gasiers are best for high rank coals which
are less reactive.

1.2.1-8 Notes
_____________________________

1. D.R. Simbeck, et al., Coal Gasication Guidebook: Status, Applications, and Technologies, EPRI Final Report TR
102034 (Electric Power Research Institute).
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.

76
BIOGRAPHY
1.2.1 Different Types of Gasiers and Their Integration with Gas Turbines

Jeffrey Phillips
EPRI / Advanced Coal Generation
P.O. Box 217097
Charlotte, NC 28221

phone: (704) 595-2250


email: jphillip@epri.com

Dr. Phillips began his involvement with IGCCs when he did his PhD research at Stanford on the
off-design performance of IGCCs. He then spent 10 years working in the Royal Dutch/Shell group
assisting in the development of the Shell Coal Gasication Process and then became an independent
consultant, specializing in combustion turbine and combined cycle performance analysis. Among
his consulting projects was an analysis of the suitability of current combustion turbine technology
for oxy-fuel cycles. He recently accepted a position as project manager at EPRI where he directs
projects related to IGCCs.
1.2.2
Implications of CO2 1.2.2-1 Introduction
Sequestration for Gas
A variety of industrial processes such as power plants, oil reneries,
Turbines cement works, and iron and steel production emit large amounts of CO2. Ap-
proximately a third of all the CO2 emissions due to human activity, however,
come from fossil fuel-based power plants, with each power plant capable of
emitting several million tonnes of CO2 annually. These emissions could be
reduced substantially by capturing and storing the CO2 while other sources of
emissions, such as transport and domestic buildings, cannot be tackled in the
same way because of the large number of small sources of CO2.
The capture of CO2 in an IGCC power plant consists of gasifying the
feedstock in an O2 blown gasier system and shifting the CO to H2 by catalytic
reaction with steam1:

CO + H2O = CO2 + H2. (1)

The CO2 is then removed for sequestration from the syngas to pro-
duce a decarbonized fuel gas for combustion in a gas turbine. There are
primarily two schemes for these processing steps consisting of shifting, CO2
removal and desulfurization of the syngas for current or near term technology
plants, i.e., plants incorporating cold gas cleanup:

Employ sour shifting of the syngas followed by desulfurization and CO2


recovery within the same acid gas removal unit; or,
Desulfurize the syngas rst followed by shifting and then removal /recovery
of the CO2.

The choice of either scheme depends primarily on the gasication heat


recovery system employed (i.e., the extent to which cooling of the raw gasier
efuent is accomplished in a syngas cooler before the syngas is quenched /
scrubbed with water to remove particulate matter).

1.2.2-2 Implications for Gas Turbines


Syngas Composition and Thermal Diluents
Table 1 shows the composition of a decarbonized syngas (shifted and
then 90% of the CO2 removed) as well as an un-decarbonized syngas leav-
ing the acid gas removal unit of a high-temperature slurry-fed entrained-bed
gasier fed with a bituminous coal2. The H2 content of both the syngas streams
is considered high enough to preclude the use of current design pre-mixed gas
turbine combustors to limit the formation of NOx. Diluent addition is required
to the syngas in order to reduce the NOx generation when utilizing diffusion
Ashok Rao, Ph.D., P.E. type combustors, the amount of diluent addition required by decarbonized syn-
gas, however, being higher than that required for the un-decarbonized syngas.
Two types of diluents are available in an IGCC plant, water vapor introduced
Chief Scientist, Power Systems into the syngas stream by direct contact of the syngas with hot water in a coun-
Advanced Power and Energy Program ter-current column while recovering low temperature waste heat and / or N2
University of California supplied by an elevated pressure air separation unit. The choice of the diluent
Irvine, CA 92697-3550 depends on a number of factors such as
phone: (949) 824-7302 ext 345 amount of low temperature waste heat available for the humidication
email: adr@apep.uci.edu operation, and
amount of excess N2 available from the air separation unit.

77
Table 1 Typical Clean Syngas Compositions (Dry and Sulfur Free Basis)

Component Non-decarbonized Decarbonized


CO 50.1 2.8
H2 37.4 94.1
CO2 10.2 0.6
CH4 0.1 0.1
Ar + N2 2.2 2.4
Total 100.0 100.0

The amount of low temperature waste heat available in a gasication plant in turn depends primarily on the gasication heat
recovery system employed (i.e., the extent to which cooling of the raw gasier efuent is accomplished in a syngas cooler before the
syngas is quenched / scrubbed with water). On the other hand, the amount of N2 available as a diluent for the gas turbine depends on

the specic O2 consumption of the gasier - the amount of N2 produced by the air separation unit is lower when the specic
O2 consumption of the gasier is lower; and,
the type of gasier feed system - dry feed systems utilize signicant portions of the N2 as lock hopper pressurization gas as
well as in the drying and transport of the coal into the gasier and only the remaining amount of N2 is available for gas
turbine injection.

A combination of the two diluents, i.e. water vapor and N2, may also be utilized, the relative amounts depending on the overall
plant integration scheme and the trade-offs between efciency and capital cost. In such cases, an option available consists of introducing
the moisture into the N2 stream instead of the syngas. When N2 or moisturized N2 is utilized as a diluent, it may be either premixed with
the decarbonized syngas before supplying it to the combustor of the gas turbine or it may be introduced into the combustor through a
separate injector. Premixing the diluents with the syngas versus keeping them separately upstream of the combustor will have implica-
tions on the effectiveness of the diluent in lowering the local combustion temperature; a diluent entering the combustor premixed with
the syngas would be more effective in lowering the NOx than if it entered the combustor through a separate nozzle. On the other hand,
some savings in the N2 compressor horsepower may be realized in the case where the diluent is introduced into the combustor separately
if the pressure drop associated with the fuel control valve is much higher than that for the diluent.
It should be noted that the specic heat of the triatomic H2O molecule is signicantly higher than that of the diatomic N2 mol-
ecule on a mole basis and thus the relative amounts of diluents required, i.e. water vapor versus N2 on a volumetric or mole basis by a
given amount of syngas are quite different.
Thus, in summary, the composition of the syngas / diluent are dependent on the type of gasier, heat recovery and energy
integration options and the type of air separation unit, i.e., whether it is an elevated pressure air separation unit which can supply high
pressure N2 for use as a thermal diluent for NOx control.

Gas Turbine Pressure Ratio


The pressure ratio of the gas turbine increases when ring syngas, which is a much lower heat content gas than natural gas. The
increase in pressure ratio is dependent upon the amount and nature of the diluent added and the degree to which the compressor inlet
guide vanes are closed. The surge margin available in the compressor could thus constrain the amount of diluent that may be added and
the resulting NOx emissions, in addition to the constraints set by the combustor design with respect to achieving stable combustion while
limiting the CO emissions. Air extraction from the compressor may be required in order to limit the increase in the engine pressure ratio,
in which case the extracted air (after cooldown / heat recovery) may be used efciently in an elevated pressure air separation unit.

Gas Turbine Firing Temperature


The H2O vapor content of the working uid owing through the turbine, especially in the case when decarbonized syngas is the
fuel and while utilizing water vapor as the diluent, is signicantly higher than that in the case when natural gas is the fuel (i.e., compared
to the case when natural gas is red in dry low NOx combustors). The following implications exist for the gas turbine in such applica-
tions:

Derating of the turbine ring temperature due the different aero-heat transfer characteristics3 and
Life of the thermal barrier coatings, and any ceramics that may be utilized in advanced gas turbines in the future.

Additionally, a gas turbine designed for a certain ring temperature on natural gas would see derating of the ring temperature
not only due to the increased concentration of H2O vapor in the working uid but also due to the increase in the pressure ratio since the
temperature of the cooling air increases as the pressure ratio is increased. In the case of a steam-cooled gas turbine, however, derat-
ing of the ring temperature due to the increase in pressure ratio may be less signicant (since the cooling steam temperature may be
maintained independently of the gas turbine pressure ratio), unless the low pressure air-cooled stages of the gas turbine become the
bottleneck. 78
Ashok Rao, Ph.D., P.E.
Thus, the choice of the diluent to be utilized, i.e., H2O vapor versus N2 or their relative amounts should be included in the trade-
off / optimization studies, i.e., take into account not only the gasication island heat recovery options but also the accompanying extent
of the gas turbine ring temperature reduction.

Bottoming Steam Cycle


The effect of lowering the ring temperature while increasing the pressure ratio signicantly reduces the gas turbine exhaust
temperature which has implications on the steam bottoming cycle. With lower steam superheat and reheat temperatures as compared to
those corresponding to a natural gas red combined cycle, the optimum steam cycle pressures would tend to be lower than those for the
steam cycle in a natural gas red combined cycle.

Use of Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)


At the present time, gas turbine manufacturers are willing to guarantee 15 ppmV NOx (dry, 15% O2 basis) for gas turbines in
IGCC applications with the requirement of the thermal diluent addition. More stringent NOx emission requirements [e.g., 3 ppmV NOx
(dry, 15% O2 basis)] in the future may require the installation of an SCR for post combustion control of the NOx or advanced gas turbine
combustors that generate less NOx such as the trapped vortex combustor4.
Development of low NOx combustors has a number of technical challenges to overcome due to the presence of a large concen-
tration of H2 in the syngas (auto-ignition and ash-back being the challenges with pre-mixed combustor designs). These technical chal-
lenges will be even more severe for the more advanced gas turbines which will have higher pressure ratios (to take full advantage of the
higher ring temperatures) and thus higher combustion air temperatures than current gas turbines in syngas applications. Decarbonized
syngas will make it more challenging since the H2 content of the decarbonized syngas is signicantly increased.
Although SCRs have been utilized in coal red boiler plants, the application of SCRs in IGCC plants poses special challenges.
The NH3 slip from the SCR is known to react with the SO3 formed during the combustion process as well as some formed in the SCR
itself (depending on the vanadium content of the catalyst) to form salts (ammonium bisulfate, sulfate and bisulte) as the gases are
cooled during heat recovery. Ammonium bisulfate tends to be especially sticky and can deposit on the cooler surfaces of heat transfer
equipment causing fouling as well as corrosion. Any unreacted NH3 that may be emitted to the atmosphere is by itself a pollutant. In
the case of a boiler, these problems are less severe since the NH3 slip from the SCR is preferentially adsorbed onto the yash while any
ammonium salts formed are captured in the particulate control devices. Furthermore, the air preheater in a boiler plant is cleaned peri-
odically by on-line soot blowers.
Operating combined cycle plants red with sulfur bearing fuel oil have shown fouling of the low temperature boiler feed water
heater in the HRSG when equipped with an SCR. Note that the salts that do not deposit within the HRSG will be emitted as particulate
matter.
The use of SCRs in IGCC applications thus requires a syngas that is very low in sulfur content to reduce the SO3 content in the
gas turbine exhaust. SCRs have been installed in IGCC plants, the API Falconaro plant in Italy and the Negishi plant in Japan5. The
ISAB IGCC plant in Italy which also has an SCR, uses it only on fuel oil operation and bypasses it during syngas operation6. For the
Negishi plant, a syngas with a sulfur content of 8 ppmV is produced with a design maximum of 30 ppmV. No problems associated with
salt deposition in the HRSG have been experienced in this plant. Both capital cost and thermal penalties are associated however, with
deep sulfur removal in an IGCC for the following reasons:

A COS hydrolysis unit may be required to convert the COS (which is more difcult to scrub out in the acid gas removal unit)
to H2S; and,
A large circulation rate is required in the acid gas removal unit for deep sulfur removal.

In the case of an IGCC plant designed for producing a decarbonized syngas using sour shift and an acid gas removal unit to
capture the CO2 and also perform desulfurization of the syngas, most of the COS is hydrolyzed to H2S in the shift reactors, while due to
the very large solvent circulation rate maintained in the acid gas removal unit to capture the CO2, the sulfur content of the treated syngas
is very low. In such cases, the incremental heat rate and cost penalties associated with producing a low sulfur syngas suitable for ring
in a gas turbine equipped with an SCR are not signicant.

Engine Output
The gas turbine when red with syngas with diluent addition can be fully loaded to maximize its power output, the limits being
the surge margin of the compressor (pressure ratio being increased) and the shaft torque. A nearly at rating of the engine output with
respect to the ambient temperature may be realized by opening up the guide vanes as the ambient temperature increases, the compressor
inlet guide vanes being typically closed at the lower ambient temperatures to compensate for the larger mass ow rate of the syngas and
the diluent.

79
1.2.2 Implications of CO2 Sequestration for Gas Turbines

1.2.2-3 Conclusions
Due to the high H2 content of the syngas stream, the use of current design pre-mixed gas turbine combustors to limit NOx
formation is precluded. Diluent addition is required to the syngas in order to reduce the NOx generation when utilizing diffusion
type combustors; the amount of diluent addition required by decarbonized syngas is much higher that that required for the un-de-
carbonized syngas.
The H2O vapor content of the working uid owing through the turbine, especially in the case when decarbonized syn-
gas is the fuel and while utilizing water vapor as the diluent, is signicantly higher than that in the case when natural gas is the
fuel. The implications for the gas turbine in such applications are that the turbine ring temperature is derated due to the different
aero-heat transfer characteristics and due to the higher cooling air temperatures caused by operation under a higher pressure ratio,
while the life of the thermal barrier coatings and any ceramics that may be utilized in advanced gas turbines in the future may be
adversely effected.
Use of a trapped vortex combustor holds promise as an alternate option for supressing the NOx emissions in syngas ap-
plication.
Penalty of utilizing a SCR in a decarbonized syngas red combined cycle can be less severe as compared to its use in an
IGCC without upstream CO2 capture.

1.2.2-4 Notes
___________________________

1. A.D. Rao and R. Stobbs,, An Evaluation of Coal Gasication with CO2 Capture (presented at the
Combustion Canada Conference, Vancouver, September 2003); EPRI Report No. IE-7365, Engineering and
Economic Evaluation of CO2 Removal from Fossil-Fuel-Fired Power Plants (prepared by Fluor Daniel, Inc, June
1991).
2. See note 1 above (EPRI Report).
3. A.D. Rao and D. Du Plessis, Prospects for 200 MW Western Canadian Coal IGCC with CO2 Capture (presented
at the Combustion Canada Conference, Vancouver, September 2003).
4. K.Y. Hsu, L.P. Gross, and D.D. Trump, Performance of a Trapped Vortex Combustor (J. of Propulsion and Power,
Paper No. 95-0810, AIAA 33rd Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, Nevada, Jan 9-12, 1995).
5. T. Ono, NPRC Negishi IGCC Startup and Operation (presented at the Gasication Technologies Conference, San
Francisco, California, October, 2003); D. Heaven and B. DeSouza, Technical Issues with SCR in IGCC
Applications (presented at the 6th European Gasication Conference, Brighton, UK, May 2004).
6. See note 5 above (Heaven & DeSouza).

80
BIOGRAPHY
1.2.2 Implications of CO2 Sequestration for Gas Turbines
1.3.2 Advanced Brayton Cycles

Ashok Rao, Ph.D., P.E.

Chief Scientist, Power Systems


Advanced Power and Energy Program
University of California
Irvine, CA 92697-3550

phone: (949) 824-7302 ext 345


email: adr@apep.uci.edu

Dr. Rao serves as the Chief Scientist, Power Systems at UC Irvine Advanced Power and Energy Program.
He worked in industry for more than 30 years in the energy conversion area, and previously worked at
Fluor as Director in Process Engineering and Senior Fellow in design / development of gasication for
power generation and synthetic fuels coproduction. He received several patent awards in the energy
conversion area and authored several papers on advanced power cycles and improved IGCC designs.
Dr. Rao has also worked for Allis-Chalmers and McDowell Wellman Engineering in coal conversion;
responsibilities included taking ideas from drawing board to demonstration scale plants. He holds a
Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering and a M.S. in Chemical Engineering.
1.2
Integrated Coal 1.2-1 Introduction
Gasication Combined
Cycle (IGCC) Integrated Coal Gasication Combined Cycle (IGCC) refers to the
technology of converting coal to a fuel gas by contacting it with a mixture
of oxygen (or air) and steam, burning the fuel gas in a combustion turbine/
generator, using the waste heat from the turbine to raise steam, and sending
the steam to a steam turbine for additional power generation. IGCC has a
number of technical advantages, but until recently, higher capital costs plus
the availability of cheap natural gas have limited its application. However,
as pollution limits become more stringent and natural gas prices increase, the
superior performance of IGCC will make it increasingly attractive, particularly
as technical advances reduce costs.
Gasication is a well-proven technology that had its beginnings in
the late 1700s. In the 19th century, gasication was used extensively for the
production of town gas for urban areas. Although this application has all
Gary J. Stiegel but vanished in the 20th century with the widespread availability of natural
NETL gas, gasication has found new applications in the production of fuels and
chemical feed stocks and in large-scale power generation. Today, gasication
626 Cochrans Mill Road,
technology is being widely used throughout the world. A study conducted
P.O. Box 10940 in 2004 indicated that there were 156 gasication projects worldwide. Total
Pittsburgh, PA 15236 capacity of the projects in operation was 45,000 MW (thermal) with another
email: gary.stiegel@netl.doe.gov 25,000 MW (thermal) in various stages of development.

1.2-2 The Gasication Process1

The major difference between combustion and gasication from the


point of view of the chemistry involved is that combustion takes place under
oxidizing conditions, while gasication occurs under reducing conditions. In
the gasication process, a carbon-based feedstock in the presence of steam and
oxygen at high temperature and moderate pressure is converted in a reaction
vessel called a gasier to synthesis gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen, generally referred to as syngas. The chemistry of gasication is quite
Massood Ramezan complex and involves many chemical reactions, some of the more important
of which are:
phone: (412) 386-6451
email: massood.ramezan@sa.netl.
doe.gov C + O2 CO2 Hr = -393.4 MJ/kmol (1)

C + O2 CO Hr = -111.4 MJ/kmol (2)

C + H2O H2 + CO Hr = 130.5 MJ/kmol (3)

C + CO2 2CO Hr = 170.7 MJ/kmol (4)

CO + H2O H2 + CO2 Hr = -40.2 MJ/kmol (5)

C + 2H2 CH4 Hr = -74.7 MJ/kmol (6)

Howard G. McIlvried Reactions (1) and (2) are exothermic oxidation reactions and provide
most of the energy required by the endothermic gasication Reactions (3)
phone: (412) 386-4825 and (4). The oxidation reactions occur very rapidly, completely consuming
email: howard.mcilvried@sa.netl.doe. all of the oxygen present in the gasier, so that most of the gasier operates
gov
under reducing conditions. Reaction (5) is the water-gas shift reaction, which
SAIC in essence converts CO into H2. The water-gas shift reaction alters the H2/
P.O. Box 10940 CO ratio in the nal mixture but does not greatly impact the heating value of
Pittsburgh, PA 15236 the synthesis gas, because the heats of combustion of H2 and CO on a molar
basis are almost identical. Methane formation, Reaction (6), is favored by
high pressures and low temperatures and is, thus, mainly important in lower-
temperature gasication systems. Methane formation is an exothermic
59 reaction that does not consume oxygen and, therefore, increases the efciency
of gasication and the nal heating value of the synthesis gas. Overall, about 70% of the fuels heating value is associated with the CO
and H2 in the gas, but this can be higher depending upon the gasier type.
Depending on the gasier technology employed and the operating conditions, signicant quantities of H2O, CO2, and CH4 can
be present in the synthesis gas, as well as a number of minor and trace components. Under the reducing conditions in the gasier, most
of the fuels sulfur converts to hydrogen sulde (H2S), but 3-10% converts to carbonyl sulde (COS). Fuel-bound nitrogen generally
converts to gaseous nitrogen (N2), but some ammonia (NH3) and a small amount of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) are also formed. Most of
the chlorine in the fuel is converted to HCl with some chlorine present in the particulate phase. Trace elements, such as mercury and
arsenic, are released during gasication and partition among the different phases, such as y ash, bottom ash, slag, and product gas. Table
1 shows typical gas compositions for some of the more commonly used gasiers.

Table 1. Composition of Raw Syngas from Coal Fed Gasiers


Gasier Technology Sasol/Lurgi1 Texaco/GE Energy2a BGL2b E-Gas/Conoco Phillips Shell/Uhde2c
Type of Bed moving entrained moving entrained entrained
Coal Feed Form dry slurry dry slurry dry
Coal Type Illinois No. 6 Illinois No. 6 Illinois No. 6 Illinois No. 6 Illinois No. 5
Oxidant oxygen oxygen oxygen oxygen oxygen
Pressure, MPa (psia) 0.101 (14.7) 4.22 (612) 2.82 (409) 2.86 (415) 2.46 (357)
Ash Form slag slag slag slag slag
Composition, vol%
H2 52.2 30.3 26.4 33.5 26.7
CO 29.5 39.6 45.8 44.9 63.1
CO2 5.6 10.8 2.9 16.0 1.5
CH4 4.4 0.1 3.8 1.8 0.03
Other HC 0.3 - 0.2 - -
H2S 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.3
COS 0.04 0.02 0.1 0.1 0.1
N2 + Ar 1.5 1.6 3.3 2.5 5.2
H2O 5.1 16.5 16.3 - 2.0
NH3 + HCN 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.02
HCl - 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03
H2S/COS Ratio 20/1 42/1 11/1 10/1 9/1

Sources:
1
Rath, Status of Gasication Demonstration Plants, Proc. 2nd Annu. Fuel Cells Contract Review Mtg., DOE/METC-9090/6112, p. 91.
2
Coal Gasication Guidebook: Status, Applications, and Technologies, Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI TR-102034, 1993. 2a: p. 5-28; 2b p. 5-58; 2c: p.
5-48.

Many other reactions, besides those listed, occur. In the initial stages of gasication, the rising temperature of the feedstock
initiates devolatilization of the feedstock and the breaking of weaker chemical bonds to yield tars, oils, phenols, and hydrocarbon gases.
These products generally react further to form H2, CO, and CO2. The xed carbon that remains after devolatilization reacts with oxygen,
steam, CO2, and H2.

Gasier Types:

All gasier technologies generally fall into one of three generic types of reactor: moving-bed (also call xed-bed), uidized-
bed, and entrained ow. In a moving-bed gasier, large particles of coal move slowly down through the bed while reacting with gases
moving countercurrenly. Reaction zones are often used to describe the reactions occurring along the length of the gasier. In the
drying zone at the top of the gasier, the entering coal is heated and dried by the countercurrent ow of syngas, while simultaneously
cooling the syngas before it leaves the gasier. The moisture content of the coal mainly controls the temperature of the discharge gas
from the gasier. Because of the countercurrent operation of this gasier, hydrocarbon liquids can be found in the product gas which
has been problematic for downstream operations; however, techniques have been devised to capture the hydrocarbons and recycle them
to the lower part of the gasier. As the coal continues down the bed, it enters the carbonization zone where the coal is further heated
and devolatilized by higher temperature gas. In the gasication zone, the devolatilized coal in converted to syngas by reactions with
steam and CO2. In the combustion zone near the bottom of the reactor, oxygen reacts with the remaining char to consume the remaining
carbon and to generate the necessary heat for the gasication zone. Depending upon the operation of the combustion zone, the moving
bed gasier can be made to operate in one of two distinct modes, i.e., dry ash or slagging. In the dry-ash version, the temperature is
maintained below the ash slagging temperature by the endothermic reaction of the char with steam in the presence of excess steam. In
addition, the ash below the combustion zone is cooled by the entering steam and oxidant. In the slagging version, much less steam is
used so that the temperature of the ash in the combustion zone exceeds the ash fusion temperature of the coal and molten slag is formed.
Moving-bed gasiers have the following characteristics:
60
Gary J. Stiegel, Massood Ramezan, Howard G. McIlvried

Low oxidant requirements;


Production of hydrocarbon liquids, such as tars and oils;
High cold-gas thermal efciency, when the heating value of the hydrocarbon liquids is included; and,
Limited ability to handle nes.

Fluidized-bed gasiers operate in a highly back-mixed mode, thoroughly mixing the coal feed particles with those particles
already undergoing gasication. Coal enters at the side of the reactor, while steam and oxidant enter near the bottom, thereby suspending
or uidizing the reacting bed. Char particles entrained in the raw gas leaving the top of the gasier are recovered by a cyclone and
recycled back to the gasier. Ash particles removed below the bed give up heat to the incoming steam and oxidant. Because of the
highly back-mixed operation, the gasier operates under isothermal conditions at a temperature below the ash fusion temperature of
the coal, thus avoiding clinker formation and possible collapse of the bed. The low temperature operation of this gasier means that
uidized-bed gasiers are best suited to relatively reactive feeds, such as low-rank coals and biomass, or to lower quality feedstocks,
such as high ash coals. Fluidized-bed gasiers have the following characteristics:

Accept a wide range of solid feedstocks, including solid waste, wood, and high ash coals;
Uniform, moderate temperature;
Moderate oxygen and steam requirements; and,
Extensive char recycling.

In entrained-ow gasiers, ne coal particles react with steam and oxidant, generally pure oxygen, at temperatures well above
the fusion temperature of the ash. The residence time of the coal in these gasiers is very short, and high temperatures are required
to achieve high carbon conversion. Because of the high reaction temperatures required compared to the other gasier types, oxygen
consumption is higher because of the need to combust more of the feedstock to generate the required heat. To minimize oxygen
consumption, and hence cost, these gasiers are usually supplied with higher quality feed stocks. Entrained-ow gasiers can operate
either in a down-ow or up-ow mode. Entrained-ow gasiers have the following characteristics:

Ability to gasify all coals, regardless of rank, caking characteristics, or amount of nes, although feedstocks with
lower ash content are favored;
Uniform temperature;
Very short feed residence time in the gasier;
Solid fuel must be very nely divided and homogeneous;
Relatively large oxidant requirement;
Large amount of sensible heat in the raw gas;
High-temperature slagging operation; and,
Entrainment of some ash/slag in the raw gas.

Syngas Cleanup

Before syngas can be burned as a fuel or converted to chemicals, liquid fuels, or hydrogen, impurities in the gas, as shown
in Table 1, must be reduced to levels that depend upon the requirements of the downstream process. To clean the syngas, chemical
solvents, such as monoethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine (DEA), and methyl diethanolamine (MDEA), and physical solvents, such
as methanol (Rectisol) and mixtures of dimethyl ethers of polyethylene glycol (Selexol), operating at ambient or lower temperatures
are employed. The selection of the technology for gas cleanup is dependent on the purity requirements of downstream operations and
whether of not capture of carbon dioxide is required.
With all of these technologies, the syngas is contacted with the scrubbing liquid in a packed column. In the amine-based systems
(MEA, DEA, MDEA), weak chemical compounds are formed between H2S and the amine. Compounds such as COS are unaffected by
the amine and must rst be hydrolyzed to H2S if deeper sulfur removal is required. The rich amine is then pumped to a second packed
column, operating at a higher temperature, where the H2S is stripped from the solvent and sent to sulfur recovery, typically a Claus unit.
The lean amine is cooled and returned to the absorber. The Rectisol process uses chilled methanol, at a temperature of about -40oF to
-80oF, as the solvent. In this case, the H2S and other sulfur-containing compounds, such as COS, dissolve in the methanol but do not react
with it. The methanol is regenerated by ashing, and the lean solvent is then returned to the absorber. Like the Rectisol process, H2S
and other sulfur-containing compound are quite soluble in the Selexol solvent, which operates at about 0oF to 100oF. The rich solution
is sent to a regeneration column, where a combination of reduced pressure and stripping at an increased temperature is used to remove
the absorbed acid gases. The regenerated solvent is returned to the absorber. In current IGCC systems, absorption processes are used
to remove H2S, with a minimum of CO2 removal, since CO2 in the fuel gas improves turbine performance. However, should it become
necessary to also recover CO2, these processes can be congured to remove both H2S and CO2.

61
1.2 Integrated Coal Gasication Combined Cycle (IGCC)
Once the synthesis gas is sufciently cleaned, various options exist for its utilization, such as the production of electricity via
IGCC or the production of chemicals, hydrogen, and liquid fuels by water-gas shift and Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) technology. In IGCC, the
clean synthesis gas is sent to a combustion turbine, where the gas is burned to produce electricity. The energy contained in the exhaust
gas from the gas turbine is recovered in a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). Steam from the HRSG goes to a steam turbine for the
production of additional electricity. Approximately, two-thirds of the total electricity generated in the IGCC plant is produced by the gas
turbine and one third is produced by the steam turbine. Because of the sulfur removal process discussed above, SO2 emissions are very
low. Likewise, eliminating ammonia from the syngas in the gas cleaning system and adding a diluent (nitrogen or moisture) to the fuel
gas prior to combustion to lower combustion temperature in the turbine results in very low levels of NOx emissions, even in the absence
of selective catalytic reduction (SCR).
There is growing concern that the increased concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels is
contributing to global warming with undetermined consequences. This concern had resulted in the development of the Kyoto Protocol,
which sets limits on CO2 emissions for the signatory countries. An obvious target for CO2 reductions is large stationary point sources,
such as coal-red power plants. Studies to date have indicated that recovery of the CO2 from the ue gas from these plants is very
expensive and inefcient. Because the ue gas is at about atmospheric pressure and the CO2 concentration is typically less than 15%,
large volumes of gas have to be treated and the driving force for CO2 absorption is low.
With coal gasication, the situation is different. The CO2 partial pressure in the product gas from the gasier is much higher
due to the higher pressure of the syngas (typically 500-700 psi). The higher pressure and the absence of nitrogen dilution result in a much
lower gas volume to be treated (on the order of only 0.5% to 1% the volume of ue gas). Furthermore, by using a water-gas shift unit,
CO in the fuel gas can be converted to H2 and CO2 before CO2 capture. With this approach, nearly all the carbon in the gasier feed can
be captured as CO2 for use or sequestration. Major potential uses for the captured CO2 include enhance oil recovery (EOR) and enhanced
coal bed methane recovery (ECBM). Smaller uses include feedstock for chemicals manufacture and as a fertilizer in greenhouses, but
these uses are much too small to have an impact on CO2 emissions. If it becomes mandatory to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,
it is likely that CO2 will be sequestered by injection into deep saline aquifers, abandoned oil and gas elds, and unminable coal seams.

1.2-3 IGCC Systems

Stack Gas

Electricity Steam Heat


Turbine/ Recovery Turbine
Steam Exhaust
Oxygen from Scrubber Generator
Generator
ASU or Air Water

Coal
Gas
Electricity
Acid Gas
Gasifier Raw Particulate Raw Gas Sour Gas Sweet Turbine/
Turbine/
Syngas Scrubber Syngas Cooling Syngas Removal Syngas Generator
Water Generator

Recycle Ash Sour Acid


Scrubber Condensate Gas
Blowdown Air
Slag or Ash
(including non-volatile
trace elements)
Process Sulfur
Recycle Water
Water Sour Recovery Tail Gas
Treatment Gas Unit
Recycled to
Gasifier

Water Treated Byproduct


Treatment Waste Water Sulfur or
Residuals H2SO4

Fig. 1. Schematic of Generic IGCC Power Plant

62
Gary J. Stiegel, Massood Ramezan, Howard G. McIlvried

IGCC involves the integration of a number of technologies, as shown by the schematic diagram in gure 1. The technologies
involved include air separation, gasication, syngas cleanup (including sulfur recovery), and power generation. Figure 2 presents some
of the options for the various technology blocks in the gasication based systems. Improvements in any of these technologies will result
in an improvement in IGCC. In a typical IGCC unit, coal, oxygen and steam are fed to the gasier, where they are converted to raw
syngas. The syngas is then cooled and cleaned of particulate matter, ammonia, and sulfur compounds. The cleaned gas is sent to the gas
turbine where it is mixed with air and burned. Nitrogen from the air separation unit or steam may be added to the syngas to lower the
combustion temperature and reduce NOx formation. The hot exhaust from the combustion turbine goes to a HRSG to raise steam for a
steam turbine. The combination of a combustion turbine plus a steam turbine bottoming cycle increases the efciency of IGCC.
If it is desired to produce hydrogen, either as a product or to permit CO2 recovery, then a water-gas shift reactor is included along
with an acid gas removal system. The hydrogen can be used as a fuel for fuel cells, for petroleum rening, as a chemical intermediate, or
burned in the combustion turbine. In this case, the only combustion product is water, and the only pollutant is a small amount of NOx.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENERGY
RESOURCES GASIFIERS PRODUCTS
CONTROL CONVERSION

OXYGEN-BLOWN Particul ate Removal and


Air/Oxygen Gas Turbine Steam
Entrained Fl ow Recycle
ChevronTexaco, E-Gas, Filt ration,
Coal Heat Recovery Steam Electric Power
Shell, Prenflo, Noell Water Scrubbing
Generator (HRS G)
Biomass Flui dized Bed Chlori de and Alkali Li qui d Fuels
HT Winkler Removal Steam Turbine
Petroleum Coke Water Scrubbing Chemicals
Moving Bed
British Gas Lurg i (BGL) Aci d Gas Removal Boiler
Heavy Oil Lurgi (Dry Ash) Amine Processes Methanol
Transport Reactor Rectisol, Selexo l Syngas Conversion to
Refinery Wastes Kellogg COS Hydrolysis Fuels & Chemicals Hydrogen
------------------------------------ Sulfur Recovery
MSW AIR-B LOWN Catalytic Conversion Ammoni a/
Claus Process
Flui dized Bed Fertilizers
Scott Process
Orimulsion HT Winkler, IGT Ugas Shift Conversion
Sulfuric Acid Plant
KRW Slag
Other Wastes Water Treatment Fischer-Tropsch
Spouting Bed
Process Water, BFW Sulfur/Sulfuric
British Coal,
Foster Wheeler Tail Gas Treating Fuel Cell Aci d
Entrained Fl ow Turbine NOx Control
Mitsubishi Nitrogen/Steam Dilution H2 Turbine
Transport Reactor Syngas Mercury Capture
Kellogg
Syngas CO2 Capture

Fig. 2. Gasication-Based Energy Conversion System Options

1.2-4 Gasier Improvements

Reliability and performance of the gasier are key factors impacting the commercial deployment of IGCC technology. Today,
single train IGCC plants, such as the Wabash River and Tampa Electric plants, have typically not achieved availabilities in excess of
80% for any sustained period of time. However, for gasication to be accepted for utility applications, availabilities in excess of 90%
are required. For other applications, such as in reneries and chemical plants, the availability of the gasier must be over 97%. Today,
these high availabilities can be accomplished, but only through the addition of a spare gasier at an increase in capital cost. To achieve
gasier high availability, several areas of gasier operation need to be improved.
Feed injectors are considered to be the weakest link in achieving a high on-stream factor, particularly with slurry-fed systems.
A typical injector is reported to last from two to six months; however, a minimum life of 12 months is desired. Computational uid
dynamic (CFD) modeling around the injector may help to elucidate the factors that lead to failure. New materials and/or coatings
for existing materials are needed to provide protection from suldation and corrosion at high reactor temperatures. New injectors are
63 currently being developed based on rocket engine technology to achieve the target life and improve carbon conversion in the gasier.
1.2 Integrated Coal Gasication Combined Cycle (IGCC)

Injector life also appears to be dependent on whether a dry or wet feed system is used. In a dry feed system, injector life is
usually better, possibly due to the absence of a large amount of evaporating water. Although improved life has been reported, operations
with dry feed systems at high pressures are problematic because of the use of lock hoppers. To eliminate lock hoppers, a high pressure
dry feed pump is under development which could result in a signicant cost reduction for dry feed systems.
For those gasiers employing refractories to protect the pressure vessel, such as Texaco (now owned by GE Energy) and E-Gas
(now owned by Conoco Phillips), new materials that have a useful life in excess of three years must be developed and demonstrated.
Depending upon the severity of the gasier operation and the feedstock being used, refractory liners typically last from six to 18 months.
Rebricking a gasier typically requires three weeks of downtime and costs $1-2 million. If a gasier must be rebricked once a year,
availability is automatically reduced by 5-6%. New refractory materials under development have shown considerable resistance to slag
attack under simulated gasier conditions and are currently being evaluated in commercial coal gasiers.
Actively cooled gasiers, such as the Shell gasier, which has steam tubes imbedded in the refractory liner, mitigate the
refractory problem, but this route is usually more expensive. A new actively cooled liner that is potentially less expensive than other
approaches is under development.
Thermocouples used to measure the temperature inside the gasication zone are reported to last about 30-45 days. Failure of the
thermocouples is due to corrosion resulting from slag penetration into the refractory and stresses caused by temperature cycles. When
thermocouples are lost, the gasier is typically controlled based on a prior correlation of gasier temperature versus the methane content
of the exit gas. New instrumentation capable of operating in the gasication environment with an expected lifetime of more than a year
is required. Several new temperature measuring devices are being developed and tested with a promise of improved performance.

Gas Cleanup Improvements

Current synthesis gas cleaning technologies employ chemical or physical solvents and operate at ambient or lower temperature.
In an IGCC plant, these technologies typically account for 12-15% of the total capital cost of the plant. Amine-based systems are
suitable for meeting todays emission requirements, but they are not capable of achieving the limits of future potential regulations nor
are they applicable for cleaning syngas for chemicals production. For the latter case, more expensive and energy intensive technologies,
such as Rectisol, must be employed. What is needed are technologies capable of achieving the performance of a Rectisol unit but at
equal or lower cost than an amine system. Considerable effort is currently underway to develop improved sorbents technologies that
operate at moderate process temperatures while reducing acid gas concentrations to desired levels at a reduced cost and improved
thermal efciency. Integrated operation in a coal gasier will be necessary to demonstrate the impact of trace contaminants in coal-
derived syngas on the performance, longevity, and regenerability of any new sorbent.
Selective catalytic oxidation has the potential for achieving sulfur levels well below 1 ppm while operating at moderate process
temperatures. In this approach, a small quantity of oxygen is injected into the synthesis gas stream and reacts with H2S over a catalyst
to form elemental sulfur. To achieve the desired performance, either the COS in the raw gas stream must be hydrolyzed to H2S or a new
catalyst must be developed to directly convert COS to elemental sulfur.
For these approaches to be commercially attractive at a moderate process temperature, technologies are needed that can remove
other trace contaminants at similar process conditions. Technologies for NH3, chlorides, and Hg removal are being developed and tested.
Although not currently regulated, effort is also being focused on the removal of arsenic (As), selenium (Se), and cadmium (Cd) with
emphasis on multi-contaminant removal technologies to achieve near-zero emissions of all contaminants.

1.2-5 Gas Separation Improvements


Cost effective and efcient gas separation technologies are vital in the production of hydrogen from coal. Gas separation
operations occur in two major areas: the separation of oxygen from air for use in the gasier and the separation of the shifted synthesis
gas into pure H2 and CO2 streams. Cryogenic technologies are currently employed for the production of oxygen; however, these plants
are very capital and energy intensive. The cryogenic air separation unit in an IGCC plant typically accounts for 12-15% of the total plant
capital cost and can consume upwards of 10% of the gross power output of the plant.
Advanced dense ceramic membranes possessing both ionic and electronic conductance are being developed as a high temperature
approach for air separation. A preliminary engineering analysis comparing these advanced membranes with conventional cryogenic
technologies has been performed, and the results indicate that the advanced membranes have the potential for signicantly reducing the
capital cost of an IGCC plant with a corresponding 1-2 percentage point gain in thermal efciency. Although many challenges remain
in material composition and processing to produce defect-free, chemically and thermally stable membranes with commercially relevant
uxes, signicant progress has been made.

64
Gary J. Stiegel, Massood Ramezan, Howard G. McIlvried

Separation of hydrogen from shifted synthesis gas, either derived from coal or natural gas, is a key unit operation of any
fossil-energy-based hydrogen production system. Membrane technologies have been, and continue to be, explored quite extensively
by many investigators. Engineering studies comparing conventional coal gasication processes for producing hydrogen with advanced
membranes and other technologies indicate that there is substantial incentive to develop advanced H2/CO2 separation technologies.
Membranes can generally be divided into either organic or inorganic. Organic membranes appear to have limited applications
for coal-based hydrogen production routes because of their extreme sensitivity to process conditions and trace contaminants. Instead,
the bulk of the work for hydrogen separation is focused on inorganic membranes. Inorganic membranes can be classied as either
porous or dense, and the latter can be further subdivided into metallic or solid electrolytes (ceramic). One promising membrane uses a
manufacturing process that precisely controls the pore size distribution to allow primarily hydrogen to diffuse through the pores, thereby
achieving very high separation factors.
Considerable effort has also been devoted to metallic membranes, most of which are based on palladium (Pd). Although
initially thought to be promising, these membranes have been found to be susceptible to degradation from the presence of both sulfur
and CO. There have been reports of metal alloys that show very high hydrogen uxes at temperatures around 750oF, but the stability of
these membranes in the presence of trace contaminants from coal gasication must be determined.

1.2-6 Conclusions
Markets and drivers are changing rapidly. Environmental performance is becoming a greater factor as emission standards
tighten and market growth occurs in areas where total allowable emissions are capped. Also, reduction of CO2 emissions is one of the
challenges in response to global climate change. There is a need for more environmentally sound processes, more efcient and reliable
systems, and higher protability. Industries need technologies that can match these requirementsa way to remain exible, reduce risk,
decrease emissions, increase stockholder return on investment, and consume fewer resources. Gasication is a technology that can meet
these requirements. So far, the majority of existing applications have been geared toward the production of a single product or a constant
ratio of two or more products per facility. The potential of gasication in expanding markets is in its ability to use low-cost and blended
feedstocks and its multi-product exibility. With deregulation, rapidly changing market demands, uctuation in natural-gas prices, and
increased environmental concerns, gasication has the potential to become a cornerstone technology in many industries.

In particular, IGCC could become a dominant technology in the power industry because of the following advantages:

Ability to handle almost any carbonaceous feedstock;


Ability to efciently clean up product gas to achieve near-zero emissions of criteria pollutants, particulates, and mercury at
substantially lower costs and higher efciencies;
Flexibility to divert some syngas to uses other than turbine fuel for load following applications;
High efciency because of the use of both gas turbine and steam turbine cycles;
Ability to cost effectively recover CO2 for sequestration, if required;
Ability to produce pure H2, if desired;
Greater than 50% reduction in the production of solid by-products; and,
Substantial reduction in water usage and consumption.

65
1.2 Integrated Coal Gasication Combined Cycle (IGCC)

1.2-7 Notes

_____________________

1. For a more complete discussion of gasication, refer to the following reports:


Gasication, by C. Higman and M. van der Burgt, (Elsevier: Gulf Professional Publishing, 2003); Major Environmental
Aspects of Gasication-Based Power Generation Technologies, by J. Rataa-Brown, L. Manfredo, J. Hoffmann, and
M. Ramezan, U.S. Department of Energy, Ofce of Fossil Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, December 2002.

66
BIOGRAPHY
1.2 Integrated Coal Gasication Combined Cycle (IGCC)

Gary J. Stiegel
Technology Manager - Gasication

NETL
626 Cochrans Mill Road,
P.O. Box 10940
Pittsburgh, PA 15236

phone: (412) 386-4499


email: gary.stiegel@netl.doe.gov

Mr. Gary J. Stiegel has been with the Department of Energys National Energy Technology
Laboratory over twenty-nine years and is currently Technology Manager for Gasication. In this
capacity, he is responsible for strategic planning, budget formulation, program development and
oversight, and outreach activities for DOEs Ofce of Fossil Energys gasication program.

Prior to his present assignment, Mr. Stiegel served as the Program Coordinator for the Departments
Indirect Liquefaction and Gas-to-Liquids programs and spent ten years in R&D focusing on coal
hydrogenation and the rening of coal-derived liquids.

Mr. Stiegel has a Bachelors and Masters degree in chemical engineering and a Masters in Business
Administration from the University of Pittsburgh.

Prior to joining the Department of Energy, Mr. Stiegel was a process engineer for Union Carbide
Corporation. During his career, Mr. Stiegel has published over fty technical articles on various
aspects of coal conversion and reactor engineering and is a registered Professional Engineer in
Pennsylvania.
Massood Ramezan
SAIC
P.O. Box 10940
Pittsburgh, PA 15236

phone: (412) 386-6451


email: massood.ramezan@sa.netl.doe.gov

Dr. Ramezan has over twenty ve years of diverse experience in engineering, research &
development, program management, marketing, energy technology assessment, process evaluation,
personnel management, and technical services support in the areas of advanced energy systems
and environmental control technologies. Specic project examples include: an environmental
assessment of IGCC power systems, analysis of gasication-based multi-product systems with
CO2 recovery, and life cycle assessment of advanced power systems. Dr. Ramezan received his
B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from West Virginia University. He is a
registered professional engineer and a member of ASME. He has authored more than 80 technical
papers and has received numerous awards. Dr. Ramezan previously taught courses and conducted
research in the areas of thermal-uid sciences.
Howard G. McIlvried
SAIC
P.O. Box 10940
Pittsburgh, PA 15236

phone: (412) 386-4825


email: howard.mcilvried@sa.netl.doe.gov

Over 40 years experience in the areas of petroleum rening, petrochemicals, synthetic fuels, and
energy conversion. Actively engaged in the preparation of many topical reports and post project
assessments for the DOEs Clean Coal Technology program. Specic project examples include
the Tampa Electric Company and the Wabash IGCC projects. Received his BS, MS, and Ph.D.
degrees in Chemical Engineering from Carnegie-Mellon University. He is a member of ACS, and
has coauthored numerous technical papers and reports related to energy technology.
1.3.1.1 1.3.1.1-1 Introduction
Graz Cycle a Zero
Emission Power Plant of In the last hundred years the concentration of some greenhouse gases in the
Highest Efciency atmosphere has markedly increased. There is a wide consensus in the scientic
community that this seems to inuence the Earth surface temperature and thus the
world climate.
Therefore, in 1997 the Kyoto conference dened the goal of global greenhouse
gas emission reduction of about 5% in the next years compared to the 1990 emission
level. CO2 is the main greenhouse gas due to the very high overall amount emitted
by human activities, and about one third of the overall human CO2 emissions are
produced by the power generation sector. In the European Union (EU) there is a
strong pressure on public utilities and industry to reduce the CO2 emissions by power
generation1. In 2003 the European Parliament passed a directive on emission trading.
In 2005 emission allowances were assigned to about 10,000 companies in 25 countries
within the EU which cover about 46% of the overall EU CO2 emissions. Companies
which do not need their full amount can sell it to companies which need more than
Franz Heitmeir assigned. As emission allowances become scarce, they will have an increasing value.
First estimates varied between 10 and 20 /ton CO2 (12 and 24 $/ton CO2) by 2010,
but in June 2005 European Union Allowances (EUA) were already being traded at 23
/ton CO2 ( $28/ton CO2).
So there is a strong driving force to develop commercial solutions for the capture
of CO2 from power plants. The main technologies are as follows2:
- post combustion CO2 capture, e.g. by washing of exhaust gases using
amines;
- pre-combustion decarbonization of fossil fuels to produce pure hydrogen or
hydrogen-enriched fuels for use in conventional power plants;
- chemical looping combustion; and,
- oxy-fuel cycles with internal combustion of fossil fuels with pure oxygen.
Wolfgang Sanz
The authors believe that oxy-fuel cycles are a promising technology. The
combustion with pure oxygen leads to a working uid consisting mainly of steam and
CO2, which allows an easy and cost-effective CO2 separation by steam condensation.
Further advantages are the great variety of fuels which can be used (natural gas, syngas
from coal or biomass gasication, etc.) and the low NOx generation, since nitrogen is
only introduced by fuel bound nitrogen or as a residue in the oxygen to the combustion
chamber. The generated NOx as well as other gases are removed together with CO2, so
that no pollutants are emitted to atmosphere. On the other hand oxy-fuel cycles need
the development of new turbomachinery components and have to bear the high efforts
for oxygen supply. Oxygen needed in a large amount for this kind of cycles can be
generated by air separation units (ASU) which are in use worldwide with great outputs
in steel making industry and even in enhanced oil recovery. The largest air separation
Herbert Jericha plant already in operation for some years in the Gulf of Mexico produces nitrogen
for the injection in the gas dome of a large oil eld off-shore3. Fortunately, the new
Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery working uid of steam and CO2 allows new power plant cycles of highest efciency,
and Machine Dynamics so that the additional efforts for oxygen supply can be largely compensated. Among
Graz University of Technology, Graz, them the Matiant Cycle, the Water Cycle, and the Graz Cycle are the best known4.
Austria
History
http://www.ttm.tugraz.at
The authors believe that the so-called Graz Cycle has the potential of highest
franz.heitmeir@tugraz.at
efciency. The basic principle was developed and published by Jericha in 19855.
wolfgang.sanz@tugraz.at
He presented a power cycle without any emissions which was based on the internal
combustion of hydrogen with oxygen in stoichiometric ratio as obtainable from solar
power plants. Thermodynamically this steam cycle was an integration of a top Brayton
cycle and a bottom Rankine cycle. In the nineties the hydrogen technology lost its
impetus, so that the Graz Cycle was adopted for the ring of fossil fuels6. At this
time cooperation with Japanese companies and research organizations led to the name

81
Graz Cycle. The working uid was a mixture of about three quarters steam and one quarter CO2, the electrical efciency was about
64%. Improvements and further developments since then were presented at many conferences7. In 2000, a variant of the Graz Cycle was
proposed with a change of fuel from methane to oxygen blown coal gas (syngas), striving for minimum compression work8. All water of
the cycle medium was condensed before compression, thus a minimum compression work could be obtained. In this cycle CO2 was the
main component of the working uid. In the following years the general layout of all components for a 75 MW prototype plant of this
type was presented9.
But in 2004 there was a return to the original high steam content Graz Cycle (S-Graz Cycle), because it had become clear that the
reduction in compression work of almost pure CO2 has led to a considerable lowering of the inlet temperature to the combustion chamber10.
So by increasing the steam content in recompression the compression work is increased, leading to a much higher combustion chamber
inlet temperature. The heat input to the combustion chamber was lowered considerably thus raising the efciency to the highest value
that could be reached in the course of this cycle optimization. At the same time it turned out that much more steam for cooling could be
made effective for the combustion chamber burners and the high temperature turbine (HTT) rst blade rows. The resulting highest thermal
efciency of nearly 70% could be obtained if syngas was used as a fuel. The net efciency, including the efforts of oxygen supply and
compression of captured CO2 for liquefaction, is 56%. The general layout of the components for a 75 MW prototype plant showed the
feasibility of all components. In recent discussions with gas turbine industry a scale-up to a 400 MW plant was discussed for the S-Graz
Cycle scheme. In 2005 further modications of the Graz Cycle were discussed and their potential was analyzed11. An economic analysis
of the Graz Cycle power plant showed the strong dependence of the economics on the still uncertain investment costs.
In this work the name Graz Cycle means the original S-Graz Cycle, which was the more efcient variant and the one which will
be pursued in the future.

1.3.1.1-2 Cycle conguration and thermodynamic layout


All thermodynamic simulations were performed using the commercial software IPSEpro by SIMTECH Simulation Technology12.
This software allowed implementation of user-dened uid properties to simulate the real gas properties of the cycle medium. The
physical properties of water and steam were calculated using the IAPWS_IF97 formulations13; CO2 was also modeled as real gas based
on the correlation of Sievers14. Furthermore, a turbine module was developed for the calculation of cooled turbine stages. A simple stage-
by-stage approach similar to the one presented by Jordal et al. was assumed. This assumption allowed for the calculation of the amount
of cooling steam needed per stage15. Within the module, half of the cooling mass ow was mixed to the main ow at the stage inlet, thus
contributing to the stage expansion work. The rest was added at the stage exit. Details of the model were presented in Luckel, 200416.
The thermodynamic data presented was for a cycle red with methane, because it gave similar results as natural gas, the most likely
fuel to be used in a rst demonstration plant. The lower heating value was 50015 kJ/kg.
The thermodynamic simulation was based on the following assumptions on efciencies and losses:
The isentropic turbine efciency is 90.3% for the High Temperature Turbine (HTT), 90% for the High Pressure Turbine
(HPT) and 88% for the Low Pressure Turbine (LPT);
The isentropic efciency of CO2 compressors is 78% and of CO2/ H2O compressors 88%;
The isentropic efciency of pumps is 75%;
The mechanical efciency of the turbomachinery is 99.6% of net power;
The generator efciency is 98.5%;
The transformer efciency is 99.65%;
Auxiliary losses are 0.25% of heat input;
The combustor heat loss is 0.25%, the pressure loss 4%;
The oxygen excess is 3% of the stoichiometric ratio in order to keep CO generation low;
The minimum temperature difference at Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) economizer is 5 K, at superheater 25 K;
HRSG: cold side pressure loss is 28 bar (including 5 bar for HPT pipe); hot side pressure loss is 4 kPa;
The pressure loss of all other heat exchangers is 3%;
Fuel is supplied at 41.7 bar and 150C;
The cooling water temperature in the condenser is 10C;
CO2 is released at 1 bar, efforts of a further compression to 100 bar including the remaining steam content at 1 bar
(350 kJ/kg) is considered in the power balance; and
The power consumption of oxygen production is 900 kJ/kg (0.25 kWh/kg) and of oxygen compression from an ASU exit
pressure of 2.4 bar to combustor pressure is 325 kJ/kg.

82
Franz Heitmeir, Wolfgang Sanz, and Herbert Jericha

Figure 1 shows the principle ow scheme of the S-Graz Cycle with the main components and main cycle data.

Fig. 1. Principle ow scheme of Graz Cycle power plant

Basically, the Graz Cycle consists of a high temperature Brayton cycle (compressors C1 and C2, combustion chamber and High
Temperature Turbine HTT) and a low temperature Rankine cycle (Low Pressure Turbine LPT, condenser, Heat Recovery Steam Generator
HRSG and High Pressure Turbine HPT). The fuel together with the nearly stoichiometric mass ow of oxygen is fed to the combustion
chamber, which is operated at a pressure of 40 bar. Steam as well as a CO2/ H2O mixture is supplied to cool the burners and the liner.
A mixture of about 74% steam, 25.3% CO2, 0.5% O2 and 0.2% N2 (mass fractions) leaves the combustion chamber at a mean
temperature of 1400C. The uid is expanded to a pressure of 1.053 bar and 579C in the HTT. Cooling is performed with steam
coming from the HPT (13.7% of the HTT inlet mass ow), increasing the steam content to 77% at the HTT exit. It is quite clear that a
further expansion down to condenser pressure would not end at a reasonable condensation point for the water component, so that the hot
exhaust gas is cooled in the following HRSG to vaporize and superheat steam for the HPT, the pinch point of the HRSG is 25C at the
superheater exit. But after the HRSG, only 46% of the cycle mass ow is further expanded in the LPT. The LPT exit and thus condenser
pressure is 0.043 bar.
For a mixture of a condensable (steam) and a non-condensable gas (CO2) the condensation temperature depends on the partial
pressure of steam, which continuously decreases during the condensation. For a given condensate exit temperature the condenser
pressure determines the amount of steam condensed. In order to maximize the LPT power, the condenser pressure should be reduced as
far as possible, but this is counteracted by an increased effort for compressing the gaseous steam/CO2 mixture to atmospheric pressure.
So for a given condensate exit temperature of 18C (for a cooling water temperature of 10C) the optimum condenser pressure is 0.043
bar, where about half of the combustion water is condensed (see gure 2).

Fig. 2. Inuence of the condenser pressure on thermal cycle efciency


83
1.3.1.1 Graz Cycle a Zero Emission Power Plant of Highest Efciency

Gaseous and liquid phases are separated in the condenser. From there on, the gaseous mass ow, which contains the combustion
CO2 and half of the combustion water, is compressed to atmosphere (C3/C4) with intercooling and extraction of condensed water, and
supplied for further use or storage. At atmosphere the CO2 purity is 94%, further water extraction is done during further compression
for liquefaction.
After segregating the remaining combustion H2O, the water from the condenser is preheated, vaporized, and superheated in the
HRSG. The steam is then delivered to the HPT at 180 bar and 549C. After the expansion it is used to cool the burners and the HTT
stages.
The major part of the cycle medium, which is separated after the HRSG, is compressed using an intercooled compressor (C1/C2)
and fed to the combustion chamber with a maximum temperature of 600C. The detailed ow sheet used for the thermodynamic
simulation is included in the appendix and gives mass ow, pressure, temperature, and enthalpy of all streams.
In order to achieve a high thermal efciency the heat extracted from a power cycle should be small compared to the input. The cycle
arrangement of the Graz Cycle achieves this on the one hand by a very high peak temperature enabling large heat input, and on the other
hand by feeding only the smallest possible mass ow of working uid to the condenser (main heat extractor from the cycle) which has
to contain the CO2 generated in the combustor. The major part of the working uid is compressed in the gaseous phase and so takes its
high heat content back to the combustion chamber.

Graz Cycle for syngas from coal gasication


The Graz Cycle is suited for all kinds of fossil fuels. Best results regarding net cycle efciency can be obtained for syngas ring
from coal gasication. For this investigation it was assumed that syngas is bought from an external gasication plant at elevated costs,
so that the production effort was not considered in the thermodynamic balance. Syngas was provided at 500C, because coal gasication
takes place at very high temperatures. This temperature was chosen due to material restrictions. The syngas composition was typical for
an oxygen blown coal gasication plant (syngas mole fractions: 0.1 CO2, 0.4 CO, 0.5 H2).
Due to the higher carbon content of the fuel, the composition of the working uid at HTT exit was 69% steam and 31% CO2
(mass fractions). Then, half of the cycle mass ow was expanded in the LPT and fed to the condenser, where the lower steam content
led to a slightly higher optimum pressure of 0.05 bar. But in general the main cycle parameters did not change considerably.

Power balance
Table 1 gives the power balance of the Graz Cycle plant for methane and syngas ring for 143.8 MW heat input. For syngas two
variants with syngas at 150C and 500C are given in order to better understand the differences to the methane red version. The net
cycle efciency shown in the last row was calculated according to Equation 1.

Table 1 Graz Cycle power balance

(1)
84
Franz Heitmeir, Wolfgang Sanz, and Herbert Jericha

Looking at the methane-red version of the Graz Cycle, we see that the HTT was the major turbomachinery component in the
cycle. The thermal cycle efciency was 66.3%, and accounting for the electrical, mechanical and auxiliary losses, the net electrical cycle
efciency was 64.8%, a value far higher than that which is typical of state-of-the-art combined cycle plants. If considering the efforts
for oxygen production and compression to combustion pressure, a net efciency of 54.6% could be evaluated. If the cycle were to be
penalized for the CO2 compression to 100 bar needed for liquefaction, the net efciency would further reduce to 52.5%, a value still
higher than that of most alternative technologies.
In comparison of the methane-red version with the Graz Cycle red with syngas provided at the same temperature as methane,
i.e. 150C, the turbomachinery power reduces due to the less steam content with a lower heat capacity. The cycle efciency was slightly
reduced by 0.2 %-points due to higher condenser losses. Syngas demands less oxygen per heat input, so that the penalty of oxygen
supply decreases considerably. But this gain is partly offset by a larger amount of CO2 generated by syngas ring which then has to be
compressed for liquefaction. Finally, the syngas red version has a net cycle efciency of 53.1%, 0.6 %-points higher than the methane-
red version. If the heat of the syngas production can be used in the Graz Cycle plant for free (it is considered only in the fuel price), the
net cycle efciency would increase by 3 %-points up to 56.1%.

Sensitivity study of HTT performance


The signicance of the thermodynamic simulation was based on the choice of reasonable data for component efciency and losses.
The two key parameters for the Graz Cycle were the HTT efciency and HTT cooling mass ow because of the very high contribution
of this turbine to the overall power generation. Figure 3 shows the inuence of the HTT isentropic efciency. The effect of an improved
HTT efciency was counteracted by the decreased HTT outlet temperature resulting in a decrease of the HPT power output. If we
assume an HTT isentropic efciency of 92% instead of 90.3%, the net cycle efciency would reach only 53% instead of 53.8%, the
value expected if we do not account for the above mentioned effect of the reduced HTT exit temperature on the overall cycle.
On the other hand, the HTT cooling mass ow had a more signicant inuence on the cycle efciency. It was estimated to be 13.7%
using a model evaluated by comparison with conventional gas turbines, but a percentage-point increase in cooling mass ow decreased
the net efciency by 0.22 %-points. These considerations showed that the HTT performance had a decisive inuence on the overall cycle
efciency.

Fig. 3. Inuence of HTT isentropic efciency on net cycle efciency

Modications of cycle conguration


In order to improve the efciency of the Graz Cycle, several modications were investigated. The following cycle variants will be
discussed in this work:
- condensation of the cycle working uid at 1 bar and re-vaporization of the separated water; and,
- heat supply to the deaerator by the cooling heat of the CO2 compression intercoolers.

85
1.3.1.1 Graz Cycle a Zero Emission Power Plant of Highest Efciency

2.4.1. Condensation at 1 bar and water re-vaporization


The working uid containing the mass ow of CO2 generated in the combustor was expanded in the LPT to a condenser pressure of
0.043 bar. There the steam was condensed, allowing separation of the gaseous CO2. But this conguration had some deciencies:
1) The condenser was very large and thus expensive, because of the high volume ow and the anticipated reduced heat transfer due to
the high inert gas content; and
2) The CO2 mass ow was expanded in the LPT together with steam and afterwards recompressed to atmosphere, so that due to the
higher compression effort and additional losses a net loss was generated by this mass ow.
Therefore it was suggested in the Austrian patent of the Graz Cycle to condense this mass ow at atmospheric pressure, separate
the combustion CO2 and re-vaporize the water at a reduced pressure level using the condensation heat (see gure 4)17. The steam was
then fed to the LPT and could be expanded to a condenser pressure lower than that for the working uid mixture18. Advantages of this
conguration are the avoidance of the difcult condenser for the working uid at vacuum conditions and the saving of the relatively large
CO2 compressors C3 and C4 needed for compression to atmosphere. Instead of using a standard condenser, an additional condensation/
re-vaporization unit was needed. This condensation/revaporization unit worked at atmospheric conditions and was similar to distillers
used for conversion of sea and brackish water into high purity water by vacuum vapor compression.

Fig. 4. Scheme of condensation/re-vaporization

If the saving of CO2 compression power and the advantage of a lower condenser pressure exceeded the power loss of the LPT due
to the reduced mass ow, a net gain in efciency could be achieved. A thermodynamic study found an optimum for a dual pressure
vaporization at the pressure levels 0.55 bar and 0.3 bar. The losses assumed for vaporization were 0.18 bar for the higher pressure level
and only 0.07 bar for the lower pressure level. If these relatively low losses could be met, the efciency for this new conguration would
remain the same at 52.5%. So this conguration could lead to reduced plant costs and an even greater efciency, if the original low
condenser pressure cannot be kept for the working uid condensation.
As a second alternative currently investigated, the condensation heat could be utilized in a bottoming steam cycle. It has the
advantage of more exibility, of an easier start-up of the plant and has an easier water make-up.

2.4.2. Deaerator heating by CO2 compression intercoolers


In order to remove dissolved gases (N2, O2 and CO2) in the HRSG feed water, a deaerator was arranged in front of the feed pump.
Since there was no pure steam at an appropriate pressure available for heating, the feed water was heated close to saturation temperature
in a surface heat exchanger that utilized the working uid extracted in front of the LPT. This uid passing by the LPT caused a reduction
in its power output. To avoid this conguration and the resulting power reduction, it was investigated to supply the necessary heat for
the deaerator from the CO2 compression coolers instead of the working uid by passing the LPT (gure 5).

86
Franz Heitmeir, Wolfgang Sanz, and Herbert Jericha

Fig. 5. Scheme of deaerator supplied with heat from CO2 compression intercoolers

The thermodynamic simulation showed that the heat from the CO2 intercoolers can completely replace the extraction in front of the
LPT. So the mass ow and thus the power output of the LPT increased by 8.5%, resulting in an increase of net cycle efciency by 0.8
%-points up to 53.3%. This improvement showed that there was still room for efciency improvement of the Graz Cycle, but often in
trade-off with higher complexity.

1.3.1.1-3 Turbomachinery Design


Prototype plant of 75 MW output
Compression and expansion in large power cycles can only be affected with modern turbomachinery. The gases we have to deal with
in our case, CO2 and H2O steam, are very compressible at the given high enthalpy heads or pressure ratios. The resulting high changes
in volumetric ow in the individual compressors and turbines require a multi-shaft arrangement connected by gears.
The design decision to have the high temperature ow channel with minimum surface area and minimum heat loss and also with
minimum cooling ow supply leads to the arrangement of turbomachinery as given in gure 6, which also includes the compressors
C3 and C4 used to compress the separated CO2 to atmospheric pressure. There it is delivered to a nal compression up to 100 bar for
liquefaction.
The HTT turbine needs 4 stages due to the high heat capacity of the steam-rich cycle medium. The HTT is split into two shafts,
where the rst stage runs at 23 000 rpm, the other three stages at 12 000 rpm. The two overhang disks of different speed provide the
shortest possible high temperature annular ow channel. A bearing is arranged between the second and third stages. In order to reduce
the number of generators, the power of all four compressors is balanced with the HTT rst stage and the HPT. Both turbines drive
the cycle medium compressors C1 and C2 and in normal operation they also drive the CO2 delivering compressors C3 and C4. These
compressors are connected via a self-synchronizing clutch and are disconnected from the main high-speed shaft during start-up. Then
they are driven by a separate electric motor in a mode similar to the vacuum pump in a steam plant. This arrangement needs two gear
boxes, because the compressors C1 and C4 run at 12 000 rpm and the compressor C3 at 3 000 rpm.
The stages 2, 3, and 4 of the HTT run at 12 000 rpm and deliver their power via the main gear to the generator, which is driven on
the other side by the LPT in a way that is similar to very large steam turbines.
The main turbomachinery data and their dimensions for a prototype plant are given in19. Due to the small volumetric ow of the HPT
it is designed in the form of a 4-stage partial admission impulse steam turbine. Its arrangement immediately ahead of the HTT allows for
cooling of the HTT rst stage disk in an effective way. Exhaust steam is fed via labyrinth seals to the front side of the disk thus holding
the shaft and the disk at a temperature of around 300C. The disk is bell shaped with broad width in the center leading to a strong r-tree
root blade attachment which contains the cooling steam inlet ports to the hollow blades.
On the other side, the space between the HTT rst and second stage disks is again lled with cooling steam from outside, cooling
both disks and providing in a form of a stationary steam bearing additional damping to both shafts. Again from here cooling steam is
fed into the second disk and its blades.
The compressors C1 and C2 have to act on a medium consisting of CO2 and steam. The high volume change requires a change of
speed (C1 at 12 000 rpm, C2 at 23 000 rpm) with relatively high Mach numbers at the tip of their respective rst blades. But relatively
long lasting blades result in low clearance loss and low deterioration of the meridional ow prole. In order to keep the high-speed shaft
short and in order to reduce the number of stages in C2 a radial nal stage is proposed which can replace 3 or 4 axial stages due to its
higher diameter and at the same time can deliver the medium radially outwards, making the inow to the combustion chamber easier.
87
1.3.1.1 Graz Cycle a Zero Emission Power Plant of Highest Efciency

Fig. 6. Schematic arrangement of turbomachinery for a 100 MW S-Graz Cycle power plant

Graz Cycle plant of 400 MW output


For a Graz Cycle power plant of 400 MW net power output, a different but also very feasible design is suggested which works
without gear boxes in the main power shafts. The turbomachinery arrangement consists of three independent shafts. The rst shaft is a
free running high speed shaft of 7600 or even 8500 rpm. It consists of the working uid compressors C1 and C2 and the rst two stages
of the HTT turbine working as a compressor turbine. The turbine power is balanced with the power demand of the two compressors. The
second shaft consists of the HTT power turbine and the low pressure turbine LPT. Both turbines run at 3000 rpm and drive the electrical
generator. The third shaft consists of the CO2 compressors C3 and C4 and the HPT turbine. It runs at 3000 and preferably 7,600 rpm
connected via a gear box. An additional motor/generator delivers power for start-up and is driven in full load by the HPT power which
exceeds the demand of the compressors.

Development work needed for a Graz Cycle plant


Most components of the Graz Cycle are well known but they have to work with an unusual working uid of steam and CO2. More
critical components are as follows:
The combustor for a nearly stoichiometric combustion with oxygen and use of steam and CO2 as cooling medium;
The HTT with a working uid of about three quarts of steam and one quart of CO2 and steam cooling;
The condenser, condensing steam in the presence of a high content of inert gas.
All other components (LPT, HPT, all compressors, HRSG and heat exchangers) can be considered as standard components and do
not pose any difcult design problems.
Combustion chambers for ring oxygen with methane in a steam environment have already been tested in the USA, in Japan, and
Europe20. Recent tests at the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) were performed for a 1 MW combustor, working at 10
bar and an exit temperature of 1200C21. The combustor was no more difcult to operate than a regular combustor and performed well
in terms of CO generation, if a small oxygen surplus of 3% was provided. In summary, all investigations showed that the concept of
oxy-fuel combustion using steam dilution is viable.
The design of the HTT was studied carefully at Graz University of Technology and discussed at several conferences22. Recent
studies by a main gas turbine manufacturer also conrmed the technical feasibility of the HTT, but experience has to be gathered for the
behavior of the high-temperature alloys in the steam/ CO2 environment of HTT hot sections.
The condenser has to deal with a large volume ow due to its very low pressure and the difculty of reduced heat transfer in the
presence of inert gas. But little experience has yet been gathered for steam condensation at a 20% CO2 content, so that very little data
on heat transfer in this environment is available. Further research work is necessary and condensation at 1 bar as discussed above is a
reasonable option if very large heat transfer surfaces are required.

1.3.1.1-4 Economic Evaluation


Despite the high efciency and the positive impact on the environment by a Graz Cycle power plant, a future application of this
technology and an erection of a power plant mainly depend on the economic balance. The main indicator characterizing the economic
performance of a power plant for CO2 capture is the mitigation costs. They represent the increased capital and operational costs incurred
by new and additional equipment and lower cycle efciencies in relation to the CO2 mass ow avoided. The CO2 captured has an
economic value of about $10/ton, if it can be used for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) or of about $30/ton in the future CO2 emission
trading scenario. These prices show the momentary threshold for the economic operation of zero emission power plants, although it is
very difcult to foresee future trends.
88
Franz Heitmeir, Wolfgang Sanz, and Herbert Jericha

In order to estimate the mitigation costs for a Graz Cycle plant, an economic comparison with a state-of-the-art combined cycle
power plant of 58% efciency is performed. The economic balance is based on the following assumptions:
The yearly operating hours is assumed at 8500 hrs/yr;
The capital charge rate is 12%/yr;
Methane fuel costs are 1.3 /kWhth;
Syngas is supplied by a syngas producer at 3.5 /kWhth, so no efciency penalty for the production or additional investment
costs are considered;
The investment costs per kW are the same for the reference plant of about 400 MW net power output and the Graz Cycle
plant (see below);
Additional investment costs are assumed for the air separation unit (ASU), for additional equipment and CO2 compression
to 100 bar (see Table 223); and,
The costs of CO2 transport and storage are not considered because they depend largely on the site of a power plant.

Table 2 Estimated investment costs

The assumption of similar investment costs for a conventional and a Graz Cycle power plant is based on a comparison with typical
turbomachinery sizes for a 400 MW combined cycle plant as given in table 3. It shows that the turbine power and the HRSG are of
similar sizes, whereas the compressor power is remarkably smaller. On the other hand the Graz Cycle needs a larger generator due to
the additional power consumption for ASU and CO2 compression. Developmental efforts are needed especially since the HTT and
combustor were not considered in the investment costs.

Table 3 Comparison of equipment size for a 400 MW plant in terms of power

Three indicators characterizing the economic performance of a power plant for CO2 capture are estimated:
The costs of electricity (COE) for both plants;
The differential COE representing the additional costs of electricity due to CO2 capture;
The mitigation or capture costs representing the additional costs incurred by CO2 capture per ton CO2 .
Table 4 shows the result of the economic evaluation for methane and syngas ring, respectively. For syngas ring, the reference
plant is also syngas-red without considering an efciency decrease. The syngas plant has slightly smaller additional investment costs
because of the smaller ASU needed.
Compared to the reference plant, the capital costs are about 60% 70% higher by considering only the additional components for
O2 generation and CO2 compression. So they contribute mostly to the difference in COE. The fuel costs have the major inuence on the
COE, especially for syngas ring, but they do not differ largely between reference and Graz Cycle plant. The O&M costs are assumed
15% higher for a Graz Cycle plant due to the operation of additional equipment.
89
1.3.1.1 Graz Cycle a Zero Emission Power Plant of Highest Efciency

Table 4 Economic data for methane and syngas red Graz Cycle

Due to the more expensive fuel, the COE for syngas ring is by far larger than for methane ring (COE due to fuel). But regarding
the differential COE, the difference is 0.74 /kWhel for the methane-red Graz Cycle and 0.68 /kWhel for the syngas-red version
compared to the respective reference plant. But due to the higher carbon content in syngas, the mitigation costs are only $11.7/ton CO2
for the syngas plant compared to $21.6 /ton CO2 for the methane-red plant. These values are clearly below the threshold value of $30/
ton showing the economic potential of the Graz Cycle.
The results of the economic study depended mainly on the assumptions about investment costs, fuel costs and capital charge rate as
well as on the choice of the reference plant. A cost sensitivity analysis was performed and showed that a variation of the capital costs had
the main inuence on the economics, since they contributed most to the mitigation costs24. Unfortunately, there was a large uncertainty of
these costs. A survey of the ASU costs vary in the range of $230 to $400/kWel (the same price as for a complete power plant). Considering
this variation solely, the mitigation costs varied between $21.6 and $29.0/ton CO2 for the methane-red plant (see gure 7).

Fig. 7. Inuence of capital costs on the mitigation costs (methane-red Graz Cycle)

This high sensitivity to the capital costs showed the dilemma in performing an exact economic evaluation, since their estimation for
a Graz Cycle power plant was very difcult because of the new turbomachinery components. But the authors claimed that their design of
high-speed transonic stages with innovative steam cooling allowed a cost-effective manufacture. In these considerations about the height
of additional investment costs, a further advantage of the Graz Cycle, the almost NOx-free combustion was not evaluated. According
to exhaust ow NOx and CO catalytic reduction to achieve single-digit emissions (in strict attainment areas) can increase gas turbine
genset plant costs by 40 to 50 percent25.
90
Franz Heitmeir, Wolfgang Sanz, and Herbert Jericha

1.3.1.1-5 Conclusions

The Graz Cycle is an oxy-fuel power cycle with the capability of retaining all the combustion generated CO2 for further use. Its cycle
conguration aims at highest efciency by reducing the heat extraction in the condenser to a minimum. A thermodynamic investigation
of the Graz Cycle red with methane shows a net efciency of 52.5%, if the efforts for oxygen supply and CO2 compression to
liquefaction are considered. If syngas can be used from an external syngas plant at 500C, efciencies can rise up to 56%. Studies show
that further efciency improvements and simplication of the cycle are possible.
A layout of all turbomachinery components for a 75 MW prototype plant as well as a 400 MW plant showed the technical feasibility
of the Graz Cycle, although some development work is needed for the main components. But the authors claim that their proposed
design of high-speed transonic stages with innovative steam cooling allows a cost-effective manufacture.
In an economic analysis the Graz Cycle power plant is compared with a state-of-the-art combined cycle plant. The resulting
mitigation costs of 22 $/ton CO2 are below a threshold value of 30 $/ton CO2 (assumed for CO2 emission trading), but this value mainly
depends on the investment costs assumed. If syngas is used as fuel, the mitigation costs are only about 12 $/ton CO2 due to the higher
carbon content of syngas.
All investigations done up to now conrm the high efciency and technical feasibility of the Graz Cycle. In the scenario of increasing
costs of CO2 emissions, the investment in such a zero-emission power plant seems very reasonable in the near future.

1.3.1.1-6 Abbreviations and Appendix


ASU - air separation unit
COE - cost of electricity
HPT - high pressure turbine
HRSG - heat recovery steam generator
LPT - low pressure turbine

Appendix: Detailed thermodynamic cycle data of a Graz Cycle power plant red with methane.
41.7
150 299.5
2.867

41.7
15 -17.8
0.002

41.7
150 116.6
11.58 Efficiencies

Cycle (e_m=1) 0.6632

41.7
15 0 116.3
11.58 Electr. Efficiency 0.6483
16 20.37 CO2 in % 0.2418
47.14 11.58 T urbine Power [MW] 141.8186
+O2-Prod./Verd. 0.5462
H2O in % 0.7528
Compressor Power [MW] 46.4543
O2 Verdichtung +O2-Pr./V +CO2 0.5254
Net T hermal Power[MW] 95.3643
40
1400 4670
71.05

41.7
329.9 3028
12.87 Cooling mass flow [kg/s] 9.7895

41.7 3028 15 4038 mk/m [%] 13.7788


329.9 6.45 1091 77.5

2.379
15 -9.17
11.58 HTT
41.7
329.9 3029
19.32
41.7
329.9 3028
3.339
41.7
599 3005
43.73
3
749.6 3332
80.84
41.7
329.9 3028
22.66

15 28 16 LPT
HPT 210.2 3.3 39
CO2 in % 0.2127

H2O in % 0.7824
180
549 3405
22.66
1.013
191.1 2270
34.11
195.3
373.0 2612
22.66 dt_out [K] 24.4998 1.053
578.5 2987
80.84

185
554 23414
2. 66
0.043
28.21 1881
34.11

C1
C2 195.7 26 66
06
195.3 2439 373 22.
363.8 22.66
191.1
1.013 37.11
2270
13.7
443 2714
43.73 13.3
396 2624
43.73 195.3
363.8 2439
22.66

461.2
1.053 80.84
2760
1.013
191.1 2270
3
203.6
367.2 1848
22.66
0.043
18 261.8
34.11
1.053
372.2 2595
80.84
1.013
106.1 2120
43.73 1.013
191.1 2269
43.73
203.6
367.2 1848
22.66
dt_out [K] 5.0000
0.043
18 695.6
10.25
206.8
159.7 686.2
22.66 0.043 75.61
1.013
191.1 2269
80.84 18 23.86 0.25
176.3 884.1
10.25

0.2425
25 148.8
7.881
1 7 .541
5. 78 C3
18.0 3
137.1
1 256.7
7.881
1
87.6 366.9
22.66 1
94.0 393.8
20.32 1
18.0 75.78
20.32
0.2425
25 138.6
10.25 C4

91.1
213 398.2
22. 66 0.043
18.0 75.55
23.86
1
129.4 2448
8 .5 1
1
31.7 115.7
3 1
18.0 75.69
23.86

1
31.7 132.8
2.338 1
31.7 132.7
2.338 31.7
1 0.6671
55.45

p[bar]
t[C] h[kJ/kgK]
mass[kg/s] 0.2425
25.0 104.9
2.373

91
1.3.1.1 Graz Cycle a Zero Emission Power Plant of Highest Efciency

1.3.1.1-7 Notes
____________________________

1. L. Strmberg, Overview of CO2 Capture and Storage Technology and Economics for Coal-Based Power Generation, (VGB
Congress 2003, Copenhagen).
2. R. Gabbrielli and R. Singh, Thermodynamic Performance Analysis of New Gas Turbine Combined Cycles with no Emissions
of Carbon Dioxide, ASME Paper GT-2002-30117, (ASME Turbo Expo 2002, Amsterdam, The Netherlands).
3. L. Turanskyj and B.A. Keenan, Turbomachinery for the Worlds Largest Nitrogen Plant: Enhanced Oil Recovery to Increase the
Output in the Cantarell Oil Field, Mexico, (Paper at the Exposicin Latinoamericana del Petrleo, Maracaibo, Venezuela [2001]).
4. P. Mathieu and E. Iantovski, Highly Efcient Zero Emission CO2-based Power Plants, Energy Conversion and Management
38 no. 1 (1997): S141-146; R. A. Anderson, S.E. Doyle, and K.L. Pronske, Demonstration and Commercialisation of Zero-
Emission Power Plant, (29th Int. Techn. Conference on Coal Utilization & Fuel Systems, Clearwater [2004]).
5. See note 1 above.
6. H. Jericha et al., CO2 - Retention Capability of CH4/O2 Fired Graz Cycle, (CIMAC Conference Paper, Interlaken, Switzerland
[1995]).
7. H. Jericha and M. Fesharaki, The Graz Cycle 1500C Max Temperature Potential H2 O2 Fired CO2 Capture with CH4 O2
Firing, ASME Paper 95-CTP-79, (ASME Cogen-Turbo Power Conference, Vienna, Austria [1995]).
8. H. Jericha, A. Lukasser, and W. Gatterbauer, Der Graz Cycle fr Industriekraftwerke gefeuert mit Brenngasen aus Kohle-
und Schwerlvergasung (in German, VDI Berichte 1566, VDI Conference Essen, Germany [2000]).
9. Jericha, H., Gttlich, E., 2002, Conceptual Design for an Industrial Prototype Graz Cycle Power Plant, ASME Paper 2002
GT-30118, ASME Turbo Expo 2002, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; H. Jericha et al. Design Optimisation of the Graz Cycle
Prototype Plant, ASME Paper 2003-GT-38120, (ASME Turbo Expo 2003, Atlanta, USA and ASME Journal of Engineering
for Gas Turbines and Power, October 2004, 126: 733-740); F. Heitmeir et al., The Graz Cycle A Zero Emission Power
Plant of Highest Efciency, (XXXV Kraftwerkstechnisches Kolloquium, Dresden, Germany [2003]); F. Heitmeir and H.
Jericha, 2005, Turbomachinery Design for the Graz Cycle: An Optimized Power Plant Concept for CO2 Retention, Proc.
ImechE 219, Part A: J.Power and Energy (2005): 147-155.
10. W. Sanz et al., Thermodynamic and Economic Investigation of an Improved Graz Cycle Power Plant for CO2 Capture,
ASME Paper GT2004-53722, (ASME Turbo Expo 2004, Vienna, Austria, accepted for publication in ASME Journal
of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power).
11. W. Sanz, et al., A Further Step Towards a Graz Cycle Power Plant for CO2 Capture, ASME Paper GT2005-68456, (ASME
Turbo Expo 2005, Reno, USA).
12. SimTech Simulation Technology, IpsePro Overview, http://www.simtechnology.com/IPSEpro (accessed 2003).
13. W. Wagner and A. Kruse, Properties of Water and Steam (Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York, 1998).
14. U. Sievers, Die thermodynamischen Eigen-schaften von Kohlendioxid (in German), VDI Verlag, Dsseldorf. Fortschritt-
Berichte VDI, Reihe 6, Energietechnik, Nr. 155 (1984).
15. K. Jordal, O. Bolland, and A. Klang, Effects of Cooled Gas Turbine Modelling for the Semi-Closed O2/ CO2 Cycle with CO2
Capture, ASME Paper 2003-GT-38067 (ASME Turbo Expo 2003, Atlanta, USA).
16. F.Luckel, Weiterentwicklung des Graz Cycle und der Vergleich mit anderen CO2-Rckhaltekonzepten (in German, Diploma
Thesis, Graz University of Technology [2004]).
17. H. Jericha and W. Sanz, Wrmekraftanlagen mit Verbrennung von Kohlenwasserstoffen mit reinem Sauerstoff zur
Stromerzeugung bei Rckhaltung von Kohlendioxyd (in German, Austrian Patent No. AT 409 162 B [2001]).
18. See note 12 above.
19. See note 11 above.
20. B. T. Chorpening, K. H. Casleton, and G. A. Richards, Stoichiometric Oxy-Fuel Combustion for Power Cycles With CO2
Sequestration, (Proceedings of the Third Joint Meeting of the U.S. Sections of The Combustion Institute, Chicago, IL [2003]);
B. T. Chorpening et al., Demonstration of a Reheat Combustor for Power Productin With CO2 Sequestration, ASME Paper
2003-GT-38511 (ASME Turbo Expo 2003, Atlanta, USA); H. Inoue, N. Kobayashi, and T. Koganezawa, Research and
Development of Methane-Oxygen Combustor for Carbon Dioxide Recovery Closed-Cycle Gas Turbine, CIMAC, Hamburg,
Germany (2001); T. Grifn et al., Staged Catalytic Combustion Method for the AZEP, ASME paper GT2004-54101 (ASME
Turbo Expo, Vienna, Austria [2004]).
21. See note 21 (rst two references).
22. H. Jericha et al., Konstruktion der ersten Stufe der HTT-Gasturbine fr den Graz Cycle (in German), VDI Berichte 1857, VDI
Tagung Stationre Gasturbinen: Fortschritte und Betriebserfahrungen, Leverkusen (2004); also see note 10 (2nd and 3rd
reference).
23. G. Gttlicher, G., Energetik der Kohlendioxidrckhaltung in Kraftwerken (in German), Fortschritt-Berichte VDI, Reihe
6, Energietechnik, Nr. 421. Dsseldorf: VDI Verlag (1999).
24. See note 11 above.
25. Gas Turbine World, 2003 Handbook for Project Planning, Design and Construction, Pequot Publishing Inc.
(2003).
92
BIOGRAPHY
1.3.1.1 Graz Cycle a Zero Emission Power Plant of Highest Efciency

Franz Heitmeir

Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery


and Machine Dynamics
Graz University of Technology,
Graz, Austria

email: franz.heitmeir@tugraz.at
http://www.ttm.tugraz.at

Professor Heitmeir studied Automotive and Airplane Engineering at the Munich College of Applied
Engineering and Sciences (with excellence) and Mechanical Engineering and Aerospace Science at
the Technical University Munich, Germany, (with excellence).

In 1987 he got his PhD in Mechanical Engineering at the University of the Armed Forces in
Neubiberg, Germany, (with excellence). The Doctoral thesis was about the burning rates of graphite
in high enthalpy ows.

From 1987 until 2001 he worked with MTU Munich, a leading gas turbine manufacturer in
Germany.

At MTU he had a long career in different positions in the divisions research, development and
testing as well as in the marketing and sales division. In his position he was head of the two engine
programs RB 199 (Tornado ghter airplane) and MTR 390 (Tiger helicopter) and at the same time
head of development departments for these two engine programs.

Since 2001 he has been head of the Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics
at the Graz University for Technology.
Wolfgang Sanz

Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery


and Machine Dynamics
Graz University of Technology,
Graz, Austria

http://www.ttm.tugraz.at

Professor Sanz studied Mechanical Engineering and Economics in Graz. In 1989 he got his Diploma
in Mechanical Engineering (with excellence), and in 1993 his PhD in Mechanical Engineering
(with excellence), both at Graz University of Technology. Since 1990 he started working as an
assistant at the Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics.

From 1994-1995, he was a visiting scientist at Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA, where he
worked with Max Platzer on unsteady aerodynamics.

In 1998 he made his habilitation for Thermal Turbomachinery and became associate professor at
Graz University of Technology.

He is in charge of national funded projects on CFD and has published over 50 scientic papers,
mainly on CFD and CO2 retention. He is a member of the ASME and the Cycle Innovations
Committee of the International Gas Turbine Institute IGTI.
Herbert Jericha
Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and
Machine Dynamics
Graz University of Technology,
Graz, Austria

http://www.ttm.tugraz.at

Professor Jericha can look back over a working period of 51 years. His start as university assistant
in 1954 allowed advanced studies in gas turbine technology at Farnborough, UK, leading to
cooperation with the World Power Conference 1956 in Vienna. After his PhD in 1957 he worked in
the US with Ingersoll Rand, where he, at that time, already worked on computer programs. Later at
Elin Weiz, Austria, he became the leading designer of steam and gas turbines manufactured there.

In 1970 Graz University of Technology called him to lead the new founded Institute for Thermal
Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics. By invention, theoretical work, and the establishment
of a unique laboratory, he made it known world wide. Repeated authorship in ASME conferences
and ASME IGTI contributions as European coordinator and liaison chairman were the path to this
success.

The most important design proposal is the so called Graz Cycle - a gas turbine system without any
emissions.
Clean Energy Systems, Inc. DOE Turbine Handbook

1.3 TURBINE - BASED ZERO EMISSIONS


PLANTS

1.3.1 Oxy-Fuel

1.3.1.2 Clean Energy Systems

1.3.1.2.1 Introduction
Clean Energy Systems, Inc. (CES) of Sacramento, CA
and DOEs National Energy Technology Laboratories
(NETL) have developed and demonstrated unique
technologies that will enable construction and operation
of efficient zero-emission power plants (ZEPP). The
enabling technologies are an oxy-fueled combustor
developed under a DOE/NETL Vision 21 program, an
oxy-fueled reheater (RH) designed by NETL and tested
at a NASA test facility, and oxy-syngas combustor being
developed under a DOE/NETL program. The CES
process involves burning high purity oxygen with a
hydrocarbon fuel, e.g., natural gas (NG), coal syngas,
gasified biomass, etc., in the presence of water to
generate a high pressure, high temperature gas
comprising approximately 90 % steam, 10 % carbon
dioxide (CO2), and a small amount of oxygen (O2). This
gas is used to drive steam turbo-generators. CES power
plants use cryogenic air separation units (ASU) to
provide oxygen. These ASU plants can be made more
efficient by the use of axial-flow-type compressors,
typical of those found in gas turbines. This section
discusses the integration of oxy-fueled combustors and
reheaters with steam and gas turbines, gas turbine air
compressors, a steam/CO2 condenser, and CO2
compressors/intercoolers. The resulting integrated
ZEPPs produces power; generate high quality water, and
conditioned CO2, ready for beneficial uses or
sequestration. Key issues include ASU/gas turbine
compressor flow matching, gas turbine blade cooling
using steam rather than air, turbine material
compatibility, and gas turbine temperature differences
between steam/CO2 and air combustion. Various CES-
type ZEPP concepts are illustrated and their performance
characteristics defined for a range of operating
conditions that are achievable with present day steam
and gas turbines.
1.3.1.2.2 The CES Zero Emissions Power Plant
Recent test programs by CES and DOE/NETL have successfully demonstrated the enabling
combustion technologies of an oxy-fueled (NG) combustor 816 C, 104 bar (1500 F, 1500
psia)[ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ] and an oxy-fueled (NG) reheater 1200 C, 10 bar (2200 F, 145 psia)[ 7 , 8 , 9 ]. A
simplified schematic diagram of a CES plant that incorporates these new components is shown in
Figure 1.

The following discussion explores the integration of oxy-fueled combustion technologies with
gas turbine and steam turbine technologies.
CES power plants use the basic Rankine power cycle and consist of four basic systems as
described by Martinez-Frias, et al.[ 10 ]. However, there are other alternative cycles that use CES
technology and these are discussed in Section 1.3.1.2.8.

N2
* CH4, CO, H2, etc.
Air
Air Separation O
2 RH
Plant Gas Generator
Elect
HP IP LP Gen.
Crude Fuel Multi-stage
Fuel el * Turbines
Processing Fu
Plant Recycle Water HX

Direct CO2
Sales
CO2 Cond.
Coal, Refinery Recovery
Residues, or C.W.
Biomass

NG, Oil or EOR, ECBM, or Excess


Landfill Gas Sequestration Water

Fig.1. The Basic CES Zero-Emissions Power Plant

1. Fuel Processing and Gas Compression: Gaseous fuel, derived from virtually any organic source,
e.g., natural gas, gasified coal, biomass or refinery residue, is processed by cleansing any
undesirable substances (e.g. sulfur, nitrogen, etc.) and compressed to the combustor injection
pressures.

2. Air Separation and Oxygen Compression: Nearly pure oxygen is derived from large cryogenic
air separation unit (ASU) and compressed to the combustor injection pressure.
A NG-fired CES plant typically comprises four subsystems:
1. Fuel processing and gas compression
2. Air separation and oxygen compression
3. Power generation (power-train)
4. Carbon dioxide separation and conditioning

3. Power Generation (Power-Train): The power generation system includes three turbines in
series driven by high temperature gases consisting of approximately 90 %v steam, 10 %v CO2
and a small amount of oxygen. The excess oxygen suppresses CO2 dissociation and drives the
combustion reactions to completion. High temperature gases are generated by an oxy-combustor
at approximately 540 C. 760 C (1000 F 1400 F) and with one or two reheaters operating at
1240 C 1760 C (2240 F - 3200 F). These gases drive multi-stage turbines. The turbines, in
turn, drive an electric generator through a common or multiple shaft system, depending upon the
selected plant configuration.
4. Carbon Dioxide Separation and Conditioning: This subsystem cools the turbine exhaust in a
condenser at atmospheric or sub-atmospheric pressures to condense the steam and separate the
CO2. Most of the condensed water is preheated in a feed water heater, located at the turbine
exhaust, to recover any residual heat before recirculation back to the combustor. The separated
humid CO2 exiting the condenser is extracted and compressed to approximately 145 bar (2100
psia) with multi-stage compressors. Intercoolers between stages remove the remaining water
vapor and condition the CO2 for ultimate sequestration.
A coal-fired ZEPP is similar to a NG-fired plant except it includes an oxygen-blown coal
gasification and syngas cleanup and compression system in place of the NG processing and
compression system. Such a power plant is described and shown diagrammatically by Martinez-
Frias, et. al.[ 11 ].

1.3.1.2.3 ASU and Turbine Compressor Matching


CES and integrated coal gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plants require large
dedicated air separation units (ASU) to provide the oxygen required for combustion of the fuel or
gasification of the coal. The capacities of ASUs required to support three types of 400 MWe
power plants are in the range of 2600 - 6700 metric tons O2/day as shown in Table I.

Table I. Typical ASU Plant Sizes Required for Three Types of 400 MWe Power Plants

Plant Type ASU Size, metric tons O2/day


NG-fired CES ZEPP 6500
Coal Syngas-fired CES ZEPP 6700
IGCC with O2-blown coal gasifier 2600

Cryogenic air separation is currently the most efficient and cost effective technology for
producing large quantities of oxygen[ 12 ]. NG and coal syngas fired CES power plants larger than
about 200 MWe require ASUs with air compressor capacities exceeding that of existing
conventional industrial centrifugal and axial-centrifugal compressor equipment. Only large gas
turbine compressors can provide the necessary air from a single unit. The capacity of present-day
conventional ASUs is limited to about 3600 metric tons O2/day[ 13 ] and closely matches the
compressed air supply capabilities of a 6F class gas turbine. The very large 9F class gas turbines
can meet the compressed air requirements of an ASU that produces about 12,000 metric
O2/day[13] and could support a 700 MWe CES power plant. Also, the cost of the air compression
system increases from 25% of the total ASU plant cost at 1800 metric tons O2/day to 35% at
3200 metric tons O2/day [12]. Therefore, the air compression system is a key cost element of an
ASU. Because large ASUs require large air compressors available in gas turbines, the
economics of large power plants favor the integration of relatively lower cost gas turbine/air
compressor unit into CES/ASU systems. Integration eliminates the need for large gearboxes,
electric motors, or steam drive motors, and other associated equipment, including the electric
motor starting apparatus which can approach the cost and size of the motor itself[ 14 ]. Also,
integration simplifies the controls and the control system for improved plant reliability.
Gas turbines are available in a wide range of capacities[ 15 ]. Typical gas turbines ranging in
compressed airflow rates of 40 - 600 kg/sec (88 -1320 lb/sec) are listed in Table II along with the
approximate sizes of equivalent ASU and CES ZEPP power plants such turbines could support.

Table II. Typical Gas Turbine Compressor Capacities versus Equivalent ASU and ZEPP Sizes

Equiv. ASU & ZEPP Sizes


Comp. Cap., ASU Plant Size, M W e
Gas Turbine M fg kg air/sec M etricTons/Day at 42% Eff
Alstom/Cyclone 40 800 50
GE/LM 1600 50 1000 60
GE/LM 2500 86 1,800 100
P&W /FT-8 86 1,800 100
GE/LM 6000 130 2,600 150
RR/Trent 175 3,500 200
SW /V64.3A 200 4,000 230
GE/7EA 295 6,000 350
GE/7FA 455 9,100 530
GE&SW /H, Al.GT26 600 12,000 700

From Table II it can be seen that current commercial gas turbine compressors can potentially
accommodate integration of ASUs and CES power plants with capacities ranging from
approximately 790-12,000 metric tons O2/day and about 50 to 700 MWe, respectively

1.3.1.2.4 Effect of Drive Gases on Gas Turbine Operating Parameters


Analysis was performed to define the comparative nominal operating parameters of existing
aero-derivative and industrial gas turbines driven by normal air-breathing combustion gases and
by CES combustion gases. The assessment involved one-dimensional analyses and the
assumptions listed below. A more thorough assessment was conducted by Fern Engineering[ 16 ] ,
however, further work should be conducted by turbine manufacturing teams that possess precise
turbine design information (e.g., exact blade angles, stresses, materials and design limits).
Turbine manufacturers are most qualified to accurately determine the design and off-design
performance when substituting CES drive gases for air-breathing combustion drive gases.
Assumptions:
Inlet pressure unchanged
Pressure ratio unchanged
Design based on 50% reaction
Blade cooling flow rate equal to or less than design
Inlet temperature equal to or less than design value
Turbine efficiency unchanged and approximately equal to 90%
Blade cooling effectiveness equal to 100% (transpiration cooling)
Blade coolant temperature equal to compressor discharge temperature for air cooling
~510 C (~ 950 F) aero-derivative and ~230 C (~ 450 F) industrial) and 230-270 C
(450-500 F) slightly superheated for steam cooling.
Criteria for validation:
Aerodynamic similarity is nearly maintained (blade angles and Mach No.)
Operating speed is within the recommended range
Heat transfer and blade temperatures are equal to or less than estimated design limits
Blade root stresses remain approximately the same [proportional to (speed)2 and
torque]
Because both aero-derivative (high-pressure-ratio) and industrial (low-pressure-ratio) turbines
are widely used, the following two designs were considered representative of units for medium
size 150 MWe and large 700 MWe ZEPP plants.

Baseline Aero-derivative Turbine (150 MWe ZEPP):

Two-stage design Inlet temperature = 1245 C(2273 F)


Inlet pressure = 29.93 bar (434 psia) Exit pressure = 7.03 bar (102 psia)
Design Speed = 9586 rpm Speed range = 9500 to 10,800 rpm
Design flow rate = 126.0 kg/sec Turbine mean diameter 77.47 cm
(277 lb/sec) (30.5 inches)
Compressor pressure ratio = 29.4 Cooling air temperature 504 C(940 F)
Cooling air flow rate 9.31 % of main
gas flow

Baseline Industrial Gas Turbine (700 MWe ZEPP):

Four stage design Inlet Temperature = 1427 C (2600 F)


Inlet Pressure = 19.31 bar (280 psia) Exit Pressure = 1.10 bar (16 psia)
Compressor pressure ratio = 19.1 Design flow rate = 583 kg/sec (1282
lb/sec)
Design speed = 3600 rpm Turbine mean dia. = 211 cm (83 inches)
Cooling air 232 C (450 F) flow rate
4.8 % of turbine design flow rate.

The resulting analyses, comparing nominal operating parameters using air-breathing combustion
gases or CES gases at baseline and at a lower temperature, are shown in Table III for both an
aero-derivative and an industrial gas turbine. Various typical operating parameters for the first
stage of the turbines and the exit temperature from the last stage are illustrated in the table.

The operating parameters for the typical aero-derivative turbine given in Table III shows that
parameter matching with the different drive gases is favored by increasing turbine speed by
about 12-14 % when using CES drive gases. This speed increase permits close fluid flow angle
matching and, when the gas inlet temperature is also decreased slightly, fluid flow angles
coincide with the baseline case and last stage exit gas temperature closely approximates the
baseline case. It can also be seen that replacing air-breathing combustion gases with CES gases
provide 11-16 % higher 1st-stage power output and lowers turbine coolant flow rate by 70-75%.
This reduction in flow rate is due to changing the blade coolant from air to steam.
Table III. Operating Parameters of a Typical Aero-derivative Turbine and a Typical
Industrial Gas Turbine with Air-Breathing and CES Drive Gases

Aero-derivative Turbine Industrial Gas Turbine


Parameter Air-Breath CES Gases Air-Breath CES Gases
st st st st
Turbine Stage 1 1 1 1 1st
Inlet Gas Temp., C (F) 1245 (2273) 1245 (2273) 1121 (2050) 1427 (2600) 1427 (2600) 1427 (2100)
Inlet Pressure, bar (psia) 29.93 (434) 29.93 (434) 29.93 (434) 19.31 (280) 19.31 (280) 19.31 (280)
Exit Pressure, bar ( psia) 14.55 (211) 14.55 (211) 14.55 (211) 9.24 (134) 9.24 (134) 9.24 (134)
Exit Gas Temp., C (F) 1026 (1878) 1084 (1983) 973(1784) 1176(2149) 1248(2279) 999(1831)
Weight Flow, kg/sec (lb/sec) 126.0 (277.1) 104.7 (230.3) 109.2 (240.3) 582.7 (1282) 485.0 (1067) 531.4 (1169)
Speed, rpm 9,586 10,717 10,858 3600 3600 3600
Power/Stage, MW 27.64 32.09 30.75 145.8 167.6 153.7
Coolant Temp., C (F) 504 (940) 260 (500) 232 (450) 232 (450) 232 (450) 232 (450)
Coolant Cp, kJ/kg-C (Btu/lb-F) 1.033 (0.247) 2.395 (0.551) 2.305 (0.551) 1.033 (0.247) 2.305 (0.551) 2.305 (0.551)
Coolant Flow, % gas flow 9.31 2.78 2.23 4.80 3.90 1.90
Blade Temp., C (F) 816 (1500) 816 (1500) 816 (1500) 816 (1500) 816 (1500) 816 (1500)
Nozzle Exit Vel.,m/sec (ft/sec) 699 (2293) 824 (2703) 792 2597) 744 (2442) 907 (2975) 802 (2632)
Rotor Exit Vel., m/sec (ft/sec) 435 (1423) 455 (1494) 491 (1611) 460 (1510) 597 (1939) 498 (1633)
Mean Blade Speed, m/se (ft/sec) 389 (1276) 435 (1426) 440 (1445) 396 (1300) 396 (1300) 396 (1300)
Main Gas Cp, kJ/kg-C (Btu/lb-F) 1.230 (0.294) 2.385 (0.570) 2.343 (0.560) 1.230 (0.294) 2.385 (0.570) 2.343 (0.560)
Specific Heat Ratio 1.32 1.21 1.21 1.32 1.20 1.20
Nozzle Incid. Angle, Deg. 0 -4.7 0 0 -9.0 -3.8
Rotor Incid. Angle, Deg. 0 -2.3 0 0 -6.9 -2.8
Last Stage Exit Temp., C (F) 833 (1532) 937 (1719) 834 (1534) 637 (1178) 829 (1524) 649 (1200)
The operating parameters for the typical industrial turbine given in Table III shows that when
turbine speed is set by the generator speed, the change in fluid angles is somewhat larger when
switching to CES drive gases, but is considered to be within the range of capabilities of a high-
efficiency, reaction-type turbine. Alternatively, reducing the turbine inlet temperature at constant
speed provides closer matching of fluid flow angles at the nozzle and rotor exits and last-stage
gas exit temperature. At similar turbine inlet temperatures and speeds, replacing air-breathing
combustion gases with CES gases provide 15 % higher 1st-stage power output and lowers blade
coolant flow about 20% while maintaining constant turbine blade operating temperature. When
the turbine inlet temperature is reduced 260 C (500 F) and speed is maintained constant, 1st-
stage power output is still increased about 5 % over the baseline and turbine blade coolant flow
is reduced by 60%.

A subsequent study by Fern Engineering[16] on a similar, but slightly smaller aeroderivative gas
turbine, resulted in the following conclusions:
At the design firing temperature of 1280 (2336 F), the CES cycle yields:
Slightly higher power output (~6%)
A lower overall turbine pressure ratio (17.6 vs. 20.3)
Much lower mass flow of working fluid
Significantly cooler HP turbine nozzle metal temperature
Slightly lower power turbine inlet pressure
Slightly hotter power turbine inlet temperature, but a cooler power turbine nozzle
metal temperature due to the use of steam cooling
Smaller turbine jet velocity ratios => slightly lower turbine efficiencies
Much hotter power turbine exhaust temp

1.3.1.2.5 Effect of Coolant on Gas Turbine Blade Temperatures


Heat transfer study results based on models similar to those of DePaepe and Dick[ 17 , 18 ] are
presented in Table IV and Figure 2. Table IV shows the 1st-stage blade baseline temperature of
816 C (1500 F) in a high-pressure-ratio aero-derivative type turbine can be reduced by 246 C
(475 F)(1) using steam at 260 C (500 F) for cooling rather than air at 504 C (940 F) at
constant volumetric flow rates. Alternatively, the inlet temperature of CES gases to the turbine
could be increased approximately 166 C (330 F) when using 260 C (500 F) steam at constant
volumetric coolant flow rates and still decrease turbine blade temperature nearly 204 C (400 F)
compared to baseline air-breathing case. The lower blade operating temperature, using steam as

(1) The study by Reference[16] calculated the temperature reduction as 143 C (290 F) and felt the 246 C (475 F)
prediction by CES was too optimistic. However, CES assumed a transpiration cooling effectiveness of 1.0 while
Reference[16] assumed a factor 0.58. Measured blade surface temperatures by reference[ 19 ] for 1/2 scale model
tests indicated the cooling effectiveness ranged from 0 .60 to 0.80 , for a steam cooled stator and rotor blade
operating with 1700 C (3092 F) hot gases(steam) at (355 psia). The measured blade metal temperatures were
in the range of 595 to 816 C (1100 to 1500 F).
Table IV. Comparison of Turbine Blade Temperature at Constant Coolant Flow Rates

Type of Turbine Gas Temp., Blade Temp., Coolant Temp., Coolant Flow Rate,
and Drive Gas Tg, C (F) Tb, C (F) Coolant Tc,C (F) m3/min (ft3/min)
Aeroder.-Air 1245 (2273) 816,(1500) Air 504 (940) 0.872 (30.8)
Aeroder.-CES 1245 (2273) 552 (1025) Steam 260 (500) 0.872 (30.8)
Aeroder.-CES 1427 (2600) 599 (1110) Steam 260 (500) 0.872 (30.8)

1300

Baseline
Air Breathing
1200
CES Drive Gas
Temperature, C

1100

1000

CES Drive Gas


900 at Reduced
Inlet Temp.
CES Drive Gas +
232 C Steam Inj.
800
Entropy (no scale)

Fig. 2. Gas Temperature Across Two Stages of a Typical Aero-Derivative Turbine

coolant, could result in increased blade stress safety margins and increased life or permit higher
gas inlet temperatures, the use of simpler coolant passage designs, or possibly lower-cost blades.

The Japanese[ 20 ] investigated various cooling methods for an intermediate pressure steam turbine
operating with1700 C (3100 F) steam while using open loop and closed loop cooling circuits
with water and 300 C (572 F) steam. These studies indicated the following cooling losses for a
500MW steam plant: (1) closed-circuit water cooling of the combustor, nozzle and stators vanes,
and steam cooling of the rotor blades (CCWCN-SCR) has the lowest cycle loss of 10MW; (2)
closed-circuit steam cooling of the nozzles and rotor blades (CCSCN-R) has a 21 MW loss; and
(3) open-circuit steam cooling for nozzle and rotor blades (OCSCN-R) has a 52 MW loss.
1.3.1.2.6 Gas Turbine Operation with CES Gases versus Air-Breathing Gases

The temperature drops across turbine stages change when the nature of the drive gas changes
from air-breathing combustion gases to the gases produced by CES gas generators or reheaters
because the specific heat ratios of these gases varies from 1.32 to 1.20, Table III. This effect is
shown in Figure 2. Where temperature drops are compared for a typical two-stage aero-
derivative turbine. Comparing the baseline air-cooled air-breathing case with the CES drive gas
case, each with an assumed turbine inlet temperature of 1245 C (2273 F), the turbine exit gas
temperature for the CES drive gas is higher than for the baseline case by 88 C (158 F).
However, this difference is negated or markedly reduced when open-loop steam cooling is
considered. Assuming steam cooling with 232 C (418 F) steam, the temperature drop can be
made to coincide with the baseline air-cooled air-breathing case by additional steam injection.
Alternatively, the turbine inlet temperature of the CES drive gas can be reduced and made to
coincide with the baseline air-cooled air-breathing case.

From the preceding examples it can be seen that stage-wise temperature drops or exit
temperatures of air-cooled air-breathing turbines can be replicated when the turbines are
switched to CES gases with open-loop steam cooling operating practice requires the use of more
expensive materials and/or fabrication techniques, the technology base is well established. The
major hindrance to increasing steam turbine operating temperatures has been with boiler
limitations rather than with turbine limitations. The CES gas generator in CES ZEPPs removes
the boiler and its temperature constraints. Intermediate pressure turbines power plants would not
operate at temperatures beyond current commercial gas turbine practice and may operate at even
lower blade temperatures because very effective open-loop steam cooling becomes practical.

1.3.1.2.7 Turbine Materials Issues

The turbine materials issues addressed in this section concern steam and gas turbine materials
operating in high temperature, high-pressure steam environments. The issues primarily involve:
1) matching materials mechanical properties with turbine operating temperatures and stresses
and (2) defining materials that are compatible with CES gases (~90% steam, ~10% CO2, and a
slight amount of oxygen) at high temperatures and pressures and with weak carbonic acid
condensate.

Typical materials for various steam and gas turbine components are listed in Table V. Increasing
steam turbine operating temperatures beyond ~ 540 to 565 C (~1000 to1050 F) requires the use
of materials such as high chromium-ferritic steels and austenitic stainless steels[ 21 ]. The
temperature limits for this type of materials is near 649 C (1200 F) but may extend to slightly
higher values. For even higher metal operating temperatures, i.e., 816 C (1500 F) and above,
high nickel and cobalt alloys become necessary and turbine blades may require even more exotic
single-crystal materials.

Although increasing steam turbine operating temperatures above current operating practice
requires the use of more expensive materials and/or fabrication techniques, the technology base
is well established. The major hindrance to increasing steam turbine operating temperatures has
been with boiler limitations rather than with turbine limitations. The CES gas generator in CES
Table V. Typical Materials of Construction for Steam and Gas Turbine Components

Typical Alloys
Eddystone Steam Solar 816C, 103 bar
Turbine 593 - 649C (1500 F, 1500 psia)
Component (1100-1200 F)[ 22 ] Steam Turbine[ 23 ] Gas Turbines[ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 ]
Casings St. 316 (inner), Inconel 939 (inner), Inconel 718, Rene41,
2 % Cr-steel (outer) 2 % Cr-steel (outer) Hastelloy X, Haynes 188
Comb. Liner N.A. N.A Hastelloy X, Haynes 188
Transition Duct St. 316 Inconel 617 Inconel 617, Inconel 939
Discs Discalloy Inconel 718 Inconel 718, Inconel 738,
Waspaloy, Udimet 700
Vanes and Blades K42B, St. 422 (blades) Inconel 718 (blades), Inconel 713C, 718, &
St. 316 (nozzles) Inconel 939 (nozzles) 738, Rene80, Udimet
500 & 700, CMSX-4,
FSX-414, M-252,
Multimet (N-155)

ZEPPs removes the boiler and its temperature constraints. Intermediate pressure turbines in CES
power plants would not operate at temperatures beyond current commercial gas turbine practice
and may operate at even lower blade temperatures because very effective open-loop steam
cooling becomes practical.

The materials used in both current and advanced steam turbines have demonstrated good
compatibility with pure steam but the effects of CES gases, which also contain a minor amount
of CO2 and a small amount of oxygen, are not well established. Preliminary compatibility studies
with simulated CES gases and typical turbine materials are underway. No significant problems
have been encountered in the absence of an aqueous liquid phase but more comprehensive work
is required, including the effects of carbonic acid formation in regions subject to condensation.

The compatibility of a number of nickel and/or cobalt based alloys with steam at 816 C, 103 bar
(1500 F and 1500 psia) has been studied by Solar Turbines, Inc. and compared with the
behavior of the same alloys in air at 816 C, 1.01 bar (1500 F, 14.7 psia). The results of 1000-
hour tests are summarized in Table VI.

The data in Table VI show that the high temperature, high-pressure steam attacks the alloys to a
relatively minor extent and with few exceptions similar to the attack of air at a lower pressure.
The tests in the steam environment were extended to 4000-hour exposures to provide a firmer
basis for selecting materials for a steam turbine (see Table V) that operated successfully at 816
C, 103 bar (1500 F, 1500 psia). The results of these latter tests are summarized in Table VII.

The data in Tables VI and VII, along with the experience gained with gas turbines operating in
an oxidizing environment at moderate pressures and very high temperatures, suggest that CES
Table VI. Metallographic Measurements on Alloys Exposed for 1000 Hours to Steam at 816 C , 103
bar (1500 F, 1500 psia) Compared to Air at 816 C, 1.01 bar (1500 F, 14.7 psia) [23]

Outer Scale Thickness, Depth of Internal Depth of Alloy


microns Oxidation, microns Depletion, microns
Alloy Steam Air Steam Air Steam Air
Inconel 718 3.8-7.6 7.6-17.8 10.2-20.3 5.1-15.2 10.2-22.9 0.5-20.3
Inconel 625 2.5-10.2 2.5-6.4 0.0-20.3 0.010.2 30.5-40.6 10.2 15.2
Inconel 800 4.1-6.1 5.1-10.2 10.2-20.3 3.8-25.4 0.0 20.3-50.8
Hastelloy X 0.0-2.5 6.4-22.9 0.0-16,5 0.0- 5.1 0.0 6.1-20.3
Hastelloy S 2.5-7.6 2.5-5.1 0.0-6.4 3.8-12.7 0.0 5.1-10.2
Waspaloy 2.5-5.1 5.1-12.7 7.6-20.3 12.7-33.0 15.2-30.5 12.7-25.4

Table VII. Metallographic Measurements on Alloys Exposed for 4000 Hours to Steam
At 816 C, 103 bar (1500 F, 1500 psia)[ 28 ]

Outer Scale Depth of Internal Depth of Alloy


Alloy Thickness, microns Oxidation, microns Depletion, microns
Inconel 718 Nil 5.1-55.9 15.7-50.8
Inconel 713 Nil 12.7-24.4 25.4-38.1
Inconel 625 Nil 6.4-12.7 19.1-20.3
Inconel 617 0.0-2.5 12.7-30.5 30.5-40.6
Incoloy 800 1.3-3.8 0.0-6.4 2.5-3.8
Hastelloy X 1.0-2.0 12.7-16.5 6.1-10.2
Waspaloy 9.4-15.7 31.8-44.5 63.5-81.3

gases will not pose major compatibility problems when used to drive gas turbines. This outlook
remains, however, to be demonstrated.

1.3.1.2.8 Integrated Plant Concepts


Integration of CES technology with ASUs, gas turbines, steam turbines and CO2 conditioning
equipment to build environmentally friendly zero emissions power plants appears feasible and
highly beneficial[ 29 ]. Since CES ZEPP plants involve a number of subsystems, there are many
possible concepts. The following two configurations are representative of only a few of the
many possible combinations.

ZEPP #1, shown in Figure 3, consists of a high pressure 80-100 bar (1200-1500 psia) oxy-
combustor feeding a high pressure steam/CO2 turbine (HPT) at 600-760 C (1100-1400 F); and
an intermediate pressure reheat combustor at 30-40 bar (430-600 psia) feeding an intermediate
pressure steam/CO2 turbine (IPT) at 1240-1760 C (2240-3200 F). The IPT exhausts to sub-
atmospheric pressures in the range of 0.15-0.4 bar (2.2-5.8 psia). Residual heat in the LPT
exhaust is used to raise cooling steam for the IPT, and to preheat combustor feedwater.
Fuel Combustor
Nitrogen HPT

Oxygen
ASU
Reheat
Combustor

Air

IPT

Feedwater
FWH

CO2
Condensate Cond

Fig. 3. Process Flow Diagram of ZEPP #1

ZEPP #2, shown in Figure 4, consists of an intermediate pressure 30-40 bar (430-600 psia) oxy-
combustor feeding an intermediate pressure steam/CO2 turbine (IPT) at 1240-1760 C (2240-
3200 F) that exhausts to approximately 1 atm. (14.7 psia). The IPT exhaust stream enters a
HRSG (heat recovery steam generator) that raises high-pressure steam for a back-pressure HP
steam turbine (HPT). Most of the HPT steam exhaust is delivered to the combustor as diluent,
and some is used as cooling steam for the IPT. If desired, the HRSG may be fired with an oxy-
fuel burner to generate additional HP steam. Finally, some of the latent heat in the IPT exhaust
is recovered by raising sub-atmospheric steam for a low-pressure steam turbine (LPT).

1.3.1.2.9 Performance
Earlier cycle analyses were made by CES and other organizations, using a variety of modeling
tools. These include: (1) CESs in-house code; (2) the commercially available AspenPlus soft
Feedwater

Fuel
Nitrogen Combustor

IPT IP
Oxygen
ASU Steam
Oxy-Fuel Burner
(optional)
HP HPT
Air Steam
HP Feed-
water
HRSG
LP
LP Feed- Steam
water
LPT

CO2
Condensate Cond
To condenser

Fig. 4. Process Flow Diagram of ZEPP #2

ware; (3) the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratorys (LLNL) program developed by
Martinez-Frias[10,11] using Engineering Equation Solver (EES) software; and (4) Gates used by
Fern Engineering[16]. All four codes were checked against each other for verification when
applied to a CES power plant test case and all showed close agreement, provided the same
process assumptions were made.

Recent analyses have been made by CES personnel for both natural gas and coal-based plants,
using the AspenPlus software combined with updated process information for the ASU,
steam/CO2 turbines, steam turbines, CO2 compression system, and gasifier (for coal-based
systems). These analyses revealed that the efficiencies of the ZEPP #1 and ZEPP #2 cycles are
very similar, provided the ZEPP #2 cycles include supplemental HRSG firing to boost the HP
steam flowrate to the corresponding HP steam/CO2 flowrates in the ZEPP #1 cycles.

Table VIII lists the key assumptions made in these analyses.


Table VIII. Key Assumptions for Natural Gas and Coal Cycle Analyses

ASU auxiliary load 0.20 kWh/kg O2


IP turbine isentropic efficiency 91%
Temperature of IPT cooling steam 380 C
Steam turbine isentropic efficiency 88%
Compressor isentropic efficiency 82%
Compressor per-stage pressure ratio 2.5
Compressor inter-cooler temperature 31 C
Condenser temperature 31 C
HRSG pinch-point 20K
Turbine shaft losses 1%
Turbine generator losses 1%
Compressor motor losses 5%

Natural Gas Systems

With this set of assumptions, CES personnel calculated the expected efficiencies of various near-
and long-term natural gas-fired CES plants. The key variables were (1) the HP and IP turbine
inlet temperatures, and (2) the quantity of steam required for IP turbine cooling. Table IX lists
the expected LHV cycle efficiencies for HPT/IPT inlet temperatures of 620/1240C, 620/1450C,
and 760/1760C; and open-loop cooling steam flows of 10, 20 and 30%.

Table IX. LHV Cycle Efficiencies for CES Natural Gas-Fired Plants

HPT/IPT Inlet IPT Cooling Steam Flow (% of turbine inlet flow)


Temperatures 0% 10% 20% 30%
620C/1240C 43.0% 41.7% 40.8% 40.0%
620C/1450C - 46.0% 44.8% 43.6%
760C/1760C - 51.0% 49.3% 48.0%

The various HPT/IPT inlet temperatures, which were provided by Siemens, represent sequential
advancements that may be made through 2015. Since these cycle studies did not include a
detailed analysis of the IPT cooling requirements for each case, a wide range of IPT cooling
steam flowrates were considered. Also, all IPT cooling was assumed to be by open-loop steam
cooling, where the steam is injected into the drive gas.

As shown in the table, the flowrate of cooling steam has a significant impact on the cycle
efficiency since it lowers the effective inlet temperature of the drive gas, particularly at the
higher turbine inlet temperatures. This highlights the importance of optimizing the turbine
cooling methodology to minimize its impact on the cycle performance.
Coal-Based Systems

Under award DE-FC26-05NT42645 (Coal-Based Oxy-Fuel System Evaluation and Combustor


Development), CES personnel performed detailed cycle analyses on coal-based plants where an
Illinois #6 coal is gasified and the clean syngas used as fuel in the CES oxy-combustors. These
are referred to as IGCES (integrated gasification CES) plants. The studies incorporated input
and interface information from Siemens (turbines), Air Products (ASU), Future-Energy
(gasifier), and MAN-Turbo (compressors). Near-term (2010) and long-term (2015) cases were
considered, each of which had its own set of assumptions. These assumptions, also provided by
Siemens, appear in Table X.

Table X. Key Turbine Assumptions for Near- and Long-Term Coal-Based IGCES Plants

Parameter Near-term (2010) Long-term (2015)


HPT inlet temperature 620C 760C
IPT inlet temperature 1450C 1760C
IPT cooling steam flowrate 25% 15%
IPT exhaust pressure 1.0 bar 0.15 bar

This analysis was performed in more detail than the previous natural gas analyses as the study
included an extensive information exchange with key equipment suppliers, particularly Siemens.
For this reason, the analysis focused on a fewer number of cases than the natural gas study.

The cycle analyses revealed that the performance of an IGCES plant is sensitive to the gasifier
configuration, particularly the mode of heat recovery from the hot syngas stream.

Most commercial gasifiers provide the option of cooling the hot syngas in a syngas cooler which
raises saturated HP steam at pressures in the range of 100 bar (1,500 psia). In the ZEPP #1
cycle, the steam from the syngas cooler can be injected into the HP oxy-combustor, heated and
expanded through the HPT, reheated in the reheat combustor, and expanded through the IPT.
This represents efficient use of the steam.

An alternate approach is to quench the hot syngas via water injection to produce a cooler,
saturated syngas stream. Some of the latent heat in this stream may be recovered by raising
steam at a lower pressure than the partial pressure of moisture in the syngas, and expanding this
steam through an LP turbine. Although this is a simpler technique with lower capital costs, the
energy losses associated with syngas quenching have a negative impact on the overall cycle
performance.

Table XI lists the expected HHV cycle efficiencies for the near-term and long-term cases, for
plants with either syngas cooler or syngas quench systems.
Table XI. HHV cycle efficiencies for CES coal-based plants

Syngas Heat Recovery Method


Availability Quench System Syngas Cooler
Near-term cycle (2010) 27.2% 30.0%
Long-term cycle (2015) 34.2% 37.0%

As shown in the table, technical advancements that may be made by 2015 will have a significant
impact on the cycle performance. Also, a syngas cooler is preferable to a syngas quench system
to maximize cycle efficiency.

1.3.1.2.10 Conclusions

The use of modified IP (gas) turbines along with steam turbines in CES power plants enables
high-efficiency, near-zero power generation. In some applications, the gas turbine compressor
could be used as the air supply source for an ASU. This integration of systems eliminates the
need for large electric drive motors, gearboxes, etc. to drive the compressors and, therefore,
could significantly reduces plant capital cost and plant operational and maintenance costs. The
high capacities of gas turbine compressors also permits construction of larger single train ASUs
that could support integrated CES-type ZEPPs.

Gas turbines operating with CES drive gases have lower temperature drops per stage and this
results in higher temperatures for the later stages. To alleviate these higher temperatures,
additional steam at 204-260 C (400500 F) could be injected at each stage to reduce the
temperature to that compatible with the stage. Alternatively as a temporary solution, turbine inlet
temperature could be reduced 93 C (167 F) for aero-derivative and 260 C (470 F) for
industrial turbines with consequent small reductions in plant efficiencies.

Matching aero-derivative gas turbines with CES drive gas is more easily accomplished when the
turbine speed can be increased by about 12% and the inlet temperature is reduced by 93 C (167
F). These changes permit almost exact fluid angle matching. Matching industrial gas turbines
with CES drive gas where the turbine speed is set by the generator speed, i.e., 3600 rpm, causes
modest changes in fluid angles. Reducing the inlet temperature by 260 C (470 F) minimizes
this mismatch and allows the fluid angles to remain in the range of high efficiency turbine
operation. Ultimately, gas turbines with CES drive gases should be able to operate at 1450 C
(2640 F), and higher temperatures, using water and warm steam for stationary components
such as GG/RH, transition sections, nozzles, stators, etc., (this could be a separate closed circuit
that operates before start-up and after shut-down) and the more effective CES open-loop
transpiration steam cooling for rotating components such as rotor disks and blades.

Blade temperatures of both high-pressure-ratio aero-derivative type turbines and low-pressure-


ratio industrial gas turbines can be reduced appreciably using open-loop steam cooling rather
than air. The lower blade operating temperatures increase blade stress margins of safety and life
and could permit the use of lower cost blades or increase the turbine inlet temperature to achieve
higher efficiencies.

Increasing steam turbine operating temperatures above current operating practice requires the use
of more expensive materials and/or fabrication techniques but the technology base is well
established. Initially, intermediate pressure turbines in CES power plants would not operate at
temperatures beyond current commercial gas turbine practice. Materials compatibility data and
experience gained with gas turbines operating in an oxidizing environment at moderate pressures
and very high temperatures, suggest that CES gases should not pose major compatibility
problems when used to drive turbines or CES ZEPPs, however, this requires further
confirmation, including full-scale testing.

The use of existing low-pressure steam turbines with CES drive gases may require design
modifications to eliminate condensation and the compatibility issues presented by carbonic acid
that would otherwise form.
1.3.1.2.11 References

[1] Anderson, R. E., Baxter, E. and Doyle, S.E. (Clean Energy Systems, Inc.), Final Report: Fabricate and Test
Advanced Non-Polluting Turbine Drive Gas Generator, prepared for the United States Department of Energy
National Energy Technology Laboratory; Cooperative Agreement No. DE-FC26-00NT 40804, September 1,
2000 to June 1, 2003.
[2] Anderson, R., Brandt, H., Doyle, S., and Viteri, F., A Demonstrated 20 MWt Gas Generator for a Clean
Steam Power Plant, presented at 28th International Technical Conference on Coal Utilization & Fuel Systems,
Clearwater, FL, March 10-13, 2003
[3] Anderson, R., Brandt, H., Doyle, S., Pronske, K., and Viteri, F., Power Generation with 100% Carbon Cap-
ture and Sequestration, presented at the 2nd Annual Conference on Carbon Sequestration, Alexandria, VA,
May 5-8, 2003
[4] Anderson, R.E., Doyle, S.E., and Pronske, K.L., Demonstration and Commercialization of Zero-Emission
Power Plants, 29th International Technical Conference on Coal Utilization and Fuel Systems, Clearwater,
Florida. April 18-22, 2004
[5] Anderson, R.E. and Pronske, K.L., Kimberlina - A Zero-Emission Multi-Fuel Power Plant and Demonstra-
tion Facility, 30th International Technical Conference on Coal Utilization and Fuel Systems, Clearwater, Flor-
ida. April 17-21, 2005
[6] Anderson, R.E. and Bischoff, R.W., Durability and Reliability Demonstration of a Near-Zero-Emission, Gas-
Fired Power Plant, California Energy Commission, Publication #CEC 500-2006-074, July 2006
[7 ] Chorpening, B., Richards, G.A., and Casleton, K.H., U.S. Dept. of Energy, National Energy Technology
Laboratory (NETL); Woike, M., Willis, B., NASA Glen Research Center, Plum Brook Station, Hoffman, L.
Clean Energy Systems, Inc.; Demonstration of a Reheat Combustor for Power Production With CO2 Seques-
tration; ASME Turbo Expo Land, Sea, Air, June 16-19,2003, Atlanta, GA. USA
[8] Chorpening, B., Casleton, K.H., and Richards, G.A., U.S. Dept. of Energy, National Energy Technology
Laboratory (NETL), Woike, M., Willis, B., NASA Glen Research Center, Plum Brook Station, Stoichiomet-
ric Oxy-Fuel Combustion for Power Cycles with CO2 Sequestration, Proceedings of the Third Joint Meeting
of the U.S. Sections of The Combustion Institute, March 16-19, 2003, Chicago, IL
[9] Richards, G.A., Casleton, K.H., and Chorpening, B., U.S. Dept. of Energy, National Energy Technology
Laboratory (NETL); Morgantown, WV 26505, USA, Dilute Oxy-Fuel Combustion Technology for Zero
Emission Power, 1st International Conference on Industrial Gas Turbine Technologies, Brussels, July 10-11,
2003
[10] Martinez-Frias, J., Aceves, S., Smith, J.R. (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory), and Brandt, H. (Clean
Energy Systems, Inc.), Thermodynamic Analysis of Zero-Atmospheric Emissions Power Plant, presented at
ASME International Conference, New Orleans, LA, November, 2002
[11] Martinez-Frias, J., Aceves, S., Smith, J.R. (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory), and Brandt, H. (Clean
Energy Systems, Inc.), A Coal-Fired Power Plant with Zero-Atmospheric Emissions, IMECE2003-43923,
presented at 2003 ASME Mechanical Engineering Congress & Exposition, Washington, D.C., November 15-
21, 2003
[12] Smith, A.R., Klosek, J., Sorensen, J.C., and Woodward, D.W.; Air Separation Unit Integration for Alterna-
tive Fuel Projects, Air Products and Chemicals, Inc. Allentown, Pa 18195, ASME Paper No. 98-GT63
[13] Smith, A.R. and Dillon, J.L. IV; Gas Turbine Applications for Large Air Separation Units, Air Products and
Chemicals, Inc., Allentown, PA 18195, ASME Paper No. 99-GT-321, presented at the Int. Gas Turbine &
Aerospace Congress & Exposition, Indianapolis, IN, June 7-10, 1999
[14] Scharle, W., J., Wilson, Air Products and Chemicals, Oxygen Facilities for Synthetic Fuel Projects,
ASME Journal of Engineering for Industry, November,1981, Vol. 103 pp 409-417
[15] 2003 GTW Handbook, Gas Turbine World, Vol. 23, (2003), Pequot Publishing, Inc., Southport, CT
[16] Phillips, J. N. Integration of Commercial Gas Turbine Technology into a Clean Energy Systems Zero Emis-
sion Power Plant, Report No. 5909-08-3 To Clean Energy Systems, Inc., June 7. 2004, by Fern Engineering,
Inc., Pocasset, MA.
BIOGRAPHY 1.3.1.2 Clean Energy Systems

Fermin Vic Viteri


Clean Energy Systems, Inc.
11330 Sunco Drive, Suite A
Rancho Cordova, CA 95742

Bus. (916) 379-9143


Fax (916) 379-9146
email: fviteri@cleanenergysystems.com

Mr. Viteri worked 36 years at Aerojets Liquid Rocket Co., Sacramento, CA. and became
manager of Rotating Machinery where he directed the analysis, design, and testing of high speed
turbomachinery for pump fed rocket engines, waterjets for Navy patrol boats and submarine torpedo
ejector pumps. All of these pumps were driven with specially built turbines or by gas turbines that
were commercially purchased.

Mr. Viteri is one of the original founders of Clean Energy Systems, Inc., a company involved in
the research and development of oxy-fuel Zero Emissions Power Plants (ZEPP). He served as
President of the company from 1996 to 1999. Currently, Vic is involved with convertng a recently
aquired 5 MW biomass plant in Bakerseld, CA. to an oxy-fuel ZEPP and supporting studies of
similar plants for Norway and the Netherlands.
1.3.1.3 1.3.1.3-1 Introduction
Hydrogen-Fueled Power
Systems The concept of a hydrogen economy was introduced in the 1960s as a vision
for future energy requirements to replace the inevitable exhaustion of fossil fuels. In
the hydrogen economy, the storable and transportable hydrogen is envisioned to be a
dominant energy carrier. The hydrogen can also be exploited as a clean, renewable, and
nonpolluting fuel. The use of hydrogen as a fuel is attractive for a number of reasons:
Hydrogen burns with 15-22% higher thermal efciency than that of
gasoline;
From an environmental standpoint, hydrogen combustion with pure oxygen
results in no emissions of the greenhouse gases, CO, CO2, SOx, and NOx;
and
It generates only steam and water.

Serious hydrogen-fueled turbine development program primarily comes from


the initiatives of the Japanese government in 1992, through its New Energy and Industrial
Technology Development (NEDO). It created the World Energy Network (WE-NET)
Program, a 28-year effort from 1993 to 2020, directed at research and development
of the technologies needed to develop a hydrogen-based energy conversion system1.
Part of this effort is directed toward research and development of a hydrogen-fueled
combustion turbine system2 which can efciently convert the chemical energy stored in
hydrogen to electricity via a heat engine in which the hydrogen is combusted with pure
oxygen. Turbine manufacturers developing hydrogen-fueled power generation cycles
under the WE-NET program include Westinghouse, Toshiba and Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries3. The hydrogen-fuel power systems resulting from the WE-NET program
and others reported in the literature are summarized below.

1.3.1.3-2 The High Temperature Steam Cycle (HTSC)


Power System
The High Temperature Steam Cycle (HTSC) power system, shown in gure
1 and reported by Kizuka et al.,, was based on that suggested by Jericha, et al.4. It has
two closed cycles: the topping and the bottoming cycles. The topping cycle consists
of a compressor, combustor, intermediate pressure (IP) turbine, steam cooler 1, and
steam cooler 2. The bottoming cycle includes a low pressure (LP) turbine, condenser,
preheater, high pressure (HP) turbine, combustor, and IP turbine. The key design
considerations are to increase the outlet temperature of the IP turbine to generate more
steam in the bottoming cycle and to increase the inlet temperature of the LP turbine to
obtain more power.
The HTSC power system makes use of the closed-loop cooling systems.
Closed-loop cooling techniques will be favored in advanced combustion turbines
Wen-Ching Yang because they (1) eliminate the disruption of the turbine oweld caused by coolant
ejection, (2) eliminate mixing losses caused by coolant ejection, (3) reduce the decrease
Department of Chemical & in gas path temperature caused by turbine cooling, and (4) return the turbine coolant to
Petroleum Engineering the primary cycle5.
University of Pittsburgh The conceptual designs of the cooling systems were studied by Kizuka et al.,6.
Pittsburgh, PA 15261 The three systems studied are (1) closed-circuit water cooling system for nozzle blades
and steam cooling system for rotor blade; (2) closed-circuit steam cooling system for
(724) 327-3011 nozzle and rotor blades; and (3) open-circuit steam cooling system for nozzle and rotor
wcyang@pitt.edu blades.
The main component parameters employed to evaluate the cycle performance
is summarized in table 1. The reported performance of three different types of cooling
systems for a 1700C-class, hydrogen-fueled combustion gas turbine varies from 54.9
% to 61.3 % efciency based on HHV.

107
Fig. 1. Process Diagram for the HTSC Power System

Table 1 Main Component Parameters for HTSC Plant

IP Turbine (Topping Cycle Gas Turbine)


Compressor
Inlet Pressure (MPa) 0.14
Inlet Temperature (oC) 114
Outlet Pressure (MPa) 4.90
Rotational Speed (rpm) 6,500
Combustor
Fuel H2 + O2
Outlet Temperature (oC) 1,700
Turbine
Stage 2(IHP) + 6(ILP)
Rotational Speed (rpm) 6,500(IHP), 3,000(ILP)
Inlet Gas Flow (kg/s) 222.3
Outlet Pressure (MPa) 0.16
Bottoming Cycle
HP Turbine
Inlet Pressure (MPa) 19.00
Outlet Pressure (MPa) 5.00
LP Turbine
Inlet Pressure (MPa) 0.15
Outlet Pressure (MPa) 0.05

1.3.1.3-3 The New Rankine Cycle


Figure 2 depicts the so-called new Rankine cycle conguration involving direct steam expansion proposed and investigated by
Funatsu et al.7. The combustion gas in the cycle consists of only pure steam by combusting hydrogen and oxygen stoichiometrically in
the high pressure combustor (HPCOMB) and low pressure combustor (LPCOMB).
The feed water from the condenser (COND) is pressurized by the boiler feed water pump (BFP) to the super critical pressure,
and then heated in the heat recovery boiler (HRBL). The steam generated in the HRBL is rst expanded in the high pressure turbine
(HT). The exhaust from HT is then reheated in the high pressure combustor (HPCOMB) and expanded in the intermediate pressure gas
turbine (IHT) again. Finally, the reheat and expansion is repeated in the low pressure combustor (LPCOMB) and the low pressure gas
turbine (ILT). The steam from ILT exchanges heat with the feed water in HRBL, expands through the low pressure steam turbine (LT),
and condenses in the condenser (COND). The operating parameters at different stations shown in gure 2 are reported in table 2. The
reported thermal efciency is over 60 percent HHV or 71.89 percent LHV.
108
Wen-Ching Yang

Fig. 2. Process Diagram for the New Rankine Cycle Power System

1.3.1.3-4 The Rankine Cycle With Reheat And Recuperation


In the studies by the Westinghouse team on an optimum hydrogen-fueled combustion turbine system, alternative turbine systems
were evaluated8. (The Power Generation Division of Westinghouse Electric Corporation was acquired by Siemens AG in 1998 and
became Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation, a fully-own subsidiary of Siemens). The Rankine cycle with regeneration and reheat
was identied as the best system with potential to reach the highest efciency. A Rankine cycle with reheat and recuperation was thus
selected as the general reference system for the study of hydrogen-fueled power systems. Westinghouse has assessed both a near-term
reference plant and a long-term reference plant. The near-term plant requires moderate development based on extrapolation of current
steam turbine technology for the HP turbine (650C inlet temperature), and extrapolation of current combustion turbine technology
for the IP turbine (1700C inlet temperature). In contrast, the long-term plant requires more extensive development for an additional
intermediate high pressure (IHP) reheat turbine (1700C inlet temperature), and is more complex than the near-term plant with closed-
loop steam cooling9 of the IHP and IP turbines, and extractive feedwater heating. A single reheat stage is used in the near-term plant and
two reheats are used in the long-term plant. The HRSG operates at atmospheric pressure, producing supercritical steam.
The Westinghouse studies identied the trade-offs between the efciency benets and the developmental challenges of the
near-term and long-term reference plants. The near-term plant achieves 65.2 percent net plant efciency, and the long-term plants
achieve 71.4 percent net plant efciency. Even though the near-term plant does not achieve the goal of 70.9 percent net plant efciency,
its relative simplicity and low cost make it attractive as a next step.
Process ow diagrams for the near-term and long-term plants are shown in gures 3 and 4. Representative temperatures and
pressures are listed at various locations on the ow diagrams. Table 3 provides a summary of the essential technical assumptions for the
component performance factors, and the reference plant requirements and boundary conditions.

Table 2 The New Rankine Cycle Performance Parameters


Location Pressure Flow Temperature Enthalpy
MPa kg/s o
C kJ/kg
1 38.0 104.2 100 447.9
2 34.3 104.2 750 3851.1
3 7.35 104.2 464 3315.9
4 6.99 115.8 1700 6506.3
5 0.98 133.1 1146 4798.1
6 0.93 148.0 1700 6510.5
7 0.14 156.1 1129 4965.5
8 0.13 156.1 148 2771.7
9 0.005 145.1 33 2315.3
10 - 25.7 - -
11 - 3.2 - -
12 - 20.4 - -
13 - 2.6 - -
Generating Power 500MW
Thermal Efciency 60.57 % (HHV) 71.89 % (LHV)

109
1.3.1.3 Hydrogen-Fueled Power Systems

Fig. 3. Process Diagram for the Near-Term Rankine Cycle with Reheat and Recuperation

Fig. 4. Process Diagram for the Long-Term Rankine Cycle with Reheat and Recuperation
110
Wen-Ching Yang

Table 3 Estimated Component Performance Factors and Reference Plant Conditions


PLANT
Capacity (MWe) 500
Site Type Greeneld, Sea-Side
Ambient Air Temperature (oC) 15
Ambient Pressure (bar) 1.01325
Relative Humidity (%) 60
Cooling Sea Water Temperature (oC) 21
Hydrogen and Oxygen Supply Temperature (oC) 15
Hydrogen and Oxygen Supply Pressure As Required
Hydrogen Purity (%) 100
Oxygen Purity (%) 100
Hydrogen HHV (kJ/kg) 141742
CONDENSER
Type Vacuum
Shell Pressure (bar) 0.0508
PUMPS
Adiabatic Efciency (%) 85
Motor Efciency (%) 98
Mechanical Efciency (%) 98
HRSG
Tube-Side Pressure Drop (%) 3
Shell-Side Pressure Drop (%) 3
Heat Loss (% of heat transferred) 0.2
COMBUSTORS
Pressure Drop (%) 3
Combustion Efciency (%) 99.9
Heat Loss (% of heat input) 0.1
TURBINES
Rotation Speed (rpm) 3,600
Bearing Losses (% of shaft power) 0.6
Adiabatic Efciency (%; HP, IHP, IP, LP) 93, 93, 93, 93
Exhaust Losses Neglect for HP Turbine
Steam Leaks (% of inlet ow) 2
Shaft Leakages Neglect
Windage and Pumping for Steam Leaks Neglect
Steam Cooling (% of inlet ow for IHP, IP) 15, 15
Coolant Pressure Drop (%) 10
LP Turbine Maximum Moisture Content (%) 15
LP Turbine Minimum Inlet Temperature (oC) 110
OTHERS
Steam Piping Pressure Drop (%) 3
Generator Efciency (%) 99.2
House Load (% of plant shaft power) 1.5 (near-term); 1.0 (long-term)
In the near-term plant, gure 3, hydrogen and excess oxygen are combined in the HP combustor and are mixed with recycle
steam to produce a 650C combustion product at a nominal pressure of 350 bar. This is then expanded through the uncooled HP
turbine, producing an exhaust stream having nominal conditions of 290C and 40 bar. This exhaust stream, containing excess oxygen,
is combined with stoichiometric hydrogen to generate the IP combustion products at a temperature of 1700C. The IP turbine expands
this combustion stream to exhaust conditions of about 740C and 1.15 bar. The IP turbine exhaust stream is cooled in the HRSG down to
about 110C before being expanded through the LP turbine to about 33C and the condenser pressure. A bleed stream of water is taken
from the water condensate. Feedwater pumps provide high-pressure water for the HRSG to produce high-pressure steam for recycle,
and intermediate-pressure water for the HRSG to produce intermediate pressure steam for open-loop cooling of the IP turbine. The
conceptual design characteristics for HP turbine and IP turbine for the near-term plant are tabulated in tables 4 and 5. Table 6 shows the
conceptual design characteristics of the HRSG.
111
1.3.1.3 Hydrogen-Fueled Power Systems

Table 4 Near-Term HP Turbine Design Characteristics


Cooling Needs None
Inlet Temperature (oC) 650
Exhaust Temperature (oC) 288
Inlet Pressure (bar) 350
Expansion Ratio 8.75
Gas Flow (kg/s) 150
Number of Stages 15
Number of Cooled Stages 0
Blade Heights (rst stage/last stage) (cm) 2.3/6.4
Turbine Casing Diameter (m) 1.7
Length of Flow Passage (cm) 270
Total Turbine Length (m) 4.9
Table 5 Near-Term IP Turbine Conceptual Characteristics
Cooling Needs Open-Loop Steam
Inlet Temperature (oC) 1700
Exhaust Temperature (oC) 740
Inlet Pressure (bar) 38.8
Expansion Ratio 33.7
Gas Flow (kg/s) 154
Number of Stages 6
Number of Cooled Rows 11
Blade Heights (rst stage/last stage) (cm) 7.4/36.4
Turbine Casing Diameter (inlet/exhaust) (m) 2.3/3.7
Length of Flow Passage (cm) 200
Total Turbine Length (m) 5.6
Table 6 HRSG Conceptual Characteristics
FLUE SIDE
Inlet Gas Steam with trace oxygen and noncondensibles
Inlet Gas Flow (kg/s) 177
Inlet Gas Temperature (oC) 740
Inlet Gas Pressure (bar) 1.15
Outlet Temperature (oC) 110
Pressure Drop (bar) 0.09
TUBE SIDE
Inlet Fluid 0.15 S cation conductivity water
Inlet Temperature (oC) 33
IP Inlet Pressure (bar) 40
Inlet Flow (kg/s) 121
HP Inlet Pressure (bar) 385
HP Outlet Flow (kg/s) 98
IP Outlet Temperature (oC) 269
HP Outlet Temperature (oC) 397
HRSG DIMENSIONS
HRSG Length (m) 24
HRSG Width (m) 12
HRSG Height (m) 14
Figure 4 depicts the long-term reference plant process diagram. The differences between the long-term plant and the near-term
plant diagrams are primarily related to the insertion of an additional turbine stage, the IHP turbine, and the use of extractive feedwater
heating. The long-term plant HP turbine expands recycle steam at 650C and 350 bar. The HP turbine exhaust stream has nominal
conditions of 387C and 75 bar. A portion of the HP exhaust stream is used for closed-loop cooling of the IHP turbine and the IP turbine.
The remainder of the HP exhaust stream is combined with hydrogen fuel, excess oxygen, and the exiting IHP and IP turbine closed-loop
cooling streams. The IHP combustion produces a 1700C, 70 bar stream to be expanded in the IHP turbine. The IHP turbine exhaust
stream is at about 1100C and 10 bar pressure. The IHP exhaust stream is combined with a stoichiometric amount of hydrogen to
generate IP combustion products at 1700C and 9.6 bar for expansion in the IP turbine. The IP turbine exhaust is about 1100C and 1.2
bar pressure. Both the IHP turbine and the IP turbine produce very high temperature exhaust stream requiring high temperature piping
designs. The IP expansion stream is cooled in the HRSG to about 240C before expansion in the LP turbine. Steam is extracted from the
IP turbine for feedwater heating. In contrast to the near-term plant, the long-term plant HRSG produces recycle steam at a single pressure
level to be expanded in the HP turbine. 112
Wen-Ching Yang
The HP turbine in both the near-term and long-term plants is close to, or within the range of current steam turbine technology10. In
contrast, the long-term plant IHP turbine is a large technology step above both current steam turbine practices and advanced combustion
turbine developments. The IP turbine has conditions close to the conditions of advanced combustion turbines being developed for natural
gas fuels 11.
The conceptual design of the reference plant was developed by using several design tools and sources of engineering experience.
TM
A commercial process simulator (ASPEN PLUS ) was applied to develop the reference plant process ow diagrams and thermal
performance estimates. Westinghouse proprietary design codes were used to design and size turbines, combustors, and the HRSG.
Advanced combustion turbine engineering experience resulting from development programs in the United States12 and advance steam
turbine engineering experience resulting from past studies and testing at Westinghouse13 were used to extrapolate current technology to
the demands of the reference plant.
Plant heat and materials balances and cycle calculations were generated for the reference plant at its rated load of 500 MWe
using the component performance assumptions described. No hydrogen or oxygen preheat is used in the plants, and extractive feedwater
heating is used in the long-term plant only, providing a simple, compact plant congurations. Table 7 lists the reference plant performance
and power generation breakdown for the long-term and the near-term plants. The plant net efciency for the near-term plant is estimated
to be 65.2 % (LHV) and that for the long-term plant, 71.4% (LHV).
Table 7 Reference Plant Thermal Performance
Long-Term Plant Near-Term Plant
HP Turbine (MWe) 42.3 81.6
IHP Turbine (MWe) 189.9 -
IP Turbine (MWe) 215.4 362.5
LP Turbine (MWe) 67.9 74.1
Gross Power (MWe) 515.5 518.2
Gross Efciency (%) 73.5 67.6
Generator Losses (MWe) 4.1 4.1
Pumping Power (MWe) 6.2 6.5
BOP Losses (MWe) 5.2 7.8
Net Power (MWe) 500.0 500.0
Net Efciency (%) 71.4 65.2
The reference plant environmental performance is expected to be superior to that of other power generation concepts using
other fuels, by having very low nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxide, particulate, toxic species, and green-house gas emissions. The generation
of solid waste and liquid/sludge wastes would also be negligible. The only signicant emissions could result from fuel or oxygen
contaminants, or from noise.

1.3.1.3-5 Developmental Requirements


In a nal report14 published in 1999, Westinghouse discussed the developmental requirements for realization of hydrogen-
fueled power systems to be developed in the general areas of 1) Materials, 2) Closed-loop turbine cooling, and 3) Hydrogen combustion
for the major equipment components: combustors, compressors, expanders, and heat exchangers. The nature of these developmental
requirements depend on the specic component operating conditions. The feasibility of manufacturing the equipment components with
current technology must also be considered.
The near-term plant HP turbine development should center on combustion phenomena and design features of the combustor and
materials selection. The near-term HP turbine design needs to be an adaptation of conventional HP steam turbine designs. The IP turbine
development needs should center on the component cooling needs- airfoils, cylinder, blade rings, and rotor bearings. The cooling design
should follow from closed-loop steam cooling features currently under development for advanced combustion turbines operating under
similar temperature and pressure conditions.
HP and IP combustion development should focus on the nature of the hydrogen combustion products and the control of
its chemistry, as well as the combustor operability: ame stability, ignition, ame detection, and combustion-induced oscillations.
Combustor liner and transition cooling should also be part of the combustor development testing.
Materials testing should focus on the durability of candidate materials during exposure to the hydrogen combustion products at
simulated commercial operating duty conditions. This includes hydrogen embrittlement, oxidation, stress corrosion cracking, corrosion
deposits, and creep rupture. The development of appropriate corrosion coatings and TBCs, and their associated bond coating, should
be a major part of the materials program. These may include advanced combustion turbine Ni-based super-alloys (single crystal and
directionally-solidied), and advanced combustion turbine TBCs (e.g., yttia-stabilized zirconia, alumina, TiN). The materials testing
associated with the IP turbine should also consider the limited use of ceramic components in ring segments, combustor liners and
transitions, and, vane and blade leading edges.
The stability of candidate ceramic materials and alternative ceramic forms in simulated combustion-steam environments (e.g.
zirconia in composite forms, tile forms, and brous insulating forms) should also be considered.
113
1.3.1.3 Hydrogen-Fueled Power Systems

1.3.1.3-6 Conclusions
The development of a hydrogen-fueled power plant with an efciency higher than 70 percent (LHV) can be accomplished. Four
conceptual reference cycle power systems, the high-temperature steam cycle, the new Rankine cycle and the near-term and long-term
Rankine cycle with reheat and recuperation, were reviewed and reported. The reference plants environmental performance is expected
to be superior to that of other power generation concepts using other fuels, by having very low nitrogen oxide, sulfur oxide, particulate,
toxic species, and green-house gas emissions. The generation of solid waste and liquid/sludge wastes would also be negligible. The only
signicant emissions could result from fuel or oxygen contaminants, or from noise.
To reach the ultimate reality, the hydrogen-combustion turbine cycles described require development in the general areas
of materials, closed-loop turbine cooling, and hydrogen combustion for the major equipment components: combustors, compressors,
expanders, and heat exchangers.

1.3.1.3-7 Notes

_______________________________

1. MITI, Comprehensive Approach to the New Sunshine Program which Supports the 21st Century, Sunshine Journal
(Agency of Industrial Science and Technology in Ministry of International Trade and Industry [MITI]) 4 (1993): 1-6.
2. NEDO, International Clean Energy Network Using Hydrogen Conversion (WE-NET), 1993 Annual Summary Report on
Results (New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization [NEDO]) (1994).
3. NEDO, Subtask 8 Development of Hydrogen-Combustion Turbine, Study for an Optimum System for Hydrogen-
Combustion Turbine, 1995 Annual Technical Results Report (New Energy and Industrial Technology Development
Organization [NEDO]) (1996).
4. N. Kizuka et.al., Conceptual Design of the Cooling System for 1700C-Class, Hydrogen-Fueled Combustion Gas Turbines,
Trans. ASME 121 (1999): 108-115; H. Jericha, O. Starzer, and M. Theissing, Towards a Solar-Hydrogen System, ASME Cogen-
Turbo, IGTI, 6 (1991): 435-442.
5. E. D. Alderson, G. W. Scheper, and A. Cohn, Closed Circuit Steam Cooling in Gas Turbines, ASME Paper
87-JPGC-GT-1 (1987); T. Ikeguchi and K. Kawaike, Effect of Closed-Circuit Gas Turbine Cooling Systems on Combined Cycle
Performance, ASME Paper 94-JPGC-GT-8 (1994).
6. Kizuka (see note 4 above).
7. T. Funatsu, M. Fukuda, and Y. Dohzono, Start Up Analysis of a H2-O2 Fired Gas Turbine Cycle, ASME Paper 97-GT-491
(1997).
8. R. L. Bannister, R. A. Newby, and W. C. Yang, Development of a Hydrogen-Fueled Combustion Turbine Cycle for Power
Generation, ASME Paper 97-GT-14 (1997).
9. D. A. Little, R. L. Bannister, and B. C. Wiant, Development of Advanced Turbine Systems, Proceedings, ASME Cogen
Turbo Power 93 (New York: ASME, 1993).
10. R. L. Bannister, and G. J. Silvestri, The Evolution of Central Station Steam Turbines, Mechanical
Engineering 111, no. 2 (1989): 70-78; R. L. Bannister et al., High-Temperature Supercritical Steam Turbines, Mechanical
Engineering 109 no. 2 (1987): 60-65.
11. R. L. Bannister et al., Turbines for the Turn of the Century, Mechanical Engineering 116 no. 6 (1994): 68-75.
12. D. J. Amos et al., Update on Westinghouses Advanced Turbine System Program,, ASME Paper 97-GT-369 (1997);
I. S. Diakunchak et al., Technology Development Programs for the Advanced Turbine Systems Engine, ASME Paper
96-GT-5 (1996).
13. G. J. Silvestri, R. L. Bannister, and A. Hizume, Optimization of Advanced Steam Condition Power Plants,
Journal of Engineering Gas Turbines and Power 114 (1992): 612-620.
14. R. L. Bannister, R. A. Newby, and W. C. Yang, Final Report on the Development of a Hydrogen-Fuelde
Combustion Turbine Cycle for Power Generation, J. Eng. Gas Turbines and Power 121(1999): 38-45.

114
BIOGRAPHY 1.3.1.3 Hydrogen-Fueled Power Systems

Wen-Ching Yang
Department of Chemical &
Petroleum Engineering
University of Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh, PA 15261

phone: (724) 327-3011


email: wcyang@pitt.edu

Dr. Yang worked for Westinghouse Electric Corporation and Siemens Westinghouse Power
Corporation for more than 36 years primarily in the area of advanced fossil fuel power generation
systems for IGCC applications. In the past 6 years, he concentrated on the detailed design of
commercial gas turbines through cold ow simulation testing, experimentation at commercial
sites, theoretical modeling, and development of advance sensors to monitor performance of gas
turbines. He was elected a Fellow of American Institute of Chemical Engineers in 1992 and
awarded a honorary Guest Professorship at the Thermal Engineering Department of Tsinghua
University in Beijing, China, in 1996. He holds several patents relating to turbine applications in
the area of partial oxidation, thermal chemical recuperation, and hydrogen-fueled power plants.
He retired at the end of July 2004 and is now an adjunct Professor at the Department of Chemical
and Petroleum Engineering, Univeristy of Pittsburgh.
1.3.2 1.3.2-1 Introduction
Advanced Brayton Cycles
Gas turbines could play a key role in the future power generation market
addressing issues of producing clean, efcient, affordable, and fuel-exible electric
power. Numerous projections estimate that gas turbines will comprise a signicant
portion of the required generation capacity in the 21st century. Novel advanced gas
turbine cycle modications intended to improve the basic Brayton cycle performance
and reduce pollutant emissions are currently under development or being investigated
by gas turbine manufacturers and Research and Development (R&D) organizations.
Preliminary conceptual analyses of advanced cycles indicate that it may be possible to
achieve an improved combination of efciency, emissions, and specic power output
which in turn should reduce the power generation equipment cost on a $/kW basis.
Developing turbine technology to operate on coal-derived synthesis gas and
hydrogen is critical to the development of advanced power generation technologies
and the deployment of FutureGen plants. The FutureGen plant concept may also be
deployed in natural gas-based plants with respect to generating power with near-zero
emissions while utilizing these advanced Brayton cycle machines and securing fuel
diversity.

1.3.2-2 Gas Turbine Technology


A conventional gas turbine cycle consists of pressurizing a working uid (air)
by compression, followed by combustion of the fuel; the energy thus released from the
fuel is absorbed into the working uid as heat (see gure 1). The working uid with the
absorbed energy is then expanded in a turbine to produce mechanical energy, which may
in turn be used to drive a generator to produce electrical power. Unconverted energy is
exhausted in the form of heat which may be recovered for producing additional power.
The efciency of the engine is at a maximum when the temperature of the working uid
entering the expansion step is also at a maximum. This occurs when the fuel is burned
in the presence of the pressurized air under stoichiometric conditions.

Ashok Rao, Ph.D., P.E.

Chief Scientist, Power Systems


Advanced Power and Energy Program
University of California
Irvine, CA 92697-3550
Fig. 1. Gas Turbine and the Ideal Brayton Cycle P-V Diagram
phone: (949) 824-7302 ext 345
email: adr@apep.uci.edu
When natural gas is burned with air under stoichiometric conditions, however,
the resulting temperature is greater than 1940C (3500F) depending on the temperature
of the combustion air. It is therefore necessary to utilize a large excess of air in the
combustion step, which acts as a thermal diluent and reduces the temperature of the
combustion products, this temperature being dependent on the gas turbine ring
temperature which in turn is set by the materials used in the turbine parts exposed to the
hot gas and the cooling medium (its temperature and physical properties) as well as the
115 heat transfer method employed for cooling the hot parts. A fraction of the air from the
60%

compressor is bled off as cooling air when air is utilized for cooling, the air being extracted from the compressor at appropriate pressures
depending upon where it is utilized in the turbine. From a cycle efciency and engine specic power output (kW per kg/s of suction air
ow) standpoint, it is important to minimize the amount of cooling air as well as the excess combustion air.
50%
The necessity to use a large excess of pressurized air in the combustor as well as for turbine cooling when air cooling is
employed creates a large parasitic load on the cycle, since compression of the air requires mechanical energy and this reduces the net
power produced from the system, as well as reducing the overall efciency of the system.
Some of the technological advances being made or being investigated to improve the Brayton cycle include the following, in
addition to the changes in the basic cycle conguration such as the inclusion of reheat combustion, intercooling (which is justied for
very high pressure ratio cycles), recuperation and humidication:

Rotor inlet temperature of 1700C (3100F) or higher which would require the development and use of advanced materials
including advanced thermal barrier coatings and turbine cooling techniques including closed loop steam cooling
Advanced combustor liner (combustion air and combustion products being hotter) required due to increases in rotor inlet
temperatures
High blade metal temperature in the neighborhood of ~1040C (1900F) while limiting coolant amount would again require the
development and use of the advanced materials including advanced thermal barrier coatings
Pressure gain combustor
Cavity or trapped vortex combustor
High pressure ratio compressor (greater than 30 to take full advantage of higher ring temperature)
Integration capability with high temperature ion
45%
transport membrane air separation in IGCC applications.

Addition of novel bottoming cycles is yet another approach to improving the overall plant (combined cycle) performance.
Overall cycle efciencies utilizing advanced technology gas turbines approaching 65% on natural gas on an LHV basis may be expected
(see gure 2). Some of these developments are described in the following.

1900

1800

1700

1600

1500
Temperature C
O

1400

1300 Film cooling


1200
Rotor Inlet
1100 Firing Temperature TBC
1000

900 IN738 IN939


Single Crystal
800 IN792 DS
S-816 M252 U500 U700 Material Improvement
700 N 80 A
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
Year

Fig. 2. Impact of Firing / Metal Temperature on Efciency

Gas Turbine Firing Temperature

Current-state-of-the-art gas turbines have ring temperatures (rotor inlet temperatures) that are limited to about 2600F. This
increase in ring temperature has been made possible by being able to operate the turbine components (that come into contact with the hot
gasses) at higher temperatures while at the same time utilizing closed circuit steam cooling. In a state-of-the-art air-cooled gas turbine
with ring temperature close to 1320C (2400F), as much as 25% of the compressor air may be used for turbine cooling, which results
in a large parasitic load of air compression. In air-cooled gas turbines, as the ring temperature is increased, the demand for cooling air
is further increased. Closed circuit steam cooling of the gas turbine provides an efcient way of increasing the ring temperature without
having to use a large amount of cooling air. Furthermore, steam with its very large heat capacity is an excellent coolant. Closed circuit
cooling also minimizes momentum and dilution losses in the turbine while the turbine operates as a partial reheater for the steam cycle.
Another major advantage with closed circuit cooling is that the combustor exit temperature and thus the NOx emissions are reduced for a
given ring temperature; the temperature drop between the combustor exit gas and the turbine rotor inlet gas is reduced since the coolant
used in the rst stage nozzles of the turbine does not mix with the gasses owing over the stationary vanes. Note that control of NOx 116
Ashok Rao, Ph.D., P.E.
emissions at such high ring temperatures becomes a major challenge. The General Electric (GE) H series gas turbines as well as the
Siemens and Mitsubishi G series gas turbines incorporate steam cooling although the GE turbine includes closed circuit steam cooling
for the rotors of the high pressure stages.
Taking the ring temperature beyond 1430C (2600F) poses challenges for the materials in the turbine hot gas path. Single
crystal blading has been utilized successfully in advanced turbines but in addition to this, development of advanced thermal barrier
coatings would be required. Extensive use of ceramics may be predicated. Reheat or sequential combustion is an alternate approach to
decreasing the amount of excess combustion air without increasing the ring temperature.

Gas Turbine Pressure Ratio


The optimum pressure ratio for a given cycle conguration increases with the ring temperature of the gas turbine. Thus to take
full advantage of the higher ring temperature of the gas turbine with ring temperature in the neighborhood of 1700C (3100F) the
required pressure ratio may be in excess of 30. Another constraint to consider is the temperature of the last stage buckets in the turbine.
This temperature may have to be limited to about 650C (1200F) from a strength of materials standpoint since the last stage buckets in
large scale gas turbines tend to be very long and a certain minimum pressure ratio would be required to limit this temperature.

Combustor Developments

Pressure Gain Combustor

A pressure gain combustor produces an end-state stagnation pressure that is greater than the initial state stagnation pressure. An
example of such a system is the constant volume combustion in an ideal spark ignited engine. Such systems produce a greater available
energy in the end state than constant pressure systems. It has been shown that the heat rate of a simple cycle gas turbine with a pressure
ratio of 10 and a turbine inlet temperature of ~1200C (2200F) can be decreased by more than 10% utilizing such a constant volume
combustion system1. Pulse combustion which relies on the inherent unsteadiness of resonant chambers can be utilized as a pressure
gain combustor. Research continues at the U.S. DOE and at NASA for the development of pressure gain combustors.

Trapped Vortex Combustor

The Trapped Vortex Combustor (TVC) has the potential for numerous operational advantages over current gas turbine engine
combustors. These include lower weight, lower pollutant emissions, effective ame stabilization, high combustion efciency, and
operation in the lean burn modes of combustion. The TVC concept grew out of fundamental studies of ame stabilization and is a
radical departure in combustor design using swirl cups to stabilize the ame. Swirl-stabilized combustors have somewhat limited
combustion stability and can blow out under certain operating conditions. On the other hand, the TVC maintains a high degree of ame
stability because the vortex trapped in a cavity provides a stable recirculation zone that is protected from the main ow in the combustor.
The second part of a TVC is a bluff body dome which distributes and mixes the hot products from the cavity with the main air ow.
Fuel and air are injected into the cavity in a way that it reinforces the vortex that is naturally formed within it.
The TVC may be considered a staged combustor with two pilot zones and a single main zone, the pilot zones being formed by
cavities incorporated into the liners of the combustor2. The cavities operate at low power as rich pilot ame zones achieving low CO
and unburned hydrocarbon emissions, as well as providing good ignition and the lean blowout margins. At higher power conditions
(above 30% power) the additional required fuel is staged from the cavities into the main stream while the cavities are operated at below
stoichiometric conditions. Experiments have demonstrated an operating range that is 40% wider than conventional combustors with
combustion efciencies of 99%+. Use of the TVC combustor holds special promise as an alternate option for suppressing the NOx
emissions in syngas applications where pre-mixed burners may not be employed. More details on this type of combustor may be found
in Section 3.2.1.4.1.

Catalytic Combustor

Lean stable combustion can be obtained by catalytically reacting the fuel-air mixture with a potential for simultaneous low
NOx, CO and unburned hydrocarbons. It also has the potential for improving lean combustion stability and reducing combustion-
induced pressure oscillations. The catalytic combustor can play a special role in IGCC applications to reduce NOx emissions. More
details on this type of combustor may be found in Sections 3.2.2 and 3.2.2.1.

IGCC Applications

The H2O vapor content of the working uid owing through the turbine when ring syngas while utilizing water vapor as the
diluent, is signicantly higher than that in the case when natural gas is the fuel (i.e., compared to the case when natural gas is red in
dry low NOx combustors). The following implications exist for the gas turbine in such applications:
1. Derating of the turbine ring temperature due the different aero-heat transfer characteristics and
2. Life of the thermal barrier coatings, and any ceramics that may be utilized in advanced gas turbines in the future.
117
1.3.2 Advanced Brayton Cycles

Additionally, a gas turbine designed for a certain ring temperature on natural gas would see derating of the ring temperature
not only due to the increased concentration of H2O vapor in the working uid but also due to the increase in the pressure ratio since the
temperature of the cooling air increases as the pressure ratio is increased. In the case of a steam-cooled gas turbine, however, derating of
the ring temperature may be less signicant (since the cooling steam temperature may be maintained independently of the gas turbine
pressure ratio), unless the low pressure air-cooled stages of the gas turbine become the bottleneck.
Furthermore, if dual fuel capability, i.e., operating capability on natural gas and on syngas is required, a large surge margin
would be necessary for the compressor with a pressure ratio in excess of 30 and may require a twin-spool aero-compressor for high
pressure ratios. Air extraction from the engine to supply the air separation unit may alleviate some of these challenges.
Integration capability with high temperature membrane air separation in IGCC applications may be a requirement in the future
when these advanced gas turbines are deployed. Capabilities for extraction of ~ 50% of the compressor discharge air for the membrane
unit while introducing hot (~800C or 1500F) depleted air from it into the gas turbine combustor would be required. Within the
combustor, its liner design and materials would be impacted.

Novel Cycles

Humid Air Turbine (HAT) Cycle

The mechanical energy required for air compression in the Brayton cycle can be reduced by utilizing interstage cooling.
However, from an overall cycle efciency standpoint, interstage cooling can be utilized advantageously if the heat removed from
the compressed air in the intercooler can be efciently recovered for conversion to power. If the entire heat is simply rejected to
the atmosphere, the overall cycle efciency may actually decrease depending upon the cycle pressure ratio, since it results in the
consumption of more fuel to compensate for the energy lost through the intercooler. Only at very high pressure ratios can intercooling
be justied in most cycles.

Fig. 3. HAT Cycle

In the HAT cycle a signicant portion of the excess air that is required as thermal diluent in a gas turbine, is replaced with
water vapor (see gure 3)3. The water vapor is introduced into the system in an efcient manner, by pumping of a liquid followed by
low temperature evaporation. Pumping a liquid requires less mechanical energy compared to gas (air) compression. Evaporation of the
water into the compressed air stream is accomplished using low temperature heat, in a counter-current multistage humidication column,
rather than generating steam in a boiler. This method of humidication permits the use of low temperature heat for accomplishing the
evaporation of water. For example, water which boils at 100oC or 212oF at atmospheric pressure may be made to evaporate at room
temperatures when exposed to a stream of relatively dry air.
The process also reduces the parasitic load of compressing the combustion air by intercooling the compressor, while recovering
most of the heat removed in the intercooler for the humidication operation. Thus, a more thermally efcient power cycle is achieved.
Humidication of the compressed air also leads to a reduction of NOx emissions. The humid air is preheated by heat exchange with the
turbine exhaust in a recuperator to recycle the exhaust energy to the combustor, thereby eliminating the expensive steam bottoming cycle
required in a combined cycle.

118
Ashok Rao, Ph.D., P.E.
The advantages of the HAT cycle are:
Less than 5 ppmV NOx without post-combustion treatment
High efciency without a steam bottoming cycle
Applicable to micro- and mini-turbines for distributed generation
Excellent part-load performance, efciency essentially constant down to 60% of full load
Performance quite insensitive to ambient temperature
Water usage less than that for a combined cycle employing wet cooling tower and if desired, water may be recovered from HAT
exhaust
High specic power
Integrates synergistically with reliable low-cost Total Quench gasier
In coal based Zero Emission plants, the Total Quench Gasier option is of choice
In natural gas Zero Emission based plants where CO2 is recovered from exhaust, CO2 concentration is higher (dry basis).

The disadvantages of the HAT cycle are:


Requires intercooled-regenerative gas turbine for optimum performance
Compressor / turbine ow mismatch deviates from normal gas path design
Development cost could be high although possible for compressor / turbine mix and match
Does not take advantage of steam-cooled blade technology (water cooled technology could prove better in advanced
machines)
Use of ceramics in hot gas path may be a challenge due to high moisture content of the working uid.

Inlet Air Fogging

Another approach to reducing the parasitic load of air compression in a gas turbine is to introduce liquid water into the suction
air4. The water droplets will have to be extremely small in size and be in the form of a fog to avoid impingement on the blades of the
compressor causing erosion. As the water evaporates within the compressor from the heat of compression, the air being compressed is
cooled which in turn causes a reduction in the compressor work. Note that the compression work is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the uid being compressed.
A benet in addition to increasing the specic power output of the engine is the reduction in the NOx due to the presence of the
additional water vapor in the combustion air. A number of gas turbines have been equipped with such a fogging system. Care should be
taken, however, in specifying the water treatment equipment since high quality demineralized water is required as well as in the design
of the fogging system to avoid impingement of the compressor blades with water droplets.

Fuel Cell Hybrids


A fuel cell, as an electrochemical device is similar to a battery that converts chemically bound energy directly into electricity
but unlike conventional batteries, the chemical energy to the cell is supplied on a continuous basis in the form of a fuel such as natural gas
or synthesis gas while the oxidant (air) is also supplied continuously. Higher conversion efciencies are achievable with a fuel cell when
compared to heat engines; the chemical energy is directly converted into electricity, the intermediate step of conversion into heat as in a
heat engine is eliminated and thus without being constrained by temperature limitations of the materials as is the case with heat engines.
A fuel cell-based hybrid cycle consists of combining a fuel cell with a heat engine to maximize the overall system efciency.
Overall system efciencies greater than 60% on natural gas on an LHV basis may be achieved. High temperature fuel cells such as
solid oxide and molten carbonate fuel cells are most suitable for such applications. In the case of a high pressure fuel cell based hybrid
(see gure 4), the combustor of the gas turbine is replaced by the fuel cell system while in the case of a low pressure fuel cell based
hybrid, the heat rejected by the fuel cell may be transferred to
the working uid of the gas turbine through a heat exchanger
(indirect cycle)5.
The characteristics for gas turbines needed in these hybrid
applications are:
Recuperation (currently only small gas turbines, i.e., less than
15 MW are offered as recuperated engines for generator drives)
Low ring temperature of less than 1000C (1800F) and
pressure ratio in the range of 4 to 12
Combustors accepting hot and depleted fuel and air when gas
turbine combustors are utilized for oxidation of the fuel cell
anode exhaust gas
Oil free bearings to avoid carbon deposition in the anode section
of the fuel cell.
Fig. 4. A Pressurized SOFC Hybrid
119
1.3.2 Advanced Brayton Cycles

1.3.2-3 Conclusions
Gas turbines could play a key role in the future power generation market including coal based FutureGen plants. Potential
exists to take the overall cycle efciencies to 65% on natural gas on an LHV basis, 60% being the state-of-the-art combined cycle
efciency with the technological advances being made or being investigated which include higher rotor inlet temperature of 1700C
(3100F) or higher and higher blade metal temperature ~1040C (1900F) made possible with the use of advanced materials including
advanced thermal barrier coatings and turbine cooling techniques including closed loop steam cooling, advanced combustor liners to
handle the higher temperatures within the combustor, pressure gain and cavity combustors, high pressure ratio compressors (greater
than 30 to take full advantage of higher ring temperature) and integration capability with high temperature ion transport membrane air
separation in IGCC applications. In tandem, changes to the basic cycle conguration such as the inclusion of reheat combustion and
intercooling which is advantageous in very high pressure ratio cycles would be complementary in achieving the goals of higher thermal
efciency and higher engine specic power output. These desirable attributes could also be further enhanced by the use of advanced
combustor concepts such as the pressure gain combustor while the TVC holds the promise of an alternate option for suppressing the NOx
emissions, especially in syngas applications.

1.3.2-4 Notes

_________________

1. R.S. Gemmen, G. A. Richards and M. C. Janus, Development of a Pressure Gain Combustor for Improved Cycle Efciency,
Proceedings of the ASME Cogen Turbo Power Congress and Exposition (1994).
2. D. L. Burrus, A. W. Johnson and W. M. Roquemore, and D. T. Shouse, Performance Assessment of a Prototype Trapped Vortex
Combustor for Gas Turbine Application, Proceedings of the ASME IGTI Turbo-Expo Conference (New Orleans, June 2001).
3. A. D. Rao, Process for Producing Power, U.S. Patent No. 4,289,763 dated May 16, 1989.
4. R. Bhargava and C. B. Meher-Homji, Parametric Analysis of Existing Gas Turbines with Inlet Evaporative and Overspray
Fogging, Proceedings of the ASME IGTI Turbo-Expo Conference, (Amsterdam, June 2002).
5. K. Litzinger, et. al., Comparative Evaluation of SOFC Gas Turbine Hybrid System Options, Proceedings of the ASME Turbo
Expo Conference (Reno-Nevada, June 2005); G. Agnew, et. al., The Design and Integration of the Rolls-Royce Fuel Cell
Systems 1 MW SOFC, Proceedings of the ASME Turbo Expo Conference (Reno-Nevada, June 2005); R. Schonewald, Turbo-
Machinery Requirements for Practical SOFC-Gas Turbine Hybrid Systems, Proceedings of the ASME Turbo Expo Conference
(Reno-Nevada, June 2005); H. Ghezel-Ayagh, Hybrid Controls, Presented at the ICEPAG Conference (Irvine, California,
September 2004).

120
BIOGRAPHY
1.2.2 Implications of CO2 Sequestration for Gas Turbines
1.3.2 Advanced Brayton Cycles

Ashok Rao, Ph.D., P.E.

Chief Scientist, Power Systems


Advanced Power and Energy Program
University of California
Irvine, CA 92697-3550

phone: (949) 824-7302 ext 345


email: adr@apep.uci.edu

Dr. Rao serves as the Chief Scientist, Power Systems at UC Irvine Advanced Power and Energy Program.
He worked in industry for more than 30 years in the energy conversion area, and previously worked at
Fluor as Director in Process Engineering and Senior Fellow in design / development of gasication for
power generation and synthetic fuels coproduction. He received several patent awards in the energy
conversion area and authored several papers on advanced power cycles and improved IGCC designs.
Dr. Rao has also worked for Allis-Chalmers and McDowell Wellman Engineering in coal conversion;
responsibilities included taking ideas from drawing board to demonstration scale plants. He holds a
Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering and a M.S. in Chemical Engineering.
1.3.3
Partial Oxidation Gas 1.3.3-1 Introduction
Turbine (POGT) Cycles There are two main features that distinguish a Partial Oxidatation Gas
Turbine from a conventional gas turbine. These are associated with the design
arrangement and the thermodynamic processes used in operation. A primary design
differentiating feature of the POGT when compared to a conventional gas turbine
is that POGT utilizes a non-catalytic partial oxidation reactor (POR) in place of
a normal combustor. An important secondary distinction is that a much smaller
compressor is required, one that typically supplies less than half of the air ow
required in a conventional gas turbine. From an operational and thermodynamic
point of view the key distinguishing feature is that the working uid provided by
the POR (a secondary fuel gas) has a much higher specic heat than lean complete
combustion products and more energy per unit mass of uid can be extracted by
Joseph K. Rabovitser, Ph.D. the POGT expander than is the conventional case. (This is why the POGT uses a
smaller compressor than a conventional gas turbine.)
A POR operates at fuel rich conditions typically at equivalence ratios on
the order of 2.5, and virtually any hydrocarbon fuel can be combusted. Because
of these fuel rich conditions, incomplete combustion products are used as the
hot section working uid. A POGT thus produces two products: power and a
secondary fuel that usually is a hydrogen rich gas. This specic feature creates a
great opportunity to provide high efciencies and ultra-low emissions (single digit
NOx and CO levels) when the secondary fuel is burned in a bottoming cycle. When
compared to the equivalent standard gas turbine bottoming cycle combination, the
POGT provides an increase of about 10 percent points in system efciency.
Serguei Nester, Ph.D., The overall efciency of a POGT two-staged power system is typically
Gar Technology Institute, Energy high and can approach 70% depending on the POGT operating conditions and
Utilization center the chosen bottoming cycle. In gure 1 a generic arrangement of a two-stage or
1700 S. Mount Prospect Road air-staged reheat power system with a POGT as a topping cycle is shown. The
Des Plaines, IL 60018 bottoming cycle can be either a low pressure (or vacuum) combustion turbine, or
an internal combustion engine, or a solid oxide fuel cell, or any combination of
Phone: 847-768-0548 them. In addition, the POGT can be used as the driver for cogeneration systems.
847-768-0541 In such cogeneration systems the bottoming cycle can be a fuel-red boiler, an
absorption chiller, or an industrial furnace. The POGT is ideally suited for the co-
joseph.rabovitser@gastechnology.org, production of power and either hydrogen, or synthesis gas (syngas), or chemicals.
serguei.nester@gastechnology.org Some of the important applications are described below.

David James White


TRITEK Consulting Fig. 1. Generic Schematic of POGT System
3633 Millikin Avenue
San Diego, CA 92122-2413
1.3.3-2 Background
Phone: 858-453-8653
Research and development (R&D) into the application of POGT concepts
Email: tritek@san.rr.com
for power generation was rst performed by the Institute of High Temperature
(IVTAN) in the former Soviet Union in the late 1950s1. The result of this R&D was
the demonstration of a working POGT. In one published application by IVTAN2,
residual fuel oil is partially combusted to produce high-pressure steam and fuel
gas, which is then cooled and cleaned to remove ash and sulfur compounds. The
steam and puried fuel gas are then used for power generation. A 1970 patent
for a POGT by Jacques Ribesse of the JARIX company in Brussels, Belgium,
121
was followed by a technical paper in 19713, and a second paper describing further improvements in 19914, which described the gas
turbine, air compressor, catalytic partial oxidation reactor (POR), and expansion turbine. Partial or total combustion of the combustible
gas (leaving the POR) and passing through the expansion turbine was accomplished by injecting air into the turbine vanes. This
simultaneously accomplished both the needed cooling and, through local combustion, an isothermal expansion5.
In 1992, IVTAN published a paper describing an innovative combined cycle utilizing a POGT for the repowering of existing
natural-gas-red steam turbine power plants. The retrot modications were estimated to improve fuel efciencies to between 70-80%
and reduce NOx emissions by a factor of 10 or more6. Efciencies are increased mainly because of (1) complete use of the thermal energy
of the hot pressurized gasier product gas supplied by the POGT; (2) reduced air ow requirements typically about 65% of that used for
a conventional expansion turbine, (3) larger volumetric gas ow in the turbine (15-20%), taking into account the lower specic mass
of the partial oxidation products, (4) higher specic heat of the turbine working uid, and (5) close to isothermal expansion, allowing a
better utilization potential of the heat7.
Hodrien and Fairbairn in 1993 evaluated the POGT in a report prepared for British Gas as a highly promising cycle with a
potential efciency above 60%8. Further study at the University of Leige (Belgium) in collaboration with other European partners, which
included preliminary analysis and testing, concluded POGT has good potential for power generation applications and Combined Heat
and Power (CHP) applications as well9.
The Gas Technology Institute (GTI) has been actively working on the POGT concept since 1995. With support from the U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE) and Gas Research Institute (GRI), GTI (formerly IGT) teamed up with SWPC (formerly Westinghouse)
to perform a system study of POGT applications10. The cycles studied included (1) a conventional natural-gas-red gas turbine with a
POGT utilized as a topping cycle, (2) a combined cycle plant joining a POGT with a steam turbine, and (3) a repowering system for coal-
red power plants using a POGT as a topping cycle. In a continuation of this work Westinghouse performed technical feasibility studies
and cost analyses of the PO power cycle11 and concluded that there was potential for signicant plant heat rate and cost-of-electricity
improvements.
In a recent development effort to demonstrate a POGT for on-site CHP generation, GTI with support from the California Energy
Commission (CEC) and GRI, has teamed with Solar Turbines Incorporated (Solar), Tritek Consulting, Alturdyne Incorporated , and the
Belcan Corporation to develop, build, and install at GTI a 10-MWth (34 MMBtu/hr) pressurized research non-catalytic POR, intended to
replace the combustor of the Solar Spartan T-350 conventional gas turbine modied to operate in a POGT mode.

1.3.3-3 Overview
The POGT has great potential as a driver for a wide
range of bottoming cycles for power generation. A POGT can
effectively co-produce both power and syngas from which
hydrogen can be extracted. It can also be used in a cogeneration
mode where the bottoming cycle systems are industrial furnaces,
boilers, or absorption chillers.
Depending on the fuel type and if normal ambient air is
used (rather than oxygen enriched air) the exit fuel gases from the
POGT are essentially low to medium heating value secondary
fuels with variable but high hydrogen contents. In general the
lower the hydrogen content of the fuel molecule the lower the
exhaust gas hydrogen concentrations will be. An increase in
hydrogen content can be obtained by adding steam to the POR
which through reforming reactions will increase the hydrogen
content of the POR exhaust. Typically the POR will operate at
temperatures on the order of 2000 to 2400F thus keeping the
maximum turbine inlet temperature to this level and allowing
usage of existing and proven eet of turbine expanders for
POGT application. The simultaneous endothermic reforming
and exothermic oxidation reactions that occur within the POR
tend to thermally balance each other at a particular temperature
(depending on the equivalence ratio) thus eliminating any
destructive run-away reactions. The POR exhaust gases, which
Fig. 2. POGT Cycle Comparisons
have very high specic heats, provide a signicant improvement
over air as the working uid. Expansion of the POR gases over
a turbine provides a much greater power extraction per unit mass of working uid than is possible for the products of lean conventional
combustion systems. This working uid improvement results in the specic power of the POGT proper, being almost twice that of
conventional gas turbines. Generally improved specic power provides in turn improved protability for the manufacturer and lower
unit costs for the customer. Higher efciencies typically improve the customers protability. The POGT exhibits both improved specic
power and increased efciencies when compared to conventional gas turbines. This is clearly shown in gure 2 in which a comparison
of the POGT with a number of gas turbine cycles is provided.
122
Joseph K. Rabovitser, Ph.D., Serguei Nester, Ph.D.,

1.3.3-4 POGT Applications


This section covers the key applications that are perfectly suited to a POGT. These applications have been divided into power
generation, co-production of power and synthesis gas /hydrogen, and cogeneration applications. Each application is covered in details
in the following sections.

POGT for Power Generation

The benets of POGT in power generation systems


when compared to those based on a conventional gas turbine
are that it provides fundamentally higher energy conversion
efciencies and inherently lower nitrogen oxide (NOx)
emissions without any catalytic combustion or post combustion
catalytic treatment. Typically in the POGT power generation
approaches more of the oxygen in the air is consumed in the
staged combustion arrangement than in conventional gas
turbine power systems; O2 in the stack is about 3% for POGT
systems vs. 14-16% for conventional systems. This leads
to the generally higher conversion efciencies. The overall
combustion system can be regarded as being similar to a rich-
lean combustor with an expansion turbine located between
the rich and lean sections. The expansion process cools the
gases that enter the lean combustion section creating easier
premixing and lower ame temperatures than are encountered
in a standard rich-lean combustor. It is this critical difference
that allows the POGT system to provide NOx emission levels
less than 3 parts-per-million, by volume (ppmv), dry (corrected
Fig. 3. Steam Injected Simple Cycle POGT
to 15% oxygen). The POGT does require a more advanced
control system than a conventional gas turbine primarily for
starting and shut-down. In particular if the exhaust fuel gas
composition is to be varied then additional control features
have to be added to the basic system.
The integration of the POGT with bottoming systems
such as a steam based combined cycle is straightforward as
is the integration with a fuel cell. Using a gas turbine as
a bottoming cycle is more difcult and usually results in
either a sub-atmospheric pressure system being employed
or forward integration of the gas turbine with the POGT.
A steam bottoming cycle involving the return of all of the
steam generated (in a fuel red boiler) to the POGT is shown
in gure 3. This is considered to be a steam injected simple
cycle. This general approach is similar to steam injected gas
turbines and produces a signicant increase in power over
the non-steam injected case. A combined cycle version
of this steam injected POGT is shown in gure 4. In this
arrangement the steam produced in the bottoming cycle is
split into two streams. One of the streams is injected into the
POGT proper and the other is used to drive a steam turbine.
This particular approach using steam injection not only
increases the power output of the POGT but also increases
the hydrogen content of the exhaust secondary fuel gases as Fig. 4. Steam Injected Combined Cycle POGT
mentioned above. The higher hydrogen content provides
improved stability for the lean combustion systems that are
used to re the boilers. This improved stability allows the
boiler combustion systems to operate at very lean (low NOx
emission) conditions. The injected steam not only enters into
the POR reforming reactions but is also be used for cooling
of the POR and hot-section structures where needed.

123
1.3.3 Partial Oxidation Gas Turbine (POGT) Cycles

The use of a gas turbine as the bottoming


cycle typically involves a much closer integration
than say with a fuel cell or boiler. This forward
integration results in a conguration that has been
termed an Air Staged Reheat (ASR) system. Perhaps
the simplest version of an ASR in an all electric power
generating system is shown as a schematic in gure 5.
In gas turbine terminology this could be a two shaft,
single-spool arrangement with a reheat combustor.
The POGT turbine provides power to both the low
pressure and high pressure compressors while a red
(power) turbine produces the power for export. This Fig. 5 Integrated Air Staged Reheat POGT
conguration has high overall efciencies because
of the higher levels of oxygen consumed in the two
stage combustion process when compared to a single
combustor arrangement.
The fuel cell integrated as a bottoming cycle
with a POGT is shown in gure 6. In this particular
version the fuel cell air is provided by an auxiliary fan
while the fuel is supplied as the POGT exhaust. This
approach of using the POGT exhaust which is a high
hydrogen content fuel gas for the fuel cell lends itself
well to both the solid oxide and molten carbonate
fuel cells. Figure 6 shows an application involving
a solid oxide fuel cell. In general the POGT is a
better candidate topping cycle to the fuel cell than a
conventional gas turbine. The POGT eliminates the
need for a reformer and the integration problems that
reformers create for fuel cell thermal management, as
well as improves start-up and shut-down operation.

POGT for Co-Production of Hydrogen and Power

One of the more promising applications


of the POGT is the co-production of hydrogen and
electrical power. In gure 7 a POGT system intended
for the production of both synthesis gas or hydrogen
(from natural gas) together with electrical power
is shown. It shares many features with the steam
injected systems shown in gures 3 and 4. Instead Fig. 6. Hybrid Fuel Cell POGT System
of reinjecting all of the steam generated into the POR
part of the steam produced is reacted with part of
the POGT exhaust in a shift reactor to increase the
hydrogen content. Part of the exhaust is burned in a
boiler to produce the required steam. This particular
POGT arrangement is a very effective approach to
producing synthesis gas or hydrogen and can be
viewed as a self-powered reformer when this kind
of application is needed.

POGT for Cogeneration with Industrial Furnaces,


Boilers or Chillers

The use of POGT systems as the drivers for


cogeneration is likely to be very effective primarily
because of the use of the POGT exhaust as a fuel. Not Fig. 7. POGT Co-Production of Power and Hydrogen
only is the exhaust thermal energy made available as
in a conventional gas turbine cogeneration system
but the fuel when combusted boosts the application

124
Joseph K. Rabovitser, Ph.D., Serguei Nester, Ph.D.,

temperatures to higher levels. These higher temperatures


increase the efciency of the bottoming cycle. The
exhaust which is a low to medium energy gas typically
has low ame temperature and thus produces minimal
levels of NOx. An arrangement of the POGT with a
high temperature furnace (HTF) or an industrial boiler
(IB) is shown in gure 8. High temperature steam
suitable for process uses or even power generation is
typically produced. Furnaces such as those used in
steel annealing and reheat, glass melting, or aluminum
reclamation are candidates for this approach because
the associated processes typically require both electrical
power and high temperatures.

1.3.3-5 Conclusions
POGT is a highly exible device that when
integrated with a bottoming cycle can provide signicant
improvements over conventional gas turbines in both
efciency and gaseous emissions particularly in small
megawatt-size power generation systems. The core
POGT because of its very high specic power (kW/
(lb/s)) should have a lower specic cost ($/kW) than a
conventional gas turbine.
Thus the POGT represents a promising type
of gas turbine which could be widely used for power
generation, cogeneration, and co-production of power
and hydrogen, syngas or chemicals. POGT systems Fig. 8. High Temperature Furnace or Industrial Boiler Cogeneration
efciency is in the lower fties for simple cycle systems
and the upper sixties for combined cycles. Typically the
NOx emission levels are below 3-ppmv without post
combustion catalytic treatment. A conventional gas
turbine could be converted to a POGT by replacement
of the conventional combustor with a POR, and by
downsizing the compressor. Modications to the
turbine and the hot section cooling systems could also
be needed.

1.3.3-6 Acronyms and Abbreviations

AC Air Compressor
FFB Fuel Fired Boiler
HPAC High-Pressure Air Compressor
HTF High Temperature Furnace
IB Industrial Boiler
LPAC Low -Pressure Air Compressor
LPT Low-Pressure Turbine
LRC Lean Reheat Combustor
POR Partial Oxidation Reactor
POGT Partial Oxidation Gas Turbine

125
1.3.3 Partial Oxidation Gas Turbine (POGT) Cycles

1.3.3-7 Notes
_________________________

1. J.K. Rabovitser, M. J. Khinkis, R. L. Bannister, and F. Q. Miao, Evaluation of Thermochemical Recuperation and Partial
Oxidation Concepts for Natural Gas-Fired Advanced Turbine Systems, presented at International Gas Turbine and
Aeroengine Congress & Exhibition, Birmingham UK, June 1996.
2. S.A. Christianovich, V. M. Maslennikov, and V. L. Sterenberg, Steam-Gas Power Stations with Multi-Stage Residual Oil
Combustion, Applied Energy, Great Britain, 2 (1995):175-187.
3. J. Ribesse, Gas Turbine with Catalytic Reactor for the Partial Oxidation of Natural Gas and Its Application in Power
Stations, Gas Wrme International,July-August, 1971.
4. J.J. Ribesse, Isothermal Gas Turbine Using Catalytic Partial Oxidation, International Patent WO 91/05946, May 2, 1991.
5. J.J. Ribesse, The Isotherm Partial Oxidation Gas Turbine, Eur. J. Mech. Eng. 36 no. 1 (1991): 27-32.
6. V.M. Maslennikov and V. J. Sterenberg, Steam-Gas Units for the Modication of Existing Steam Power Plants, IVTAN,
Moscow, 1992.
7. See note 1 above.
8. R.C. Hodrien and G.W. Fairbairn, Power Into the 21st Century, Gas Engineering & Management (March, 1994).
9. B. Kalitventzeff, M. N. Dumont, and F. Marechal, Process Integration Techniques in the Development of New Energy
Technologies: Application to the Isothermal Gas Turbine, Univ. Liege, Belgium; M.A. Korobitsyn, P.W. Kers, and
G.G. Hirs, Analysis of a Gas Turbine Cycle with Partial Oxidation, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (Paper),
98-GT-33 (1998): 7;G. Heyen and B. Kalitventzeff, A Comparison of Advanced Thermal Cycles Suitable for Upgrading
Existing Power Plants, Applied Thermal Engineering 19 (1998): 227-237; F. Desmar and G. Heyen, High-Temperature
Heat and Power Generation using a partial Oxidation Gas Turbine : Application to an annealing Furnace, IcheaP-5
Symposium, Florence, May 20-23, 2001; M. Korobitsyn, Enhancing Direct-Fired Power Plants Performance by Use of
Gas Turbine Technology, Journal of Propulsion and Power 16 no. 4 (2000): 568-571; B. Kalitventzeff, M.N.
Dumont, and F. Marchal, Process Integration Techniques in the Development of New Energy Technologies :
Application to the Isothermal Gas Turbine, proceedings of Chisa 1998, August 24-28, Prague; B. Albrecht, Reactor
Modeling and Process Analysis for Partial Oxidation of Natural Gas, (PhD diss. University of Twente, Oct. 14, 2004).
10. See note 1 above.
11. Newby et. al, An Evaluation of a Partial Oxidation Concept for Combustion Turbine Power Systems, ASME paper 97-
AA-24, 1997

126
BIOGRAPHY
1.3.3 Partial Oxidation Gas Turbine (POGT) Cycles

Joseph K. Rabovitser, Ph.D.


Gar Technology Institute, Energy Utilization center
1700 S. Mount Prospect Road
Des Plaines, IL 60018

phone: 847-768-0548
email: joseph.rabovitser@gastechnology.org

Dr. Joseph Rabovitser is a director of power generation, at the Gas Technology Institute. Since 1994,
he has been involved in the development of the partial oxidation gas turbine (POGT) technology,
and currently he is the project manager / principal investigator of the ongoing project Development
of a POGT for Combined Electricity and Hydrogen Enriched Fuel Gas Generation, and he directs
several other research programs including development and deployment of high efciency and
ultra-low NOx boilers, burners for gaseous and solid fuels, and novel partial oxidation gas turbine
for CHP and multi-stream cogeneration system. Dr. Rabovitser has over 30 years of extensive
experience in R&D, engineering, and computer modeling of various power plants equipment. He
has over 145 publications, including three books (with co-authors), 44 articles in technical journals
and proceeding, and 32 patents.
Serguei Nester, Ph.D.

Gas Technology Institute, Energy Utilization center


1700 S. Mount Prospect Rd.
Des Plaines, IL 60018

phone: 847-768-0541
email: serguei.nester@gastechnology.org

Dr. Serguei Nester is a senior engineer at Gas Technology Institute, Des Plaines, Illinois. He
conducts combustion research and development for industrial applications. His responsibilities
include CFD modeling, design, development, and testing of novel combustion equipment.
Currently Dr. Nester is involved in the development of the Partial Oxidation Gas Turbine (POGT)
technology, including Partial Oxidation Reactors, and small and midsize partial oxidation gas
turbines, POGT cycle analysis, combinations of POGT with boilers, furnaces and fuel cells,
gas turbine/fuel cell hybrids, fundamental studies of partial oxidation of natural gas. Also, he is
involved in the development of downstream supplemental ring combustion equipment.
David James White
TRITEK Consulting
3633 Millikin Avenue
San Diego, CA 92122-2413

phone: 858-453-8653
email: tritek@san.rr.com

Mr. David J. White is the president of TRITEK Consulting whose specialty is future gas turbine
technologies. Mr. David J. White is a chemical engineer and combustion specialist with degrees
from Manchester University (BSc.) and Royal College of Aeronautics (MSc.). He has worked
in a research capacity for a number of companies including Rolls-Royce, Garrett AiResearch,
and Solar Turbines Incorporated. He retired early from Solar Turbines Incorporated and started
TRITEK Consulting. Mr. David J. White has provided valuable contributions to a number of
programs including:
Variable power afterburners for the Rolls-Royce Spey-Engined Phantom.
Hypersonic Ramjet Engine (HRE) for the X-15 (Garrett AiResearch)
Advanced Turbine Systems (Solar Turbines Incorporated)
Low NOx Combustion Systems (Several Companies)
Partial Oxidation Gas Turbine Design (GRI)
1.4
Hybrid Gas Turbine
1.4-1 Introduction
With increasing energy demands, dwindling fossil energy resources, and
Fuel Cell Systems environmental concerns associated with criteria pollutants and greenhouse gases,
signicant attention in the gas turbine community has been focused on increasing
efciency and reducing emissions. A highly efcient and low emitting concept that
has been considered for the future is the hybrid gas turbine high temperature fuel cell
concept.
Hybrid fuel cell technologies may enable the U.S. to meet its future energy
demands while enhancing energy efciency, reliability and security, and reducing
environmental impact. Hybrid systems are comprised of integrated gas turbines and
fuel cells with other technologies. A myriad of potential congurations exists with
hundreds of cycles proposed and investigated. In each case these hybrid cycles exhibit
a synergistic energy and environmental performance enhancement through novel
individual technology components, unique systems integration, advanced energy
conversion devices, innovative pollutant mitigation approaches, and/or increased fuel
exibility and applicability.
These types of hybrid systems have been developed and proposed for operation
on natural gas, coal, biomass and other fossil fuels. Both experimental and theoretical
analyses of such hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems have indicated that such hybrid
systems can achieve very high fuel-to-end-use efciency and very low emissions.
The environmental and energy efcient performance of these hybrid systems could
allow them to make major contributions to new and secure fossil-fueled energy
infrastructure and could assist in the provision of fuels, value added products, and
introduction of the hydrogen economy.
Integrated hybrid cycles exhibit synergies not present in typical combined cycles
with fuel-to-electricity efciencies higher than either the fuel cell or gas turbine alone
and costs for a given efciency that may become lower than either alone. Signicant
improvement of high temperature fuel cell technology robustness and cost is required
for the development of hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems. The advancement of high
temperature fuel cell technology in the last decade has been signicant and expectations
are that it will become commercially viable in coming decades. Once high temperature
fuel cells become commercially viable, stand-alone fuel cell systems may compete
with gas turbine technology in the electricity production sector. However, this will
not occur without a natural evolution toward signicant use of hybrid systems that use
both gas turbine and fuel cell technology. This natural evolution will be driven by the
superior efciency and emissions performance of hybrid systems.
Economies, industry, citizens and the environment could all benet from the
advancement and deployment of gas turbine fuel cell hybrid systems due to high
energy efciency, and reduced environmental impact. No fossil-fuel based technology
can compete with the high efciency and environmental performance of gas turbine
fuel cell hybrid systems. In addition, the market applications for hybrid gas turbine
fuel cell technologies are myriad. They include the future potential application to
large central station power plants operated on a variety of fuel resources, distributed
generation support of traditionally energy intensive industries, local commercial
Professor Jack Brouwer, Ph.D. applications and various distributed generation scenarios. In addition, hybrid fuel
Associate Director
cell technologies can be used to support the auxiliary power and propulsion power
National Fuel Cell Research Center
needs of aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, ships, and trains.
University of California
Although the potential for gas turbine fuel cell hybrid systems is signicant, the
Irvine, CA 92697-3550
front-end risk associated with developing this technology is considerable. Broad
investment in industry, at national laboratories, and in university research and
email: jb@nfcrc.uci.edu
development is required to advance hybrid gas turbine fuel cell technology.
http://www.nfcrc.uci.edu

1.4-2 Background
Hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems are comprised of two major components,
a high temperature fuel cell and a gas turbine engine. Since this handbook provides
sufcient background information on gas turbine technology, background information
on fuel cell technology for use in integrated hybrid cycles is the focus of this section.
Brief background information regarding gas turbine technology for hybrid applications
127 is included.
1.4-3 Fuel Cell Technology

Fuel Cell History and Background


In the late 1830s, Sir William Grove and Professor Christian Friedrich Schoenbein discovered fuel cells. The discovery was
accomplished by postulating and proving that the process of water hydrolysis could be reversed through the provision of hydrogen and
oxygen to the electrode surfaces of an electrolytic cell to produce water and electricity. Unfortunately, the fuel cells of Sir Grove and
his contemporaries did not garner serious interest in an era where high-powered steam engines were proving to produce power levels
of interest. In the early 1960s, however, fuel cells began to be developed as a power generating technology for space applications that
required strict environmental and efciency performance. The successful demonstration of efcient and environmentally sensitive fuel
cells in space led to their serious consideration for terrestrial applications in the 1970s.
From 1970 through the 1980s, fuel cell research and development was conned to a small number of companies and research
institutions. Due to the emergence of several new fuel cell types (e.g. solid oxide and molten carbonate fuel cells), the last decades
have produced a tremendous expansion and diversication of developers and manufacturers, which has expanded the list of potential
products and applications of fuel cells. Almost all research and development efforts have pointed to and successfully demonstrated
the environmentally sensitive features of fuel cell technology, principally regarding ultra-low to zero criteria pollutant emissions. In
addition, many efforts have proven that fuel cells can produce electricity with fuel-to-electricity conversion efciencies that are higher
than similarly sized traditional electricity production technology (e.g., gas turbine).
The advancement of fuel cell technology has been accomplished with signicant investments from the U.S. Department of
Energy, European Union, Japanese New Energy Technology Development Organization (NEDO) and similar agencies around the world
together with hundreds of companies. Signicantly, the largest annual investments in fuel cell technology today are coming from
the private sector and major industries (e.g., automobile, power generation). These investments are often focused on overcoming the
principal barrier to widespread use of fuel cells in todays market, fuel cell capital cost.
There are many specic technical challenges and technical hurdles that contribute to the high capital cost of fuel cell technology
that the fuel cell community is currently addressing to make fuel cells commercially viable. While the details of these technical
challenges are not discussed herein, note that until and unless fuel cell technology itself becomes commercially viable the potential
for hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems will be limited. Note additionally, however, that government agencies, national laboratories,
researchers and industry agree that successful commercialization and market viability of fuel cells is likely to occur within the decade.

General Fuel Cell Characteristics


Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert the chemical energy of a fuel directly to usable energy - electricity and heat
- without combustion. This is quite different from most electric generating devices (e.g., steam turbines, gas turbines, reciprocating
engines), which rst convert the chemical energy of a fuel to thermal energy, then to mechanical energy and nally to electricity.
Fuel cells are similar to batteries containing
electrodes and electrolytic materials to accomplish
the electrochemical production of electricity. 2e Load
Batteries store chemical energy in an electrolyte
and convert it to electricity on demand, until the
chemical energy has been depleted. Applying Fuel In Oxidant In
an external power source can recharge depleted
secondary batteries, but primary batteries must be 1/2 O2
replaced. Fuel cells do not store chemical energy, H2
but rather, convert the chemical energy of a fuel to Positive Ion
electricity. Thus fuel cells do not need recharging or
and can continuously produce electricity as long as Negative Ion
fuel and oxidant are supplied. H 2O
Figure 1 presents the basic components of a
fuel cell, which include a positive electrode (anode), H 2O
negative electrode (cathode) and an electrolyte.
Fuel is supplied to the anode (positive electrode)
while oxidant is supplied to the cathode (negative
electrode). Fuel is electrochemically oxidized on Depleted Fuel and Depleted Oxidant and
the anode surface and oxidant is electrochemically Product Gases Out Product Gases Out
reduced on the cathode surface. Ions created by the Anode Cathode
electrochemical reactions ow between anode and Electrolyte
cathode through the electrolyte. Electrons produced (Ion Conductor)
at the anode ow through an external load to the
cathode completing an electric circuit. Fig. 1. General schematic of a fuel cell

128
Jack Brouwer

A typical fuel cell requires gaseous fuel and oxidant ows. Hydrogen
is the preferred fuel because of its high reactivity, which minimizes the
need for expensive catalysts, and because electro-oxidation of hydrogen
leads only to water emission. Hydrocarbon fuels can be supplied but
typically require conversion to hydrogen or a hydrogen-rich mixture
before electrochemical reaction can occur. This fuel processing step can
be accomplished prior to entering the fuel cell (for lower temperature fuel
cells) or within the fuel cell (for higher temperature fuel cells). Oxygen in
air is the preferred oxidant because of its availability in the atmosphere.
As indicated in Figure 1, the electrolyte serves as an ion conductor.
The direction of ion transport depends upon the fuel cell type, which
determines the type of ion that is produced and transported across the
electrolyte between the electrodes. The various fuel cell types are
described in a subsequent section.
A single fuel cell is only capable of producing about 1 volt, so
typical fuel cell designs link together many individual cells to form a
stack that produces a more useful voltage. A fuel cell stack can be
congured with many groups of cells in series and parallel connections
to further tailor the voltage, current and power produced. The number
of individual cells contained within one stack is typically greater than 50
and varies signicantly with stack design.
Figure 2 presents the basic components that comprise the fuel cell
stack. These components include the electrodes and electrolyte of Figure
1 with additional components required for electrical connections and to
provide for the ow of fuel and oxidant to each cell in the stack. These key
components include current collectors, separators, and gas ow channels,
which are often integrated into one design as in the interconnect design
pictured in Figure 2. This interconnect serves as current collector and Fig. 2. Basic components of a fuel cell stack
gas separator and provides the ow channels for both fuel and oxidant.
The interconnect provides the electrical connections between cells and
physically separates the oxidant ow of one cell from the fuel ow of the
adjacent cell. The channels serve as the distribution pathways for the fuel and oxidant.
The preferred fuel for most fuel cell types is hydrogen. Hydrogen is not readily available, but, and the infrastructure for provision
of hydrocarbon fuels is well established in our society. Thus, fuel cell systems that have been developed for practical power generation
applications to-date have been designed to operate on hydrocarbon fuels. This typically requires the use of a fuel processing system
or reformer as shown in Figure 3. The fuel processor typically accomplishes the conversion of hydrocarbon fuels to a mixture of
hydrogen rich gases and, depending upon the requirements of the fuel cell, subsequent removal of contaminants or other species to
provide pure hydrogen to the fuel cell.
In addition to the fuel cell system requirement of a fuel processor for operation on hydrocarbon fuels, Figure 3 presents the need
for a power conditioning or inverter system component as well. This is required for the use of current end-use technologies that are
designed for consuming alternating current (AC) electricity, and for grid connectivity in distributed power applications. Since the fuel
cell produces direct current (DC) electricity, the power conditioning section is a requirement for fuel cell systems that are designed for
distributed generation today. In the future, systems and technologies may be amenable to the use of DC electricity, which would allow
signicant cost savings. EXHAUST
EXHAUST
HEAT WATER

USEFUL
HEAT

POWER POWER
FUEL
FUEL HYDROGEN DC AC
RICH GAS GENERATOR POWER POWER
PROCESSOR CONDITIONER
(FUEL CELL)

AIR

POWER GENERATOR (FUEL CELL STACK)


Fig. 3. Basic schematic of the major components in a fuel cell system

129
1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

Fuel Cell Types


There are ve principle types of fuel cells that are currently in various stages of commercial availability, or undergoing research,
development and demonstration. These ve fuel cell types are signicantly different from each other in many respects; however, the
key distinguishing feature is the electrolyte material. The type of electrolyte material is generally used to describe each fuel cell type.
Thus the ve types of fuel cells are (in alphabetical order): (1) Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC), (2) Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC), (3)
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC), (4) Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC), and (5) Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC).
Alkaline fuel cells were the rst type of fuel cell to be widely used for space applications. AFCs contain a potassium hydroxide
(KOH) solution as the electrolyte. AFCs operate at temperatures between 100oC and 250oC (211oF and 482oF).
Molten carbonate fuel cells are now being tested in full-scale demonstration plants from 250 kW to 1.5 MW output. The
electrolyte in an MCFC is an alkali carbonate (sodium, potassium, or lithium salts, Na2CO3, K2CO2, or Li2CO3) or a combination of alkali
carbonates that is retained in a ceramic matrix of lithium aluminum oxide (LiAlO2). An MCFC operates at 600 to 700oC where the alkali
carbonates form a highly conductive molten salt with carbonate ions (CO3=) providing ionic conduction through the electrolyte matrix.
Phosphoric acid fuel cells have been commercialized for stationary power applications and remain the most mature fuel cell
technology. PAFCs use a concentrated 100% phosphoric acid (H3PO4) electrolyte retained on a silicon carbide matrix and operate at
temperatures between 150 and 220oC.
The proton exchange membrane fuel cell is also known as the solid polymer or polymer electrolyte fuel cell. A PEMFC contains an
electrolyte that is a layer of solid polymer (usually a sulfonic acid polymer, whose commercial name is NaonTM) that allows protons to
be transmitted from one face to the other.1 PEMFCs require relatively pure hydrogen that typically must be humidied. PEMFCs operate
at a temperature of below 90oC because of limitations imposed by the thermal properties of the membrane itself.2 The development of
PEMFC technology is primarily sponsored by the transportation and portable power market sectors.
Solid oxide fuel cells are currently being demonstrated in various sizes from 1kW up to 250-kilowatt plants. SOFCs utilize a
non-porous metal oxide (usually yttria-stabilized zirconia, Y2O3-stabilized ZrO2) electrolyte material. SOFCs operate between 650 and
1000oC, where ionic conduction is accomplished by oxygen ions (O=).
Table 1 presents a summary comparison of the four primary fuel cell types that are under serious consideration for power
generation applications. Notice that the higher temperature fuel cells do not require an external reformer. The PAFC and PEMFC units
tend to use precious metal catalysts, while those of the MCFC and SOFC units are typically nickel-based. These differences lead to
many differences in design and function, which will be described in more detail in the next section.

Table 1. Key features of the four fuel cell types used in power generation applications after
Hirschenhofer et al. (1998).3 High temperature fuel cells highlighted.
Feature MCFC PAFC PEMFC SOFC
Immobilized
Immobilized Ion Exchange
Electrolyte Molten Ceramic
Phosphoric Acid Membrane
Carbonate
Typical Operating
600-650oC 200oC 80oC 600-1000oC
Temperature
Charge Carrier CO3= H+ H+ O=
External
Reformer for No Yes Yes No
natural gas
Stainless Steel, Ceramics, high
Prime Cell Graphite, Teon, Carbon, plastics,
nickel, carbonate temperature
Components phosphoric acid special polymers
salts metals
Nickel,
Catalyst Nickel Platinum Platinum
Perovskites
Product Water Gaseous
Gaseous Product Evaporative Evaporative
Management Product
Internal Process Gas + Process Gas + Internal
Product Heat
Reforming + Independent Independent Reforming +
Management
Process Gas Cooling Medium Cooling Medium Process Gas

130
Jack Brouwer

While any one of the above fuel cell types can be integrated into a hybrid gas turbine fuel cell cycle, the advantages of integration
are most prominent with the high temperature fuel cells (i.e., MCFC and SOFC). This is due to the fact that a gas turbine engine can
more effectively utilize the heat produced at the higher operating temperatures of MCFC and SOFC technology than it can that produced
by other fuel cell types. In a complementary fashion, the MCFC and SOFC technologies can directly benet from the pressure and
temperature conditions (higher pressure and preheating of reactants) that a gas turbine engine can produce in an integrated hybrid cycle.
As a result of this complementary operation, the focus of this chapter and all remaining discussion will be on hybrid systems that use
high temperature fuel cells (MCFC and SOFC) only.

High Temperature Fuel Cells


High temperature fuel cells (HTFCs), such as solid oxide fuel cells and molten carbonate fuel cells are especially well suited for
hybrid operation. The high operating temperature of these fuel cell systems allows integration with a gas turbine engine at a temperature
that is mutually benecial. Depending upon the design of the integrated hybrid system, waste heat from the fuel cell could be converted
in the gas turbine engine to electricity or waste heat from the gas turbine could be put to good use preheating the reactants for the fuel
cell or providing heat for fuel processing.

MCFC
The MCFC, also called a carbonate fuel cell, is one of the fuel cell technologies that has proven efciency and environmental
performance. In addition, signicant reductions in carbonate fuel cell capital cost are expected in the near future. In particular, the use of
carbonate fuel cells in the distributed power market is already signicant and could offer an ideal solution to increased energy demands
with concurrent expectations for reliability and environmental sensitivity.
The carbonate fuel cell concept involves conduction of carbonate ions (CO3=) within an immobilized mixture of molten carbonate
salts. Other cell components are based on nickel and stainless steels, which contribute to initial capital cost, but, are signicantly less
expensive than the precious metal catalysts used in lower temperature fuel cells. Relatively inexpensive nickel (Ni) and nickel oxide
(NiO) are adequate to promote reaction on the anode and cathode respectively at the high operating temperatures of an MCFC.4 Since
the charge carrier is an oxidant, several fuel species can be oxidized within the anode compartment leading to inherently greater fuel
exibility. To-date, carbonate fuel cells have been operated on hydrogen, carbon monoxide, natural gas, propane, landll gas, marine
diesel, and simulated coal gasication products.
The typical operating temperature of a carbonate fuel cell is around 650oC. This temperature is almost ideal from the system
perspective, since it allows higher Nernst potential (ideal Nernst potential increases with decreasing temperature) while still providing
high temperature thermal energy sufcient to sustain and support reformation chemistry. Thus carbonate fuel cell system designs
typically contain an internal reformer. The carbonate fuel cell demonstrations to-date, have therefore been able to show the highest fuel-
to-electricity conversion efciencies of any stand-alone fuel cell type.
The primary developer of carbonate fuel cell technology is FuelCell Energy Corporation, the developer and manufacturer of
the Direct Fuel CellTM concept. FuelCell Energy has demonstrated carbonate fuel cells from 10kW to 2MW of electrical output on
a variety of fuels. Hitachi and IHI are also developing carbonate fuel cell technology for stationary power applications and have
recently, successfully demonstrated carbonate fuel cell technology in Kawagoe. Japan. Ansaldo Ricerche has also demonstrated a
100kW carbonate fuel cell in Milan, Italy. Carbonate fuel cell systems have the highest fuel-to-electricity conversion efciency (>50%)
of any fuel cell type. In addition, carbonate fuel cell technology is expected to experience dramatic initial capital cost reductions in
upcoming years. Carbonate fuel cell technology is more fuel exible than lower temperature fuel cell technologies and is well suited to
marine, military, and traction applications.
The high temperature thermal efuent of a carbonate fuel cell allows signicant co-generation and/or integration with a heat
engine cycle in hybrid applications. Several carbonate fuel cell hybrid systems with fuel-to-electricity efciencies greater than 70%
have been conceptualized with some under development today. Hybrid MCFC systems have been developed and tested by FuelCell
Energy and Capstone Turbine in Danbury, Connecticut and in Japan.

SOFC
A SOFC is a solid state fuel cell constructed of ceramic materials (metal oxides) and metals. SOFCs share the solid state
electrolyte feature with the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). Solid state construction offers the potential for increased
reliability and durability with less corrosion and no need to manage electrolyte evaporation or circulation.
Typically the anode of an SOFC is nickel zirconia (Ni-ZrO2) and the cathode is strontium-doped lanthanum manganite (Sr-doped
LaMnO3).5 SOFCs offer the stability and reliability of all-solid-state ceramic construction. High-temperature operation, up to 1,000oC,
allows more exibility in the choice of fuels and can produce very good performance in combined-cycle and hybrid applications. SOFCs
approach 50 percent electrical efciency in the simple cycle systems operated on natural gas, and 85 percent total thermal efciency in
co-generation applications.6
The SOFC concept involves conduction of oxygen ions (O=) within the electrolyte at high temperatures (650-1000oC) making
it inherently more fuel exible than other fuel cell types. Whereas most other fuel cells are susceptible to carbon monoxide (CO)
poisoning, SOFCs can use CO as a fuel to produce electricity. To-date, SOFCs have been operated on hydrogen, carbon monoxide,
natural gas, propane, landll gas, diesel and JP-8.
The high temperature operation of a SOFC has advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include the use of high temperature
131 heat to reform hydrocarbon fuels to hydrogen(H2)/carbon monoxide(CO) mixtures for direct use in the fuel cell. This reformation process
1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

requires heat to proceed. The high temperature heat also allows signicant co-generation and/or integration with a heat engine cycle.
The disadvantages of high temperature operation include the need to insulate the technology to protect from injury and the requirement
of more costly materials of construction.
SOFCs have higher overall fuel-to-electricity efciency than lower temperature fuel cells (e.g., PEMFC) operated on available
hydrocarbon fuels (e.g., natural gas). When integrated with a heat engine cycle, efciency can be increased even further. The hybrid
SOFC cycle, which integrates a SOFC into a gas turbine cycle, offers the potential of fuel-to-electricity efciencies in the 75-80% range.
This remarkably high efciency is unmatched by any other technology. Although in the early stages of development, hybrid designs and
systems are now emerging with the rst demonstration being accomplished by Southern California Edison and Siemens Westinghouse
Power Corporation at the National Fuel Cell Research Center.
SOFC systems are being advanced by a number of companies and organizations with three major fuel cell stack designs emerging.
The major design types are tubular, planar, and monolithic. Tubular SOFC designs are closer to commercialization and are being
produced by Siemens Power Corporation, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Acumentrics, among others. The planar and the monolithic
designs are at an earlier stage of development typied by sub-scale, single cell and short stack development (kW scale). More than
100 companies are advancing and commercializing SOFC technology around the world and especially in the U.S., Europe and Japan.
Primary U.S. SOFC companies include GE, Acumentrics, FuelCell Energy, Versa Power, Ceramatec, Inc., Technology Management,
Inc., SOFCo, Cummins, and Ztek, Inc., among others.
SOFC systems have been operated all over the world, proving SOFC performance and features. Examples include the tubular
SOFC design of Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation that has demonstrated over 85,000 hours of operation with low cell
degradation, and the SOFCo planar SOFC design exhibiting power densities up to 1000W/l.
Because of the high potential of SOFC technology to produce robust (long lasting), high power density, fuel exible, and low
cost fuel cell systems, signicant industry and agency investment is currently focused on SOFC technology, especially in Europe, Japan
and the United States. Notably, the Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance of the U.S. Department of Energy includes six industry-
led teams (General Electric, Siemens, Cummins, FuelCell Energy, Acumentrics, and Delphi) and a core technology research program
including national laboratory and university researchers that is focused on developing low cost, high power density and robust SOFC
technology.

Gas Turbine Technology for Hybrid Applications


A typical hybrid system recovers the thermal energy in the fuel cell exhaust and converts it into additional electrical energy
through a heat engine. Several heat engines have been considered for this type of system including gas turbines, steam turbines and
reciprocating engines. The only conversion device that has been tested in this role to-date is a micro-gas turbine (or micro-turbine
generator, MTG). An MTG is a type of gas turbine engine that is particularly amenable to integration with a high temperature fuel cell
in a hybrid system. This is due to several features of an MTG that are well matched to the requirements of the high temperature fuel cell
in the hybrid system such as:
MTGs require relatively low turbine inlet temperature, which can be supplied by the exhaust of a high temperature fuel
cell,
MTGs operate at relatively low pressure ratios that are amenable to either direct use in the high temperature fuel cell or in
other components of the hybrid system,
MTGs often use recuperation to improve efciency, which introduces components and features (e.g., heat exchangers,
large gas volume between compressor and turbine) that make the gas turbine engine design more amenable to a hybrid
cycle,
The fuel cell can be operated under pressurized conditions improving its output and efciency,
Sufcient thermal energy is contained in the fuel cell exhaust to power an MTG compressor (for fuel cell pressurization)
and an electric generator (to produce additional electricity,
The current size of most fuel cell systems is relatively small (between 250kW and 1.5 MW), which matches well with the
smaller output MTG,
The power density of the system can be increased, and
Overall system cost is potentially lower on a $/kW basis (primarily due to the increased output from the fuel cell).

Note that the gas turbine engine characteristics noted above as desirable for hybrid applications are not necessarily those that are
desired for stand-alone gas turbine engines. Usually one desires higher turbine inlet temperatures and higher pressure ratios to improve
the performance of a gas turbine engine. In hybrid cycles with a high temperature fuel cell, the gas turbine engine is not required to
operate at either high pressure ratios or with high turbine inlet temperature making the performance characteristics of the gas turbine
relatively simpler to achieve. That is, less sophisticated gas turbine technology may be all that is required for a hybrid system, although
improvements in compressor and turbine efciency etc. are still desirable.
Although the MTG is currently well-suited for integration into hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems, future high temperature fuel
cell technologies may become large and able to withstand signicantly higher pressures. Analyses have shown that synergistic effects
of the combined gas turbine fuel cell system lead to electrical conversion efciencies of 72-74 percent (LHV) for systems under 10 MW,
whereas efciencies greater than 75% could be achieved with larger systems. As fuel cells advance and scale-up and pressurization
of MCFC and/or SOFC technology becomes viable, larger and more sophisticated gas turbine engines (e.g., axial compressors and
turbines, higher pressure ratios, high turbine inlet temperature) will be required. 132
Jack Brouwer

1.4-4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Concept


The gas turbine fuel cell hybrid system was rst conceived in the mid-1970s. By 1998 over ten hybrid concepts had been patented,
offering variations in fuel cell type, in the position of the components in the integrated system, and in system operating pressure. The
basic concept of a hybrid gas turbine fuel cell system is illustrated in Figure 4 where a fuel cell replaces the combustor of a typical
Brayton (gas turbine) cycle. This leads to direct fuel-to-electricity production from the fuel cell (in the place of chemical-to-thermal
energy conversion of a combustor) with the waste heat of the fuel cell being used to provide all compression power and additional
electricity through a turbo-generator. Note that electrochemical production of electricity lowers emissions and increases efciency
and as a result around 80% of the electricity is produced via electrochemistry in the fuel cell with the remainder being produced in the
turbo-generator.

Fig. 4. Basic design concept of a hybrid gas turbine fuel cell system

System studies have been carried out for the U.S. DOE and others for hybrid systems up to 300 MWe capacity (using 40 MWe
power blocks). In 2000 the rst tests and demonstrations of hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems began with efforts in the U.S. and Japan.
Both MCFC and SOFC hybrid systems have been built and tested each proving the potential for such systems to achieve high efciency
and low emissions production of electricity from natural gas. To-date ve hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems have been tested, each
using a different design concept.

Hybrid Design Concepts


The basic design goal of a hybrid system is to integrate two or more energy conversion devicesor two or more fuels for the
same deviceinto a single system that provides benets in terms of fuel exibility, efciency, availability, economics or sustainability
that either of the devices alone could not provide. Synergy is the term often used to describe hybrid systems since the components when
integrated are complementary and lead to combined performance characteristics that are greater than the sum of the individual elements.
In the particular case of a gas turbine fuel cell hybrid system the primary design concepts are as follows:
(1) convert most of the fuel by electro-oxidation in the fuel cell leading to low emissions of criteria pollutants and relatively high
fuel-to-electricity conversion efciency,
(2) use fuel cell heat and turbine exhaust heat elsewhere in the system (e.g., fuel processing, reactant preheating, provide
compression power) in a manner in which overall efciency is enhanced,
(3) use the high pressure produced by the gas turbine in a manner that improves fuel cell output and efciency (if possible),
and
(4) use the separated fuel and oxidant streams of the fuel cell to enhance other features (e.g., CO2 sequestration, fuel production)
of the hybrid cycle (if possible).
Synergy can be realized in hybrid cycles in many ways, as indicated by the last two concepts introduced above. The operation
of a fuel cell at the high pressure conditions between the compressor and turbine of a gas turbine engine leads both to an increase in the
fuel cell power output (for the same fuel cell stack) and a reduction in some of the electrochemical losses leading to higher efciency
(most notably improving electrochemical kinetics). In addition, the fact that a fuel cell operates with separated fuel and oxidant streams
provides multiple opportunities for enhanced hybrid cycle performance from easier sequestration of a higher concentration CO2 stream
to signicant potential for hydrogen and/or synthetic hydrocarbon fuel production. These synergistic aspects of hybrid gas turbine fuel
cell systems are of particular interest and are part of the reason why analyses and testing to-date has determined that such hybrid systems
have great promise.

133
1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

Hybrid System Conguration


The fuel cell and gas turbine of a hybrid system can be congured in several different fashions with a myriad of potential
cycle congurations that are possible. Four basic parameters can be dened that provide a means of characterizing the hybrid system
congurations. The parameters are:

(1) Fuel cell topping cycle,

(2) Fuel cell bottoming cycle,

(3) Direct hybrid cycle, and

(4) Indirect hybrid cycle.

Most hybrid cycles that have been conceived and studied to-date can be characterized using these four parameters.
A fuel cell topping cycle is one in which the gas turbine is considered the balance of plant (BOP) with the turbo-machinery
placed downstream of the fuel cell in the cycle. The basic design concept presented in Figure 4 represents this type of fuel cell topping
cycle. Essentially fuel cell topping cycles use a fuel cell in the place of a combustor in the typical Brayton cycle, and the turbine is placed
downstream of fuel cell. The turbine uses the fuel cell exhaust to produce compressive power and additional electricity while the fuel
cell is the primary electricity generator.
A fuel cell bottoming cycle is one in which the gas turbine turbo-machinery resides upstream of the fuel cell. The fuel cell
is placed downstream of turbine and uses the gas turbine exhaust as its air supply stream. Typically the fuel cell remains the primary
generator. This type of bottoming cycle is particularly well-suited to the MCFC since this type of fuel cell requires carbon dioxide in the
oxidant stream (to make the carbonate ions), which can be provided by an upstream gas turbine engine combustor.
In a direct hybrid cycle ow from upstream elements is directly used in downstream elements of the cycle. Heat exchangers to
de-couple to two cycles are not required, but may be used for other purposes. The fuel cell of a direct hybrid cycle is typically operated
at pressurized conditions extant between the compressor and turbine of the gas turbine. This presents more signicant challenges with
control and with fuel cell operation and degradation. However, direct hybrid cycles typically have higher efciency that indirect hybrid
cycles.
An indirect hybrid cycle uses devices (usually heat exchangers) to de-couple the gas turbine and fuel cell components of the
system so that ow from upstream components does not enter downstream components. Thermal integration of the cycle involves
more losses (e.g., in the additional heat exchangers) and the fuel cell is typically operated at atmospheric pressure. This leads to a less
challenging system to control and operate and lesser challenges for fuel cell operation and degradation. However, indirect hybrid cycles
tend to be less efcient than direct cycles and the cost and size of heat exchanger components can be considerable.
Figure 5 presents an example of a direct hybrid gas turbine fuel cell topping system conguration in which the fuel cell is operated
in-between the compressor and turbine of the gas turbine engine. Note that a recuperator (heat exchanger) is still used in this cycle
conguration to preheat the fuel and air before it enters the fuel cell.

Fig. 5. Schematic of a direct hybrid gas turbine fuel cell topping cycle
Source: See note 7.

134
Jack Brouwer

Fig. 6. Schematic of an indirect gas turbine fuel cell bottoming cycle


Source: See note 7.

Figure 6 presents a schematic of an indirect fuel cell bottoming cycle in which the turbine operates on air that does not come
into contact with the fuel cell exhaust, but rather receives heat through a heat exchanger. Note that the fuel cell operates at atmospheric
pressure and uses the pure air exhaust from the turbine.
From this brief introduction of the hybrid concept it should be apparent that myriad cycle congurations are possible. Any one
of the cycles presented above could use additional heat exchangers, boilers, fuel or oxidant separations technologies, fuel production
and purication equipment, a steam turbine bottoming cycle, and/or other devices. Depending on the size of the system and the desired
products, the number of components could be large and the cycle could become quite complex. Most of these systems can be expected
to have complex control issues that need to be resolved.

1.4-5 Early Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Developments


The rst U.S. patents identifying hybrid fuel cell technologies were issued in the mid 1970s.7 More recently various fuel cell
hybrid cycles have been identied in U.S. patents.8 The most noteworthy distinction between these patented arrangements is the
placement of the fuel cell with respect to the turbine as well as the pressure under which the cell operates. Each of these patented hybrid
cycle concepts can be characterized by the four parameters dened above.

Initial Analyses
Signicantly, it was not until the late 1990s, once high temperature fuel cell technology had progressed sufciently to consider
manufacturing large SOFC and MCFC stacks, that detailed analyses and experimental investigation of hybrid gas turbine fuel cell
systems began in earnest. In 1998 the U.S. Department of Energy Ofce of Fossil Energy initiated ve studies to conceptualize and
assess variations on the fuel cell turbine hybrid concept. These studies, funded by the turbines program, included molten carbonate fuel
cells (MCFC), solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC), off-the-shelf turbines, and conceptual turbines. Four of these studies examined cycle
congurations in the 20-MW class power system. The fth study, by McDermott, assessed a sub-MW cycle. Table 2 summarizes the
results of these studies.

Table 2. Overall results from the U.S. Department of Energy hybrid gas turbine
fuel cell system studies initiated in 1998.

FuelCell Siemens Siemens


Company M-C Power McDermott
Energy Westinghouse Westinghouse
Staged SOFC MCFC
Cycle SOFC Turbine
MCFC Indirect Turbine Turbine SOFC Indirect
conguration Bottoming
Bottoming Bottoming
Nominal Size 20 MW 20 MW 20 MW 20 MW 750 kW

Nominal
71 % 60 % 67 - 70 % 66 - 70 % 71 %
Efciency *
135 * These are nominal efciencies and should not be directly compared
1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

In 1999 the turbines program funded a study by Rolls Royce with the goal to produce a turbo-generator, which would cost
approximately $400/kW. When coupled with fuel cells, the turbine would produce approximately 25% of the power for a hybrid in the
1 MW to 5 MW class. The gas turbine would be capable of providing pressurization from 5 pressure ratio (PR), to approximately 15 PR
and higher, all from the same special purpose gas turbine system design. As a stand-alone device, the turbine would produce 1.5 MW of
electric power in a simple cycle mode, without the need of a recuperator (recuperators are not needed in mini-turbines to achieve 30%
efciency, which reduces costs by 25-30%, reduces space requirements, and contributes to more reliable operation). In the stand-alone
mode, its efciency would be approximately 33% (comparable to larger 5 MW class gas turbines). The exhaust energy could be used to
operate a combined heat and power cycle.

Detailed and Experimental Studies


After these studies were completed several tests of the hybrid concept were initiated by the U.S. Department of Energy with
industry cost-sharing from FuelCell Energy, General Electric (formerly Honeywell), and Siemens Power Corporation (formerly Siemens
Westinghouse). Each of the projects focused on the sub-1MW class hybrid system.
FuelCell Energys hybrid system is comprised of a 250 kW fuel cell stack and a 30 kW Capstone micro-turbine in an indirect
fuel cell bottoming conguration. The sub-MW system tests have provided valuable data that has proven the high efciency and low
emissions performance of such systems. FuelCell Energy also designed a 40 MW fuel cell turbine hybrid power system in this effort.
The General Electric project includes the sub-MW design and test of a Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance (SECA) solid oxide
fuel cell and a micro-turbine. The project evaluated several turbine cycle congurations, including topping, bottoming, direct and
indirect, and allowed for the evaluation of integration and scale-up issues for SECA-based hybrid systems.
The Siemens Power Corporation hybrid design included a 100 kW tubular SOFC integrated with a 60 kW Ingersoll Rand micro-
turbine generator. This system was built and tested at the National Fuel Cell Research Center, in Irvine, California. In this test the
hybrid direct gas turbine fuel cell topping cycle conguration was demonstrated. This test included pressurization of the fuel cell to
provide a total of 220 kW of power from the hybrid system. Testing proved that high efciency and ultra-low emissions was achievable
with these types of hybrid cycles, but, that integration and operation is considerably difcult with such complex hybrid systems.
Early optimism regarding the ease of integrating fuel cells with off-the-shelf micro-turbines has been tempered by technical issues
encountered in the test program at the National Fuel Cell Research Center. It is now recognized that integrating fuel cells and turbines is
challenging. Existing gas turbines do not match the pressure ratios, mass ows, and other critical operating and performance parameters
of the small high temperature fuel cells that are currently available. Nonetheless, the early tests have proven the high efciency and
ultra-low emissions performance characteristics of hybrid gas turbine fuel cell technology so that optimism regarding the potential of
these types of cycles to signicantly contribute to future energy demands remains high.

Detailed Paper Studies for Future Hybrid Systems


Additional studies on hybrid systems and the results of recent tests identied signicant potential benets from a combined
fuel cell/turbine power system. These benets include the ability to achieve net electrical efciencies in the 70 % + range, to congure
systems in the 20 MW to 40 MW and larger size range, and to signicantly surpass emission standards for criteria pollutants while
reducing the emissions of CO2 / kW-hr. Studies also predict lower cost of electricity and lower capital costs than alternative power
generation systems. For example, a market study by Research Dynamics Corporation suggested that such products could compete on
a cost-of-electricity basis with other DG technologies and capture 8.2 GW of market share by 2005.
The historical record of the evolution of hybrid gas turbine fuel cell technology has been documented by White9, and the various
technical elements of the hybrid technology have been presented in a series of sessions sponsored by the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) International Gas Turbine Institute (IGTI).10
Under the sponsorship of the U.S. DOE, a multi-disciplinary team led by the Advanced Power and Energy Program (APEP) of
the University of California, Irvine is dening the system engineering issues associated with the integration of key components and
subsystems into central power plant systems that meet stretch performance and emission goals for both natural gas and coal fuel operation.
The myriad of fuel processing, power generation, and emission control technologies are narrowed down to selected scenarios in order
to identify those combinations that have the potential to achieve high efciency and minimized environmental impact while using fossil
fuels. The technology levels considered are based on projected technical and manufacturing advances being made in industry and on
advances identied in current and future government supported research. Examples of systems included in these advanced cycles are
high-temperature fuel cells, advanced gas turbines, ion transport membrane separation and hydrogen-oxygen combustion.
The overall objectives of DOE study were to (1) produce electricity and transportation fuels at competitive costs, (2) minimize
environmental impacts associated with fossil fuel use, and (3) attain high efciency. The efciency target for natural gas fueled plants
was 75% on a LHV basis while that for coal fueled plants was 60% on an HHV basis. All cycles were to include producing electricity
with the potential for CO2 capture and sequestration and co-production of transportation fuels. This study determined that the only
technology that could meet these goals is hybrid gas turbine fuel cell technology.11

136
Jack Brouwer

1.4-6 Dynamic Simulation of Hybrid Systems

In both thermodynamic simulation and experiment hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems have demonstrated lower environmental
impact and higher efciency compared to conventional combustion driven power plants. Lower carbon dioxide emissions can be
achieved through higher fuel-to-electrical efciencies, while NOx and other criteria pollutant emissions are greatly reduced by primary
electrochemical conversion of the fuel versus the combustion process of conventional plants.
Understanding of the dynamic performance of hybrid systems is important to the advancement of the technology and the
development of controls for future systems. In this section, a dynamic model of a hybrid system is described and applied to analyze
a specic hybrid cycle that is applicable to distributed generation. More complex cycles have been considered for larger scale power
plants that may utilize a combined cycle to drive the efciency up and the environmental impact down.12
Today much work is being done to reduce the cost and increase the reliability of SOFC systems. Several cell geometries are being
advanced by fuel cell manufacturers including tubular and planer SOFC designs, and even cell geometries that combine planer and
tubular features. Each geometry has its advantages and disadvantages with regard to thermal expansion compliance, power density,
potential cost, manufacturability, and internal resistivity.13 Many companies are advancing these different types of SOFCs, but no
commercial products exist today. Only demonstration and prototype systems have been built and tested to-date.
Mathematical models provide a cost effective and efcient tool in aiding the development of SOFCs and SOFC/GT systems.
Several entities around the world have developed steady state simulation capabilities for FC/GT systems. These research groups include
efforts at the Georgia Institute of Technology, University of Genova, NFCRC, Nanyang Technical University and others.14 Dynamic gas
turbine fuel cell simulation capabilities are less common, but increasingly being developed as the demand for dynamic understanding
and controls development grows. Examples of previous dynamic simulation efforts include work at the National Energy Technology
Laboratory, and FuelCell Energy among others.15 Model evaluation is very important and there remains a great need to produce
experimental hybrid system data.
To-date there have been two hybrid systems built and successfully demonstrated. An indirect bottoming cycle (with respect to
the FC) has been built and demonstrated by FuelCell Energy that integrated a molten carbonate fuel cell and a Capstone C30 gas turbine.
This system successfully ran for 2900 hours in grid-connected mode at 51.7% fuel-to-electrical efciency. See Ghezel-Ayagh16 for more
information on this system. The second system was a direct topping cycle (with respect to the FC), which is the system of direct interest
to the current work.

Experiment Description
Siemens Power Corporation developed the very rst pressurized SOFC/GT hybrid system using their tubular SOFC stack design.
This system, presented in Figure 7, was tested at the NFCRC with support from Southern California Edison, the U.S. Department
of Energy and others. The system was designed, constructed and tested to demonstrate and prove the hybrid concept. The system
operated for over 2900 hours and produced up to 220 kW at fuel-to-electricity conversion efciencies of up to 53%. In parallel, NFCRC
developed dynamic simulation capabilities for each of the system components together with a simulation framework for modeling and
developing control strategies for integrated SOFC/GT systems.

Fig. 7. Pressurized 220 kW SOFC/Gas Turbine Hybrid


137
1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

A diagram of the integrated SOFC/GT system is presented in Figure 8. This system is comprised of a tubular SOFC with
integrated internal reformer and anode off-gas oxidizer as illustrated in Figure 9. These components (stack, reformer) are placed
between the compressor and turbine so that they operate under pressurized conditions. The gas turbine is a dual shaft Ingersoll-Rand
75 kW gas turbine. The integrated cycle also includes a recuperative heat exchanger and a separate turbine generator set (see Figure 8).
Note that there are also two bypass valves that can divert ow around the heat exchanger and around the SOFC.
Dynamic and steady state data were gathered during operation. Nominally the SOFC produced 180 kWe while the GT produced
40kWe of the total power. The dynamic data produced by the SOFC/GT system was primarily gathered during start-up and shutdown.
The primary goal of the experimental effort was to demonstrate the hybrid concept for 3000 hours of steady state operation without
detailed investigation of dynamic responses to perturbations.
Under nominal operating conditions the SOFC stack was pressurized to three atmospheres, resulting in improved performance
(through better electrode kinetics) and increased output (through increased Nernst potential of higher reactant partial pressures). The
SOFC stack produces 100 kWe at atmospheric pressure, whereas in the hybrid conguration it produced as much as 180 kWe. A more
detailed description of the system is presented in other works.17

Air
Turbine 1 Turbine 2
Compressor

Generator/
Exit Motor
Heat
Exch.

Comb Comb Natural


Natural
Gas Gas

Cathode

Natural SOFC
Gas Anode

Fig. 8. Diagram of the pressurized 220 kW SOFC/gas turbine hybrid system

AIR AIR IN
(500 C) DEPLETED FUEL
PLENUM
RECIRCULATION
EXHAUST DESULFERIZED
GAS OUT NATURAL GAS
(800 C) IN
COMBUSTION 1
ZONE
AIR INJECTION
TUBE
TUBULAR
FUEL CELL
(1000 C)
PROCESS
AIR
FUEL
EXHAUST
REFORMERS 2

Fig. 9. Tubular SOFC stack design. 138


Jack Brouwer

Dynamic Model Description


The equations that govern the dynamic performance of or each of the system components are solved in a modular fashion for each of
the components of the 220 kW hybrid system in a Matlab/SimulinkTM format. The models were designed and constructed to be reliable
and robust. All of the models are based on the fundamental mass, momentum, and energy conservation equations plus detailed solutions
of electrochemical, chemical, and heat transfer processes.

SOFC Model

The SOFC model developed for the current application is a simplied bulk model that simulates the overall performance of a
pressurized tubular SOFC. The current model does not capture the spatial variations of operating parameters throughout the SOFC
stack. This simplied model is deemed sufcient for simulating a complete hybrid system. However, spatially resolved models may be
required to more accurately simulate the performance of specic SOFC stack designs and to garner more insights into stack behavior.
Such models have been developed previously at the NFCRC and will be considered for future integration in a full hybrid system
model.18

The governing equations of the SOFC model are introduced, starting with the Nernst potential EQ(1), which provides the reversible
cell potential for a given fuel and oxidant composition.

R T X H 2 X O22 12
1

E = E 0 + u ln PCATHODE
2 F X H 2O
(1)
While EQ(1) solves for ideal cell potential, the actual cell potential for any fuel cell under real operating conditions will be reduced due
to irreversibilities referred to as polarizations or overpotential losses.
The modeling of realized cell voltage can be achieved by calculating each of the three primary overpotentials (activation, ohmic,
and concentration) in bulk fashion and subtracting them from the ideal Nernst potential as in EQ(2)

VCell = E A C R
, (2)
where Vcell is the actual cell voltage for a given current, A is the activation polarization loss, C is the concentration polarization loss, and
R is the ohmic polarization loss. Calculation of these polarizations is based on a rst principles understanding of the overall performance
of a fuel cell. For a given temperature and pressure, all three polarizations are typically only a function of current demand.
The loss associated with sluggish kinetics due to low temperatures and/or lack of availability of active catalytic cell sites is
modeled using a relationship for activation polarization. This polarization is more dominant at low current densities. The activation
polarization is calculated as

Ru T i
A = ln
i
. (3)
n
F 0

The key parameter that determines activation polarization for a specic fuel cell is io, which is the exchange current density. Exchange
current density is associated with the catalytic activity of a particular cell and corresponds to the rate at which the electrodes exchange
ions with the electrolyte under equilibrium conditions (no net current ow). represents the distribution of intermediate species at the
triple phase boundary, indicating whether these species more closely resemble reactants or products. has a value between zero and
one (usually taken to be 0.5).
The irreversibility associated with concentration gradients near the active cell surface is modeled by EQ(4)

Ru T i
C = ln 1 . (4)
n
F iL
The new term here is iL, which is the limiting current density. Limiting current density corresponds to the maximum current that the fuel
cell can produce to equal the maximum supply speed of reactants. To avoid this polarization, the fuel cell is usually operated at lower
current densities or at higher pressures (if power density is a concern).
Since activation polarization is reduced at high temperature, and since high temperature fuel cells are typically operated at
relatively low current density, ohmic polarization is usually the most signicant electrochemical loss. At normal operating conditions,
this ohmic loss is primarily due to low ionic conductivity of the electrolyte and/or low electrical conductivity of associated interconnect
materials. Resistance can also be high, if the cell is operating at a temperature below the optimum due to the strong temperature
139 dependence of electrolyte ionic resistivity. The potential loss associated with cell resistance is
1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

, (5)

where i is the current density and Reff is the effective overall cell resistance. Several fuel cell parameters affect the cell resistance including
inherent electrolyte ionic conductivity, electrolyte thickness, electrode and interconnect electronic conductivities and geometry of the
electrolyte affects the internal resistance. Thinner electrolyte layers can be designed to reduce ionic ohmic polarization, but the thickness
is bound by the requirements of the cell to endure structural stresses produced by different thermal expansion of the materials that are
sandwiched together. The effective resistance used in the current model includes consideration of the cell materials and geometry as
well as a temperature dependence that is based on empirical data gathered from test cell and laboratory experiments on the tubular SOFC
design of Siemens Westinghouse.
The SOFC model incorporates the dynamic equations that solve for conservation of mass or species, momentum, and energy. For
species conservation the equation assuming a well-stirred reactor approach is used.
dX
Vcv C = N in (X in X ) X R + R
d
t (6)

There are seven species considered: methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, water, nitrogen, and oxygen. Using Faradays
law of electrolysis EQ(7) the electrochemistry vectors for the reaction rates in the SOFC anode and cathode become equations EQ (8)
and EQ (9) for the anode and cathode respectively.

a *i
rj = (7)
nF

i i
R anode ,e = ACell * 0 0 0 + 0 0
2F 2F (8)

i
R cathode ,e = ACell * 0 0 0 0 0 0 (9)
4 F

Reformation and water-gas-shift chemical reactions occur simultaneously with the electrochemical reactions in the anode compartment
of the SOFC. The reaction vector for the internal reformation chemical reactions is added to the electrochemistry reaction vector and
inserted into EQ(6) to solve for dynamic species conservation.
The internal reformation model considers the chemical kinetics of three concurrent chemical reactions, steam reformation of
methane and water-gas shift as follows:

CH4 + H2O CO + 3 H2 (10)

CO + H2O CO2 + H2 (11)

CH4 + 2H2O CO2 + 4 H2 (12)

The forward rates of these steam reformation and water-gas shift are determined by Arrhenius rate expressions. The reformation model
uses rates that are consistent with the use of typical nickel-based catalysts.19 This should be reasonable considering the nickel-YSZ
composition of the cathode and nickel felt electrical connection materials in the anode compartment. The rate equation of reaction
EQ(10) is

PCH 4 PH 2O PCO PH0.25


R1 = k 1 / DEN 2 . (13)
PH2.5 K p1
2

The rate of reaction EQ(11) is

PCO PH 2O PCO 2
R2 = k 2 / DEN 2 . (14)
PH K p2
2
140
Jack Brouwer

The rate of reaction EQ(12) is

PCH PH2 O PCO PH0.5


R3 = k 3 4 2
2 2 / DEN 2
. (15)
P 3.5 K p 3

H2

The denominator used in each of the reaction rate expressions above is:

K H 2O PH 2O
DEN = 1 + K CO PCO + K H 2 PH 2 + K CH 4 PCH 4 + (16)
PH 2

According to the Arrhenius equation and vant Hoff equation, the reaction constants ki (i =1-3) and Kj (j =CO, CH4, H2O, or H2) in the
above equations can be calculated from the pre-exponential factors Ai and Aj, and the absorption parameters E i and H j from the
following equations

E
k i = Ai exp i , (17)
RT

H j
K j = A j exp .

(18)
R T
The constants used in the current model are presented in Table 3 and Table 4. CO is assumed to be consumed/created only by water-gas
shift and steam reformation. Direct electrochemical oxidation of CO and hydrocarbons is possible under current anodic conditions, but
it occurs at a sufciently slow rate that this assumption has been shown to be reasonable in previous studies.20

Table 3. Reformation constants

Activation Heat of Pre-


Rate Constant energy Pre-exponential factor Rate Constant adsorption exponential
(kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) factor
15 -4
k1 240.1 1.336 x 10 K CO -70.65 8.23 x 10
(0.5) -1
(kmolMPa /kgcath) (MPa )

7 -3
k2 67.13 1.955 x 10 K CH4 -38.28 6.65 x 10
(kmol/kgcathMPa) -1
(MPa )
14 5
k3 243.9 3.22 x 10 K H2O 88.68 1.77 x 10
(0.5)
(kmolMPa /kgcath) (unitless)

-8
K H2 -82.9 6.12 x 10
-1
(MPa )

Table 4. Equilibrium constants

Equilibrium constant Dimensions


11 2
K p1 = 1.198 x 10 *exp(-26830/T) (MPa)
-2 0
K p2 = 1.77 x 10 *exp(4400/T) (MPa)
2
K p3 = K p1 *K p2 (MPa)

141
1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

The SOFC model solves for the energy balance between the anode and cathode gas streams and the fuel cell materials. The cell
materials (electrode-electrolyte assembly) the energy balance is solved using EQ(19). There is heat generated within the porous fuel cell
electrode-electrolyte assembly were the hydrogen is being electrochemically oxidized. Based on the lower heating value of hydrogen,
the energy that is not being converted to electrical energy produces heat in the SOFC stack as in EQ(20).
dCmassT
V (19)
cv
= E in E out + QGEN
dt

H f , H 2O ( g )
QGEN = VCELL * i (20)
nF
As for the anode and cathode gases, EQ(21) solves the energy balance for each of these control volumes.

dCCv ,molar T
V cv (21)
= E in E out
dt
The gas stream ows are assumed to be fully developed laminar ow. This assumption permits the use of an altered form of the
Darcy equation EQ(22) for the solution of momentum conservation (calculating the fuel cell pressure drop) as follows

L v 2
P = f (22)
Dh 2

where P is the pressure drop, f is the friction factor, L is the characteristic length, is density, v is average velocity, and Dh is
the hydraulic diameter.

Heat Exchanger and Combustor Model


The recuperator heat exchanger, SOFC heat exchanger, and combustor models are one dimensional in the streamwise direction.
The heat exchangers solve the conservation equations for mass, momentum, and energy. The same equations EQ(19), EQ(21), and
EQ(22) are used for the heat exchangers and combustor models except that there is no heat generation in the heat exchanger models.

Gas Turbine Model


A transient mathematical model of a gas turbine system has been developed using in the same Matlab/SimulinkTM framework.
The model predicts the behavior of a lumped parameter compressor and expander attached via rotating shaft. The dynamic expressions
that account for gas compressibility and mass storage are solved in separate diffuser volumes as depicted in Figure 10. A generator load
can be applied to the shaft or the system can operate as a turbo-charger.
The current one-dimensional lumped parameter approach is exible to allow the incorporation of semi-empirical data from a
specic production or prototype gas turbine. The semi-empirical data that is used in the current dynamic gas turbine modeling approach
is in the form of non-dimensionalized compressor and turbine maps. These compressor and turbine maps provide steady state mass
ow, pressure ratio, and efciency as a function of rotational speed. Usually two maps each are required for the compressor and turbine.
The rst map plots the pressure ratio versus dimensionless mass ow for a series of xed (sometimes non-dimensionalized) rotational
speeds. The second map gives the normalized isentropic efciency versus dimensionless mass ow for a series of xed (sometimes
non-dimensionalized) rotational speeds.
Exhaust
Out

Diffuser
Volume Compressed
Air Out
Diffuser
Volume
Power = Torque*RPM

Generator
Load

Air In Hot Compressed


Air In
Compressor Control Volume Expander Control Volume

Fig. 10. Schematic approach to dynamic simulation of a gas turbine engine


142
Jack Brouwer

Typical non-dimensionalization of the mass ow is as follows:

m R R
T 01
(23)
D 2 P01

where m is the uid mass ow, R is the gas constant, is the ratio of specic heats, T01 is the stagnation temperature at the inlet, D is
a characteristic length, and P01 is the stagnation pressure at the inlet. Dimensionless rotor speed can be given by
N
D
, (24)
R
T 01

where N is the rotational speed.


Using the mapped compressor and turbine performance, the mass ow through such can be determined for any given
speed, discharge pressure, and inlet condition. The solution strategy for both the turbine and compressor dynamics involves iterative
determination of mass ow. For a given rotational speed and pressure ratio, a mass ow is guessed and iteratively converged upon until a
pressure ratio matches the ratio of discharge pressure to inlet pressure. An iterative approach is necessary because the discharge pressure
is determined by the swallowing capacity of components downstream of the compressor (or turbine). Once the mass ow is determined,
a compressor (or turbine) efciency can be determined from the efciency map. Knowing the isentropic efciency, the compressor (or
turbine) exit temperature can be determined from the isentropic relations described in the following paragraphs.
The inlet temperature of the compressor is known and once the compressor isentropic efciency is extracted from the performance
maps the compressor stagnation exit temperature, T02, can be calculated by the using EQ(25).

1 P02

T02 = T01 1 + ( 1 )
(25)
comp
P01

The specic heat, CP, is calculated next as a function of temperature based on third-order curve ts for a gas mixture containing up to
seven molecular species (CH4, CO, CO2, H2, H2O, N2, O2). Using Cp and the temperature of each state the enthalpies can be calculated
by EQ (26) and used to calculate the compressor work using EQ (27).
T01

h01 h02 = C P (T )dT (26)


T02

PC = m Comp (h01 h02 ) (27)

After the compressor exit state is determined a dynamic expression that accounts for gas compressibility and mass storage in a separate
compressor diffuser volume is solved as follows
dP R
T
= (m in m out ) (28)
dt V
Thus, for a given moment in time, all the parameters necessary to assess the dynamic compressor performance are calculated.
As for the gasier turbine work or the turbine supplying work to compressor the turbine inlet temperature (T03) is known. Using
performance maps the isentropic turbine efciency can be extracted from the turbine efciency map and used in EQ(29) to calculate the
turbine exit temperature.


1

P

T04 = T03 1 + T 04 1 (29)
P03

Once the temperatures are known then turbine mass storage can be assessed by solution of EQ (28) for the turbine. Then the enthalpies
at each state (EQ(30)) are calculated in order to calculate the turbine power using EQ (31).
T03

h03 h04 = C P (T )dT (30)


T04

PT = m Comp (h03 h04 ) (31)


143
1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

The above calculations are performed at every time step in the gas turbine transient model. To capture the dynamics associated
with the rotational inertia of the GT, the summation of torques is used to calculate the angular acceleration, which is integrated over time
to calculate the shaft speed of the gasier turbine. Equation (32) is solved with the known turbine and compressor powers and rotational
inertia, J, and rotational speed, , of the turbo machinery as follows:
d 1
dt
=
J 1
(
T C . ) (32)

For the second turbine (power turbine) the same equations are used for to calculate the state (5 and 6) temperatures and enthalpies. As
for the sum of the torques, the second shaft has the generator load instead of the compressor load as in EQ (33).
d 1
dt
= (
T LOAD
J 2
) (33)

The generator operates at 3600 RPM for 60 Hz AC electricity production; therefore the load from the generator is dynamically
adjusted to maintain the RPM of the power turbine at 3600 RPM. Do to alterations made to the nozzle of the gas turbine to accommodate
the over sizing of the gas turbine with the rest of the system the power turbine was operated at a lower RPM of 3000. This produced
50 Hz AC power from the generator.

Data-Model Comparison Approach


The Matlab/SimulinkTM modules described above were integrated into a system model that could simulate the 220 kW
pressurized tubular SOFC/gas turbine hybrid system of Figure 7. The system conguration was identical to that presented in Figure 8,
with a fuel cell that represented to performance of an integrated SOFC/reformer module depicted in Figure 9. Experimental start-up
data is presented for model verication. A series of control moves must occur during start-up in order to heat up the fuel cell, control
temperatures and temperature ramp rates throughout the system, and maintain operation of the gas turbine. Two combustors were used
to supply heat during start-up and SOFC stack warm-up. In the simulation results, the control moves that are identical to those recorded
during the experiment were implemented in the simulation.

Dynamic Simulation Results and Comparison


The data, as stated earlier, that were acquired from the system and selected for simulation and comparison are system startup
data. During this period of operation the SOFC/GT hybrid system was slowly ramped up in power to minimize the mechanical stresses
from thermal shock.
Figure 11 presents the control moves made by the operator during start-up of the hybrid system. The controlled parameters
were the SOFC load, recuperator and SOFC bypass and the fuel ow to the system (SOFC load not shown in Figure 11). The bypass
valves were used to control the temperature of the SOFC stack. The recuperator bypass controlled the inlet temperature of the air
entering the stack. The SOFC bypass was used to control the mass ow through the SOFC stack. The hybrid system utilized a dual shaft
turbine. As a result the total mass ow through the system could not be controlled independent of SOFC power. With a single shaft gas
turbine one can adjust turbo machinery speed (and thus compressor mass ow) by manipulation of generator load. The free-spinning
turbine and compressor of the dual shaft machine thus required an SOFC bypass ow to control speed (and mass ow).
Model Inputs for the 220 kW SOFC/GT Hybrid
50 6
Recuperator Bypass Valve
Bypass Valve Percent

45 5.8
SOFC Bypass Valve
40 5.6
Natural Gas Flow

SOFC Fuel Flow


35 5.4
Open

(SLPM)

30 5.2
25 5
20 4.8
15 4.6
10 4.4
5 4.2
0 4
0 25000 50000 75000 100000 125000 150000
Time (sec)

Fig. 11. Fuel ow and bypass valve positions used in the experiment and simulations

144
Jack Brouwer
In Figure 12, the SOFC power is 165
ramped up from 147 kW to 158 kW over
Model Experiment
a period of 100,000 seconds. The model
simulation follows the SOFC power 160

SOFC Power (kW)


closely. The model input for the SOFC is
the current demand and fuel ow rate. The
155
cathode inlet temperature, operating fuel
cell voltage, overall SOFC temperature,
internal reformer temperature, combustor 150
temperature, pressure and other operating
parameters are calculated and dependent
on the solution of the integrated hybrid 145
system dynamic performance as calculated
using the simulation modules described 140
herein. Sudden drops in SOFC power
were observed in the experiment as the 0 25000 50000 75000 100000 125000 150000
SOFC bypass valve was opened to allow Time (sec)
more air to bypass the SOFC. At low load
(time = 10,000 seconds) the model does not Fig. 12. SOFC power experimental and simulation comparison
capture this dynamic. However, a similar
dynamic that occurs when the fuel cell
Gas Turbine Power Experimental and Model Comparison
is producing 157 kW (around t = 90,000 for the 220 kW SOFC/GT Hybrid
seconds) is slightly captured by the model.
It is believed these sudden drops in power 29 Model
are due to the changes in the airows Experimental
through and around the SOFC stack. The 27
discrepancies of the experiment and model
25
data during changes in the SOFC bypass
GT Power (kW)

valve position are due to uncertainties in 23


the exact ow dynamics and ow amounts
altered by the SOFC bypass valve 21
Measurement data for the bypass
valve position is not very accurate since 19
the valve type used was a pneumatically
actuated buttery valve. Pressure, mass 17
ow, and temperature deviations would
15
lead to different mass ows being bypassed
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000 140000 160000
for the same valve position. Also the
rst degrees of movement of the valve Time (sec)
dramatically change the amount of mass
Fig. 13. Gas turbine power simulation and experimental data comparison
ow being bypassed. One could estimate
the bypass mass ow using an enthalpy
760
balance if accurate data for mass ow and Model
temperatures around each bypass valves
Experiment
were known. Since this information was 750
not available bypass mass ow rates were
estimated by valve position only with rates
averaged over a 5 minute time period. 740
TIT (K)

The gas turbine performance,


power output, system airow rate and
SOFC pressure are each totally dependent 730
on the SOFC performance (in model and
experiment). The power output of the gas
turbine (Turbine 2 of Figure 8) is left to 720
oat depending on the SOFC stack exhaust
conditions and the percentage of air that
710
bypasses the SOFC. As more air bypasses
the SOFC stack, the cooling of the SOFC 0 25000 50000 75000 100000 125000 150000
stack decreases and the turbine inlet Time (sec)
temperature (TIT) is reduced resulting in Fig. 14. Model and experiment turbine inlet temperature (TIT) comparison
145
1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

lower gas turbine power output. Figure 13 presents the experimental data and model results for the gas turbine power during the SOFC
stack power ramp up. The model follows the power output of the gas turbine quite well with a few deviations during the SOFC stack
ramp up. The model does not predict turbine power as accurately when the SOFC bypass valve is being adjusted. Some of the errors
again are associated with the limited experimental data on actual bypassed mass ows.
The model well captures the change in the turbine inlet temperature (TIT) that corresponds to the SOFC ramp-up conditions
as shown in Figure 14. There is a slight error in the TIT that peaks at about 6 degrees, but the overall trend is captured throughout the
entire dynamic response to SOFC ramp-up perturbations. It can be seen that the change in TIT is the dominant parameter that affects
gas turbine power.
Temperatures predicted by the dynamic model and observed in the experiment for several of the system states are presented in
Figure 15 for the starting and end-point conditions presented in previous gures. The temperatures throughout the system are fairly
close, but there are some differences. There is a 5% difference in compressor mass ow, which could cause the model to predict lower
temperatures, but instead the model predicts higher temperatures. The reason the model predicts higher temperatures is due to inadequate
accounting of the heat losses through out the system. The only heat losses currently considered in the system occur in combustor 1 and
2 (where there is signicant heat loss). There are not any heat losses accounted for in the current SOFC and recuperator models, around
which the largest temperature discrepancies are presented. Additional work is required in order to accurately quantify the heat losses
associated with the SOFC stack and the recuperator. Nonetheless, the dynamic and steady state performance predictions are impressive,
given the system complexities.

Air
T1 20 C 20 C
14.7 psia 14.7 psia
635 g/s 660 g/s
38 C 20 C GENERATOR
T2 14.7 psia 14.7 psia
RECUPERATOR T1 760 C 752 C
625 g/s 659 g/s
Stack Gas T2 727 C 735 C
T1 575 C 575 C

T1 216 C 246 C BY-PASS T1 769 C 788 C T2 552 C 566 C


T2 202 C 236 C
T2 822 C 803 C

T1 578 C 576 C Cathode OXIDIZER


T2 509 C 516 C
Anode OBSERVED SIMULATION
Fuel RESULTS RESULTS
SOFC

Fig. 15. Comparison of temperature states in hybrid system for initial and nal conditions

Hybrid Dynamic Simulation Conclusions


A modular approach for dynamic simulation of the major system components of a hybrid FC/GT system is presented. The dynamic
models were developed in a Matlab/SimulinkTM environment. Using the dynamic simulation modules, a detailed hybrid system model
was constructed to simulate a 220kW tubular SOFC/GT hybrid system. The dynamic model well captures the dynamic performance
of the integrated experimental system for transient operating conditions observed during a system start-up. Some system dynamics are
not well captured by the model especially those associated with the bypass valve dynamics, which were not adequately understood at
the time of model application. Overall, the dynamic model quite accurately captures the particular set of hybrid SOFC/GT performance
data during a start-up transient. This comparison shows that the model, built from rst principles, can reasonably predict the dynamic
performance of a complex hybrid FC/GT system. Thus veried, the dynamic model can be used to provide operational insights and
guidance for design and controls development. Comparisons of system simulation results to experimental data are rare in the literature,
due to the dearth of available experimental results. Although the current paper does not fully validate the current system model, it
provides condence that users can apply the dynamic models in developing control algorithms and proper procedures for start-up
and shutdown of these types of complex and integrated hybrid fuel cell systems. Future investigations will be performed to further
validate the systems simulation tools and test the limits of component and system dynamic responses to load demands and other possible
perturbations. Being able to test these scenarios with an accurate system model provides an insightful, economical, and safe means for
system research and technology advancement.

1.4-7 Hybrid System Control


Hybrid cycles comprised of high temperature fuel cells, such as the molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) or
solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) are very promising for generating electric power in the future, initially at the small to medium scale (250
kW to 20 MW), and later in large scale central plants (>100 MW). However, hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems are in need of
146
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signicant advancement before they are introduced as commercial products. Some progress is needed to address the specic challenges
that are introduced by coupling a fuel cell with a gas turbine given their disparate dynamic response characteristics. Thus a signicant
need for developing and testing control methods and strategies for hybrid gas turbine fuel cell power plants is required.
As an example, hybrid systems are sensitive to ambient conditions due the sensitivity of compressors to air density. At higher
temperatures the air becomes less dense requiring a compressor to do more work to pressurize and move the air through the system. As
for a hybrid system, it is challenging to maintain sufcient compressor mass ow for extreme conditions since the fuel cell is operated
at a xed temperature. If the gas turbine operates at a xed speed there are no options for controlling the mass ow. The total power
output of the system may have to be sacriced in order to maintain appropriate fuel cell operating temperature by lowering the load
demand on the fuel cell.
For the purposes of better understanding the dynamics of hybrid gas turbine fuel cell hybrid systems and for development of
controls, NFCRC has developed dynamic modeling tools for FC/GT hybrid systems. In previous work21, transient performance and
controls analyses of atmospheric hybrid systems with MCFCs were presented. Load perturbations were implemented to analyze the
MCFC/GT hybrid response. In these investigations it was discovered that additional control loops are necessary to control the MCFC
operating temperature. For example, varying fuel utilization across the MCFC provided some means for control but was limited.
Variable speed operation of the gas turbine was tested and showed more promise, but still was limited in the particular system at lower
power demands. For a larger turn-down in system power a bypass or auxiliary combustor is needed in parallel.22
For part-load operation of a FC/GT hybrid it has been shown that a variable speed gas turbine is a required feature for both
pressurized23 and atmospheric systems.24 The variable speed gas turbine provides better control of the compressor mass ow.
In the previous section a dynamic system model was described and results were compared to experimental data from the Siemens
SOFC/GT system. A dual shaft turbine was used in that particular SOFC/GT system. The dual shaft turbine prevented the direct control
of the compressor mass ow, which limited the operation exibility. The system had to be operated at the maximum power safely
allowed. In the current section, a 1.15 MW pressurized SOFC/GT hybrid model is developed. A diagram of the system is presented in
Figure 16 and a schematic of the SOFC module is presented in Figure 17. The system was designed around the Capstone C200 micro-
turbine generator. Design parameters for the C20025 and the hybrid plant are presented in Table 5.

Fig. 16. Pressurized SOFC/GT hybrid cycle

Fig. 17. SOFC module

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1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

Table 5. Design parameters SOFC/GT system

Design Parameter Value Unit


System
System Power 1150 kW
Combustor Efficiency 1
Recuperator Effectiveness 1

Heat Exchanger Effectiveness 0.4

System Efficiency 0.73


Gas Turbine
Shaft Speed* 60000 RPM
Turbine Inlet Temperature* 950 C
Turbine Efficiency 1
Mass Flow* 1.3 kg/sec
Compressor Inlet Temperature 1500.0% C
Compressor Discharge Pressure* 43569.8% kPa
Compressor Efficiency 75.0%
Gas Turbine Power Mechanical 2
RPM *8.33E-10 kW
Loss (Shaft)
Gas Turbine Power Electronics
98% and 14 kW load
Efficiency
Compressor Leakage 0.02
Compressor Filter Loss 0.02
SOFC Module
SOFC Stack Power 960 kW
2
SOFC Active Area 320 m
2
Current Density 4,000 A/m
SOFC Operating Voltage 0.75 V
SOFC Power Electronics 100.0%
Anode Recircuation 80.0%
SOFC Stack Fuel Utilization 85.0%
SOFC Average Operating
900 C
Temperature
*Willis, 2005

Dynamic Model and Operating Conditions


The dynamic model used in this section is identical to that described in the previous section except that the components are
arranged to simulate the cycle presented in Figure 16. The electrochemical performance for the SOFC is based on the results presented
by Kim et al.26
The work presented in this section is on the controller design and dynamic analysis of a SOFC/GT hybrid system. Two different
cases are presented: (1) a base-load system is exposed to changing ambient temperature; (2) a load-following system is exposed to the
same ambient conditions while following a load demand curve.
The design electrical power production of the SOFC/GT hybrid system is 1.15 MW. For the base-load case the system maintains
1.15 MW (1150 kW) of net electrical power production. The SOCF/GT hybrid system is operated in an extreme environment with
a vast uctuating ambient temperature. The ambient temperature is varied from -5to 35C in a sinusoidal form to emulate the daily
temperature uctuation. This range of temperatures accounts for colder or frigid regions and hot regions where the system may be
operated.
The system is tested in load-following mode with a varying load demand. The system is subjected to the same daily ambient
conditions in all cases, while meeting a sinusoidal demand of power from 1150 kW at the peak of the day to 950 kW at the minimum
power production of the day.

Controller Design
A decentralized controller design is used to control the hybrid system. The objective of the system controllers is to maintain
constant power production while maintaining the SOFC operating temperature close to its design operation temperature of 900C. Figure
18 presents the controller design. The controller design consists of a gas turbine shaft speed controller, system power controller, 148
Jack Brouwer

and a SOFC temperature and fuel flow controller. The shaft speed controller is a cascade controller with the outer loop consisting of a
feed forward and a feedback flow controller for the RPM set point. The inner loop manipulates the gas turbine power to achieve the a
set point provided by the outer loop. The feed forward aspect of the outer loop uses a look-up table to determine the RPM setting for a
given system power. The feedback loop corrects the RPM setting for any SOFC temperature deviations. The feedback portion is very
important when the compressor is operating at an off design setting. For example, extreme ambient conditions would require RPM
correction.
The system power controller manipulates the SOFC current in order to meet the power demand. The gas turbine power is treated
as a disturbance for this particular controller. Therefore, the SOFC power is altered continuously by manipulating the current to meet
the power demand that has not been met by the gas turbine.
There is additional control of the SOFC temperature via the bypass valve located between the turbine exhaust and the recuperator.
The bypass, when used, lowers the inlet temperature to the SOFC module. The fuel ow is manipulated to achieve fuel utilization of
85%. The fuel ow controller is a feed forward controller based on the current of the SOFC. The fuel utilization after one pass through
the anode section is approximately 53%.
The design electrical power production of the SOFC/GT hybrid system is 1.15 MW. For the base-load case the system maintains
1.15 MW (1150 kW) of net electrical power production. The SOCF/GT hybrid system is operated in an extreme environment with a
vast uctuating ambient temperature. The temperature changes account for colder or frigid regions and hot regions where the system
may be operated.
The system is tested in load-following mode with a varying load demand. The same daily ambient conditions are applied to the
system while demanding a sinusoidal power prole that varies from 1150 kW at the peak of the day to 950 kW at the minimum power
production time of the day.

Hybrid System Control Results

Base-Load Case
The SOFC hybrid system is simulated in base-load mode. The system is to produce its design power while operating in varying
ambient conditions. As stated before the ambient temperature is varied in the range of + 20 C. A sinusoidal temperature prole with a
period of one day is used. The peak temperature is at 12 noon. Figure 19 presents the total power produced by the hybrid plant along
with the SOFC and the gas turbine power. The total power produced by the hybrid plant is constant with very small deviations. The
gas turbine power changes dramatically to control the shaft speed. The SOFC power changes in order to compensate for the changes in
the gas turbine power.

Fig. 18. Controller design

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1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

The SOFC temperature is presented in Figure 20 along with ambient temperature and percent bypass mass ow. The SOFC
temperature is maintained within 25 C of the design operating temperature of 900 C. The effects of the ambient temperature are seen
when plotted with the SOFC temperature. The high ambient temperature increases the compressor outlet temperature and also decreases
the compressor mass ow by reducing the air density. The reduction of the compressor mass ow can be seen in Figure 21. The dip
in SOFC temperature just before 7 hours is a result of the slight increase in mass ow from the compressor presented in Figure 21 just
before the mass ow sharply decreases. The mass ow from the compressor increases with the sudden increase of the shaft speed also
presented in Figure 21. Two things promote this increase in shaft speed: (1) the ambient temperature is at the design inlet temperature
of the compressor resulting in a more efcient compressor and (2) the TIT in Figure 22 increases providing more power to the shaft.
The gas turbine power increases in Figure 19 at 6 hours to overcome this surge of net power being produced by the gas turbine. The
TIT eventually lowers as the bypass valve opens and the ambient temperature continues to rise. This reduces the power produced by
the turbine and thus increases the compressor work. The gas turbine power is dramatically decreased by the controllers at 7 hours, as
shown in Figure 19, to allow the shaft speed to increase so that the SOFC can be provided sufcient air for cooling. Even though the
gas turbine power is dramatically reduced, the shaft speed does not increase sufciently. The extra work by the compressor prevents
the shaft from speeding up and supplying more mass ow. The reduction of mass ow in the system reduces the operating pressure of
the system as shown in Figure 21.
The bypass valve prevents the SOFC from overheating when the mass ow from the compressor does not fully recover. The
bypass valve opens to reduce the temperature of the air entering the SOFC module. The effects of the bypass valve on the SOFC
operating temperature are shown in Figure 20. The SOFC inlet temperature (state #1 of Figure 16 and Figure 17) is reduced as shown
in Figure 22. This decreases the cathode inlet temperature (see state #4 of Figure 17), which helps prevent the SOFC stack from over-
heating. The cathode and turbine inlet temperature along with catalytic oxidizer temperature are presented in Figure 22. The SOFC
operating temperature rises at around 20-21 hours. The bypass valve closed rapidly at this time triggering this sudden rise in SOFC
temperature. The bypass valve partially opens again when the SOFC temperature exceeds 900C.

Fig. 19. Total power, SOFC power and gas turbine power produced

Fig. 20. SOFC average temperature, ambient temperature and bypassed mass ow

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Jack Brouwer

Fig. 21. Compressor mass ow, pressure and normalized shaft speed

Fig. 22. SOFC, cathode, turbine inlet, and catalytic oxidizer temperatures

The system efciency, SOFC fuel and oxygen utilization and fuel ow are presented in Figure 23. The system efciency uctuates
between 65% and 72%. At the peak ambient temperature, the gas turbine net power is reduced to sustain sufcient mass ow from the
compressor. The SOFC power is increased to offset the power drop from the gas turbine. The increased power from the SOFC increases
the fuel ow which decreases the system efciency when more fuel is required for the same net power produced by the system. The
SOFC fuel utilization presented in Figure 23 is the fuel utilization after one pass through the anode section of the SOFC stack. After
recirculation, the overall SOFC module electrochemical fuel utilization is 85%.

Fig. 23. System efciency, SOFC oxygen and fuel utilization and fuel ow

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1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

Load-following Case
The same ambient temperature perturbation as presented in the previous case is applied to the hybrid system in the case presented
in this section. In addition, the hybrid system must follow a load demand. The load demand varies form 950 kW to 1150 kW. A
sinusoidal power demand with a period of one day is used. The peak demand is at 12 noon.
The total power, SOFC power and gas turbine power are presented in Figure 24. The system was excellent in following the power
demand. The uctuations the gas turbine power can be seen in Figure 24. The gas turbine remains around 140 kW during the entire day.
Unlike the case before, the gas turbine does not reach 180 kW during the colder parts of the day since the system is operating at a lower
power demand at that time of day. The SOFC power has a sinusoidal prole with only uctuations due to the gas turbine power. If the
ambient temperature had not been so extreme at 12 hours, the gas turbine would have produced more net power.

Fig. 24. Total power, SOFC power and gas turbine power produced

The SOFC temperature in Figure 25 is kept within 25C of the design temperature as in the case presented earlier. The impact
of the ambient temperature on the system can be seen in Figure 25. The same spikes and dips occur in the SOFC temperature as did in
the previous case, but the logic behind them is more obvious in these results. The dip in SOFC temperature at 8 hours is a result of the
sudden increase in mass ow from the compressor presented in Figure 26. The bulge at 7 hours is more apparent in this case. The mass
ow from the compressor increases with the sudden increase of the shaft speed also presented in Figure 26. The same two sources as
described in the previous section triggered this sudden change in shaft speed (1) more efcient compressor and (2) increase in TIT. The
gas turbine power increases in Figure 24 at the same time to overcome this surge of net power being produced by the gas turbine. The
TIT eventually lowers as the bypass valve opens and the ambient temperature continues to rise. This reduces the power produced by
the turbine and the increases the compressor work as before. The gas turbine power is decreased by the controllers in Figure 24 to allow
the shaft speed to continually increase so that the SOFC can have sufcient cooling. In this case the gas turbine power does not have to
change as much since it is already at the right power range for 1150 kW system power production with 35C ambient temperature.

Fig.25. SOFC average temperature, ambient temperature and bypassed mass ow

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Fig. 26. Compressor mass ow, pressure and normalized shaft speed

Figure 27 presents the cathode and SOFC inlet temperature. The drop in both of these temperatures from the opening of the
bypass valve can be seen between 7-17 hours. There is a more dramatic change in the SOFC inlet than the cathode inlet temperature
because the heat exchanger becomes more effective due the increase in temperature differences between the SOFC inlet and catalytic
oxidizer temperature. The catalytic oxidizer increase from the increase in SOFC power (more anode of gas), SOFC temperature and the
reduction of mass ow (higher oxygen utilization, Figure 28). The TIT increases because of the catalytic oxidizer temperature increase,
but less since the heat exchanger is more effective in transferring the heat from one ow to the other.

Fig. 27. SOFC, cathode, turbine inlet, and the catalytic oxidizer temperatures
The system efciency in Figure 28 has the same prole as in the earlier case, but is higher when the power production is lower
due to the higher operating voltage or more efcient operation of the SOFC. The oxygen utilization and the fuel utilization are similar
to the case presented in the previous section. The oxygen utilization does reach higher levels of 47%, which indicates that the mass ow
would be desired to be increased for better performance.

Fig. 28. System efciency, SOFC oxygen and fuel utilization and fuel ow
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1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

Summary of Hybrid System Control Study


A SOFC/GT hybrid system was developed with controllers that allow load-following capabilities. A base-load case with varying
ambient temperature for two days was simulated and presented. The system maintains constant power (100% design power) while
being exposed to an ambient temperature that varies signicantly from -5to +35C. The system controllers responded to changes in
the ambient temperature and successfully maintained the SOFC operating temperature within 25C of the design operating temperature.
The gas turbine power had to be continuously manipulated in order maintain the correct shaft speed and in turn the adequate amount of
compressor mass ow.
A sinusoidal load prole was demanded of the hybrid system with peak power demand at 12 hours at the same time of the peak
ambient temperature. The system followed the load very well. In this case, the gas turbine remained closer to 140 kW during the entire
load perturbation. The oxygen utilization increased during the load perturbation.
Ideally for a SOFC/GT hybrid system, much like a gas turbine system, the oxygen and fuel utilization would remain constant
over the entire range of load demand. This xes the air-to-fuel ratio in the SOFC module. A controller that enforces constant oxygen
utilization is needed to maintain consistent SOFC temperature and operation. Precisely controlling the compressor mass ow during
large uctuations in ambient temperature is challenging. If not carefully executed, the gas turbine can become unstable. The constant
RPM approach with temperature error correction attempts to control the mass ow, but there are deviations in the SOFC temperature and
oxygen utilization. These deviations are acceptable and the RPM control of the gas turbine provides a more stable means of controlling
the system.
In future work a combination of RPM control and direct mass ow control will be investigated. This type of control approach
will provide stability and accurate control of the system mass ow.

1.4-8 Research & Development Needs for Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems
Over a period of more than 10 years the U.S. Department of Energy has sponsored workshops and conferences on the topic of gas
turbine fuel cell hybrid systems. In many of these venues stakeholders from industry, agencies, national laboratories and universities
have gathered to discuss the latest ndings and results from hybrid projects and work together to identify the remaining research and
development topics that should be addressed to advance hybrid systems. This section presents a summary of research and development
needs for hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems that is developed in part on the basis of input from these workshops and conferences.

System Component Design & Development

Fuel Cells
Both solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) and molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) are well suited for hybrid fuel cell heat engine designs
and application. General advancement of SOFC and MCFC technology will be very important to the hybrid fuel cell program. In
addition, there are specic research and development needs for fuel cells that should be addressed in order to facilitate their integration
with heat engines in hybrid systems. These R&D issues include:

understanding of pressurized operation


design for pressurized operation
o signicant pressure differentials
o signicant pressure uctuations
integration with oxidizers for increased thermal output to heat engine when needed
increased fuel cell power density (ease of integration)
nickel replacement or additive
sulfur tolerant anode
redox resistant anode

Research is required to enable fuel cells to meet the demands that hybrid cycles might place on them. Some of the particular needs that
new fuel cell technology may need to provide to reach the expected hybrid system performance targets include the following:

1) Advanced materials
a) Increased current densities (to reduce the size and cost of fuel cells, improved materials for electrodes and electrolytes are
required)
b) Improved mechanical properties (to withstand thermal stresses induced by successive starts and stops, and mechanical
vibrations induced by turbomachinery and/or by motion in mobile applications)
2) Decrease air to fuel ratio (to decrease size of fuel cell itself, the equipment upstream of the fuel cell supplying the air and
downstream of the fuel cell handling the exhaust gas, as well as increase the efciency of the hybrid by being able to operate
the gas turbine at a higher ring temperature)
3) Improved heat transfer to remove heat generated by cell
a) For example, use more internal reforming to absorb heat generated by cell 154
Jack Brouwer

4) High speed solid state inverter technologies


a) New materials (semiconductor compounds and/or layered structures of different materials)
b) New switching techniques
5) Fuel exibility
a) Tolerance to fuel contaminants (sulfur and chlorine compounds)

Combustors
Combustors will be required for all fuel cell systems for startup and possibly shut-down (e.g., to keep the gas turbine operating
and supplying cooling air to the stack), as well as to accommodate dynamic load variations through increased heat engine output.
Combustor advancement that would be valuable to a hybrid program includes those with the following possible features and/or research
requirements:

modulatable combustor (0-100% load),


relight capability,
can withstand constant ux of high temperature fuel cell products through inactive combustor (during steady state operation)
without cooling air,
high reliability, availability, maintainability, durability,
low cost

Inverters and Power Electronics


Inverters and power electronics must be designed and manufactured specically for fuel cell hybrids with the understanding that
accepting input from both the heat engine and fuel cell would be preferred. The integration of the inverter and power electronics with
hybrid power plants is not well understood and has not been well investigated. The following inverter component studies would be
useful in a hybrid fuel cell program:

low cost inverters


simplied inverters
inverter and power electronics systems analysis identifying cost, complexity, trade-offs of various inverter architectures
inverter and power electronics systems analysis identifying cost, complexity, trade-offs of using separate inverters for fuel cell
and heat engine versus a single inverter,
integration of inverter with system
effects of inverter and system architecture on power quality and reliability
inverter innovation to reduce cost for lower power inverters
inverter and power electronics robustness to match expected low maintenance of hybrid system

Sensors and Controls


New sensors and/or the application of reliable and robust sensors and diagnostics as well as well understood control algorithms
and strategies based upon sensitive measurements and manipulated inputs. Research and development is required in several sensors and
controls areas:

identication and development of appropriate in-situ sensors for measurement of critical parameters
o reformer composition
o temperatures
o pressures
o ow rates (including various mixtures at high temperature and pressure)
identication and fundamental understanding of system response to appropriate manipulated variables
identication and understanding of controlled parameter response to manipulated variables
high temperature (high pressure) sensors, valves, measurement and control technologies
understanding of dynamic and steady state response to manipulated variables
development of control strategies and methodologies based upon this understanding
intelligent components (automatically sense failure before it occurs)

Gas Turbines or other Heat Engines


It is well known that one cannot simply replace the combustion-provided heat input to a heat engine with that available from a
fuel cell and expect the heat engine to perform very well. One must, in order to take full advantage of hybrid cycles, develop and design
heat engines that can both handle the ow and thermal input features that a fuel cell can provide, as well as perform well under these
conditions. This requires a considerable shift in the focus of research and development for heat engine technologies. Whereas for stand-
alone heat engines, increases in temperature and pressure are almost always desired to increase efciency, application of heat engines to
155 hybrid cycles may require movement toward designs with lower temperatures and pressures to maximize efciency.
1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

The development of heat engines with the following general features are desired for a hybrid system:

ability to perform well on lower quality thermal input (e.g., lower turbine inlet temperature (TIT) for the case of a gas
turbine)
ability to withstand long-duration thermal cycling (due to thermal mass of the fuel cell)
ability to perform well with lower pressure ratios,
larger window of operation to allow for system turndown and avoid shut-down of integrated system (e.g., movement of surge
line away from typical operating conditions of a compressor increase surge margin)
controllability with slow time-response output of fuel cell (due to thermal mass of fuel cell)
robust heat engines (to match maintenance cycle of fuel cell)

Research is required to enable gas turbine engines to meet the demands and features of various hybrid cycle designs. Some of the
particular needs that new gas turbine technology may need to provide to reach the expected hybrid system performance targets include
the following:

1) Recuperative cycle congurations


2) Advanced cycle congurations (intercooling, humid air turbine)
3) Combustor (capable of accepting hot vitiated air and hot depleted fuel)
4) Reduced emissions combustor (reduced NOx, CO and hydrocarbons)
5) Catalytic combustor (capable of accepting reduced excess air, possibly approaching stoichiometric conditions)
6) Reduced turbine cooling penalty (advanced turbine materials including ceramics and cooling technologies)
7) Increased pressure ratio
8) Increased compressor and turbine aerodynamic efciencies
9) Fuel exibility
a) Tolerance to fuel contaminants (chlorine compounds and alkaline earth compounds)

Simplify/Optimize System Conguration


Several aspects of fuel cell hybrid systems could be simplied and/or optimized to advance hybrid technology, lower its cost and
make it more reliable. Challenges in this general area include a fundamental understanding of fuel cell and fuel cell hybrid steady state
and dynamic performance, increasing system and component RAMD, and increasing the power density of the fuel cell for better system
integration.

Increase Fuel Cell Power Density or Thermal Output


Increase power density
Higher operating temperature fuel cells
Increase TIT
More stack electrical and thermal output
Develop FCs that operated at higher & lower temperatures to facilitate FC staging

Hybrid Steady State and Dynamic Performance Optimization


Mathematical Models for S.S./dynamic response
System Conguration Studies
Thermoeconomics
Subsystem consolidation

RAMD
System failure modes & criticality affects (FMCA)
RAMD Tests on systems and/or subsystems
Component Tests--accelerated or otherwise
Power electronics RAMD study

Packaging

156
Jack Brouwer

Optimize/Customize Turbine Subsystem


The gas turbine subsystem of a gas turbine fuel cell hybrid system could be optimized or customized in many different ways to
make the subsystem amenable in some cases, and more suitable in most cases to the high reliability and high efciency characteristics
that are desireable in a hybrid system. This section identies specic advances in gas turbine technology that would be helpful to
the advancement of hybrid systems. Features of hybrid-optimized gas turbine systems that need advancement in a hybrid program
include:

At least 8700 hours of continuous, maintenance-free operation


Match the fuel cell operating and maintenance cycles (e.g., major and minor overhauls)
Develop never-sieze bearings
Increase surge margin in design for fuel cell
Hot section (e.g., combustor, heat exchanger) endurance (increased life)
Develop control strategies consistent with new thermal input
Develop interface requirements, and standard interface strategies
Maximize commonality amongst hybrid components with stand alone line of gas turbines that can meet these needs
Material selection (near term)
Materials development (long term)
Optimize control strategies for efciency taking into account protection of both GT and fuel cell
On-board intelligent diagnostics--specic sensor development
Variable geometry compressor or turbine blades to achieve a suitable design for surge margin
Package alternator with power electronics
Advanced bearings--maintenance free or on the y (magnetic, air, lube free)--never seize
Control for graceful depressurization
High temperature heat exchangers and recuperators
Design GT for proper size range
Design turbine for lower turbine inlet temperature (TIT)
Design GT for lower pressure ratio

Analysis Tools for Combined System


Several advances are required in the areas of steady-state and dynamic modeling tools to both garner insight into the fundamental
operation of systems and components, and to use for cycle optimization, design of control systems and strategies, and use for developing
next generation hybrid systems. Neither steady-state nor dynamic modeling tools are readily available for simulating state-of-the-art
fuel cells that are to be used in hybrid fuel cell systems. These detailed models must be developed to gain insight into both fuel cell
component operation and design, as well as system and sub-system level understanding of hybrid systems. In addition, system level
modeling tools must be developed that include fundamentally sound, but simplied models for fuel cells and other system components
for use in developing, analyzing and optimizing system congurations as well as designing control strategies for hybrid systems. The
following developments and features are to be advanced under the current hybrid systems development plan:

Computer model for each component and system under consideration


Validation of computer models by comparison to literature data for accurate predictions
Acquisition of quality data from systems, subsystems and simulators for model validation
Development and/or use of user friendly interfaces for the modeling tools to facilitate widespread use throughout the
community
Provide guidance and assist in the design of control algorithms
Develop mechanisms for sharing empirical data previously held as proprietary
Accurately determination of time scales of simulation required for components and entire hybrid systems
Develop capabilities for concurrent dynamic simulation and materials / stress analyses
Use super-computers and parallel processing to enhance computing power
Assess existing software packages for amenability to new models and use as user interface
Coordinate with previous efforts in related elds (e.g., Advanced Gas Turbine Systems Research (AGTSR) Program)
Use models to identify potential control (manipulated) variables and measured outputs
Use models to discover troublesome system or component behavior before systems are built
Use Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation, Southern California Edison 220 kW hybrid system, and FuelCell Energy,
Capstone Turbines hybrid system as the rst two data sources

Integration and Optimization of Fuel Cell/Turbine Combined Cycles


The integration and optimization of fuel cell gas turbine cycles depends upon the identication of a hybrid market and the
development of system designs that address market needs. The rst market that appears ripe for the use of hybrid systems is the
157 distributed generation market. This is a logical rst application for hybrid systems since the major fuel cell and gas turbine manufacturers
1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

are already developing systems and components in the size range that is applicable to distributed generation, and since natural gas red
systems are amenable to this market. In addition, hybrid systems have high efciency and ultra-low emissions features that make
them attractive in a wide variety of applications and markets. The same type of hybrid design, however, will not work in each market
application. Thus, the current hybrid plan must address the issues of system integration and optimization for a variety of applications.
The current plan includes supporting advances in integration and optimization to address the following:

Service of the Distributed Generation / Industrial Market


Service of larger central plant systems
Service of SECA portable power , APU, and mobile applications
Denition of appropriate system congurations for each of the above markets
Matching of the transient response of fuel cells and turbines for each application
Integration of fuel cell and turbine power output for each application
Optimization of size and performance to include stored energy, fuel cell, and turbine management and control
Understanding and control of transients over entire duty cycle, which differs for each application
Establish criteria for installed cost, operating cost, reliability, and Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA) for each application
Optimization of components and systems for improved performance in each application
Perform trade-off analyses for each application
Establish and demonstrate performance to the marketplace
Study current operating exibility and amenability to desired designs
Test prototype systems, even to the point of destructive testing to investigate applicability

Research is required to enable integrated hybrid systems to meet performance expectations. Some of the particular needs that the
integration technology may need to provide to reach the expected hybrid system performance targets include the following:

1) Systems Analysis (to identify more efcient and cost effective hybrids)
2) Off-design Performance Analysis (part-load and sensitivity to ambient conditions)
3) Dynamic and Transient Analysis (load following capability, rapid start-up and shut-down)
4) Fuel Processing
a) Compact Reformers
b) Membrane Reformers for Natural Gas (reactors that separate one of the products of reaction such as hydrogen or carbon
dioxide as it is formed from the reaction mixture)
c) Resilient Reformer Catalysts for Natural Gas (less susceptible to poisons such as sulfur and chlorine compounds, and
carbon deposition which will allow use of lower steam to carbon ratios)
d) Cost Effective Partial Oxidation Plants for Dirty Fuels such as coal, biomass, renery residues (compact reactor system
designs and operating at lower temperatures to increase cold gas efciency, and reduce oxygen consumption)
e) Cost Effective Air Blown Catalytic Partial Oxidation and/or Reforming of Distillate for Mobile Applications such as Ships
and Locomotives (compact reactor system designs and catalysts less susceptible to poisons such as sulfur and chlorine
compounds, and carbon deposition which will allow use of lower steam to carbon ratios, operating at lower temperatures
to increase cold gas efciency, and reduce air usage in case of PoX)
f) Cost Effective Air Blown Catalytic Partial Oxidation and/or Reforming of Diesel and Gasoline for Automotive Applications
(compact reactor system designs and catalysts less susceptible to poisons such as sulfur and chlorine compounds, and
carbon deposition which will allow use of lower steam to carbon ratios, operating at lower temperatures to increase cold
gas efciency, and reduce air usage in case of PoX)
g) Cost Effective Air Blown Partial Oxidation and/or Reforming of Diesel/Gasoline Substitutes such as Alcohols and Dimethyl
Either (compact reactor system designs and catalysts less susceptible to carbon deposition which will allow use of lower
steam to carbon ratios, operating at lower temperatures to increase cold gas efciency, and reduce air usage in case of
PoX)
5) Cost Effective and Efcient Oxygen Production (e.g., ion transport membranes)
6) Cost Effective and Efcient Hydrogen Separation from Syn Gas (e.g., ion/proton transport membranes)
7) Fuel Cleanup and Desulfurization
a) Regenerable Desulfurization of Natural Gas
b) Hot Gas Cleanup of Syn-Gas for Particulate, Sulfur and Chlorine Compounds Removal
8) High Temperature Heat Exchangers (transferring heat from atmospheric or low pressure fuel cell combustors to working uid
of high pressure ratio gas turbines) next 15 years
9) Compact Mobile Unit Sub-system Designs (e.g., to be able to operate with unstable liquid levels caused by motion)
10) Hydrogen Storage

Specic Functionality and Specication of System Components


Since hybrid systems are new and evolving in both their design and the design of individual components one part of the hybrid
program must focus on the specic functionality and specication of system components as they are to be applied in hybrid systems. 158
Jack Brouwer

Market and Design Analyses


Developing an understanding of the market for fuel cell hybrid systems will be integrated into the development efforts. These
efforts will endeavor to develop:

Market understanding
Impacts of the market(s) on HPS designs
Sensitivity of parameters between markets and systems
Equipment parameters and costs for each market segment
Denition and identication of competing technologies
Understanding of the impacts of regulatory policy
Denitions of potential markets and market segmentation
Interaction of systems with one another and utility grids
Accurate models of equipment and integration (e.g., with the grid)
Strategies for sharing of market information amongst competitive entities
Develop steady state equipment and integrated systems analysis tools
Develop dynamic equipment and integrated systems analysis tools
Sources for neutral, objective and reliable information gathering and dissemination
Collaboration amongst equipment user groups
Collaboration amongst manufacturers
Centers for multi-disciplinary research (Business, Economics, Engineering)

Integration of Fuel Cells and Engines


Integration of the disparate technologies that comprise a hybrid system is perhaps the most signicant challenge of the hybrid
program. Hybrid systems are most denitely not comprised of the simple linking of two or more technologies through an easily
congurable interface. A hybrid system is an entity distinct from and superior to the sum of its parts. In this context the integration of
fuel cells and engines to form an integrated whole hybrid is one of the most important tasks of the hybrid program. The goals of the
integration aspects of the program include developing hybrids and hybrid concepts with:

Competitive System Cost


Modularity
Operational Flexibility
Simplicity (O&M)

It is anticipated that the integration elements of the hybrid program can be addressed in stages with the following overall staged goals:

Adapt Existing Components (2005)


Optimize congurations (2005-2010)
Congure and test optimized hardware (2005-2010)
Learn lessons from rst generation optimized systems (2010)
Develop and demonstrate next generation hybrids (2015)

Some of the research and development challenges that are faced in this integration aspect of the program include the following:

Interface of Major Components


Reconguration of Major Components
System Operational Features
Control
Flow Matching
Thermal Management
System Balance
Safety

Key tools and strategies that must be developed and used in the integration elements of the hybrid program include:

Performance Modeling
Design Systems
Controls Research and Development
Performance Analysis
159
1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

Packaging
Re-Engineer Hardware based upon Requirements
Simplication of System
Flow Modeling
Dynamic System Modeling
Eliminate Balance of Plant Items
Combine Balance of Plant Items

1.4-9 Acknowledgments:
Special contributions to this work have been made by Dr. Rory A. Roberts, who accomplished most of the dynamic modeling efforts
presented herein, and Mr. Yaofan Yi, who conducted most of the thermodynamic analyses.

1.4-10 Notes

___________________________

1. Gottesfeld, S., and Zawadinski, T., Advances in Electrochemical Science and Engineering, Volume 5, Alkire, R.,
Gerischer, H., Kolb, D., and Tobias, C., editors, 1998.
2. Appleby, A.J., and Yeager, E.B., Energy, vol. 137, p. 11, 1986.
3. Hirschenhofer, J.H. Stauffer, D.B., Engleman, R.R. and Klett, M.G., Fuel Cell Handbook, Fourth Edition, DOE
Contract No. DE-AC21-94MC31166, Reading, PA, 1998.
4. Baker, B.S. Carbonate Fuel Cells A Decade of Progress, 191st Meeting, Electrochemical Society, May, 1997.
5. Singhal, S.C., Recent Progress in Tubular Solid Oxide Fuel Technology, Proceedings of the Fifth International
Symposium on Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC-V), The Electrochemical Society, Inc., Pennington, NJ, 1997; Minh,
N.Q., Ceramic Fuel Cells, J. American Ceramic Society, vol. 76, issue 3, pp. 563-588, 1993.
6. Ibid.
7. Dennis, R., U.S. Department of Energy, Hybrid Fuel Cell Systems, International Colloquium on Environmentally
Preferred Advanced Generation, 2003; Bloomeld et al., United States Patent 3,973,993; 8/10/76; Landau, United
States Patent 3,976,506; 8/24/76; Bloomeld, United States Patent 3,976,507; 8/24/76;
8. Hendriks et al., United States Patent 5,319,925; 1/14/94; Pietrogrande et al., United States Patent 5,314,761;
5/24/94;
Domeracki et al., United States Patent 5,413,879; 5/9/95; Micheli et al., United States Patent 5,449,568; 9/12/95;
Shingai et al., United States Patent 5,482,791; 1/9/96; Hsu et al., United States Patent 5,693,201; 12/2/97;
Wolfe et al., United States Patent 5,678,647; 10/21/97; Skowronski, United States Patent 5,811,201; 9/22/98;
9. White, D.J., Solar Turbines Incorporated; TTS85/492; Energy Conversion: A Vision of the Future; 1997.
10. IGTI (1999). The Hybrid Cycle: Integration of the Gas Turbine with a Fuel Cell Session, The International Gas
Turbine Institute Turbo-Expo, Indianapolis, June.
a) Developmental Status of Hybrids (1999). ASME 99-GT-400 (Abbie Layne, Mark Williams, Scott
Samuelsen, Patricia Hoffman);
b) Hybrid Gas Turbine and Fuel Cell Systems in Perspective Review (1999). ASME 99-GT-419 (David
White);
c) Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Power System Cycles (1999). ASME 99-GT-356 (Stephen E. Veyo, Wayne L.
Lundberg);
d) The Hybrid Cycle: Integration of a Fuel Cell with a Gas Turbine (1999). ASME 99-GT-430 (John D.
Leeper);
e) The Hybrid Cycle: Integration of Turbomachinery with a Fuel Cell (1999). ASME 99-GT-361 (Sy Ali,
Robert R. Moritz);
f) Technical Development Issues and Dynamic Modeling of Gas Turbine and Fuel Cell Hybrid Systems
(1999). ASME 99-GT-360 (Eric Liese, Randall Gemmen, Faryar Jabbari, Jacob Brouwer);
IGTI (2000). The Hybrid Cycle: Integration of the Gas Turbine with a Fuel Cell Session, The International Gas
Turbine Institute Turbo-Expo, Munich, May;
a) Hybrid Heat Engines: The Power Generation Systems of the Future (2002). ASME 2000-GT-0549
(Abbie Layne, Mark Williams, Scott Samuelsen, Patricia Hoffman);
160
Jack Brouwer
b) Tubular Solid Oxide Fuel Cell/Gas Turbine Hybrid Cycle Power Systems Status (2002). ASME 2000-
GT-0550 (Stephen Veyo, Larry Shockling, Jeffrey Dederer, James Gillett, Wayne Lundberg);
c) A Prototype for the First Commercial Pressurized Fuel Cell System (2002). ASME 2000-GT-0551 (Sy
Ali, Robert Moritz);
d) Ultra High Efciency Hybrid Direct Fuel Cell/Turbine Power Plan (2002). ASME 2000-GT-0552
(Anthony J. Leo, Hossein Ghezel-Ayagh, Robert Sanderson);
e) Analysis Strategies for Tubular SOFC Based Hybrid Systems (2002). ASME 2000-GT-0553 (Ashok
Rao, Scott Samuelsen);
f) Development of Dynamic Modeling Tools for Solid Oxide and Molten Carbonate Hybrid Fuel Cell Gas
Turbine Systems (2002). ASME 2000-GT-0554 (Randall Gemmen, Eric Liese, Jose Rivera,
Faryar Jabbari, Jacob Brouwer);
IGTI (2001). The Hybrid Cycle: Integration of the Gas Turbine with a Fuel Cell Session, The International Gas
Turbine Institute Turbo-Expo, June, New Orleans;
a) Hybrid Fuel Cell Heat Engines: Recent Efforts (2001). ASME 2001-GT-0588 (Abbie Layne, Mark
Williams, Norman Holcombe, Scott Samuelsen);
b) A Turbogenerator for Fuel Cell/Gas Turbine Hybrid Power Plant (2001). ASME 2001-GT-0524 Sy Ali,
Robert Moritz);
c) A Thermodynamic Analysis of Tubular SOFC Based Hybrid Systems (2001). ASME 2001-GT-0522
(Ashok Rao, G.S. Samuelsen);
d) A High-Efciency SOFC Hybrid Power System Using the Mercury 50 ATS Gas Turbine (2001).
ASME 2001-GT-0521 (Wayne Lundberg, Stephen Veyo, Mark D. Moeckel);
IGTI (2002). The Hybrid Cycle: Integration of the Gas Turbine with a Fuel Cell Session, The International Gas
Turbine Institute Turbo-Expo, June, Amsterdam;
a) The National Energy Technology Laboratorys Hybrid Power Systems Program (2002). ASME GT-
2002-30668 (Richard Dennis, Mark Williams, Abbie Layne, Scott Samuelsen, Norm Holcombe);
b) Status of Pressurized SOFC/Gas Turbine Power System Development at Siemens Westinghouse
(2002). ASME GT-2002-30670 (Stephen Veyo, Kevin Litzinger, Shailesh Vora, Wayne Lundberg);
c) Power Plant System Congurations for the 21st Century (2002). ASME GT-2002-30671 (Ashok Rao,
Scott Samuelsen, Fred Robson, Rodney Geisbrecht);
d) Rao, Ashok; Samuelsen, Scott; Robson, Fred; Geisbrecht, Rodney (2002). Power Plant System
Congurations for the 21st Century, ASME GT-2002-30671;
e) Veyo, Stephen; Litzinger, Kevin; Vora, Shailesh, and Lundberg, Wayne (2002). Status of Pressurized
SOFC/Gas Turbine Power System Development at Siemens Westinghouse, ASME GT-2002-30670.
11. Rao, A. D., Samuelsen, G. S., 2002, Analysis Strategies for Tubular Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Based Hybrid,
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power. 124(July 2002), pp. 503-509.
12. Massardo, A. F., Lubelli, F., 2000, Internal Reforming Solid Oxide Fuel Cell-Gas Turbine Combined Cycles
(IRSOFC-GT): Part A- Cell Model and Cycle Thermodynamic Analysis, Journal of Engineering for
Gas Turbines and Power. 122, pp. 27-35.
13. Costamagna, P., et al., 2004, Electrochemical model of the integrated planar solid oxide fuel cell (IP-SOFC),
Chemical Engineering Journal. 102(1), pp. 61-69.
14. Bessette, N.F.,1994, Modeling and Simulation for SOFC Power Systems, in Mechanical Engineering, Georgia
Institute of Technology, Atlanta, p. 209; Yi, Y., Smith, Thomas P., Brouwer, Jacob, Rao, Ashok D., 2003,
Simulation of a 220 kW Hybrid SOFC Gas Turbine System and Data Comparison. Journal of Power Sources;
Chan, S.H., Ho, H. K., Tian, Y., Modeling of Simple Hybrid Solid Oxide Fuel Cell and Gas Turbine Power Plant.
Journal of Power Sources, 2002. 109: p.111-120; See Notes 11, 12, and 13.
15. Gemmen, R. S., Liese, Eric, Rivera, Jose G., Jabbari, Faryar, and Brouwer, Jacob. 2000, Development of
Dynamic Modeling Tools for Solid Oxide and Molten Carbonate Hybrid Fuel Cell Gas Turbine Systems.
2000-GT-0552, in ASME Turbo Expo. Munich, Germany: ASME; Liese, E. A., Gemmen, Randall S., Jabbari,
Faryar, Brouwer, Jacob, 1999, Technical Development Issues and Dynamic Modeling of Gas Turbine and Fuel
Cell Hybrid Systems, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power; Lukas, M. D., Lee, Kwang Y.,
Ghezel-Ayagh, Hossein, 1999, Development of a Stack Simulation Model for Control Study on Direct
Reforming Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell power Plant, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion.
PE-468-EC-0-01-1999; Lukas, M. D., Lee, Kwang Y., Ghezel-Ayagh, Hossein, 2000, Operation and Control of
Direct Reforming Fuel Cell Power Plant, IEEE Power Engineering Society.
16. Ghezel-Ayagh, H., Daly, Joseph M., Wang, Zhao-Hui, Advances in Direct Fuel Cell / Gas Turbine Power Plants.
2003 ASME Turbo Expo, Atlanta, Georgia, 2003. GT2003-38941.
17. Veyo, S.E., Lundberg, Wayne L., Vora, Shailesh D., Litzinger, Kevin P., Tubular SOFC Hybrid Power System
Status. Preceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2003, 2003. GT2003-38943; See Note 14.
18. Roberts, R. A., Brouwer, J., Gemmen, R.S., and Liese, E.A., 2003, Inter-Laboratory Dynamic Modeling of a
Carbonate Fuel Cell for Hybrid Application. GT2003-38774, in 2003 ASME Turbo Expo, Atlanta, Georgia;
161
1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

Roberts, R. A., Brouwer, J., Gemmen, R.S., and Liese, E.A., 2004, Dynamic Simulation of Carbonate Fuel Cell-
Gas Turbine Hybrid Systems. GT2004-53653, in ASME Turbo Expo. Vienna, Austria.
19. Xu, J., Froment, Gilbert F., Methane Steam Reforming, Methanation and Water-Gas Shift: I. Intrinsic Kinetics.
AIChE Journal, 1989. 35(1): p. 88-96.
20. Weber, A., Bastain, Sauer, Muller, Axel C., Herbstriitt, Dirk, Ivers-Tiffee,Ellen, Oxidation of H2, CO and
Methane in SOFCs with Ni/YSZ-Cermet Anodes. Solid State Ionics, 2002. 152-153: p. 543-550.
21. Roberts, R. A., et al. 2005, Development of Controls for Dynamic Operation of Carbonate Fuel Cell-Gas
Turbine Hybrid Systems. GT2005-68774, in ASME Turbo Expo. Reno, NV, USA: ASME; See Note 18.
22. Roberts, R. A., 2005, A Dynamic Fuel Cell-Gas Turbine Hybrid Simulation Methodology to Establish Control
Strategies and an Improved Balance of Plant, Ph.D. thesis, in Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,
University of California, Irvine, Irvine, p. 316.
23. See Note 13.
24. Roberts, R. A. and Brouwer, J., 2005, Dynamic Simulation of a Pressurized 220 kW Solid Oxide Fuel Cell-Gas
Turbine Hybrid System: Modeled Performance Compared to Measured Results, Journal of Fuel Cell Science
and Technology, (Accepted August, 2005).
25. Willis, J. 2005, Capstone Microturbines. in ICEPAG. Irvine, California: APEP.
26. Kim, J.-W., et al., 1999, Polarization Effects in Intermediate Temperature, Anode-Supported Solid Oxide Fuel
Cells, Journal of The Electrochemical Society. 146(1), pp. 69-78.

162
BIOGRAPHY 1.4 Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems

Professor Jack Brouwer, Ph.D.


Associate Director
National Fuel Cell Research Center
University of California
Irvine, CA 92697-3550

email: jb@nfcrc.uci.edu
http://www.nfcrc.uci.edu

Dr. Jack Brouwer is Adjunct Assistant Professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at U.C. Irvine (UCI)
and the Associate Director of the National Fuel Cell Research Center (NFCRC). Dr. Brouwer completed doctoral
studies in Mechanical Engineering and Chemical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT). Prior to joining the NFCRC, Dr. Brouwer was a research faculty at the University of Utah, a Senior
Engineer at Reaction Engineering International, and a Staff Scientist at Sandia National Laboratories. Dr.
Brouwer has expertise in energy systems, fuel cell technology, turbulent reacting ows, computational uid
dynamics, chemical kinetics, and electrochemical reactions with concurrent heat, mass and momentum transfer
in electrochemical systems. Dr. Brouwer is leading research and development efforts including projects on
hydrogen refueling, the worlds rst independent fuel cell vehicle testing, the worlds rst testing and evaluation
of a hybrid fuel cell gas turbine system, the development and application of dynamic fuel cell and hybrid fuel cell
systems simulations, and the advancement of reformation technologies for gaseous, liquid, and solid hydrocarbon
fuels. Dr. Brouwer is a regular instructor at UCI in the areas of fuel cells, thermodynamics, heat transfer, and
combustion. He developed and introduced the rst graduate level fuel cell course to UCI in 2002, and is a regular
instructor in fuel cell short courses around the world.
2.0
Axial-Flow Compressors 2.0-1 Introduction
The compressors in most gas turbine applications, especially
units over 5MW, use axial ow compressors. An axial ow compressor is
one in which the ow enters the compressor in an axial direction (parallel
with the axis of rotation), and exits from the gas turbine, also in an axial
direction. The axial-ow compressor compresses its working uid by rst
accelerating the uid and then diffusing it to obtain a pressure increase. The
uid is accelerated by a row of rotating airfoils (blades) called the rotor,
and then diffused in a row of stationary blades (the stator). The diffusion
in the stator converts the velocity increase gained in the rotor to a pressure
increase. A compressor consists of several stages: 1) A combination of a
rotor followed by a stator make-up a stage in a compressor; 2) An additional
row of stationary blades are frequently used at the compressor inlet and are
known as Inlet Guide Vanes (IGV) to ensue that air enters the rst-stage
rotors at the desired ow angle, these vanes are also pitch variable thus can
be adjusted to the varying ow requirements of the engine; and 3) In addition
to the stators, another diffuser at the exit of the compressor consisting
of another set of vanes further diffuses the uid and controls its velocity
entering the combustors and is often known as the Exit Guide Vanes (EGV).
In an axial ow compressor, air passes from one stage to
the next, each stage raising the pressure slightly. By producing low-
pressure increases on the order of 1.1:1 to 1.4:1, very high efciencies
can be obtained as seen in table 1. The use of multiple stages
permits overall pressure increases of up to 40:1 in some aerospace
applications and a pressure ratio of 30:1 in some Industrial applications.
The last twenty years has seen a large growth in gas turbine
technology. The growth is spear headed by the increase in compressor
pressure ratio, advanced combustion techniques, the growth of materials
technology, new coatings and new cooling schemes. The increase in gas
turbine efciency is dependent on two basic parameters:
1. Increase in Pressure Ratio
2. Increase in Firing Temperature
It also should be remembered that the Gas Turbine Axial Flow
Compressor consumes between 55%-65% of the power produced by the
Turbine section of the gas turbine.

Table 1 Axial Flow Compressor Characteristics

Inlet Relative Pressure


Type of Type of Efciency
Velocity Mach Ratio per
Application Flow per Stage
Number Stage
Meherwan P. Boyce
Industrial Subsonic 0.4-0.8 1.05-1.2 88%-92%
2121 Kirby Drive, Number 28N Aerospace Transonic 0.7-1.1 1.15-1.6 80%-85%
Houston, TX 77019
Research Supersonic 1.05-2.5 1.8-2.2 75%-85%
713-807--0888
713-807-0088 Fax The aerospace engines have been the leaders in most of the
boycepower.com technology in the gas turbine. The design criteria for these engines was
mpboyce@boycepower.com high reliability, high performance, with many starts and exible operation
throughout the ight envelope. The engine life of about 3500 hours between
major overhauls was considered good. The aerospace engine performance
has always been rated primarily on its Thrust/Weight ratio. Increase in
engine Thrust / Weight Ratio is achieved by the development of high aspect
ratio blades in the compressor as well as optimizing the pressure ratio and
ring temperature of the turbine for maximum work output per unit ow.
The Industrial Gas Turbine has always emphasized long life and this
conservative approach has resulted in the Industrial Gas Turbine in many
163
aspects giving up high performance for rugged operation. The Industrial Gas Turbine has been conservative in the pressure ratio and the
ring temperatures. This has all changed in the last ten years; spurred on by the introduction of the Aero-Derivative Gas Turbine the
Industrial Gas Turbine has dramatically improved its performance in all operational aspects. This has resulted in dramatically reducing
the performance gap between these two types of gas turbines.
Figure 1 indicates the growth of the Pressure Ratio in a gas turbine over the past 50 years. The growth of both the Pressure
Ratio and Firing Temperature parallel each other, as both growths are necessary to achieving the increase in thermal efciency in Gas
Turbines. The Axial ow compressor in most of the advanced gas turbine is a multistage compressor consisting of 17-22 stages with an
exceedingly high pressure ratio. It is not uncommon to have pressure ratios in industrial gas turbines in the 17 to 20:1 range with some
units having pressure ratios in the 30:1 range. Figure 2 shows a multistage high-pressure axial ow compressor rotor. The low-pressure
increase per stage also simplies calculations in the preliminary design of the compressor by justifying the air as incompressible in its
ow through the stage.

Engine Pressure Ratio Development

45
40
35
30
Pressure ratio

25
20
15
Pressure Ratio Aircraft
10 Pressure Ratio Industrial
5
0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year

Fig.1.Development of pressure ratio over the past 50 years

Fig. 2. Axial Flow Compressor Rotor

164
Meherwan P. Boyce

Figure 3 shows the stators, the stationary blades which are in between each rotor blade and causes the ow to be diffused
(increase in the static pressure, reduction of the absolute velocity). The early stages of the stators in gure 3 are adjustable, as can be
noted by their circular base. The adjustable stators allow the stator to be positioned to the correct ow angle leaving the blades as the
air mass ow varies with load and inlet temperature.

Fig. 3. Axial Flow Compressor Stators located in the casing

As with other types of rotating machinery, an axial compressor can be described in a cylindrical coordinate system. The z axis
is along the axis of rotation which is along the running length of the compressor shaft, the radius r is measured outward from the shaft,
and the angle of rotation is the angle turned by the blades in gure 4. This coordinate system will be used throughout this discussion
of axial-ow compressors.

Fig. 4. Coordinate System for Axial-Flow Compressor Fig. 5 Variation of Temperature Velocity, and Pressure through an
Axial-Flow Compressor

Figure 5 shows the pressure, velocity, and total temperature variation for ow through several stages of an axial compressor.
As indicated earlier in gure 3, the length of the blades, and the annulus area, this is the area between the shaft and shroud, decreases
throughout the length of the compressor. This reduction in ow area compensates for the increase in uid density as it is compressed,
permitting a constant axial velocity. In most preliminary calculations used in the design of a compressor, the average blade height is
used as the blade height for the stage.

165
2.0 Axial-Flow Compressors

2.0-2 Blade and Cascade Nomenclature


Since airfoils are employed in accelerating and diffusing the air in a compressor, much of the theory and research concerning
the ow in axial compressors are based on studies of isolated airfoils. The nomenclature and methods of describing compressor blade
shapes are almost identical to that of aircraft wings. Research in axial compressors involves the inter effect of one blade on the other;
thus, several blades are placed in a row to simulate a compressor rotor or stator. Such a row is called a cascade. When discussing
blades, all angles which describe the blade and its orientation are measured with respect to the shaft (Z axis) of the compressor.
The airfoils are curved, convex on one side and concave on the other, with the rotor rotating toward the concave side. The
concave side is called the pressure side of the blade, and the convex side is called the suction side of the blade. The chordline of an airfoil
is a straight line drawn from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the airfoil, and the chord is the length of the chordline as seen in
gure 6. The camberline is a line drawn halfway between the two surfaces, and the distance between the camberline and the chordline is
the camber of the blade. The camber angle is the turning angle of the camber line. The blade shape is described by specifying the ratio
of the chord to the camber at some particular length on the chordline, measured from the leading edge. The aspect ratio AR is the ratio
of the blade length to the chord length. The term hub-to-tip ratio is frequently used instead of aspect ratio. The aspect ratio becomes
important when three-dimensional ow characteristics are discussed. The aspect ratio is established when the mass ow characteristics
are discussed. The aspect ratio is established when the mass ow and axial velocity have been determined.

Fig. 6. Blade prole nomenclature

The pitch Sb of a cascade is the distance between blades, usually measured between the camberlines at the leading or trailing
edges of the blades. The ratio of the chord length to the pitch is the solidity of the cascade. The solidity measures the relative
interference effects of one blade with another. If the solidity is on the order of 0.5-0.7, the single or isolated airfoil test data, from which
there are a profusion of shapes to choose, can be applied with considerable accuracy. The same methods can be applied up to a solidity
of about 1.0 but with reduced accuracy. When the solidity is on the order of 1.0-1.5, cascade data are necessary. For solidity in excess
of 1.5, the channel theory can be employed. The majority of present designs are in the cascade region.
The blade inlet angle 1 is the angle formed by a line drawn tangent to the forward end of the camber line and the axis of the
compressor. The blade outlet angle 2 is the angle of a line drawn tangent to the rear of the camberline. Subtracting 2 from 1 gives the
blade camber angle. The angle that the chordline makes with the axis of the compressor is , the setting or stagger angle of the blade.
High-aspect ratio blades are often pretwisted so that at full operational speed the centrifugal forces acting on the blades will untwist the
blades to the designed aerodynamic angle. The pretwist angle at the tip for blades with AR ratios of about four is between two and four
degrees.
The air inlet angle 1, the angle at which incoming air approaches the blade, is different from 1. The difference between these
two angles is the incidence angle i. The angle of attack is the angle between the inlet air direction and the blade chord. As the air is
turned by the blade, it offers resistance to turning and leaves the blade at an angle greater than 2. The angle at which the air does leave
the blade is the air outlet angle 2. The difference between 2 and 2 is the deviation angle . The air turning angle is the difference
between 1 and 2 and is sometimes called the deection angle.
The original work by NACA and NASA is the basis on which most modern axial-ow compressors are designed. Under
NACA, a large number of blade proles were tested. The test data on these blade proles is published. The cascade data conducted by
NACA is the most extensive work on its kind. In most commercial axial-ow compressors in Gas Turbines built before 1990, NACA 65
series blades are used. These blades are usually specied by notation similar to the following: 65-(18) 10. This notation means that the
blade has a lift coefcient of 1.8, a prole shape 65, and a thickness/chord ratio of ten percent (10%). The lift coefcient can be directly
related to the blade camber angle by the following relationship for 65 series blades:
25 CL. (1)
166
Meherwan P. Boyce
The new advanced compressor rotors have fewer blades with higher loadings, and the blades are thinner, larger, and are designed
using advanced radial equilibrium theory, which create Three Dimensional and Controlled Diffusion shaped airfoils (3D/CDA), with
smaller clearances and higher loading per stage.

2.0-3 Elementary Airfoil Theory


When a single airfoil is parallel to the velocity of a owing gas, the air ows over the airfoil as shown in gure 7a. The air
divides around the body, separates at the leading edge, and joins again at the trailing edge of the body. The main stream itself suffers no
permanent deection from the presence of the airfoil. Forces are applied to the foil by the local distribution of the steam and the friction
of the uid on the surface. If the airfoil is well designed, the ow is streamlined with little or no turbulence.
If the airfoil is set at the angle of attack to the air stream, as in gure 7b, a greater disturbance is created by its presence, and the
streamline pattern will change. The air undergoes a local deection, though at some distance ahead of and behind the body the ow is
still parallel and uniform. The upstream disturbance is minor compared to the downstream disturbance. The local deection of the air
stream can, by Newtons laws, be created only if the blade exerts a force on the air; thus, the reaction of the air must produce an equal
and opposite force on the airfoil. The presence of the airfoil has changed the local pressure distribution and, by the Bernoulli equation,
the local velocities. Examination of the streamlines about the body shows that over the top of the airfoil, the lines approach each other,
indicating an increase of velocity and a reduction in static pressure. On the underside of the airfoil, the action separates the streamlines,
resulting in a static pressure increase.

Fig. 7. Flow around an airfoil at various angles of attack:


a, parallel to the velocity of a owing gas;
b, set at the angle of attack to the airstream;
c, pressure measurement at various points on airfoils surface.

Measurement of the pressure at various points on the surface of the airfoil will reveal a pressure distribution as shown in gure
7c. The vectorial sum of these pressures will produce some resultant force acting on the blade. This resultant force can be resolved
into a lift component L at right angles to the undisturbed air stream, and a drag component D, moving the airfoil in the direction of ow
motion. This resultant force is assumed to act through a denite point located in the airfoil so that the behavior will be the same as if all
the individual components were acting simultaneously.
By experimentation, it is possible to measure the lift and drag forces for all values of airow velocity, angles of incidence,
various airfoil shapes. Thus, for any one airfoil the acting forces can be represented as shown in gure 8a. Using such observed values,
it is possible to dene relations between the forces

D = CD A V2/2 (2)
L = CL A V2/2 (3)

where:
L = lift force
A = surface area
D = drag force
= uid density
CL = lift coefcient
V = uid velocity
CD = drag coefcient

167
2.0 Axial-Flow Compressors
Two coefcients have been dened, CL and CD, relating velocity, density, area, and lift or drag forces. These coefcients can
be calculated from wind-tunnel tests and plotted as shown in gure 8b versus the angle of attack for any desired section. These curves
can then be employed in all future predictions involving this particular foil shape.

Fig. 8. Characteristics of the lift and drag forces on an airfoil

Examination of gure 8 reveals that there is an angle of attack which produces the highest lift force and lift coefcient. If this
angle is exceeded, the airfoil stalls and the drag force increases rapidly. As this maximum angle is approached, a great percentage
of the energy available is lost in overcoming friction, and a reduction in efciency occurs. Thus, there is a point, usually before the
maximum lift coefcient is reached, at which the most economical operation occurs as measured by effective lift for a given energy
supply.

2.0-4 Laminar-Flow Airfoils


Just before and during World War II, much attention was given to laminar-ow airfoils. These airfoils are designed so that the
lowest pressure on the surface occurs as far back as possible. The reason for this design is that the stability of the laminar boundary layer
increases when the external ow is accelerated (in the ow with a pressure drop), and the stability decreases when the ow is directed
against increasing pressure. A considerable reduction in skin friction is obtained by extending the laminar region in this way, provided
that the surface is sufciently smooth.
A disadvantage of this type of airfoil is that the transition from laminar to turbulent ow moves forward suddenly at small
angles of attack. This sudden movement results in a narrow low-drag bucket, which means that the drag at moderate-to-large attack
angles is much greater than an ordinary airfoil for the same attack angle as seen in gure 9. This phenomenon can be attributed to the
minimum pressure point moving forward; therefore, the point of transition between laminar and turbulent ow is also advanced toward
the nose as shown in gure 10. The more an airfoil is surrounded by turbulent airow, the greater its skin friction will be.

Fig. 9. NACA measurements of drag coefcients for two laminar airfoils


168
Meherwan P. Boyce

Fig 10. Laminar Flow Airfoils

2.0-5 Energy Increase


In an axial ow compressor, air passes from one stage to the next with each stage raising the pressure and temperature slightly.
By producing low-pressure increases on the order of 1.1:1-1.4:1, very high efciencies can be obtained. The use of multiple stages
permits overall pressure increases up to 40:1. Figure 5 shows the pressure, velocity, and total temperature variation for ow through
several stages of an axial ow compressor. It is important to note here that the changes in the total conditions for pressure, temperature,
and enthalpy occur only in the rotating component where energy is inputted into the system. As seen also in gure 5, the length of the
blades, and the annulus area, which is the area between the shaft and shroud, decrease throughout the length of the compressor. This
reduction in ow area compensates for the increase in uid density as it is compressed, permitting a constant axial velocity. In most
preliminary calculations used in the design of a compressor, the average blade height is used as the blade height for the stage.
A heuristic approach for a multiple stage gas turbine compressor would be that the energy rise per stage would be constant,
rather than the commonly held perception that the pressure rise per stage is constant. The energy rise per stage can be written as:

[H 2 H1 ]
H = (4)
NS

where: H1, H2 = Total Inlet and Exit Enthalpy Btu/lbm (kJ/kg) and
Ns = number of stages.

Assuming that the gas is thermally and caloricaly perfect (cp, and are constant) equation 4 can be rewritten as:

(5)

where: Tin = Total Inlet Temperature (F, C) and


P1, P2 = Total Inlet and Exit Pressure (psia, bar).

2.0-6 Velocity Triangles

As stated earlier, an axial-ow compressor operates on the principle of putting work into the incoming air by acceleration and
diffusion. Air enters the rotor as shown in gure 11 with an absolute velocity (V) and an angle 1, which combines vectorially with the
tangential velocity of the blade (U) to produce the resultant relative velocity W1 at an angle 2. Air owing through the passages formed
by the rotor blades is given a relative velocity W2 at an angle 4, which is less than 2 because of the camber of the blades. Note that W2
169 is less than W1, resulting from an increase in the passage width as the blades become thinner toward the trailing edges. Therefore, some
2.0 Axial-Flow Compressors

diffusion will take place in the rotor section of the stage. The combination of the relative exit velocity and blade velocity produce an
absolute velocity V2 at the exit of the rotor. The air then passes through the stator, where it is turned through an angle so that the air is
directed into the rotor of the next stage with a minimum incidence angle. The air entering the rotor has an axial component at an absolute
velocity VZ1 and a tangential component V1.

Fig. 11. Typical velocity triangles for an axial-ow compressor

Applying the Euler turbine equation

1
H= [U1V 1 U 2V 2 ]
gc (6)
and assuming that the blade speeds at the inlet and exit of the compressor are the same and noting the relationships,
V 1 = Vz1 tan1 (7)
V 2 = Vz 2 tan 3 (8)

Equation (1) can be written


U1
H= (Vz1 tan 2 Vz 2 tan 3 )
gc (9)
Assuming that the axial component (VZ) remains unchanged,

(10)
The previous relationship is in terms of the absolute inlet and outlet velocities. By rewriting the previous equation in terms of the blade
angles or the relative air angles, the following relationship is obtained:

U1 - U2 = VZ1 tan 1 = VZ1 tan 2 = VZ2 tan 3 + VZ2 tan 4.

Therefore,

(11)

The previous relationship can be written to calculate the pressure rise in the stage:

(12)

which can be rewritten

. (13)
170
Meherwan P. Boyce
The velocity triangles can be joined together in several different ways to help visualize the changes in velocity. One of the
methods is to simply join these triangles into a connected series. The two triangles can also be joined and superimposed using the sides
formed by either the axial velocity, which is assumed to remain constant as shown in gure 12a, or the blade speed as a common side,
assuming that the inlet and exit blade speed are the same as shown in gure 12b.

Fig. 12. Velocity triangles

2.0-7 Degree of Reaction


The degree of reaction in an axial-ow compressor is dened as the ratio of the change of static head in the rotor to the head generated
in the stage:
H rotor
R= (14)
H stage

The change in static head in the rotor is equal to the change in relative kinetic energy:

Hr =
1
2gc
2
(
W1 W1
2
) (15)

and

W1 = Vz1 + (Vz1 tan 2 )


2 2 2
(16)

W2 = Vz 2 + (Vz 2 tan 4 )
2 2 2
(17)

Therefore,

2
V
H r = z (tan 2 2 tan 2 4 )
2gc

Thus, the reaction of the stage can be written

Vz tan 2 2 tan 2 4
R= (18)
2U tan 2 tan 4

Simplifying the previous equation,

Vz
R= (tan 2 + tan 4 ) (19)
171 2U
2.0 Axial-Flow Compressors

In the symmetrical axial-ow stage, the blades and their orientation in the rotor and stator are reected images of each other.
Thus, in a symmetrical axial-ow stage where V1 = W2 and V2 = W1 as seen in gure 13, the head delivered in velocity as given by the
Euler turbine equation can be expressed by the following relationships:

Fig. 13. Symmetrical velocity triangle for 50% reaction stage

H=
1
2gc
( [
U 12 U 22 )+ (V12 V22 )+ (W22 W12 ) ] (20)

1
H=
2gc
(
W22 W12 ) . (21)

The reaction for a symmetrical stage is fty percent (50%). The fty percent (50%) reaction stage is widely used, since
an adverse pressure rise on either the rotor or stator blade surfaces is minimized for a given stage pressure rise. When designing a
compressor with this type of blading, the rst stage must be preceded by inlet guide vanes to provide prewhirl, and the correct velocity
entrance angle to the rst-stage rotor. With a high tangential velocity component maintained by each succeeding stationary row, the
magnitude of W1 is decreased. Thus, higher blade speeds and axial-velocity components are possible without exceeding the limiting
value of 0.70-0.75 for the inlet Mach number. Higher blade speeds result in compressors of smaller diameter and less weight.
Another advantage of the symmetrical stage comes from the equality of static pressure rises in the stationary and moving
blades, resulting in a maximum static pressure rise for the stage. Therefore, a given pressure ratio can be achieved with a minimum
number of stages, a factor in the lightness of this type of compressor. The serious disadvantage of the symmetrical stage is the high exit
loss resulting from the high axial velocity component. However, the advantages are of such importance in aircraft applications that the
symmetrical compressor is normally used. In stationary applications, the symmetrical compressor is normally not used. In stationary
applications, where weight and frontal area are of lesser importance, one of the other stage types is used.
The term asymmetrical stage is applied to stages with reaction other than 50%. The axial-inow stage is a special case of an
asymmetrical stage where the entering absolute velocity is in the axial direction. The moving blades impart whirl to the velocity of the
leaving ow which is removed by the following stator. From this whirl and the velocity diagram as seen in gure 14, the major part of
the stage pressure rise occurs in the moving row of blades with the degree of reaction varying from 60% to 90%. The stage is designed
for constant energy transfer and axial velocity at all radii so that the vortex ow condition is maintained in the space between blade
rows.

Fig. 14. Axial-entry stage velocity diagram

The advantage of a stage with greater than 50% reaction is the low exit loss resulting from lower axial velocity and blade
speeds. Because of the small static pressure rise in the stationary blades, certain simplications can be introduced such as constant-
section stationary blades and the elimination of interstage seals. Higher actual efciencies have been achieved in this stage type than
with the symmetrical stage - primarily because of the reduced exit loss. The disadvantages result from a low static pressure rise in the
stationary blades that necessitates a greater number of stages to achieve a given pressure ratio and thus creates a heavy compressor. The
lower axial velocities and blade speed, necessary to keep within inlet Mach number limitations, result in large diameters. In stationary
applications where the increased weight and frontal area are not of great importance, this type is frequently used to take advantage of the
higher efciency.

172
Meherwan P. Boyce

The axial-outow stage diagram in gure 15 shows another special case of the asymmetrical stage with reaction greater than
50%. With this type of design, the absolute exit velocity is in an axial direction, and all the static pressure rise occurs in the rotor. A
static pressure decrease occurs in the stator so that the degree of reaction is in excess of 100%. The advantages of this stage type are low
axial velocity and blade speeds, resulting in the lowest possible exit loss. This design produces a heavy machine of many stages and
of large diameter. To keep within the allowable limit of the inlet Mach number, extremely low values must be accepted for the blade
velocity and axial velocity. The axial-outow stage is capable of the highest actual efciency because of the extremely low exit loss and
the benecial effects of designing for free vortex ow. This compressor type is particularly well-suited for closed-cycle plants where
smaller quantities of air are introduced to the compressor at an elevated static pressure.

Fig. 15. Axial-outow stage velocity diagram

While a reaction of less than 50% is possible, such a design results in high inlet Mach numbers to the stator row, causing high
losses. The maximum total divergence of the stators should be limited to approximately 20o to avoid excessive turbulence. Combining
the high inlet for the limiting divergence angles produces a long stator, thereby producing a longer compressor.

Radial Equilibrium

The ow in an axial-ow compressor is dened by the continuity, momentum, and energy equations. A complete solution to
these equations is not possible because of the complexity of the ow in an axial-ow compressor. Considerable work has been done on
the effects of radial ow in an axial-ow compressor. The rst simplication used considers the ow axisymmetric. This simplication
implies that the ow at each radial and axial station within the blade row can be represented by an average circumferential condition.
Another simplication considers the radial component of the velocity as much smaller than the axial component velocity, so it can be
neglected.
For the low-pressure compressor with a low-aspect ratio, and where the effect of streamline curvature is not signicant, the
simple radial equilibrium change of the radial velocity component along the axial direction is zero (Vrad/Z = 0) and the change of
entropy in the radial direction is zero negligible (a s/r = 0). The Meridional velocity (Vm) is equal to the axial velocity (VZ), since the
effect of steamline curvature is not signicant. The radial gradient of the static pressure can be given

P V2
= . (22)
r r

Using the simple radial equilibrium equation, the computation of the axial velocity distribution can be calculated. The accuracy
of the techniques depends on how linear V2/r is with the radius.
The assumption is valid for low-performance compressors, but it does not hold well for the high-aspect ratio, highly loaded
stages where the effects of streamline curvature become signicant. The radial acceleration of the Meridional velocity and the pressure
gradient in the radial direction must be considered. The radial gradient of static pressure for the highly curved streamline can be
written

(23)

where is the angle of the streamline curvature with respect to the axial direction and rc is the radius of curvature.

To determine the radius of curvature and the streamline slope accurately, the conguration of the streamline through the blade
row must be known. The streamline conguration is a function of the annular passage area, the camber and thickness distribution of the
blade, and the ow angles at the inlet and outlet of the blade. Since there is no simple way to calculate the effects of all the parameters,
the techniques used to evaluate these radial accelerations are empirical. By using iterative solutions, a relationship can be obtained.
The effect of high radial acceleration with high-aspect ratios can be negated by tapering the tip of the compressor inward so that the hub
173 curvature is reduced.
2.0 Axial-Flow Compressors

Diffusion Factor

The diffusion factor rst dened by Lieblien is a blade-loading criterion:

W V V 2
D = 1 2 + 1 . (24)
W1 2W1

The diffusion factor should be less than 0.4 for the rotor tip and less than 0.6 for the rotor hub and the stator. The distribution
of the diffusion factor throughout the compressor is not properly dened. However, the efciency is less in the later stages due to
distortions of the radial velocity distributions in the blade rows. Experimental results indicate that even though efciency is less in the
later stages, as long as the diffusion loading limits are not exceeded, the stage efciencies remain relatively high.

The Incidence Rule

For low-speed airfoil design, the region of low-loss operation is generally at, and it is difcult to establish the precise value of
the incidence angle that corresponds to the minimum loss as seen in gure 16. Since the curves are generally symmetrical, the minimum
loss location was established at the middle of the low-loss range. The range is dened as the change in incidence angle corresponding
to a rise in the loss coefcient equal to the minimum value.
The following method for calculation of the incidence angle is applicable to cambered airfoils. Work by NASA on the various
cascades is the basis for the technique. The incidence angle is a function of the blade camber, which is an indirect function of the air-
turning angle.

(25)

where i0 is the incidence angle for zero camber, and m is the slope of the incidence angle variation with the air-turning angle ().
The zero-camber incidence angle is dened as a function of inlet air angle and solidity as seen in gure 17 and the value of m is given
as a function of the inlet air angle and the solidity as seen in gure 18.
The incidence angle io is for a 10% blade thickness. For blades of other than 10% thickness, a correction factor K is used, which
is obtained from gure 19.

Fig. 16. Loss as a function of incidence angle Fig. 17. Incidence angle for zero-camber airfoil

Fig 18. Slope of incidence angle variation with air angle Fig. 19. Correction factor for blade thickness and
incidence angle calculation
174
Meherwan P. Boyce

The incidence angle now must be corrected for the Mach number effect (m). The effect of the Mach number on incidence angle
is shown in gure 20. The incidence angle is not affected until a Mach in number of 0.7 is reached.
The incidence angle is now fully dened. Thus, when the inlet and outlet air angles and the inlet Mach number are known, the
inlet blade angle can be computed in this manner.

Fig. 20. Mach-number correction for incidence angle

2.0-8 The Deviation Rule


Carters rule, which shows that the deviation angle is directly a function of the camber angle and is inversely proportional to

( )
the solidity = m 1 / has been modied (Boyce) to take into account the effect of stagger, solidity, Mach number, and blade
shape as shown in the following relationship:

(26)

where m is a function of the stagger angle, maximum thickness, and the position of maximum thickness as seen in gure 21.
The second term of the equation should only be used for camber angles 0 < > 8. The third term must be used only when the mach
number is between 0.75 < M > 1.3.

Fig. 21. Position of maximum thickness effect on deviation

The use of NACA cascade data for calculating the exit air angle is also widely used. Mellor has replotted some of the low-speed
NACA 65 series cascade data in convenient graphs of inlet air angle against exit air angle for blade sections of given lift and solidity set
at various staggers. Figure 22 shows the NACA 65 series of airfoils.

175
2.0 Axial-Flow Compressors

Fig. 22. The NACA 65 series of cascade airfoils

The 65 series blades are specied by an airfoil notation similar to 65-(18)10. This specication means that an airfoil has the
prole shape 65 with a camber line corresponding to a life coefcient (CL) = 1.8 and approximate thickness of 10% of the chord length.
The relationship between the camber angle and the lift coefcient for the 65 series blades is shown in gure 23.

Fig. 23. Approximate relation between camber ()


and CL0 of NACA 65 series

The low-speed cascade data have been replotted by Mellor in the form of graphs of 2 against 1 for blade sections of given
camber and space-chord ratio but set at varying stagger , and tested at varying incidence (i = i - 1) or angle of attack (1 - ) as seen
in gure 24. The range on each block of results is indicated with heavy black lines, which show the attack angle at which the drag
coefcient increases by 50% over the mean unstalled drag coefcient.

Fig. 24. The NACA 65 series cascade data


(Reprinted, by permission of G. Mellor,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Gas Turbine Laboratory Publication.) 176
Meherwan P. Boyce
NACA has given design points for each cascade tested. Each design point is chosen on the basis of the smoothest pressure
distribution observed on the blade surfaces: if the pressure distribution is smooth at one particular incidence at low speed, it is probable
that the section will operate efciently at a higher Mach number at the same incidence, and that this same incidence should be selected
as a design point.
Although such a denition appears somewhat arbitrary at rst, the plots of such design points against solidity and camber give
consistent curves. These design points are replotted in gure 25, showing the angle of attack (1 - ) plotted against space-chord ratio
and camber is independent of stagger.
If the designer has complete freedom to choose space-chord ratio, camber, and stagger, then a "design point" choice may be
made by trial and error from the plots of gure 24 and 25. For example, if an outlet angle (2) of 15 is required from an inlet angle of 35,
a reference to the curves of the gures will show that a space-chord ratio of 1.0, camber 1.2, and stagger 23 will give a cascade operating
at its design point. There is a limited variety of cascades of different space-chord ratios, but only one cascade that will operate at design
point at the specied air angles. For example, if the space-chord ratio were required to be 1.0 in the previous example, then the only
cascade that will produce design point operation is that of camber 1.2, stagger 23.

Fig 25. Design angles of attack (1 - ) for NACA 65 series

Such a design procedure may not always be followed, for the designer may choose to design the stage to operate closer to the
positive stalling limit or closer to the negative stalling (choking) limit at design operating conditions to obtain more exibility at off-
design conditions.

2.0-9 Compressor Operation Characteristics


A compressor operates over a large range of ow and speed delivering a stable head/pressure ratio. During start up the
compressor must be designed to operate in a stable condition at low rotational speeds. There is an unstable limit of operation known
as surging, and it is shown on the performance map as the surge line. The surge point in a compressor occurs when the compressor
back pressure is high and the compressor can not pump against this high head causing the ow to separate and reverse its direction.
Surge is a reversal of ow and is a complete breakdown of the continuous steady ow through the whole compressor. It results in
mechanical damage to the compressor due to the large uctuations of ow which results in changes in direction of the thrust forces on
the rotor creating damage to the blades and the thrust bearings. The phenomenon of surging should not be confused with the stalling of
a compressor stage. Stalling is the breakaway of the ow from the suction side of the blade aerofoil thus causing an aerodynamic stall.
A multi-stage compressor may operate stably in the unsurged region with one or more of the stages stalled, and the rest of the stages
unstalled.

Compressor Surge

Compressor surge is a phenomenon of considerable interest; yet, it is not fully understood. It is a form of unstable operation
and should be avoided. It is a phenomenon that unfortunately occurs frequently, sometimes with damaging results. Surge has been
traditionally dened as the lower limit of stable operation in a compressor, and it involves the reversal of ow. This reversal of ow
occurs because of some kind of aerodynamic instability within the system. Usually, a part of the compressor is the cause of the
aerodynamic instability, although it is possible for the system arrangement to be capable of augmenting this instability. Compressors are
usually operated at a working line, separated by some safety margin from the surge line. Extensive investigations have been conducted
on surge. Poor quantitative universality or aerodynamic loading capacities of different blades and stators, and an inexact knowledge of
boundary-layer behavior make the exact prediction of ow in the compressor at the off-design stage difcult.
A decrease in the mass ow rate, an increase in the rotational speed of the impeller, or both can cause the compressor to surge.
Whether surge is caused by a decrease in ow velocity or an increase in rotational speeds, the blades or the stators can stall. One should
note that operating at higher efciency implies operation closer to surge. It should be noted here that total pressure increases occur only
in the rotational part of the compressor, the blades. To make the curve general, the concept of aerodynamic speeds and corrected mass
177 ow rates has been used in the performance maps in this chapter.
2.0 Axial-Flow Compressors

The surge line slope on multistage compressors can range from a simple single parabolic relationship to a complex curve
containing several break-points or even notches. The complexity of the surge line shape depends on whether or not the ow limiting
stage changes with operating speed from one compression stage to another; in particular, very closely matched stage combinations
frequently exhibit complex surge lines. In the case of compressors with variable inlet guide vanes, the surge line tends to bend more at
higher ows than with units which are speed controlled.
Usually surge is linked with excessive vibration and an audible sound; yet, there have been cases where surge not accompanied
by audible sound has caused failures. Usually, operation in surge and, often, near surge is accompanied by several indications, including
general and pulsating noise level increases, axial shaft position changes, discharge temperature excursions, compressor differential
pressure uctuations, and lateral vibration amplitude increases. Frequently, with high pressure compressors, operation in the incipient
surge range is accompanied by the emergence of a low frequency, asynchronous vibration signal which can reach predominant amplitudes,
as well as excitation of various harmonics of blade passing frequencies. Extended operation in surge causes thrust and journal-bearing
failures. Failures of blades and stators are also experienced due to axial movement of the shaft causing contact of blades and stators.
Due to the large ow instabilities experienced severe aerodynamic stimulation at one of blade natural response frequencies is caused,
leading to blade failure.
The performance map, of an axial ow compressors displays the variation of total pressure ratio across a compressor, as a
function of corrected mass ow (usually expressed as percent of design value), at a series of constant corrected speed lines (Nc). The
axial ow compressor adiabatic efciency (c) is shown as islands on the performance map, and can also be depicted versus corrected
mass ow and is shown for a representative multi-stage compressor in gure 26.

PR

Surge Line

Fig. 26. Multi-Stage Axial Compressor Maps

On a given corrected speed line, as the corrected mass ow is reduced, the pressure ratio (usually) increases until it reaches
a limiting value on the surge line. For an operating point at or near the surge line the orderly ow (i.e. nearly axisymmetric) in the
compressor tends to break down (ow becomes asymmetric with rotating stall) and can become violently unsteady. Thus the surge
line is a locus of unstable compressor operating points and is to be avoided. To cope with this, one species the surge margin SM denes
as:

(27)

In Equation (27) PRsurge/working denotes the pressure ratio on the surge/working line at the same corrected mass ow rate; thus the
corrected speed would be higher for operating points on the surge line. For operation on a constant corrected speed line an alternative
denition for surge margin in terms of corrected mass ow on the working line and on surge line at the same corrected speed would be
preferable. For stable operation of a multi-stage compressor a surge margin is specied.
Compressors are designed to operate at a condition referred to as the design point. At the design point the various stages
mounted on the same shaft are matched aerodynamically i.e. the inlet ow to each stage is such that the stage is at the design point and
this occurs for only one combination of corrected speed and mass ow (for this reason the design point is also known as match point).
While the design point is one at which the compressor will operate most of the time, there are situations of low-speed operation during
the starting of gas turbines where the compressor must also provide adequate pressure rise and efciency. For compressor operations 178
Meherwan P. Boyce
at corrected speed or at the same corrected speed but corrected mass ow different from those at design, difculties arise due to the
requirements of matching the inlet ow to one stage to the outlet ow from those upstream. As an illustration, consider changes along
the constant corrected speed line. The effect of reduction in mass ow relative to the working line results in a higher pressure rise and
therefore a greater increase in density in the rst stage than was predicted at design. The greater increase in density means the second
stage has an even lower value of ow coefcient than the rst stage, with an even greater increase in density. The effect is cumulative,
so that the last stage approaches stall while the front stage is only slightly altered. Conversely increasing the mass ow relative to
the working line would result in a lower pressure rise and therefore a smaller increase in density. The smaller increase in density
means the second stage has an even higher value of ow coefcient than the rst stage, with an even smaller increase in density. The
consequence is that the last stage approaches stalling at negative incidence with low efciency performance. Similarly one can also
show that reducing the rotational speed along the working line through the design point can lead to stalling of front stages and wind-
milling of rear stages. Methods for coping with low-speed difculties include use of compressor air bleed at the intermediate stage,
use of variable geometry compressor, and use of multi-spool compressors or combinations of the above.

Compressor Choke

The compressor choke point is when the ow in the compressor reaches Mach 1 at the blade throat, a point where no more
ow can pass through the compressor. This phenomenon is often known in the industry as Stone Walling. The more stages, the
higher the pressure ratio, and the smaller the operational margin between surge and choke regions of the compressor as shown in gure
27.

Fig. 27. A High Pressure Multistage Axial Flow compressor map

Compressor Stall

There are three distinct stall phenomena. Rotating stall and individual blade stall are aerodynamic phenomena; stall utter is
an aero elastic phenomenon.

Individual Blade Stall

This type of stall occurs when all the blades around the compressor annulus stall simultaneously without the occurrence
of a stall propagation mechanism. The circumstances under which individual blade stall is established are unknown at present. It
appears that the stalling of a blade row generally manifests itself in some type of propagating stall and that individual blade stall is an
exception.

Rotating Stall

Rotating, or propagating stall, was rst observed by Whittle and his team on the inducer vanes of a centrifugal compressor.
Rotating stall (propagating stall) consists of large stall zones covering several blade passages and propagates in the direction of the
rotation and at some fraction of rotor speed. The number of stall zones and the propagating rates vary considerably. Rotating stall is
the most prevalent type of stall phenomenon.
The propagation mechanism can be described by considering the blade row to be a cascade of blades as shown in gure 28.
A ow perturbation causes blade 2 to reach a stalled condition before the other blades. This stalled blade does not produce a sufcient
pressure rise to maintain the ow around it, and an effective ow blockage or a zone of reduced ow develops. This retarded ow
179 diverts the ow around it so that the angle of attack increases on blade 3 and decreases on blade 1. In this way a stall cell may move
2.0 Axial-Flow Compressors
along the cascade in the direction of the lift on the blades. The stall propagates downward relative to the blade row at a rate about half
the rotational speed; the diverted ow stalls the blades below the retarded-ow zone and unstalls the blades above it. The retarded ow
or stall zone moves from the pressure side to the suction side of each blade in the opposite direction of rotor rotation. The stall zone
may cover several blade passages. The relative speed of propagation has been observed from compressor tests to be less than the rotor
speed. Observed from an absolute frame of reference, the stall zones appear to be moving in the direction of rotor rotation. The radial
extent of the stall zone may vary from just the tip to the whole blade length. Table 2 shows the characteristics of rotating stall for single
and multistage axial-ow compressors.

Fig. 28. Propagating Stall in a Blade Cascade

Table 2 Summary of Rotating Stall Data


Single-Stage Compressors
Weight-ow
Propagation Fluctuation
Type of during stall, Radial
Hub-tip Number of Rate, Stall
Velocity Extent of Type of Stall
Radius Ratio Stall Zones Speed, abs/
Diagram Stall Zone
Rotor Speed

Symmetrical 0.50 3 0.420 1.39 Partial Progressive


4 0.475 2.14
5 0.523 1.66
0.90 1 0.305 1.2 Total Abrupt
0.80 8 0.87 0.76 Partial Progressive
1 0.36 1.30 Total Abrupt
0.76 7 0.25 2.14 Partial Progressive
8 0.25 1.10
5 0.25 1.10
3 0.23 2.02
4 0.48 1.47 Total
3 0.48 2.02
2 0.49 1.71
0.72 6, 8 0.245 0.71=1.33 Total Progressive
Free 0.60 1 0.48 0.60 Partial Progressive
vortex 2 0.36 0.60 Partial Progressive
1 0.10 0.68 Total Abrupt
Solid 0.60 1 0.45 0.60 Partial Progressive
body 1 0.12 0.65 Total Abrupt
Vortex 0.50 3 0.816 Partial Progressive
transonic 2 0.634 Total Progressive
0.50 1 0.565 Total Abrupt
0.40 2 Partial Progressive

180
Meherwan P. Boyce

1
Progressive Stall indicates the gradual increase in blocked annulus area due to stall.
2
Abrupt Stall is a single stall zone covering as much as half the annulus area and extending over the entire blade span
with discontinuity in the pressure curve. Complete Compressor Stall is applied to multistage compressors to describe a
discontinuous performance curve similar to that for abrupt stall, and these points dene the stall-limit line.

Stall Flutter

This phenomenon is caused by self-excitation of the blade and is an aero-elastic phenomenon. It must be distinguished from
classic utter, since classic utter is a coupled torsional-exural vibration that occurs when the free-stream velocity over a wing or airfoil
section reaches a certain critical velocity. Stall utter, on the other hand, is a phenomenon that occurs due to the stalling of the ow
around a blade.
Blade stall causes Karman vortices in the airfoil wake. Whenever the frequency of these vortices coincides with the natural
frequency of the airfoil, utter will occur. Stall utter is a major cause of compressor blade failure.
Several types of utter have been identied and these are indicated as various utter boundaries on the operating map of a
high-speed (transonic) compressor in gure 29. Besides m c and N c , additional non-dimensional parameters have to be introduced to
adequately characterize the utter boundaries. One such parameter is the reduced frequency which is given by the ratio of blade chord to
the wavelength of the unsteady disturbance induced by the blade motion. Often the inverse of reduced frequency, the reduced velocity is
used instead. More recently Khalak (2002) proposed and developed a framework for utter operability assessment in which a set of four
non-dimensional parameters is used to characterize the utter boundary. These parameters are the corrected mass ow, the corrected

speed, the compressible reduced frequency (where c denotes blade chord length, 0 the modal frequency) and the
combined mass-damping parameter (ratio of mechanical damping to blade mass). In analogy with the surge margin, a utter margin
FM is specied in equation (28):

(28)

PRutter is the pressure ratio on the utter boundary at the same corrected mass ow corresponding to that for PRworking on the
working line. For operation on a constant corrected speed line, it would be preferable to dene utter margin in terms of corrected mass
ow on the working line and on the utter boundary at the same corrected speed.
181
2.0 Axial-Flow Compressors

Fig. 29. Flutter regions on the operating map of a transonic compressor (after Mikolajczak, et al., 1975)

An example of a typical failure due to utter in an axial ow compressor fth stage is discussed in this section. There were
three blade failures of the fth stage blade all within 3-10 hours of operation. The cause of the failure had to be determined. A dynamic
pressure transducer with a voltage output was used to obtain the frequency spectra. In the rst four stages of the compressor no outstanding
vibration amplitudes were recorded. A signal was noted at 48N (N being the running speed), but the amplitude was not high, and it did not
uctuate. A measurement at the low-pressure bleed chamber taken from the fourth stage showed similar characteristics. The compressor
high-pressure bleed chamber occurs after the eighth stage. A measurement at this chamber showed a high, uctuating 48N signal. As
there are 48 blades on the fth-stage wheel, a problem in the fth-stage was suspected. However, above the fth-stage are blade rows of
86N (2 x 48N), so further analysis was needed. It was found that the measurement at the high-pressure bleed chamber showed only a very
small 86N amplitude compared to the high amplitude of the 48N frequency. Since blade rows of 86 blades were closer to the high-pressure
bleed chamber, the expected high signal should have been 86N compared to 48N under normal operating conditions. This high amplitude
of 48N indicated that it was the fth-stage which caused the high, uctuating signal; thus, a stall condition in that section was probable.
Figures 30, 31, 32, and 33 show the spectrum at speeds of 4,100; 5,400; 8,000; and 9,400 rpm. At 9,400 rpm, the second and
third harmonics of 48N were also very predominant.

Fig. 30. High-Pressure Bleed Chamber - 4,100 rpm Fig. 31. High-Pressure Bleed Chamber - 5,400 rpm

182
Meherwan P. Boyce

Fig. 32. High-Pressure Bleed Chamber - 8,000 rpm Fig. 33. High-Pressure Bleed Chamber - 9,400 rpm

Next, the fth-stage pressure was measured. Once again, high amplitude at 48N was found. However, a predominant reading was also
observed at 1,200 Hz frequencies. Figures 34 and 35 shows the largest amplitudes at speeds of 5,800 and 6,800 rpm, respectively.

Fig. 34. Fifth Stage Bleed Pressure - 5800 rpm Fig. 35.Fifth-Stage Bleed Pressure - 6,800 rpm
At the compressor exit, predominate frequencies of 48N existed up to speeds of 6,800 rpm. At 8,400 rpm, the 48N and 86N
frequencies were of about equal magnitudes - the only signal where the 48N and 86N frequencies were the same. The pressure was
measured from a static port in the chamber. All other pressures were measured from the shroud, thus indicating the phenomena occurred
at the blade tip. Since the problem was isolated to the fth stage, the conclusion was that the stall occurred at the fth-stage rotor tip.
The solution to the problem was the redesign of the fth stage blade with a modied angle so that it would not be as subject to stall
utter.

2.0-10 Compressor Performance Parameters

For a gas compressor, the functional dependence of compressor exit total/stagnation pressure Ptexit and the adiabatic compressor
efciency c can be expressed as follows:

(Ptexit, c) = F( m
, P , T , N, , R, , design D) .
tin tin
(29)

The gas properties of relevance to the compression process are characterized by the kinematic viscosity , specic heat ratio ,
and the gas constant R. The geometry dependence of the machine is set by the design and its characteristic size D such as the tip diameter
of compressor. Use of dimensional analysis reduces the complexity of Equation (29) (noting that and design D, can be regarded as
non-dimensional) to yield
183
2.0 Axial-Flow Compressors

(30)

For a given compressor and for inlet conditions for which does not vary, Equation (30) reduces to

(31)

At high enough Reynolds number (> 3 x 105), changes in this number have little effect on compressor performance so that

Ptexit m Ttin N
( ,c ) ,
Ptin Ptin T
can be correlated in terms of i.e.
tin

Ptexit m Ttin N
,c = F , (Section. 32a) (32a)
Ptin Ptin Ttin

As no functional dependence is implied if the non-dimensional variables on the right hand side is scaled by a constant, one can thus

m
choose to replace them by the corrected mass ow rate m c = and corrected speed N c = N so that

Ptexit m N (32b)
, c = F , = F(m
c , N c ). (Section. 32b)
Ptin

Ttin Ptin
In equation (32b), = and = where the reference temperature Tref and the reference pressure Pref are taken to be the
Tref Pref
sea-level value for the standard atmosphere, 59.6F (15C) and 14.7 psia (101 KN/m2) respectively. The advantage of using these
corrected variables is that their numerical magnitude is similar to the actual value so that its signicance is not obscured.

We can also use the Euler Turbine Equation (8) for a compressor stage

c p (Ttexit Ttin ) = [(rV )2 (rV )1 ] (Section. 33) (33)

to elucidate the functional dependence and to deduce why the performance characteristics look the way they are on a compressor map.
Assuming isentropic ow (i.e. no loss) then the stagnation pressure ratio across the (ideal) stage is given by

(34)

In equation (33) and (34) subscript 1 and 2 refer to variable evaluated at rotor inlet and rotor exit respectively, V denotes tangential
velocity, V the axial velocity, the angular velocity of rotor, exit the absolute ow angle at stator exit, exit the relative ow angle at
rotor exit, and r the radius. Upon introducing the corrected variables into equation (34) we have

P
R s { }
= 1 + k 0 N c2 k1 N c m c G (M 1 )(tan exit + tan exit ) 1 (Section. 35) (35)

184
Meherwan P. Boyce

where G(M1) has a weak dependence on the incoming Mach number M1, k0 r2 and k1 r. For a given compressor stage
(tan exit + tan exit ) is xed and neglecting the variation in G(M1) we have PR s =P R s (m c , N c ) . The general dependence of PRs
on m c and N c is shown in gure 39 as a series of dashed lines of constant corrected speed for the ideal stage; equation (35) can be
used to obtain the trend in the variation of the ideal stage characteristic with m
c and N c . The solid lines (of constant corrected speed)
in gure 36 are the PR s v
s m
c curves with stagnation pressure losses taken into account. Flow angle varies as corrected mass ow
rate changes along a given corrected speed line. The point of minimum difference between the dash (ideal) and the solid (actual) curve
corresponds to a corrected mass ow that yields an angle of incidence for minimum loss; moving away from this point along a constant
corrected speed line amounts to changing the incidence angle (increasing the angle of incidence for decreasing m c or decreasing the
m

angle of incidence for increasing c ) so as to lead to higher loss. This is reected in the increasing difference between the two curves
(ideal versus actual) at corrected mass ow other than that corresponding to minimum loss. One thus deduces from the above arguments
that the actual pressure rise (and the efciency) can also be characterized in terms of m c and N c . The pressure ratio of a complete
compressor consisting of many stages can be obtained by taking the products of the stage performance.

Fig. 36. Performance map of compressor stage

2.0-11 Performance Losses in an Axial-Flow Compressor


The calculation of the performance of an axial-ow compressor at both design and off-design conditions requires the knowledge
of the various types of losses encountered in an axial-ow compressor.
The accurate calculation and proper evaluation of the losses within the axial-ow compressor are as important as the calculation
of the blade-loading parameter, since unless the proper parameters are controlled, the efciency drops. The evaluation of the various
losses is a combination of experimental results and theory. The losses are divided into two groups: (1) losses encountered in the rotor,
and (2) losses encountered into the stator. The losses are usually expressed as a loss of heat and enthalpy.
A convenient way to express the losses is in a nondimensional manner with reference to the blade speed. The theoretical total
head available (qtot) is equal to the head available from the energy equation (qth = qtot) plus the head which is loss from disc friction.

qtot = qth + qdf (36)

The adiabatic head that is actually available at the rotor discharge is equal to the theoretical head minus the heat losses from the shock
in the rotor, the incidence loss, the blade loadings and prole losses, the clearance between the rotor and the shroud, and the secondary
losses encountered in the ow passage

qia = qth qin qsh qbl qc qsf . (37)

Therefore, the adiabatic efciency in the impeller is


qia
imp = . (38)
qtot

185
2.0 Axial-Flow Compressors

The calculation of the overall stage efciency must also include the losses encountered in the stator. Thus, the overall actual
adiabatic head attained would be the actual adiabatic head of the impeller minus the head losses encountered in the stator from wake
caused by the impeller blade, the loss of part of the kinetic head at the exit of the stator, and the loss of head from the frictional forces
encountered in the stator

qoa = qia qw qex qosf . (39)

Therefore, the adiabatic efciency in the stage


qoa
stage = . (40)
qtot

The losses as mentioned earlier can be further described:

1. Disc friction loss. This loss is from skin friction on the discs that house the blades of the compressors. This loss varies
with different types of discs.
2. Incidence loss. This loss is caused by the angle of the air and the blade angle not being coincident. The loss is at a
minimum to about an angle of 4o, after which the loss increases rapidly.
3. Blade loading and prole loss. This loss is due to the negative velocity gradients in the boundary layer, which gives rise
to ow separation.
4. Skin friction loss. This loss is from skin friction on the blade surfaces and on the annular walls.
5. Clearance loss. This loss is due to the clearance between the blade tips and the casing.
6. Wake loss. This loss is from the wake produced at the exit of the rotary.
7. Stator prole and skin friction loss. This loss is from skin friction and the attack angle of the ow entering the stator.
8. Exit loss. This loss is due to the kinetic energy head leaving the stator.

Figure 37 shows the various losses as a function of ow. Note that the compressor is more efcient as the ow nears surge conditions.

Fig. 37. Losses in an axial-ow compressor stage

186
Meherwan P. Boyce

2.0-12 New Developments in Axial Flow Compressors


The new advanced compressor rotors have fewer blades with higher loadings, and the blades are thinner, larger, and are designed
using advanced radial equilibrium theory, which create Three Dimensional and Controlled Diffusion shaped airfoils (3D/CDA), with
smaller clearances and higher loading per stage.
There are also trends towards water injection at the inlet or between compressor sections which will likely affect airfoil erosion
life. The smaller clearances (20-50 mils) and high pressure ratios tend to increase the probability of encountering rubs. These tip rubs
usually occur near the bleed ow sections of the turbines where there are inner diameter changes and the compressor casing could be out
of round. Figure 38 shows one such blade that encountered tip rub.

Fig. 38. Compressor Blade with Tip Rub

The advanced compressor blades also usually have squealer sections on the blade tips, which are designed to wear in a safe
manner if the blades are in contact with the casing. Figure 39 is one such blade. These rubs, if severe can lead to tip fractures and overall
destruction of the downstream blades and diffuser vanes due to domestic object damage (DOD).

Fig. 39. Axial Flow Compressor rotor blade with squealer tip

The very high temperature at the exit of the compressor, which in some cases exceeds a 1000F, causes a very hot compression
section, which also requires the cooling of the bleed ows before they can be used for cooling the turbine section. This requires large heat
exchangers and in some combined cycle plants steam is used to cool the compressed air. This also limits the down time between start-
ups of the turbines. Design margins are set by Finite Element Modeling (FEM) at the element level which results in lower safety margins
than previous designs. The costs of these larger, thinner, less-rub tolerant, and more twisted-shape airfoils are usually higher. When
several of the major characteristics of advanced gas turbines are examined from a risk viewpoint (i.e., probability and consequences of
failure), there are no characteristics which reduce the probability of failure and/or decrease the consequence of failure.
187
2.0 Axial-Flow Compressors

Table 3 indicates the changes in the compressor blades that are now prevalent on the advanced gas turbines. The rst column
represents previous gas turbine designs, the second column represents new gas turbine designs, and the last column indicates the change
in risk ( represents higher) for the design differences. Most of the comparisons are self-explanatory.

Table 3 State of Gas Turbine Technology Compressors

Previous Designs New Designs Risk


2D double circular arc or NACA 65 proles 3D or Controlled Diffusion Airfoil (CDA) proles
Large number of airfoils Reduced airfoil count
Repeating stages/shorter chords Stages unique/longer chords
Low/ modest Aspect ratios High Aspect ratios
Large clearances Smaller clearances
Low/modest pressure ratios (Rc) Much higher pressure ratios (Rc)
Low/modest blade loading per stage High blade loading per stage
Wider Operating margin Narrow operating margin
Thicker leading edges Thinner leading edges
Dry operation Wet operation
Bulk safety margins Safety margins by FEM
Lower costs Higher costs

2.0-13 Recent Advances and Research Requirements


There is considerable research is being carried out on improving the performance of axial ow compressor. This research is
being carried out in many different aspects of the axial ow compressor:

1. Effects of Aspect Ratio on blade loading, blade excitation, and the pre-twist blade angles (centrifugal forces on the blade).
Increase in blade loading was carried out by increasing the Aspect ratio of the blade. Blade aspect ratios were increased to
AR = 9. At these high aspect ratios the blades had to be designed with mid span shrouds, and tip shrouds. This decreases the
efciency of the stage; however, without the shrouds the pre-twist blade angle had to be increased to about 12, and the blade
excitation resulted in blade failure. Presently most blade designs are limited to an AR=4.

2. Increasing the operational range (surge choke) at a given compressor speed, by developing new blade proles to reduce blade
stall in compressors

Cascade Tests

The data on blades in an axial-ow compressor are from various types of cascades, since theoretical solutions are very complex,
and their accuracy is in question because of the many assumptions required to solve the equations. The most thorough and
systematic cascade testing has been conducted by NACA staff at the Lewis Research Center. The bulk of the cascade testing
was carried out at low mach numbers and at low turbulence levels.

The NACA 65 blade proles were tested in a systematic manner by Herrig, Emergy, and Erwin. The cascade tests were carried
out in a cascade wind tunnel with boundary-layer suction at the end walls. Tip effects were studied in a specially designed water
cascade tunnel with relative motion between wall and blades.

Cascade tests are useful in determining all aspects of secondary ow. For better visualization, tests have been conducted in
water cascades. The ow patterns are studied by injecting globules of dibutyl phatalate and kerosene in a mixture equal to the
density of water. The mixture is useful in tracing secondary ow, since it does not coagulate.

An impeller designed for air can be tested using water if the dimensionless parameters, Reynolds number (Re), and specic
speed (Ns) are held constant

airVair D waterVwater D
Re = =
air water (41)
188
Meherwan P. Boyce

Qair Qwater
Ns = 3
=
N air D N water D 3 (42)

where:
= medium density
V = velocity = viscosity
D = impeller diameter N = speed

Using this assumption, one can apply this ow visualization method to any working medium.

One designed apparatus consists of two large tanks on two different levels. The lower tank is constructed entirely
out of Plexiglas and receives a constant ow from the upper tank. The ow entering the lower tank comes through a large,
rectangular opening which houses a number of screens so that no turbulence is created by water entering the lower tank. The
center of the lower tank can be tted with various boxes for the various ow visualization problems to be studied. This modular
design enables a rapid interchanging of models and work on more than one concept at a time.

Blade Prole

To study the effect of laminar ow, the blades were slotted as shown in gure 40. For the blade treatment cascade rig
experiment, a Plexiglas cascade was designed and built. Figure 41 shows the cascade. This cascade was then placed in the
bottom tank and maintained at a constant head. Figure 42 shows the entire setup, and gure 43 shows the cascade ow. Note
the large extent of the laminar-ow regions on the treated center blades as compared to the untreated blades.

Fig. 40. Perspective of compressor blade with treatment Fig. 41. Cascade model in axial-ow test tank

Fig. 42. Apparatus for testing axial-ow cascade model Fig. 43. Treatments on center cascade blade
189
2.0 Axial-Flow Compressors
3. Reduction of ow leakage at the compressor tips

The effect of casing treatment in axial-ow compressors was studied in a water cascade tunnel. In this study the same
Reynold number and specic speeds were maintained as those experienced in an actual axial-ow compressor.
In an actual compressor the blade and the passage are rotating with respect to the stationary shroud. It would be
difcult for a stationary observer to obtain data on the rotating blade passage. However, if that observer were rotating with the
blade passage, data would be easier to acquire. This was accomplished by holding the blade passage stationary with respect
to the observer and rotating the shroud. Furthermore, since casing treatment affects the region around the blade tip, it was
sufcient to study only the upper portion of the blade passage. These were the criteria in the design of the apparatus.
The modeling of the blade passage required provisions for controlling the ow in and out of the passage. This control
was accomplished by placing the blades, which partially form the blade passage, within a Plexiglas tube. The tube had to be
of sufcient diameter to accommodate the required ow through the passage without tube wall effect distorting the ow as
it entered or left the blade passage. This allowance was accomplished by using a tube three times the diameter of the blade
pitch. The entrance to the blades was designed so that the ow entering the blades was a fully developed turbulent ow. The
ow in the passage between the blade tip and the rotating shroud was laminar. This laminar ow was expected in the narrow
passage.
A number of blade shapes could have been chosen; therefore, it was necessary to pick one shape for this study,
which would be the most representative for casing treatment considerations. Since casing treatment is most effective from
an acoustic standpoint in the initial stages of compression, the maximum point of camber was chosen toward the rear of the
blade (Z = .6 chord). This type of blade prole is most commonly used for transonic ow and is usually in the initial stages of
compression.
The rotating shroud must be in close proximity to the blade tips within the tube. To get this proximity, a shaft-mounted
Plexiglas disc was suspended from above the blades. The Plexiglas disc was machined as shown in gure 44. The Plexiglas
tube was slotted so that the disc could be centered on the centerline of the tube and its stepped section lowered through the two
slots in the tube. Clearances between the slot edges and the disc were minimized. One slot was cut directly above the blade
passage emplacement. The other slot was sealed off to prevent leakage. As the disc was lowered into close proximity to the
blade tips, the blade passage was completed. The clearance between disc and blade was kept at 0.035 of an inch. The disc,
when spun from above, acted as the rotating shroud.

Fig. 44. Details of the various casing treatments. (Each treatment was on a separate disc)

There are only two basic casing treatment designs other than a blank design - which corresponds to no casing treatment
at all. The rst type of casing treatment consists of radial grooves. A radial groove is a casing treatment design in which the
groove is essentially parallel to the chordline of the blade. The second basic type is the circumferential groove. This type of
casing treatment has its grooves perpendicular to the blade chordline. Figure 45 is a photograph of two discs showing the two
types of casing treatment used. The third disc used is a blank, representing the present type of casing. The results indicate that the
radial casing treatment is most effective in reducing leakage and also in increasing the surge-to-stall margin. Figure 46 shows the
leakage at the tips for the various casing treatments. Figure 47 shows the velocity patterns observed by the use of various casing
treatments. Note that for the treatment along the chord (radial), the ow is maximized at the tip. This ow maximum at the tip
indicates that the chance of rotor tip stall is greatly reduced.
190
Meherwan P. Boyce

Fig. 45. Two discs with casing treatment Fig. 46. Mass ow leakage at tips for various casing treatments

Fig. 47. Velocity patterns observed in the side view of the


blade passage for various casing treatments

4. Enhancement of Numerical Solutions of the Navier-Stokes Equation (viscous compressible ow)

The solution of the full Navier Stokes equation requires much enhanced numerical techniques. The old solutions used
inviscous ow and quasi three dimensional ow solutions. There are many new enhanced numerical programs underway to
solve the equation in its entirety.

5. Supersonic Blade Proles for higher pressure ratio per stage (>2.1)
191
2.0 Axial-Flow Compressors

Transonic blades have been designed with the point of maximum thickness at about 0.6 of blade chord from the
leading edge of the blade. Supersonic blade design has problems with standing shock waves which can occur as the ow enters
the stators. The losses with the diffusion process is very high and thus design changes are being tested so that the ow entering
the diffuser is easily swallowed, and that if any shock waves exist they are oblique shocks with minimal losses. Cascade testing
is being conducted on various proles to ensure that the stage losses are minimized.

6. Compressor interstage cooling by water injection between stages

In this system the water is injected into the mid-stages of the compressor to cool the air and approach an isothermal
compression process as shown in gure 48. The water injected is usually mechanically atomized so that very ne droplets are
entered into the air. The water is evaporated as it comes in contact with the high pressure and temperature air stream. As water
evaporates, it consumes about 1058 BTU (1117 kJ) (latent heat of vaporization) at the higher pressure and temperature resulting
in lowering the temperature of the air stream entering the next stage. This lowers the work required to drive the compressor.
The intercooling of the compressed air has been very successful when applied to high-pressure ratio engines.

Fig. 48. Mid-Compressor Cooling showing a schematic as well as an actual application in a GE LM 6000
Engine (courtesy GE Power Systems)

2.0-14 Compressor Blade Material


Compressor blading is made by forging, extrusion or machining. All production blades, until the advent of he new Advanced
Gas Turbines, have been made from stainless steels, Type 403 or 403 Cb both having about 12 Cr. This family of alloys has properties
which include good ductility at high strength levels, uniform properties, and good strength at temperatures up to about 900F (482C).
Because of the new axial ow compressors which have pressure ratio of 30:1 to 40:1, and exit temperatures between 1000F 1150F
(538C - 621C), new compressor blade material, a precipitation hardened, martensitic stainless steel such as 15-5 PH nominal, was
introduced into production for advanced and uprated machines, as shown in Table 4. This material provides increased tensile strength
without sacricing stress corrosion resistance. Substantial increases in the high-cycle fatigue and corrosion fatigue strength are also
achieved with this material, compared with the Type 403 stainless steel with 12Cr. Superior corrosion resistance is also achieved due
to the metals higher concentration of chromium and molybdenum content. Compressor corrosion results from moisture containing
salts and acids collecting on the blading. During operation, moisture can be present because of rain, use of evaporative coolers, fogging
systems, or compressor water washes, or condensation resulting from humid air being accelerated at the compressor inlet. Moisture
may be present in the compressor during operation up to between stage 5 and stage 8, where it usually becomes warm enough to prevent
condensation. When the turbine is not in operation, the compressor can still become wet if metal temperatures are below the local dew
point. This can happen to units stored in humid environments. The chemistry of this moisture deposit, especially the salt in the air
depositing on the blading, determines the severity of the corrosion phenomenon.

192
Meherwan P. Boyce

Table 4 Compressor Blade Material


Compressor Blade Max.
COMPONENTS PERCENT
Type Temp
C S Mn P Si Cr Mo Ni Cu Al Cb Mg O Fe
AISI 403 900F .11 12 - - Bal

AISI 403+Cb 900F .15 - - - - 12 - - - - 0.2 - - Bal

Martensitic
3.8-
High Temperature 1250F .08 - .14 - .4 15.6 .08 2.9 .9 - - - Bal
6.5
Stainless Steel

14- 3.5- .15-


15-5 PH, nominal <.07 <.03 <1.0 <0.04- <1.0 - 3.2 .9 - - Bal
15.5 5.5 .45

The high temperature blade alloy is normally produced by vacuum-arc remelting to reduce inclusions, and is advertised to have
a balanced chemistry that minimizes the formation of delta-ferrite. Inclusions and the delta-ferrite would provide planes of weakness
in that part. It is not uncommon for the mill to supply forging stock that has rst been given a 1900F heat treatment, just for better
forgeability. The forged blanks are then usually reheat-treated at 1900F, followed by hardeningtreatments between 1100F and 1150F
depending on the properties sought. There is a general correlation between hardness and strength (tensile/fatigue). A hardness of RC
32 suggests that the tensile strength is around 150000 psi and that the hardening temperature used during manufacture was somewhere
around 1100F to 1150F.
Coating of the compressor blades is now very common. Compressor blades suffer a great amount of corrosion pitting from
impurities in the air stream. This corrosion pitting has led to blade failures. Compressor blades in many cases have over 100,000 hours
but due to pitting can be reduced considerably to between 20,000 60,000 hours. It has been a very common practice for over 30 years
to coat at least the rst 5-8 stages depending on the compressor design. The rst stages are considered to be the wet stages because
many units now use on line water washes, as well as have evaporative cooling and fogging for power augmentation.
Coating for these blades is usually consistent of a duplex type coating, which must be at least 3 mils in thickness. This
coating as most typical coating has a sacricial undercoat coating which is placed on the base metal and is covered by a ceramic
coating. Ni-Cd coating is also used in selected applications, and new coatings consisting of an aluminum slurry coating which has a
protective ceramic top layer that provides improved erosion resistance are also being introduced. This type of coating, as compared
to conventional aluminum slurry coatings, is better in corrosion protection and substantially better in erosion resistance. This type
of coating also improves the performance of the gas turbine by reducing the amount of power consumed by the compressor. Tests
conducted show a reduction of 2%-3% in the power consumed by the compressor which pays back additional cost of coating in 4-6
months of operation.
The aspect ratio of axial ow compressors including the IGV vary from about AR = 4, to an aspect ratio of about AR = 0.5. All
IGVs and the rst ve to eight stages of rotating and stationary airfoils in the compressor are made from Martensitic High Temperature
Stainless Steel; or 15-5 PH nominal blade material, the next stages are usually coated AISI 403 or 403 Cb.

2.0-15 Acknowledgements
This chapter has been taken liberally from the authors book Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook. The author would like
to express his sincere thanks to Dr. Choon Sooi Tan and Dr. Yifang Gong for their contributions to the sections on Stall Flutter, and
Compressor Performance Parameters. Dr. Tan is a senior research engineer, and Dr. Gong is a research engineer at the MIT Gas Turbine
Laboratory.
Dr. Tan is a leading authority on unsteady and three dimensional ow in multistage Turbomachinery and is an author of 38
publications and a co-author of the book entitled, Internal Flow: Concepts and Applications, Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Dr Gong is an authority on compressor aerodynamics and instability in compressor/compression systems; he is presently
working on the design and development of a gas turbine power plant using supercritical CO2 as the working uid.

193
2.0 Axial-Flow Compressors

2.0-16 Bibliography
_________________________________

1. Boyce, M.P,, Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook, Second Edition, Butterworth-Hienemann 2003
2. Herrig, L.J., Emery, J.C., and Erwin, J.R., Systematic Two Dimensional Cascade Tests of NACA 65 Series
Compressor Blades
at Low Speed, NACA R.M. E 55H11 (1955).
3. Boyce, M.P., Fluid Flow Phenomena in Dusty Air, (Thesis), University of Oklahoma Graduate College, 1969, p. 18.
4. Boyce M.P., Schiller, R.N., and Desai, A.R., Study of Casing Treatment Effects in Axial-Flow Compressors, ASME
Paper No. 74-GT-89.
5. Boyce, M.P., Secondary Flows in Axial-Flow Compressors with Treated Blades, AGARD-CCP-214 pp. 5-1 to 5-13.
6. Giamati, C.C., and Finger, H.B., Design Velocity Distribution in Meridional Plane, NASA SP 36, Chapter VIII
(1965), p. 255.
7. Hatch, J.E., Giamatic, C.C., and Jackson, R.J. Application of Radial Equilibrium Condition to Axial-Flow
Turbomachine Design Including Consideration of Change of Enthropy with Radius Downstream of Blade Row,
NACA RM E54A20 (1954)
8. Holmquist, L.O., and Rannie, W.D., An Approximate Method of Calculating Three-Dimensional Flow in Axial
Turbomachines (Paper) Meeting Inst. Aero. Sci., New York, January 24-28, 1955.
9. Lieblein, S., Schwenk, F.C., and Broderick, R.L., Diffusion Factor for Estimating Losses and Limiting Blade Loading
in Axial-Flow Compressor Blade Elements, NACA RM #53001 (1953).
10. Stewart, W.L., Investigation of Compressible Flow Mixing Losses Obtained Downstream of a Blade Row, NACA
RM E54120 (1954).
11. Boyce, M.P., Transonic Axial-Flow Compressor. ASME Paper No. 67-GT-47.
12. Carter, A.D.S., The Low-Speed Performance of Related Aerofoils in Cascade, Rep. R.55, British NGTE,
September, 1949.
13. Mellor, G., The aerodynamic Performance of Axial Compressor Cascades with Applications to Machine Design,
(Sc. D. Thesis), M.I.T. Gas Turbine Lab, M.I.T. Rep. No. 38 (1957).
14. Graham, R.W. and Guentert, E.C., Compressor Stall and Blade Vibration, NASA SP 365, (1956) Chapter XI,
p.311.
15. Cumpsty, N. A., 1989, Compressor Aerodynamics, Longman Group UK Ltd., London, England.
16. Cumpsty, N. A., 1998, Jet Propulsion, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.
17. Hill, P. G., Peterson, C. R., 1992, Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion, Second Edition, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, Reading MA.
18. Kerrebrock, J. L., 1992, Aircraft Engines and Gas Turbines, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
19. Khalak, A., 2002, A Famework for Futter Clearance of Aeroengine Blades, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbine
and Power, Vol 124, No. 4. Also ASME 2001-GT-0270, ASME Turbo Expo 2001, New Orleans, LA, 2001.
20. Mikolajczak, A. A., Arnoldi, R. A., Snyder, L.E., Stargardter, 1975, Advances in Fan and Compressor Blade Flutter
Analysis and Prediction, Journal of Aircraft 12.
21. Caltech Lecture Notes on Jet Propulsion JP121 Graduate Course (Instructor: Zukoski E. E.)

194
BIOGRAPHY 2.0 Axial-Flow Compressors

Meherwan P. Boyce
2121 Kirby Drive, Number 28N
Houston, TX 77019

phone: (713) 807--0888


fax: (713) 807-0088
email: mpboyce@boycepower.com
boycepower.com

Dr. Meherwan P. Boyce, P.E., Fellow ASME & IDGTE; has over 42 years of experience in the eld of TurboMachinery in both industry
and academia. His industrial experience covers 20 years as Chairman and CEO of Boyce Engineering International, and ve years
as a designer of compressors and turbines for gas turbines for various gas turbine manufacturers. His academic experience covers a
15 year period, which includes the position of Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Texas A&M University and Founder of the
TurboMachinery Laboratories and The TurboMachinery Symposium, which is now in its thirtieth year. He is the author of several books
such as the Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook (Butterworth & Heinemann), Cogeneration & Combined Cycle Power Plants (ASME
Press), and Centrifugal Compressors, A Basic Guide (PennWell Books). He is a contributor to several Handbooks; his latest contribution
is to the Perrys Chemical Engineering Handbook Seventh Edition (McGraw Hill) in the areas of Transport and Storage of Fluids, and
Gas Turbines. Dr. Boyce has taught over 100 short courses around the world attended by over 3000 students representing over 400
Companies. He is a Consultant to the Aerospace, Petrochemical and Utility Industries globally, and is a much-requested speaker at
Universities and Conferences throughout the world.

Dr. Boyce is Chairman of the Plant Engineering & Maintenance Division of ASME, and Chairman of the Electric Utilities Committee
of the of ASMEs International Gas Turbine Institute. He is also a Chairman of the ASME Conferences Committee. In 2002 Dr Boyce
was chairman of two major conferences the Advanced Gas Turbine and Condition Monitoring Conference sponsored by DOE and EPRI,
and the Gas Turbine Users Associations Conference.

Dr. Boyce has authored more than 100 technical papers and reports on Gas Turbines, Compressors Pumps, Fluid mechanics, and
TurboMachinery. He is a Fellow of the ASME (USA) and the Institution of Diesel and Gas Turbine Engineers (UK), and member
of SAE, NSPE, and several other professional and honorary societies such as Sigma Xi, Pi Tau Sigma, Phi Kappa Phi, and Tau
Beta Phi. He is the recipient of the ASME award for Excellence in Aerodynamics and the Ralph Teetor Award of SAE for
enhancement in Research and Teaching He is also a Registered Professional Engineer in the State of Texas.

Dr. Boyce received a B.S. and M.S. in Mechanical Engineering from the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology
and the State University of New York, respectively, and Ph.D. in Aerospace & Mechanical Engineering in 1969
from the University of Oklahoma.
3.1.1
Static and Dynamic 3.1.1-1 Introduction
Combustion stability The objective of this article is to provide the reader
with some background on blowoff and combustion instability,
often referred to as a combustors static stability and dynamic
stability. In particular, this chapter will focus upon this
phenomenon in lean, premixed combustion systems operating
with any of a variety of fuels, such as natural gas or synthetic-
gas.
Blowoff refers to the ame physically leaving the
combustor and blowing out of the combustor. This issue is
often referred to as static stability. Blowoff occurs when
the ame cannot be anchored in the combustor. Combustion
instability, or dynamic instabilities refer to damaging
oscillations driven by uctuations in the combustion heat release
rate. These oscillations cause wear and damage to combustor
components and, in extreme cases, can cause liberation of pieces
into the hot gas path and resulting damaging to downstream
turbine components.

3.1.1-2 Static Stability


As the propagation speed of essentially all ames is
substantially lower than ow velocities in realistic systems,
special ame stabilization systems are necessary to anchor the
ame. These include rapid expansions or bluff bodies in the ow,
so that there is a re-circulating ow eld that recirculates hot
products back to the incoming reactants. Swirling combustors
introduce this recirculation with purely aerodynamic means - the
ow actually reverses direction and forms a recirculation bubble
when the uid has a sufcient swirl number, a phenomenon
referred to as vortex breakdown.
Whatever the stabilization method, a ame can only be
stabilized in a combustor over a certain range of conditions, even
if those conditions lie within its ammability limits. For example,
at a xed stoichiometry, as the ow velocity is increased, at some
point the ame will not be able to remain anchored but will blow
off. Alternatively, at a xed ow velocity, as the equivalence
ratio is decreased, at some point the ame blows off.
Predicting blowout behavior is complicated by a lack
of understanding of the ame characteristics at the stabilization
point. Nonetheless, empirically anchored phenomenological
Timothy C. Lieuwen methods for correlating blowout behavior have been reasonably
successful. Most approaches consider the ratio of two time
Associate Professor scales: a chemical kinetic time and residence time, chem/res.
School of Aerospace Engineering The chemical time characterizes how much time is required
Georgia Institute of Technology for the reaction while the residence time characterizes the time
Atlanta, GA 30332-0150 which the reactants reside in the reaction zone1. This ratio is
often referred to as a combustor loading parameter. Simply
email: tim.lieuwen@aerospacegatech.edu put, if this residence time is shorter than the chemical time, the
ame will blow off. It must be emphasized that the detailed
ow and chemical processes are much more complex than this
simple picture might suggest; nonetheless, more sophisticated
approaches generally reduce to a correlation of this form.
When applied to blowoff limits of premixed ames,
this chemical time can be estimated as:

197
chem = S L2 (1)

where SL and denote the laminar ame speed and thermal diffusivity,
respectively2. The residence time is generally scaled as d/Uref, where d and
Uref denote a characteristic length scale (e.g., a recirculation zone length)
and velocity scale, respectively. Putting this together, blowoff limits
should scale with the Damkhler number:

res S 2d
Da = = L . (2)
chem U ref

Determining the correct length and velocity scale is not


straightforward. Note that Uref need not directly scale with approach ow
velocity, Uu, due to the acceleration of the burned gas3. Since the burned
gas velocity scale is given by Ub=(Tb/Tu)Uu, then Uref =f(Uu, Tb/Tu). Similar
considerations apply for the recirculation zone scale, d. For this reason,
prior workers have often had to measure the recirculation zone length in
Fig. 1. Dependence of chemical time (ms)
order to use Eq. (2) (e.g., see Ref 6.). Furthermore, the chemical time
upon fuel composition at xed adiabatic ame
calculation is complicated by thermal-diffusive effects (i.e., H2 diffuses
temperature of 1900K [pressure is 4.4 atm with
much more rapidly than air or other fuels), as the local fuel/air ratio of the 460K reactants temperature] (reproduced with
mixture may differ from the global average. permission from authors).
While clearly there are important issues such as appropriate choice
of length and velocity scale, Damkhler number scalings do a reasonable Source: Q. Zhang, D. Noble, and T. Lieuwen,
job in scaling blowout data across a wide range of fuel compositions, as Blowout Measurements in a Syngas-Fired Gas
shown in several prior publications. As such, the manner in which the Turbine Combustor, Annual Pittsburgh Coal
blowoff trends of a system are affected by variations in fuel composition Conference (2005).
can be inferred from the chemical kinetic times of the mixtures. To
illustrate, gure 1, plots the dependence of the chemical time, upon fuel
composition of H2/CO/CH4 mixtures at a xed ame temperature of
1900K. Note the order of magnitude variation in chemical time from the
fast H2 mixtures to slow CO mixtures. One clear implication of this result
is that higher hydrogen mixtures will blowoff at leaner equivalence ratios,
as can be seen by gure 2, which plots the equivalence ratio of the mixture
at blowoff.
0.4
It should be emphasized that uid mechanics, and not just
chemical kinetics, must be accounted for in understanding how blowoff 0.35 Flame
limits will vary with composition. Because the ow eld and the ame are
coupled, variations of the chemistry do impact the ow. 0.3
at LBO

0.25
3.1.1-3 Dynamic Stability
0.2 No Flame
Overview
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
% H2
Combustion instabilities refer to large amplitude oscillations of pressure,
heat release, velocity, and other variables inside the combustion chamber. Fig. 2. Dependence of LBO equivalence ratio
They often occur at discrete frequencies associated with the natural acoustic upon H2 mole fraction at approach ow velocities
modes of the combustor. Such instabilities have been encountered during of 6 m/s and 4.4 atm combustor pressures, 460
K inlet temperature (reproduced with permisson
the development and operation of most high performance propulsion and
from authors).
power generating devices. They are spontaneously excited by feedback
between unsteady heat release and, generally, one of the natural acoustic Source: See g. 1.
modes of the combustor. Their occurrence is usually problematic because
they produce large amplitude pressure and velocity oscillations that
result in enhanced heat transfer and thermal stresses to combustor walls,
oscillatory mechanical loads that result in low or high cycle fatigue of
system components, and ame blowoff or ashback.
198
Timothy C. Lieuwen
A generic feedback loop is shown in gure 3, illustrating the sequence
of events responsible for self-excited oscillations in the combustion
Heat Release
chamber: (1) Fluctuations in the velocity, pressure, fuel/air ratio, etc. excite Oscillations
a uctuation in the heat release rate, (2) The heat release uctuation excites
acoustic oscillations, (3) The acoustic oscillations generate the disturbance
in Step (1) above, closing the feedback loop. Depending upon the phase Flow and
Acoustic
Mixture
between the pressure and heat release (discussed below), the ame may add Perturbations Oscillations
or remove energy from the acoustic eld during each cycle, represented by
one complete loop in this diagram. If the energy supplied to the acoustic
eld by the combustion process exceeds the energy losses of the mode, the Fig. 3. Illustration of feedback loop responsible for
acoustic amplitude will grow in time until it saturates, at some limit, cycle combustion instability.
amplitude.
Generally, combustion instabilities occur at frequencies associated with
natural acoustic modes of the combustor. These include, e.g., bulk (i.e.,
Helmholtz type oscillations), axial, and transverse (i.e., tangential and/or
radial) modes (see gure 4). On occasion, however, the oscillations are
not associated with a purely acoustic mode and are excited by a coupled
convective-acoustic mode, which occurs at frequencies lower than those
of purely acoustic modes. Such oscillations occur when a hot gas packet
(due to, e.g., partial ame extinction) or vortex convects through the nozzle,
where it excites an acoustic wave that propagates back to the ame4, exciting
another convected wave, thus repeating the process. These types of modes Transverse Radial Mode

are often encountered in systems that are operating at conditions close to Longitudinal

ame blowoff.

Why do Instabilities Occur?

In order to understand why instabilities occur, we must understand why


the ame adds energy to the acoustic eld. Rayleighs Criterion describes
Transverse Azimuthal Mode
these conditions. Essentially, it states that heat release disturbances add energy
to the acoustic eld if the heat is added/removed to or from the gas when its Fig. 4. Longitudinal and transverse acoustic modes in
pressure is above/below its mean value. This statement is mathematically cylindrical combustors.
described by the integral in Eq. (2). This equation shows that the heat
addition process locally adds energy to the acoustic eld when the magnitude
of the phase between the pressure and heat release oscillations, pq, is less
than ninety degrees (i.e., 0<| pq|<90). Conversely, when these oscillations
are out of phase (i.e., 90<| pq|<180), the heat addition oscillations damp the
acoustic eld.
Rayleighs criterion describes the conditions under which unsteady
heat release adds energy to the acoustic eld. However, even if energy is
transferred from the combustion process to the acoustic eld, this does not
Fuel/air ratio
necessarily imply that the combustor is unstable this can only happen Fuel flow rate oscillations
if the rate of energy supplied by the periodic combustion process to the oscillations
acoustic eld is larger than the rate at which acoustic energy is dissipated Flame area and
reaction rate
within the combustor and/or transmitted through its boundaries. oscillations
Having established the conditions under which energy is added Flow rate
to the acoustic eld by the ame, we need to consider the mechanisms oscillations Combustion
Products
through which these heat release disturbances are generated. A number
of mechanisms can produce heat release uctuations in gas turbines, as Unsteady mixing,
indicated in gure 5. These include: vaporization,
atomization
1. Fuel Feed Line-Acoustic Coupling. Pressure oscillations in the Vortex/flame
interactions
combustor modulate the pressure drop across unchoked fuel nozzles.
This, in turn, modulates the fuel injection rate into the system, causing an Fig. 5. Potential mechanisms of combustion instability.
oscillatory heat release process that drives the acoustic oscillations.
2. Equivalence Ratio Oscillations6. Combustor pressure oscillations
propagate into the premixer section where they modulate mixing processes
and fuel and/or air supply rates, thus producing a reactive mixture whose
equivalence ratio varies periodically in time. The resulting mixture is
convected into the ame where it produces heat release oscillations that
199 drive the instability.
3.1.1 Static and Dynamic Combustion stability

4. Oscillatory Flame Area Variation7. Interactions of acoustic


velocity oscillations with the ame cause periodic variation of the ame
area and, thus, a periodic heat addition process that drives the acoustic
eld.
5. Vortex Shedding8. Large scale, coherent vortical structures due
to ow separation from ameholders and rapid expansions, as well as
vortex breakdown in swirling ows, are often present in gas turbine
combustors, as shown in gure 6. The vortical structures distort the
ame and cause its surface area to oscillate, thus producing heat release
oscillations.

Although the details are excluded here, one can show that
in order for any one of these mechanisms to be self-exciting, the
characteristic times related to the physical processes responsible for the Fig. 6. Computed image of swirling ame distorted by
heat release disturbance must be of similar magnitude as the acoustic vortical structures (reproduced with permission of Y.
period. For example, if the mechanism is equivalence ratio oscillations Huang and V. Yang).
or vortex shedding, a combustion instability may occur when the
Source: Y Huang and V. Yang, Effect of Swirl on
following relationship holds: Combustion Dynamics in a Lean-Premixed Swirl-
Stabilized Combustor, Proceedings of the Combustion
convect + chem = kT (3) Institute 30 (2004): 1771-1778.

where convect refers to the time required for either the equivalence ratio oscillation or vortex to convect from its point of
formation to the center of mass of the ame, chem refers to the chemical delay time, T refers to the acoustic period, and k is a series of
constants whose value depend upon the combustion chamber acoustics9.
Fuel composition variations impact this relationship, Eq. (3), by affecting both characteristic times on the left of the equation.
Their impact on the chemical time is clear. Their impact on the convective time delay can be better understood from the following
equation:

convect = ( LFl / n + Lst ) / u (4)

where u refers to the mean ow velocity, Lst refers to the ame standoff distance from wherever the disturbance originates, LFl is the
ame length, and n is a constant that determines the location of the ame center of mass. For example, an n value of refers to a
ame that is effectively concentrated at its midpoint.
Variations in fuel composition impact both the ame standoff location, ame length and the constant n (by altering the ame
shape). For situations where the ame temperature remains constant, fuel composition impacts upon the ame standoff location can be
approximately inferred from the turbulent ame speed. Increases in turbulent ame speed cause the ame to anchor farther upstream
and vice-versa. If the ame temperature varies as well, the situation is much more complex, as the recirculating ow structure can be
altered as well in a complex manner.
Similar considerations apply for the ame length, which also scales with the turbulent ame speed. One point worth emphasizing
is that no fuel is intrinsically more stable or unstable than another. In other words, stability is determined by whether the equality
in Eq. (4) is satised depending upon ow velocity, ame location, and a variety of other factors, any particular fuel can be either
stable or unstable. This point is emphasized because it is sometimes stated, incorrectly, that the addition of hydrogen has a stabilizing
inuence upon dynamic stability. While hydrogen certainly does have a stabilizing inuence on static stability, due to its high ame
speed, hydrogen fueled combustors can (and do!) become quite dynamically unstable. One instance where hydrogen addition can
promote dynamic stability in general is under near blowout conditions where low frequency dynamic instabilities occur. By promoting
a more statically stable ame, hydrogen addition could potentially make these types of dynamic instabilities less problematic.

Growth and Saturation of Instabilities

The amplitude of the instability grows if the rate of energy addition to the oscillations exceeds the rate of energy dissipation by
damping processes. As the amplitude of the oscillations increases, the energy addition and dissipation processes become amplitude
dependent and the amplitude of the oscillations attains its maximum value when the time average of the energy addition and removal
equal one another. The resulting oscillations are referred to as a limit cycle. The objective of this section is to consider the growth and
saturation of the instability amplitude.
The mechanisms that initiate combustion instabilities are typically grouped into linear and nonlinear categories. A linearly unstable
system is one that is unstable with respect to innitesimally small disturbances; e.g., a ball perfectly balanced at the crest of a hill.
To further illustrate the dependence of the stability and limit cycle of a system upon the amplitude of the oscillations, A, consider
the hypothetical, amplitude dependent, driving, H(A), and damping, D(A) processes, which are described in gure 8. As shown, the
200
Timothy C. Lieuwen

driving and damping curves intersect at the origin, indicating that a


zero amplitude oscillation is a potential equilibrium point. This equilibrium
point is, however, unstable, as any small disturbance that moves the system

Driving/Damping
away from the origin produces a condition in which H(A) is larger than
D(A), resulting in further growth of the disturbance. Because these two
H(A )
curves diverge near the origin, their difference increases with amplitude, D(A )
implying that the amplitude growth rate increases with amplitude.
Nonlinear combustor processes control the dynamics of the
oscillations as the driving and damping processes become amplitude
dependent. Figure 8 describes a situation where H(A) saturates and D(A)
increases linearly with the amplitude A, thus resulting in an intersection
of the two curves at the limit cycle amplitude, ALC. A A LC
A nonlinearly unstable system differs from a linearly stable one
in that it is stable with respect to small amplitude disturbances but is Fig. 7. Hypothetical dependence of the acoustic
unstable when subjected to disturbances whose magnitude exceeds a driving, H(A) and damping, D(A), processes
upon the instability amplitude, A.
certain threshold value, AT. A simple example of a nonlinearly unstable
system is a ball in a depression on the top of a hill. When pushed, this ball
returns to its equilibrium point as long as it is subjected to disturbances
with amplitude that does not get it over the side walls of the depression.
However, for sufciently large disturbance amplitude, the ball rolls out of
the depression and down the hill.
Similar behavior may be observed in combustors. Although
nominally stable, if disturbed hard enough, the combustor may become
unstable. A typical manifestation of combustors with this type of behavior
is hysteresis, where the parameter values where instability occurs differ
depending upon whether the parameter is increasing or decreasing. Figure
9 provides an example of the amplitude dependences of H(A) and D(A) H(A )
Driving/Damping

that produces the above discussed behavior. In this case, the system has
three equilibrium points where the driving and damping curves intersect.
Specically, the damping exceeds the driving when A<AT, indicating that
A=0 is a stable xed point, as all disturbances in the range 0< A < AT decay
to A=0. The next equilibrium amplitude where the driving and damping
curves intersect is at the triggering amplitude, A =A T. This is an unstable D(A )
equilibrium point because any disturbance that shifts the system from this
point continues to increase in time. The third equilibrium point, A=ALC, is a AT
A A LC
stable limit cycle. Thus, in such a system all disturbances with amplitudes
A<AT return to the stable solution A=0 and disturbances with amplitudes Fig. 8. Hypothetical dependence of the acoustic
A>AT grow until their amplitude attains the value A=ALC. Consequently, driving, H(A) and damping, D(A), processes
two stable solutions exist at this operating condition. The one observed at upon amplitude, A, that produce triggering of
any point in time will depend upon the history of the system. instabilities.
Two other phenomena are often observed in unstable combustors
under limit cycle conditions. First, is the generation of harmonics. In
other words, an instability at 251 Hz generates harmonic oscillations at
502 Hz, and possibly 753 Hz and higher harmonics as well. Second, the
presence of oscillations also changes the mean ame position and ow
eld. For example, the ame may become either shorter or longer.
Unfortunately, the factors that inuence the limit cycle instability
amplitude are very poorly understood. As such, it is not possible to comment
on the inuence of fuel composition upon instability amplitudes.

201
3.1.1 Static and Dynamic Combustion stability

3.1.1-4 Notes
_________________________

1. E.E. Zukoski, Afterburners, in Aerothermodynamics of Gas Turbine and Rocket Propulsion, G. Oates, Ed., 1997; D.
Spaulding, Some Fundamentals of Combustion, Ch. 5, Butterworth Press: London, 1955; J. Longwell, E. Frost, and M.
Weiss, Flame Stability in Bluff-Body Recirculation Zones, Ind. Eng. Chem. 45 no. 8 : 1629-1633; S. Hoffmann,
P. Habisreuther, and B. Lenze, Development and Assessment of Correlations for Predicting Stability Limits of Swirling
Flames, Chemical Engineering and Processing 33 (1994): 393-400.
2. S.L. Plee, and A.M. Mellor, Characteristic Time Correlation for Lean Blowoff of Bluff Body Stabilized Flames,
Comb. Flame 35 (1979): 61-80; K. Radhakrishnan, J. Heywood, and R. Tabaczynski, Premixed Turbulent Flame Blowoff
Velocity Correlation Based on Coherent Structures in Turbulent Flows, Comb. Flame 42 (1981): 19-33.
3. See note 2 (Plee & Mellor).
4. K. Yu, A. Trouve, and J. Daily, Low-frequency Pressure Oscillations in a Model Ramjet Combustor, J. Fluid Mech. 232
(1991): 47-72; F. Marble and S. Candel, Acoustic Disturbance from Gas Non-uniformity Convected Through a Nozzle,
J. Sound Vib. 55 (1977): 225-243.
5. Donald W. Kendrick, Torger J. Anderson, and William A. Sowa, Acoustic Sensitivities of Lean-Premixed Fuel Injectors in a
Single Nozzle Rig, ASME Paper #98-GT-382.
6. T. Lieuwen, H. Torres, C. Johnson, and B.T. Zinn, A Mechanism for Combustion Instabilities in Premixed Gas Turbine
Combustors, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 123 no. 1 (2001): 182-190.
7. S. Candel, Combustion Dynamics and Control: Progress and Challenges, Proc. Comb. Inst. 29 (2002):
8. U.G. Hegde, D. Reuter, B.R. Daniel and B.T. Zinn, Flame Driving of Longitudinal Instabilities in Dump Type Ramjet
Combustors, Comb. Sci. and Tech. 55 (1987): 125-138; K. Schadow and E. Gutmark, Combustion Instability Related
to Vortex Shedding in Dump Combustors and Their Passive Control, Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 18 (1992): 117-132.
9. See note 6 above.

202
BIOGRAPHY
3.1.1 Static and Dynamic Combustion stability

Timothy C. Lieuwen
Associate Professor
School of Aerospace Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, GA 30332-0150

email: tim.lieuwen@aerospacegatech.edu

Dr. Tim. Lieuwen is an Associate Professor at the Georgia Institute of Technology. He is an


active researcher in the areas of unsteady combustion phenomenon and acoustics. Dr. Lieuwen
is the author of 2 book chapters, and over 100 conference publications and journal articles. He
is an Associate Editor of the Journal of Propulsion and Power. Dr. Lieuwen has held various
leadership roles in the Air Breathing Propulsion technical committee of the American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) and the Combustion and Fuels committee of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). Dr. Lieuwen has served on the organizing committees
of several major international conferences sponsored by both AIAA and ASME. Dr. Lieuwens
awards include the NSF CAREER Award, the AIAA Lawrence Sperry Award, and the ASME/
IGTI Turbo Expo Best Paper Award.
3.1
Key Combustion Issues 3.1-1 Key Combustion Issues Associated with
Associated with Syngas Syngas and High-Hydrogen Fuels
and High-Hydrogen Combustion of syngas and high-hydrogen fuels requires attention to key
Fuels combustion issues, especially if low emissions are to be achieved using these fuels.
Current combustion systems operated on natural gas have evolved to the point where
low single digit NOx emissions are possible with lean premixed strategies. However,
the price of this evolution has been a signicant increase in sensitivity to various
perturbations such as changes in ambient conditions and variation in pipeline natural
gas composition. In light of these observed sensitivities, strategies over an above lean
premixed are continuing to be evaluated as discussed in Combustion Strategies for Syn-
gas and High Hydrogen Fuel. To reduce risk and development time, it is desirable to
apply the experience of developing low emissions combustion systems for natural gas to
syngas and high-hydrogen fuels. However, the range of compositions found in syngas
and high-hydrogen fuels varies more substantially than similar properties of pipeline
natural gas. By way of example, consider the ranges of composition shown in Table
1. Table 2 summarizes the range and average values of the fuel constituents shown.
As a result of the wider range of composition found in syngas and high
hydrogen fuels, strategies well suited for low emissions performance on natural gas
may not necessarily work best for syngas and hydrogen containing fuels. That said,
it is important to note that the variation indicated in Table 1 and Table 2 is somewhat
misleading. Specically, if a given feedstock and gasications process is considered, the
variation found will be much less. By way of example, if the processes are limited to PSI
Wabash, Tampa, El Dorado, and Motiva, a representation of variation found in coal/pet
coke fed, oxygen blown gasication systems can be established as illustrated in Table 3.
The other point to be made by way of introduction is that hydrogen poses the
most signicant challenge in terms of the combustion system. As a fuel, hydrogen
behaves differently than a hydrocarbon in many ways including specic heat
(hydrogen has a much higher specic heat than other gases), diffusivity (hydrogen
has a much higher diffusivity than other gases), ammability limits (hydrogen has a
wide range of volume concentrations over which it is ammable), and ame speed
(hydrogen has a much higher laminar ame speed than do other gases). As a result,
the presence of hydrogen creates issues for combustion that require a different
perspective than would a hydrocarbon fuel. Further, mixtures of gases often exhibit
non-linear behavior and little data are available on the types of mixtures found in
syngas.
With this in mind, the key issues that are associated with combustion of syngas and
hydrogen containing fuels can be broadly classied into two major areas: reaction location
and stability. These two areas are discussed in detail in Static and Dynamic Stability.
Reaction location is an issue for all strategies and is related to the chemistry
and time scales associated with the system. In strategies which involve premixing the
fuel and oxidant (especially for lean strategies), the possibility of reaction evolving into
the premixing region is a major concern. Given the high ame speeds of hydrogen, this
concern must been examined carefully. Another issue related to the reaction location is
ignition delay. With 1-5 msecs of premixing time available, at typical gas turbine inlet
temperatures and pressures, ignition delay does not appear to be a major concern for
Vincent G. McDonell the fuels of interesthowever, the predictions of ignition delay have been developed
largely in the absence of data at these conditions. As a result, better understanding of
Advanced Power and Energy Program whether autoignition might be a factor is really needed to conrm this expectation.
University of California Stability can broadly be divided between static and dynamic regimes. It
Irvine, CA 92697-3550 is often reasoned that the wide ammability limits of hydrogen can allow stable
operation at leaner (and therefore cooler) reaction temperatures. This extension of
949-824-7302 ext 121 the lean blow off or static stability limit is an inherent benet that should be realized
vgm@apep.uci.edu from the presence of hydrogen. However, the extent to which this limit can be
achieved in practice and, furthermore, its sensitivity to variation in composition is
a key issue. On the other hand, dynamic stability, which is less predictable than
static stability, can arise for combustion systems due to various reasons. How fuel
composition impacts the propensity of a system to exhibit dynamic stability issues is
another concern that must be addressed.
195
Table 1 Typical Syngas Compositions.1
Sierra Schwarze Exxon Motiva
Constituents PSI Tampa El Dorado Pernis ILVA Sarlux Fife PIEMSA Tonghua
Pacific Pumpe Singapore Delaware
H2 24.8 37.2 35.4 34.4 14.5 8.6 61.9 22.7 34.4 44.5 32 42.3 10.3
CO 39.5 46.6 45.0 35.1 23.6 26.2 26.2 30.6 55.4 35.4 49.5 47.77 22.3
CH4 1.5 0.1 0.0 0.3 1.3 8.2 6.9 0.2 5.1 0.5 0.1 0.08 3.8
CO2 9.3 13.3 17.1 30.0 5.6 14.0 2.8 5.6 1.6 17.9 15.8 8.01 14.5
N2+AR 2.3 2.5 2.1 0.2 49.3 42.5 1.8 1.1 3.1 1.4 2.15 2.05 48.2
H2O 22.7 0.3 0.4 --- 5.7 --- --- 39.8 --- 0.1 0.44 0.15 0.9

LHV
BTU/ft^3 209 253 242 210 128 183 317 163 319 241 248 270.4 134.6
kJ/m^3 8224 9962 9528 8274 5024 7191 12492 6403 12568 9477 9768 10655 5304

Tfuel , F 570 700 250 200 1000 400 100 392 100 350 570 338 ---
Tfuel , C 300 371 121 98 538 204 38 200 38 177 299 170 ---

H2/CO 0.63 0.8 0.79 0.98 0.61 0.33 2.36 0.74 0.62 1.26 0.65 0.89 0.46

Diluent steam N2 N2/steam steam steam --- steam moisture H2O steam H2O/N N2 n/a

Equivalent LHV
BTU/ft^3 150 118 113* 198 110 --- 200 --- * 116 150 129 134.6
kJ/m^3 5910 4649 4452 7801 4334 --- 7880 --- --- 4600 5910 5083 5304

* Always co-fired with 50% NG

Table 2 Summary of Compositions

Volume %
Constituent Min Max Avg
Hydrogen 8.6 61.9 31.0
Carbon Monoxide 22.3 55.4 37.2
Methane 0 8.2 2.2
Carbon Dioxide 1.6 30 12.0
Nitrogen + Argon 0.2 49.3 12.2
Water 0.1 39.8 7.8
Hydrogen/Carbon Monxide Ratio 0.33 2.36 0.86

Table 3 Composition Variation for Pet Coke/Coal Fired, Oxygen Gasied Fuel Streams.
Volume %
Constituent Min Max Avg
Hydrogen 32 37.2 34.6
Carbon Monoxide 45 49.5 47.3
Methane 0 negligble --
Carbon Dioxide 13.3 17.1 15.2
Nitrogen + Argon 0 negligble --
Hydrogen/Carbon Monxide Ratio 0.65 0.80 0.72

3.1-2 Notes

_______________________

1. D. M. Todd, Gas Turbine Improvements Enhance IGCC Viability, 2000 Gasication Technologies Conference,
San Francisco, CA, October, 2000.

196
BIOGRAPHY
3.1 Key Combustion Issues Associated with Syngas and High-Hydrogen Fuels

Vincent G. McDonell

Advanced Power and Energy Program


University of California
Irvine, CA 92697-3550

phone: (949) 824-7302 ext 121


email: vgm@apep.uci.edu

Dr. Vincent G. McDonell is the Associate Director of the UCI Combustion Laboratory and is an
adjunct Associate Professor at the University of California, Irvine. Dr. McDonells research focuses
on gas turbine combustion systems and components including the design and characterization of
devices for both liquid and gas red applications. Research contributions range from micro-turbine
generators, to central plant gas turbines, to propulsion gas turbines. Fuels experience ranges from
natural gas to hydrogen to coal derived fuel gas and liquids. He has extensive experience in
application of laser based and conventional diagnostics to a wide array of combustion devices and
has particular expertise in the physics of two-phase transport and optical diagnostics for two-phase
ows including phase Doppler interferometry. He also regularly applies CFD in the analysis and
design of combustion systems and components. Dr. McDonell is a member of the Combustion
Institute, ILASS-Americas, AIAA, and ASME. He currently serves on the executive committee
of ILASS-Americas and the Western States Section of the Combustion Institute and also serves on
the Academic Advisory Board the University Turbine Systems Research program. Research by
Dr. McDonell has been documented in over 40 publications.
3.2.1.1
Conventional Type 3.2.1.1-1 Introduction
Combustion
Brayton Cycle

The role of the combustor in a gas turbine engine is two-fold. First, the
combustor transforms the chemical energy resident in the fuel into thermal energy
for expansion in the turbine. Second, the combustor tailors the temperature prole
of the hot gases at the exit plane in order to not compromise the material constraints
of the turbine. To fulll this two-fold role, the combustor is designed to mix fuel
with air at elevated pressure and temperature, to both establish and sustain a stable
continuous combustion reaction, and to mix the products of combustion to establish
the desired exhaust temperature prole. The combustor processes are, as a result,
a complex combination of uid mixing, chemical kinetics, and heat transfer. To
contain and control these processes, the design of the conventional combustor has
evolved over seven decades for the production of propulsive thrust and electrical
power.
The thermodynamic path over which the gas turbine engine operates is the
Brayton Cycle (Figure 1). The compressor [C] ingests and compresses ambient air
to elevated pressures that vary in the range of a few to many tens of atmospheres
depending on the engine design and application. The Pressure Ratio (ratio of
outlet to inlet pressure of the compressor, P2/P1) is a major factor in establishing the
overall thermodynamic efciency of the engine. The higher the pressure ratio, the
higher the overall thermodynamic efciency.

Scott Samuelsen

Professor of Mechanical, Aerospace,


and Environmental Engineering Fig. 1. Gas Turbine Brayton Cycle for Electric Power Generation
Director
Advanced Power and Energy Program
University of California
Irvine
92697-3550

phone: 949-824-5468
email: gss@uci.edu

Fig. 2. Stationary Gas Turbine Electric Power Generator

209
Combustor Inlet Conditions

The compression of the ambient air from State Point 1 to State Point 2 is accompanied by an increase in the temperature of
the air. As a result, the air exits the compressor and enters the combustor at both an elevated pressure and an elevated temperature.
In addition to air, fuel is also injected into the combustor at the inlet. The fuel (such as natural gas, coal syn gas, or petroleum
liquids) is the source of energy required to drive the cycle.

Goal of the Combustor

The goal of the combustor is to convert the chemical energy bound in the fuel into thermal energy. The thermal energy can
then be expanded through a turbine [T] to produce (1) the power required to operate the compressor, and (2) the power required to turn
a generator and produce electricity.
To accomplish this goal, the combustor serves as the vehicle to:

Combine and mix the air and fuel entering the combustor,
Ignite the mixture of fuel and air,
Contain the mixture during the combustion reaction, and
Tailor the temperature distribution of the hot gases at the exit plane.

Continuous Combustion

The processes that occur within a gas turbine combustor (e.g., injection of the air and fuel, mixing of the air and fuel, combustion
reaction) are continuous rather than intermittent, and occur at constant pressure. This is in contrast to the automobile spark ignited
Otto Cycle engine where the combustion is intermittent and accompanied by a signicant increase in pressure. The gases exit the gas
turbine combustor as a steady ow and are then continuously expanded through turbine stages. After the nal expansion stage, the spent
gases are then exhausted into the atmosphere.

3.2.1.1-2 Combustor Features


The design of gas turbine combustors has evolved over many decades with the nal conguration based on the best of engineering
judgment and intuitive reasoning. As demands have developed for efciency and lower environmental impacts, engineering tools such
as computational uid dynamics1 and laser diagnostics2 have evolved to facilitate the design process. This notwithstanding, engineering
judgment coupled with intuitively based empirical correlations, continues to serve as the anchor to modern design.
Throughout the evolution of combustor technology, the basic requirements for combustor design have remained. In particular,
the following ve basic features are integral to the combustor design: a primary zone, a secondary zone, a dilution zone, various wall
jets, and the management of heat transfer at the combustor boundary (Figure 3).

Fig. 3. Combustor Features

210
Scott Samuelsen

3.2.1.1-3 Primary Zone


The air exiting the compressor enters the combustor through four major injection points, each of which has a particular role.
Each injection point convects approximately one-quarter of the total air ow into the combustor. Two of these injection points (swirler,
primary air wall jets) control both the structure of, and the mixing within, the primary zone.
Swirler. The rst entry point for the compressor air is through swirler vanes that are positioned at the front face of the combustor
and typically surround the fuel injection port. The swirl vanes impact a circumferential velocity component to the air and thereby thrust
the air radially outward as the air enters the combustor. This creates a pressure void at the center line and induces a backow to ll
the centerline pressure decit. This effectively creates, as a result, a recirculation ow that extends approximately one duct diameter
downstream and denes the Primary Zone of the combustor. The strength of the swirl is dened by the swirl number, SN:

(1)

where:
Gm = Axial Flux of Angular Momentum
Gt = Axial Thrust
Dsw = Diameter of Swirler

The swirl number must exceed 0.6 in order to induce a recirculation zone.

Aerodynamic Spark Plug. The fuel is injected at an angle to mix with the swirler air that is exiting the swirler. Mixing of the
fuel and air is facilitated by the turbulence that is created by the passage of the air through the swirler. The resultant fuel/air mixture is
then recirculated and mixed with energetic hot products of combustion that are pulled and entrained into the recirculation zone from
downstream. These energetic species provide the ignition source for the fresh mixture of fuel and air. In effect, the recirculation zone
combines as a combined aerodynamic blender and spark plug.
Primary Air Jets. Wall jets affect the mixing, stoichiometry, and structure of the ows in gas turbine combustors.
Due to this dominating role, a substantial literature has evolved to guide the design and estimate the behavior of jets
injected into a crossow.3 In a typical combustor design, two sets of air wall jets (primary and dilution) are prescribed
(Figure 3). The primary air jets are located approximately one duct diameter downstream from the combustor inlet and serve two major
functions. First, the jets bring closure to the recirculation zone by providing a strong force against which the primary zone cannot easily
penetrate. Without the set of primary air jets, the dynamics of the recirculation zone would create aerodynamic uctuations and result
in pressure oscillations, undesirable noise, and elevated pollutant emission.
Secondly, the primary jets bifurcate with a substantial percentage of the ow directed upstream to mix with the recirculating
fuel/air mixture, and the remainder mixing downstream into the secondary zone (Figure 4). The primary jet owing upstream augments
the swirler air to establish the overall stochiometry of the primary zone.

Fig. 4. Bifurcation of Primary Jets

The stochiometry describes the actual fuel-to-air ratio compared to the chemically correct or stoichiometric ratio. A number
of indices (e.g., theoretical air, excess air) can be used. For gas turbine combustion, the equivalence ratio () is the index that is typically
adopted:
(Fuel/Air)actual
= (2)
(Fuel/Air)stoichiometric
211
3.2.1.1 Conventional Type Combustion
The primary zone is typically fuel rich (>1.0) in order to promote reaction stability (e.g., preclude blow-out).

Mixing. Combustion is a complex coupling of uid mechanics and chemical kinetics (Figure 1). A large scale, macro uid
mechanical structure (recirculation zone) mix the fuel and air within the primary zone and entrain hot, energetic species to ignite
the fresh reactant mix. Chemical kinetics determine the paths and rate at which the reaction proceeds. The uid mixing and chemical
kinetics occur in parallel throughout the primary zone and over a range of scales. In particular, the zone of recirculation is at the macro
scale and, within this zone, a range of turbulent eddy scales exists and persists.
The size of the macroscale mixing associated with recirculation is on the order of the combustor diameter (Figure 3). Within
the macroscale recirculation zone, mixing of the fuel, air, and recirculated energetic products occurs on the microscale. Whereas
the macroscale recirculation zone is a blender on the scale of the duct diameter, the microscale mixing occurs within mini-blender
packets that vary in (1) the concentrations of fuel and air (Figure 5), and (2) size.
The microscale mini-blenders are turbulent eddies generated (1) at the physical boundaries of the inlet plane, and (2) within
the shear that exists between the various ows in the primary zone. The most important shear layer (layer separating two streams
of differing velocities) exists between the entering fuel and air streams, and within the steep velocity gradient associated with the
macroscale recirculation zone.
Each turbulent eddy will experience a nite lifetime (~tens of milliseconds) within the reaction zone before breaking up, mixing
with adjacent eddies, and forming a new eddy. Some eddies containing unreacted fuel and air will ignite. Others will not, waiting to mix
with other eddies to acquire sufcient energetic species of the necessary mixture ratio that is required for ignition.
In traditional combustors, the fuel and air are injected separately (i.e., non-premixed). The reaction is often referred to as
a diffusion ame and the combustor as a diffusion combustor. This is a misnomer. In a diffusion ame, the fuel is not premixed
with the air prior to reaction, and the reaction occurs at the interface between the fuel and the air. Within the primary zone of a gas
turbine combustor, the injection of reactants, the mixing of the reactants, the entrainment and mixing of energetic species, and reaction
are occurring simultaneously throughout the volume of the recirculation zone. A variety of fuel/air packets are formed with a myriad of
mixture ratios. As a result, mixing of the fuel and air indeed occurs before reaction of the individual packets. The extent to which, in
the aggregate, the fuel and air mix prior to reaction depends upon the fuel properties, the fuel and air injection hardware, and the time for
mixing prior to reaction. While not premixed (the fuel and air are injected separately), the reaction is not a diffusion ame. Instead, the
reaction is a partially-mixed distributed reaction. To approached a premixed reaction, the fuel and air must be either (1) intensely
mixed after injection in a zone that precedes reaction but precludes auto-ignition (rapidly mixed, non-premixed), (2) introduced over
a spatially large area through a large number of discrete injection points (spatially injected, non-premixed), or (3) premixed prior
to injection (premixed). Due to safety, non-premixed operation has been the preferred option. The need to reduce the emission of
pollutant species, however, has sought a reaction in the primary zone that behaves closer to a premixed reaction. For stationary gas
turbines, all three options listed above are being developed and deployed. For aero-propulsion applications, only the rst two options
are being developed and deployed.
Gaseous fuels (e.g., natural gas, syn-gas) will mix more rapidly with the air than liquid fuels. Liquid fuels are injected as small
droplets and must rst evaporate into a vapor before mixing with the air can occur. (Some droplets may not completely evaporate and
will react as a small diffusion ame.)
Heat Release. The transformation of the chemical energy bound in the fuel to thermal energy is a two-step process. The rst
step is associated with the primary zone. Here, the hydrogen and carbon bonds in the fuel are converted relatively fast through a series
of reactions to carbon monoxide (CO) and water (H2O) (Figure 6). Approximately two-thirds of the chemical energy bound in the fuel
is released to thermal energy in this rst phase. The radiative ux emanating from CO is light blue (Figure 7). In actual engines, this
cannot be observed. In a laboratory model combustor with appropriate optical assess, the light blue emission is discernable at the edges
surrounding the white-light associated with the long-duration exposure of the lm (Figure 8).

Fig. 5. Microscale Eddies


212
Scott Samuelsen
The CO produced retains one-third of the chemical energy. The release of the residual energy bound in the CO does not occur
readily in the primary zone due to (1) the relatively slow kinetic rate for the oxidation of CO to carbon dioxide (CO2), (2) the relatively
short residence time in the recirculation zone, and (3) the rich stochiometry of the primary zone. Herein is the role of the secondary
zone.

Fig. 6. Heat Release Chemistry (Example for Methane, CH4, as the Fuel)

Source: 4. Samuelsen, G. S., The Combustion Aspects of Air Pollution,


Advances in Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 5, pp. 219-322, John Wiley & Sons ,1975.

3.2.1.1-4 Secondary Zone


The role of the secondary zone is to oxidize the CO to CO2. The principal elementary kinetic reaction that governs the
oxidation is:

CO + OH => CO2 + H (3)

Fig. 7. Radiative Properties of the Primary Zone

213
3.2.1.1 Conventional Type Combustion

Fig. 8. Model Combustor Operating on JP-4

Source: Cameron, C.D., Brouwer, J., and Samuelsen, G.S., A Model Gas Turbine Combustor with
Wall Jets and Optical Access for Turbulent Mixing, Fuel Effects, and Spray Studies, Twenty-Second
Symposium (International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, pp. 465-474, 1988.

The strategy is to increase the sluggish forward reaction rate by (1) establishing an overall lean mixture ratio (e.g., ~0.8)
through the primary jet bifurcation, (2) retaining the temperature at an elevated level, and (3) providing the residence time needed to
promote the oxidation. The emission from CO2 is purple (Figure 9). The effectiveness of the secondary zone is evident in Figure 8
where a purplish light emission, characteristic of the CO2 molecule, is observed between the primary and dilution jets.

Fig. 9. Radiative Properties of the Primary and Secondary Zones

3.2.1.1-5 Dilution Zone


The role of the dilution zone is to reduce the temperature of the combustion products and mix the resultant gases in order to
establish a temperature that will uphold the integrity of the turbine blades. This is accomplished by second major set of air jets. The
dilution jet ow, approximately one-quarter of the total air ow exiting the compressor, is sufcient to reduce the overall equivalence
ratio of the gases exiting the combustor to a very lean condition (e.g., ~0.3) with a corresponding concentration of oxygen of 15% by
volume.
To protect the integrity of the turbine section, it is not sufcient to reduce the mean temperature. The radial and circumferential
variation in local temperature from the mean can create hot spots and degrade, damage, and possibly destroy a turbine component
(e.g., blade, stator, seal). As a result, the temperature prole at the exit plane must meet design criteria. The temperature prole is
characterized by various indices including the Pattern Factor, the Prole Factor, and the Turbine Prole Factor.
214
Scott Samuelsen
A combustor designer will work with the turbine design team to establish the exit plane temperature design prole
(Figure 10). The temperature is reduced at the root (0% Blade Span) to protect the blade attachment to the shaft, and reduced at the 100
percent span point to manage the clearance at the wall. The peak temperature occurs closer to the 100 percent span point due to the larger
circumferential area of the turbine that can manage the elevated heat ux.
The actual temperature prole may deviate from the design prole. The Pattern Factor reects the extent to which the maximum
temperature deviates from the average temperature rise across the combustor {T3- T2}:

Pattern Factor

=
{Tmax T3 } (4)
{T3 T2 }

Fig. 10. Exit Plane Temperature Proles

Source: Lefebvre, Arthur H., Gas Turbine Combustion, Second Edition, Taylor and
Francis, p. 120, 1998.

The Prole Factor characterizes the extent to which the maximum circumferential mean temperature, Tmr, deviates from the average
temperature rise across the combustor:

Prole Factor
(5)

The Turbine Prole Factor addresses the maximum temperature difference by comparing the average temperature at any given radius
around the circumference (T3r) and the design temperature for that same radius (T3des):

Turbine Prole Factor

{T3r T3des }max


= (6)
{T3 T2 }

The goal is for the actual prole to match the design prole. The dilution jet penetration is the major force that directly determines the
extent to which this match is achieved. In general, the combination of the number of dilution jets and the orice size for each jet is
selected such that the centerline of the dilution jets penetrates from the wall a distance that corresponds to 1/3 of the duct diameter.

215
3.2.1.1 Conventional Type Combustion

3.2.1.1-6 Heat Transfer


A substantial design consideration in the management of the air ow exiting the compressor is to address the heat transfer
demands of the combustor liner. The reaction within the combustor produces a substantial radiative ux of heat to the liner wall.
Unless this heat is dissipated from the wall, the wall will be compromised and fail. To preclude this, approximately one-quarter of the
compressor air ow is allocated to liner cooling. Designs for accommodating this cooling ow are small holes in the liner with louvers
on the inside wall to direct the ow along the internal boundary (Figure 3). New designs incorporate liner materials with hundreds of
closely spaced holes that promote a diffusive ux of air at all points along the liner.

3.2.1.1-7 Combustor Congurations


Gas turbine combustors rst evolved in a can conguration. Over time, a length-to-diameter ratio of ~3.0 has emerged as
necessary to (1) physically accommodate the three zones (primary, secondary, and dilution), and (2) achieve the combustion efciency,
combustion stability, and pollutant emission required of viable, commercial systems. Due to the simplicity of this conguration, many
modern stationary gas turbine engines today retain a can geometry.
To accommodate the evolution of larger engines and the annular ow of air exiting compressors, a can-annular conguration
evolved as the second-generation strategy for propulsion engines. The Pratt & Whitney JT8D was the epitome of this design, constituted
for many years the major population of aero-propulsion engines, and powered the Boeing 727 and early series of Boeing 737s.
The third-generation conguration is the full-annular geometry which provides an exact match in the open annular area to
both the compressor exit and the turbine entrance. Modern aero-propulsion engines adopt this geometry universally in order to embrace
many advantages including a reduced combustor length (and hence a higher thrust to weight ratio), and the ability to accommodate a
wider range turndown (e.g, from idle to taxi, to cruse, to full power) with a low environmental signature. With the exception of some
aero-derivative engines, stationary gas turbine designs have retained the can geometry for (1) ease of maintenance, and (2) ability to
incorporate advanced low-emission combustor strategies (e.g., premixed injection, catalytic surfaces).
Conguration options also include whether or not the combustor system will be in-line with the compressor and turbine.
Due to the requirement of aero-propulsion engines to be efciently packaged with a minimum length and overall weight, the in-
line conguration is standard. Stationary gas turbine engines are free from these constraints. As a result, engines designed from
scratch for stationary applications are outtted with can combustors that are often not in-line in order to support (1) ease of access,
and (2) ease of maintenance. Aero-propulsion engines that are applied as well for stationary power generation will be often retrotted
with out-of-line can combustors as a substitute to the relatively elegant in-line annular conguration for the aero application.

3.2.1.1-8 Notes

_______________________

1. Mongia, H. C., Reynolds, R. S., and Srinivasan, R., Multidimensional Gas Turbine Combustion Modeling: Applications
and Limitations, AIAA Journal, Vol. 24, No. 6, pp. 890-904, 1986.
2. McDonell, V.G. and Samuelsen, G.S., Measurement of Fuel Mixing and Transport Processes in Gas Turbine
Combustion, Measurement, Science, and Technology, Topical Issue on Measuring Techniques for Turbomachinery,
Vol. 11, pp. 870-886, 2000.
3. Holdeman, J.D., Mixing of Multiple Jets with a Conned Subsonic Crossow, Progress in Energy and Combustion
Science, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 31-70, 1993.

216
BIOGRAPHY
3.2.1.1 Conventional Type Combustion
3.2.1.3 Rich Burn, Quick-Mix, Lean Burn (RQL) Combustor

Scott Samuelsen
Professor of Mechanical, Aerospace, and
Environmental Engineering Director
Advanced Power and Energy Program
University of California
Irvine
92697-3550

phone: 949-824-5468
email: gss@uci.edu

Professor Scott Samuelsen is Director of the Advanced Power and Energy Program (APEP) at the
University of California Irvine and Professor of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Environmental Engineering.
He directs as well the National Fuel Cell Research Center (NFCRC) and the UCI Combustion
Laboratory (UCICL). His research is directed to advanced power systems including gas turbines, fuel
cells, and fuels. He directs anchor research on advanced coal and natural gas power plants for the co-
production of electricity and hydrogen for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), distributed generation
and information technology research for the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) in support of energy-
efcient and environmentally-responsible power generation, advanced energy systems research for
the California Energy Commission, and coal-gas and hydrogen-fueled gas turbine combustion studies.
His energy expertise is based on forty years of combustion research working with strategic alliances
involving industry with applications to gas turbine propulsion, gas turbine electronic power generation,
and combustion distributed generation resources. He holds the Ph.D. degree from the University of
California Berkeley.
3.2.1.2
Lean Pre-Mixed Combustion 3.2.1.2-1 Introduction
Gas turbine designers are continually challenged to improve cycle efciency
while maintaining or reducing emissions. This challenge is made more difcult by
the fact that these are often conicting goals. The path to improved efciency is
higher working uid temperatures, but higher temperatures promote NOx formation
and at 2,800 F the threshold for thermal NOx formation is reached. Furthermore,
reducing available oxygen to reduce NOx can result in higher carbon monoxide (CO)
and unburned hydrocarbon emissions due to incomplete combustion. Moreover,
increasing ring temperatures above 2,350 F represents a signicant materials science
challenge.1
To achieve lower pollutant emission rates, a variety of pre-formation and post-
formation control technologies have been utilized either individually or in combination,
including:
Wet controls (water or steam injection)
Dry combustion controls (lean combustion, reduced residence time, lean
premixed combustion, and two-stage rich/lean combustion)
Selective catalytic reduction
SCONOX catalytic absorption
Catalytic combustion (e.g. Xonontm )
Rich Quench Lean Combustors
CO oxidation catalysts

This section of the Handbook focuses on Lean Premixed (LPM) combustion,


a pre-formation control strategy that has become the standard technique employed
by gas turbine original equipment manufacturers (OEM), particularly for natural gas
applications.
OEMs have developed processes that use air as a diluent to reduce combustion
ame temperatures and reduce NOx by premixing fuel and air before they enter the
combustor. This lean premixed combustion process is referred to by a variety of trade
names including General Electrics and Siemens-Westinghouses Dry Low NOx (DLN)
processes, Rolls-Royces Dry Low Emissions (DLE) process and Solar Turbines SoLo
NOx process. When ring natural gas, most of the commercially available systems are
guaranteed to reduce NOx emissions within the 15 to 25 parts per million by volume,
dry (ppmvd) range, depending on the OEM, turbine model and application. A few
OEMs have guaranteed single digit NOx emissions.

3.2.1.2-2 Emissions Overview


The primary pollutants emitted by gas turbine engines are NOx, CO and to a
lesser extent, unburned hydrocarbons (UHC). Sulfur dioxide, particulate matter (PM)
and trace amounts of hazardous air pollutants may also be present when liquid fuels are
red.
Both CO and UHC are the products of incomplete combustion. Given
sufcient time and at high enough temperatures, these two pollutants will be further
oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. In the proposed standards of performance for new
stationary combustion turbines (40 CFR 60, subpart KKKK, dated February 18, 2005),
EPA states, Turbine manufacturers have signicantly reduced CO emissions from
William R. Bender combustion turbines by developing lean premix technology. Lean premix combustion
design not only produces lower NOx than diffusion ame technology, but also lowers
Technology & Management CO and volatile organic compounds (VOC), due to increased combustion efciency.2
Services, Inc. The proposed rulemaking concludes that Stationary combustion turbines do not
Gaithersburg, MD 20879 contribute signicantly to ambient CO levels.3 Accordingly, the primary pollutant of
concern from gas turbines continues to be NOx.
phone: (301) 670-6390 x144 There are two sources of NOx emissions in the exhaust of a gas turbine. Most
email: wbender@tms-hq.com of the NOx is generated by the xation of atmospheric nitrogen in the ame, which is
called thermal NOx. Thermal NOx production rates fall sharply as either the combustion
temperature decreases, or as the fuel to air ratio decreases. Nitrogen oxides are also
generated by the conversion of a fraction of any nitrogen chemically bound in the fuel.
Emissions of NOx from fuel bound nitrogen are insignicant when ring natural gas,
217 but must be considered when ring lower quality distillates and syngas.4
3.2.1.2-3 Regulatory Overview
In the late 1970s, EPA established New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for gas turbines (40CFR60, subpart GG) that
limited NOx emissions from large utility gas turbines to 75 ppmvd (parts per million by volume, dry) when ring natural gas. In the 1980s,
with the implementation of Best Available Control Technology (BACT), NOx emission limitations on gas were reduced to 42 ppmvd.
With the implementation of EPAs top down BACT strategy, NOx emissions further decreased to 25 ppmvd. A recent search of EPAs
RACT/BACT/LAER Clearinghouse data (years 2000 to 2005) for natural gas-red combustion turbines greater than 25 MW conrms the
trend towards single digit NOx emissions.

3.2.1.2-4 Combustion Principles


Fuel to Air Ratio

A signicant parameter used to characterize combustion is the fuel to air ratio (f/a), expressed either on a volume or mass basis.5
With precisely enough air to theoretically consume all of the fuel, combustion is referred to as having a stoichiometric f/a ratio. Adding
more air produces combustion that is fuel-lean, and adding less air produces combustion that is fuel-rich. Because differing fuels have
different stoichiometric f/a ratios, it is convenient to normalize the f/a ratio by the stoichiometric value, producing the term equivalence
ratio :
= (f/a)actual (1)
(f/a)stoich
(Source: note 5 - G.A. Richards, et al, p. 143)
By referring to the equivalence ratio, combustion using different types of fuel is readily described as lean if < 1 or rich if > 1.

Flame Temperature
Another important combustion parameter is the ame temperature. Flame temperatures are determined by a balance of energy
between reactants and products. In principal, the highest ame temperatures would be produced at = 1, because all of the fuel and
oxygen would be consumed. In practice, the effects of species dissociation and heat capacity shift the peak temperature to slightly above
stoichiometric ( ~ 1.05).
Fuel type is important in determining the ame temperature. To provide a sense of magnitude, the list below compares calculated
adiabatic ame temperatures of two hydrocarbons, CO and H2. This list applies to stoichiometric combustion in ambient air:

Table 1: Compared adiabatic ame temperature calculations.


Species Formula Adiabatic Flame Temperature (K)
Methane CH4 2223
Propane C3H8 2261
Carbon Monoxide CO 2381
Hydrogen H2 2370
* Source: note 5 - G.A. Richards, et al, p. 144

It should be noted that the methane ame temperature is approximately 150 K lower than hydrogen and CO. This distinction
makes it somewhat easier to produce low-emissions from natural gas, which is mostly methane, compared to syngases containing undiluted
H2 and CO.

3.2.1.2-5 Combustor Designs


Diffusion Flames
The combustion process in a gas turbine can be classied as diffusion ame combustion or lean-premix staged combustion.6
In diffusion ame combustion, both fuel and oxidizer are supplied to the reaction zone in an unmixed state. The fuel/air mixing and
combustion take place simultaneously in the primary combustion zone. This generates regions of near-stoichiometric fuel/air mixtures
where the temperatures are very high.
At the beginning of gas turbine development, the primary design goal was to optimize performance while complying with
applicable emission requirements. Initially, emphasis was placed on maximizing combustion efciency while minimizing the emission of
unburned hydrocarbons and CO. It was possible to fully realize these design goals by providing the diffusion ame with a relatively high
combustion chamber volume in which all chemical reactions were allowed to take place completely without the addition of dilution air.
To enable the mixing process to occur rapidly and to achieve a uniform temperature in the primary zone, several burners were arranged
in a common ame tube. This combustion chamber design yielded optimum thermodynamic properties with low pressure losses and a
combustion efciency of practically 100 percent. 218
Bill Bender
In the early 1970s, when emission controls were introduced, the pollutant of primary concern to regulators shifted to NOx.
For the relatively low levels of NOx reduction initially required, the injection of water or steam into the combustion zone produced the
required reduction in NOx emissions with minimal performance impact. In addition, the emissions of other pollutants (CO, VOC) did not
increase signicantly.
To comply with the greater NOx reduction requirements imposed during the 1980s, further attempts were made to utilize
increased quantities of water/steam injection to ensure compliance. These attempts proved detrimental to cycle performance and part
lives, and the emission rates for other pollutants also began to rise signicantly. Other control methodologies needed to be developed,
which led to the introduction of the LPM combustor.

Lean Premixed (LPM) Combustion

The Gas Turbine Association denes Lean Premix


Stationary Combustion Turbine as Lean premixed stationary
combustion turbine means any stationary combustion
turbine designed to operate at base load with the air and fuel
thoroughly mixed to form a lean mixture before delivery to the
combustor.7 Mixing may occur before or in the combustion
chamber. A lean premixed turbine may operate in diffusion
ame mode during operating conditions such as startup
and shutdown, low or transient loads and cold ambient.8
Premixing prevents local hot spots within the combustor
volume that can lead to signicant NOx formation.
In LPM systems, atmospheric nitrogen (from
the combustion air) acts as a diluent, as fuel is mixed with
air upstream of the combustor at deliberately fuel-lean
conditions. The f/a ratio typically approaches one-half of the
ideal stoichiometric level, meaning that approximately twice
as much air is supplied as is actually needed to burn the fuel.
This excess air is a key to limiting NOx formation, as very
lean conditions cannot produce the high temperatures that Fig. 1. Dry Low NOx Combustor
create thermal NOx.
Design of a successful LPM combustor requires the Source: note 6, Davis & Black, p. 3, Figure 5.
development of hardware features and operational methods
that simultaneously allow the equivalence ratio and residence
time in the ame zone to be low enough to achieve low NOx
emissions, but with acceptable levels of combustion dynamics,
stability at part-load conditions and sufcient residence time
for CO burnout.9
In principle, the LPM strategy is quite simple: keep
the combustion process lean at all operating conditions. In
practice, this is not easily achieved. If the engine is already
near the limit of lean operation at full power, it is not possible
to reduce the combustor temperature rise on all of the fuel
injectors, because the ame will be extinguished. To solve
this problem, some of the fuel or air must be rerouted (or
staged) to keep the ame within its operating boundaries.
Typically, engine designers use either fuel or air staging to
accomplish this goal. Fuel staging can be accomplished
either radially or axially. Examples of radial staging include
the use of pilot ames or reducing/eliminating fuel from some
injectors completely. Axial staging injects fuel at two places
along the combustion gas owpath. Products from the rst Fig. 2. Fuel-Staged Dry Low NOx Operating Modes
combustion zone are mixed with fuel and air in a subsequent
combustion zone, providing an advantage for lean operation Source: note 6, Davis & Black, p.4, Figure 6.
of the second zone. Finally, some engine designs use air
staging (also known as variable geometry) to accomplish the
goal of maintaining low ame temperatures. This approach
can maintain the desired combustion zone temperature at all
operating conditions, but adds the complexity of controlling
the large volume ow of combustion air.
219
3.2.1.2 Lean Pre-Mixed Combustion
GEs Dry Low NOx system, as described in note 7 (L.B. Davis), has been selected to illustrate the evolution and operation of a
LPM staged combustion system in response to regulatory changes and efciency upgrades. The GE Dry Low NOx (DLN-1) combustor
shown in gure 1 is a two-stage premixed combustor designed for use with natural gas and capable of operation on liquid fuel.
As shown, the combustion system includes four major components: fuel injector system, liner, venture, and cap/centerbody
assembly. These components form two stages in the combustor. In the premixed mode, the rst stage thoroughly mixes the fuel and
air and delivers a uniform, lean, unburned fuel-air mixture to the second stage. The DLN-1 system operates in four distinct modes,
illustrated in gure 2:

Modes of Operation for the DLN-1 system


Primary Fuel to the primary nozzles only. Flame is in the primary stage only. This mode of operation is used to ignite,
accelerate, and operate the machine over low- to mid-loads, up to a preselected combustion reference temperature.
Lean-Lean Fuel to both the primary and secondary nozzles. Flame is in both the primary and secondary stages. This mode
of operation is used for intermediate loads between two pre-selected combustion reference temperatures.
Secondary Fuel to the secondary nozzle only. Flame is in the secondary zone only. This mode is a transition state between
lean-lean and premix modes. This mode is necessary to extinguish the ame in the primary zone, before fuel is reintroduced
into what becomes the primary premixing zone.
Premix Fuel to both primary and secondary nozzles. Flame is in the secondary stage only. This mode of operation is achieved
at and near the combustion reference temperature design point. Optimum emissions are generated in premix mode.

At loads less than 20 percent of baseload, NOx and CO emissions from the DLN-1 were similar to those from standard (diffusion)
combustion systems.
Other OEMs offer similar systems, with the notable exception being Alstom. Alstoms sequential combustion DLN technology
was developed originally by ABB for the GT24 and GT26 gas turbines. Combustion takes place in the primary DLN combustor (EVtm)
followed by fuel addition in a second (SEVtm) combustion chamber located aft of the rst row of turbine blades. This DLN technology
was commercialized in 1997 and applies the thermodynamic reheat principal. The sequential combustion provides low NOx emissions
due to the fact that the SEVtm combustor does not contribute to NOx production.10
The OEMs continually strive to improve performance while complying with increasingly restrictive emissions requirements.
As F-technology gas turbines became available in the late 1980s with their higher ring temperatures, the OEMs were forced to redesign
their DLN systems to maintain emissions at acceptable levels (~25ppmvd). Studies conducted by GE concluded that air usage in the
combustor other than for mixing with fuel would have to be strictly limited. A design that repackaged DLN-1 premixing technology but
eliminated the venture and centerbody assemblies that required cooling air was implemented and called DLN-2. The DLN-2 combustion
system is a single-stage dual-mode combustor that can operate on both gaseous and liquid fuels. On gas, the combustor operates in a
diffusion mode at low loads (< 50 percent load) and in a premixed mode at higher loads. Oil operation on the DLN-2 combustor is in
the diffusion mode across the entire load range, with diluent injection used for NOx control. The DLN-2 combustor system has a single
burning zone formed by the liner and the cap face. In low emissions operation, 90 percent of the gas fuel is injected through radial
gas injection spokes in the premixer, and combustion air is mixed with the fuel in tubes surrounding each of the ve fuel nozzles. The
premixer tubes are part of the cap assembly. The fuel and air are thoroughly mixed, ow out of the ve tubes at high velocity and enter
the burning zone, where lean, low NOx combustion occurs. The vortex breakdown from the swirling ow exiting the premixers, along
with the sudden expansion in the liner, are mechanisms for ame stabilization.
In the early 1990s, continued regulatory pressures led the OEMs to develop 9 ppm combustion systems. During this time,
GE introduced the DLN-2.6 combustor for the Frame 7FA machine which allowed for approximately 6 percent additional air to pass
through the premixers in the combustor. The change in air splits was accomplished through reductions in cap and liner cooling air
ows, requiring increased cooling effectiveness. A key feature of the DLN-2.6 combustor was the addition of a sixth burner, located in
the center of the ve DLN-2 burners. By fueling the center nozzle separately from the outer nozzles, the f/a ratio could be modulated
relative to the outer nozzles. Another key feature of the DLN-2.6 combustor was the elimination of the diffusion mode, which required
additional loading and unloading strategies.
GEs H systemtm combustor called DLN-2.5 uses a simplied combustion mode staging scheme to achieve low emissions
over the premixed load range. The most signicant feature associated with this variant is that there are only three combustion modes:
diffusion, piloted premix, and full premix.11
The modications required to reduce the emissions from the Siemens Westinghouse 15 ppm DLN combustor to 9 ppm are
predominately the use of a premixed pilot and support housing design changes.12

3.2.1.2-6 LPM Technological Challenges


CO/NOx Tradeoff

Since the optimum ame temperature of a LPM combustor is designed to be near the lean ammability limit, LPM combustor
performance is characterized by a CO/ NOx tradeoff (gure 3).13 At the combustor design point, both CO and NOx are below target
levels; however, deviations from the design point ame temperature cause emissions to increase. A reduction in temperature tends to
increase CO emissions due to incomplete combustion. Conversely, an increase in temperature will increase thermal NOx formation.
220
Bill Bender
The CO/NOx trade-off must be addressed
during part-load operation when the combustor is
required to run at an even leaner condition overall. The
tradeoff also comes into play in development efforts
to reduce LPM combustor NOx emissions by further
reducing the primary zone design point temperature.

Cold Ambient Temperatures

Below an OEMs specied ambient


temperature threshold (0 F or -20 F), emission rate
warranties are generally not offered. LPM turbines
have demonstrated reliable operation below the ambient
temperature warranty level, but the impact on the
emissions signature is not well documented. Emissions
below the threshold can be impacted by specic engine
control adjustments needed to maintain combustion
stability and prevent oscillations. The most commonly
deployed control system is to increase the pilot fuel
level, which increases NOx and CO emissions. Fig. 3. NOx Production Rate
As a solution to extending the ambient
temperature warranty range, OEMs are collecting cold Source: note 4, Pavri & Moore, p. 17, Figure 20.
ambient data in an effort to improve designs. In the
interim, many OEMs offer the option to incorporate an
inlet air heating system as part of the design package.

Low and Transient Load Operation

Low load or transient load events can affect the emissions performance of LPM gas turbines because of engine controls
required to prevent combustor ameout. To prevent the formation of NOx, LPM combustors are designed to operate close to engine
ameout temperatures when compared to conventional combustors. When load is reduced to a low level or increased/decreased rapidly,
it is necessary to augment combustor ame stability to prevent ameout. Most OEMs augment combustor ame stability through a fuel
distribution adjustment such as the addition of pilot fuel. The addition of pilot fuel creates a diffusion ame, which increases NOx, CO,
and VOC emissions.
When operating at sustained low load conditions, CO emissions may increase signicantly as a result of incomplete combustion.
Due to the lower temperatures in a LPM combustor at low loads and the introduction of pilot fuel, a rich stoichiometric fuel mixture
results accompanied by incomplete combustion.

3.2.1.2-7 LPM Future Developments


Manufacturers continue to develop LPM gas turbine combustion as the preferred approach to meet future emission requirements.14
From a life cycle cost perspective, preventing pollutant formation has been shown to be more cost effective than the use of post-
combustion techniques. Work is in progress using the latest experimental and analytical tools to improve emissions and operating
exibility of LPM systems.

Combustor Liner

LPM combustor liner cooling methods can have a signicant effect on emissions. The current generation of LPM combustors
employs a variety of liner cooling methods including lm cooling (louver or effusion) and backside cooling. Many rst generation
LPM turbines use lm cooling to maintain acceptably low combustor wall temperatures, but many manufacturers have or will make the
transition to backside-cooled technology with their next generation of LPM turbines.
Backside-cooled liners have been in use for some commercial products for several years. Compared to lm cooling, backside
cooled liners forego cooling air injection completely. Instead, combustor wall temperatures are controlled solely through convective
cooling by a high velocity airstream on the cold side of the liner. In most instances, the high heat ux from the ame requires augmenting
the backside convective process to keep the liner wall temperatures from becoming excessive. Turbulators in the form of trip strips,
ns, and pins act to increase the cooling ow turbulence at the liner wall and augment the heat removal process. Those OEMs already
utilizing backside cooling will optimize its design in order to warranty lower NOx levels.

221
3.2.1.2 Lean Pre-Mixed Combustion
Fuel Injectors

Incorporating LPM combustion into gas turbines also required signicant change to the fuel injectors. LPM fuel injectors are
signicantly larger than conventional injectors due to the higher air ow through the injector swirlers and the required volume of the
premixing chamber used to mix fuel and air. Both axial and radial swirlers have been used by the OEMs to swirl the premix air. Fuel
is injected either through the swirler vanes or fuel spokes. Most LPM fuel injector designs include a pilot fuel injection point. A pilot
ame is used to stabilize engine operation during load transients and low load operation.
Fuel injectors are being optimized to improve f/a mixing and reduce local hot spots while improving ame stability. Achieving
an optimum f/a temperature prole exiting the injector is essential. Design modications to the fuel injection points and the air swirler
are being investigated both computationally and experimentally.

Combustor Air Management

Several combustor air management systems have been employed in LPM combustion systems to avoid combustor ameout
and expand the low emissions operating range. Each technique ultimately provides control of the primary zone airow to maintain the
primary zone f/a ratio near its optimum low emissions level during part-load operation.

Casing air bleed


Some two-shaft gas turbines used for gas compression and mechanical drive bleed air from the combustor casing at part load.
The case bleed method of variable geometry has proven effective in controlling CO emissions. A consequence of air bleed, however,
is deterioration in engine part-load thermal efciency, since compressed bleed air no longer enters the turbine section of the engine to
produce power.

Inlet guide vanes

Some gas turbines used for power generation maintain optimum primary zone f/a ratios by modulating the compressor inlet
guide vanes (IGV). Closing the IGVs reduces the airow through the engine compressor and combustor. Regulating IGVs for single-
shaft engines to control combustor airow has a very small reduction in part-load thermal efciency.

Combustor/Injector staging

To enhance stability, some LPM turbines use fuel injection in multiple axial stages, with airow to the additional stages being
variable. Other LPM designs use multiple injector heads red as a function of load.

Control Systems

The control system for LPM engines modulates the air and fuel management systems to keep the combustion primary zone
temperature within a specied range while maintaining acceptable engine turn-down and low-load operating stability. Accurate control
of the primary zone temperature is critical to controlling NOx and CO emissions, which is typically accomplished through power turbine
inlet temperature as an indirect measurement of the combustor exit or turbine inlet temperature.

3.2.1.2-8 Dual Fuel Operation


Many gas turbine installations require operation on both gaseous and liquid fuels without affecting operability or environmental
performance.15 Liquid fuels are more difcult to mix and pose difculties in achieving homogeneous f/a mixture distribution that is
required for low- NOx combustion.
Testing has shown that the pre-mixer enabled comparable environmental performance with both natural gas and No.
2 diesel fuel at representative temperatures and pressures.

3.2.1.2-9 Fuel Variability Concerns


The Advanced Turbine Systems (ATS) program has produced signicant advances in combustion technology.16 Careful
development of premix systems allows state-of-the-art combustors to operate with NOx levels approaching single digit performance.
Although this progress is notable, reliable attainment of ultra-low emissions is contingent upon tight control of manufactured components,
engine operating parameters, and fuel specications. Failure to operate a premix combustor within planned specications can lead to
problems that range failure to meet emissions targets to hardware failure caused by ashback or oscillating dynamics. This sensitive
behavior presents a challenge for expanded deployment of low-emission combustors that have been optimized almost exclusively for
operation on natural gas fuel. The desire to operate such combustors on various fuels or in unique engine cycles (e.g., highly humidied
cycles, biomass gasication combined cycles) poses a new set of constraints for low-emission operation.
222
Bill Bender
Hydrogen

Pathways to zero emissions power plants include the utilization of hydrogen directly as a fuel. Because of its high combustion
temperature, the development of hydrogen-fueled turbines with comparable performance to natural gas is problematic. Stable, efcient,
low- NOx combustion requires rapid, homogeneous mixing of fuel and air, which is a challenge when ring natural gas and made far
more difcult with highly reactive hydrogen.

Medium Heating Value Fuel

A common source for medium heating value fuel (200 to 800 Btu/scf) is oxygen-blown gasication of coal or residual oil.
Because these gases are manufactured from other fuels, they are commonly referred to as synthesis gas, or syngas fuels and typically
contain signicant quantities of H2 and CO. Compared to natural gas, the stoichiometry of these gas mixtures requires a smaller volume
of air for complete combustion, producing higher ame temperatures. As a further complication, H2 has a very high ame speed and
very short ignition delay. Thus it is very difcult to avoid ashback or autoignition in a premixed burner. The standard approach to
premixing is unlikely to work for these fuels.

Low Heating Value Fuel

For gas turbines, the usual source of low heating-value fuel (~200 Btu/scf) is air-blown gasication of coal or biomass
gasication. A signicant feature of low-heating value fuels is that they often contain ammonia which can greatly complicate NOx
reduction. Because of the high dilution level, these fuels have lower ame temperatures and lower ame speeds than natural gas or
medium heating-value fuels. From the standpoint of thermal NOx emissions, this is an advantage. Because the volume of fuel ow is so
great, the combustor aerodynamics are signicantly affected and must be re-designed. This may impact low-emission backup operation
on conventional fuels. CO oxidation is also a concern.

3.2.1.2-10 Background Information


Regulatory Overview

Clean Air Act


Congress enacted the Clean Air Act (CAA) in 1970 to address growing concerns over the nations air quality.17 As a result of
the Act, national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) were established for criteria pollutants. Areas of the country that exceed the
NAAQS are considered non-attainment for that pollutant. The U.S. regulatory structure imposes more stringent air pollution control
programs in non-attainment areas. The CAA is a Federal law covering the entire country; however, States and local governments are
allowed to develop and implement more stringent air pollution rules than those mandated by the CAA. The CAA also established New
Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for a variety of potential emissions sources, including gas turbines.

NSPS
Emissions control requirements for oxides of nitrogen were rst applied to gas turbines by the Los Angeles County Air Pollution
Control District (LAAPCD) and the San Diego Air Pollution Control District (SDAPCD) in the early 1970s. To comply with these
regulations, water was injected into the combustor ame zone to reduce ame temperature. The consequent reduction in NOx amounted
to about 40 percent when half as much water as fuel was injected into the reaction zone. The emission level achieved was approximately
75 ppmvd (parts per million by volume, dry) on oil.
These results and other data were used by the U.S. EPA to develop New Source Performance Standards that went into effect
in September 1979. The details of this NSPS are presented in 40CRF60 Subpart GG. Turbines with heat input over 10 million Btu/hr,
generating less than 30 MW electrical output, and supplying less than one-third of their electrical output to an electric utility, are required
to meet a NOx emission standard of 150 ppm, corrected for efciency. Emergency turbines are exempt from this standard, as are certain
other types of turbines. Electric utility turbines with a heat input above 100 million Btu/hr must comply with a NOx standard of 75 ppm,
corrected for efciency. Most turbines available today can achieve NOx emissions of 25 to 42 ppm or less without post-combustion
controls. Thus, the existing NSPS is not typically a controlling regulation for gas turbines.
In July 2004, EPA updated the NSPS for gas turbines in a direct nal ruling. Most notably, the revised standards require new
LPM turbines that commence construction after July 8, 2004 to use a NOx continuous emissions monitoring system (CEMS) or, owners
can continuously monitor engine parameters that indicate when the turbine is out of LPM combustion mode.
On February 18, 2005, EPA proposed standards of performance for new stationary gas turbines in 40CFR60, subpart KKKK.
The new standards would reect changes in NOx emissions control technologies and turbine design and are intended to bring the
emission limits up to date with the performance of current combustion turbines.

New Source Review


In addition to AAQS, the CAA established an air permitting program called New Source Review (NSR). NSR is divided into
two primary programs: Prevention of Signicant Deterioration (PSD) and Non-Attainment NSR. Each program applies to major
223 sources and major modications, but in non-attainment NSR, a source can be considered major at much lower thresholds.
3.2.1.2 Lean Pre-Mixed Combustion
Best Available Control Technology (BACT)
If a source triggers PSD review, then the owner must identify the appropriate level of emissions controls for pollutants that
exceed specic thresholds. In attainment areas, the standard for evaluation is Best Available Control Technology (BACT). A BACT
determination establishes an achievable emissions limitation taking into account the energy, environmental and economic impacts of
applying the pollution control technology necessary to meet that limitation. EPA now requires that a top-down BACT analysis be
followed for all PSD permit applications.18
As a result of its structure, BACT is a living standard, which becomes more stringent over time as new, more efcient,
and lower cost control technologies become available. BACT for a specic application can only be dened in the context of current
demonstrated technology and for a specic application. Because BACT determinations are site-specic, generic BACT requirements
do not exist; however, there have been recent BACT NOx determinations as low as 2 to 5 ppm for gas turbines greater than 25MW.
A recent search of EPAs RACT/BACT/LAER Clearinghouse data (years 2000 to 2005) for natural gas-red combustion turbines
greater than 25 MWs has resulted in the following NOx emission limits:

Table 2: NOx emission limits.


Number of Permits NOx Emission Limit (ppm)
37 <9.0
51 9.0
106 <15.0
11 15.0
117 <25.0
10 25.0
5 >25.0
This table conrms the trend towards single digit NOx emissions. For certain gas turbines, NOx emission rates > 9 ppm can be met using
LPM combustors. Permit limits less than 9 ppm require the application of post combustion controls.

Lowest Achievable Emission Rate (LAER)


Major sources/modications in non-attainment areas are subject to a determination of LAER. LAER is dened as the most
stringent emission limitation achieved in practice for the class or source category. The primary difference between BACT and LAER is
that LAER does not allow economic impacts to be considered when evaluating pollution control technologies leading to an emissions
limitation.

Other Regulatory Programs


Other regulatory programs that could potentially impact gas turbine emissions include the Clean Air Interstate Rule, the
President s Clear Skies Initiative, and Maximum Available Control Technology (MACT) standards.19

3.2.1.2-11 Nitrogen Oxide Formation


Tropospheric ozone has been and continues to be a signicant air pollution problem in the U.S. and is the primary constituent
of smog.20 Large portions of the country do not meet the ozone National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) and thereby expose
large segments of the population to unhealthy levels of ozone in the air. NO2 reacts in the presence of air and ultraviolet light (UV) in
sunlight to form ozone and nitric oxide (NO). The NO then reacts with free radicals in the atmosphere, which are also created by the UV
acting on volatile organic compounds (VOC). The free radicals then recycle NO to NO2. In this way, each molecule of NO can produce
ozone multiple times. This may continue four or ve times until the VOCs are reduced to short chains of carbon compounds that cease
to be photo-reactive.
In addition to the NO2 and ozone concerns, NOx and sulfur oxides (SOx) in the atmosphere are captured by moisture to form
acid rain. Acid rain impacts certain ecosystems and some segments of our economy. All of these facts indicate the need to reduce NOx
emissions, but to do so requires an understanding of the generation and control mechanisms.
According to the Zeldovich equations, NO is generated to the limit of available oxygen (about 200,000 ppm) in air at temperatures
above 1300C (2370F). At temperatures below 760C (1,400F), NO is either generated in much lower concentrations or not at all.

There are two mechanisms by which NOx is formed in gas turbine combustors:

1. The oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen found in the combustion air (thermal NOx and prompt NOx), and
2. The conversion of nitrogen chemically bound in the fuel (fuel NOx).

Thermal NOx

Thermal NOx is formed by a series of chemical reactions in which oxygen and nitrogen present in the combustion air dissociate
and subsequently react to form NOx. Prompt NOx, a form of thermal NOx, is formed in the proximity of the ame front as intermediate
combustion products such as HCN, N and NH that are oxidized to form NOx. Prompt NOx is formed in both fuel-rich ames zones and 224
Bill Bender
dry low NOx (DLN) combustion zones. The contribution of prompt NOx to overall NOx emissions is relatively small in conventional
near-stoichiometric combustors, but this contribution is a signicant percentage of overall thermal NOx emissions in DLN combustors.
For this reason, prompt NOx becomes an important consideration for DLN combustor designs, establishing a minimum NOx level
attainable in lean mixtures.
The chemical mechanisms that produce NOx are listed below. These reactions represent the major pathways for NOx formation;
see Nicol et al. for a more detailed description of the chemical pathways.21 Various authors have used different names for these pathways,
or include different reactions. This is a result of advances in understanding the relative importance of these mechanisms. For example,
until recently, the nitrous oxide path was simply included as an extension of the prompt mechanism22, but has emerged as an important
chemical path in lean burning gas turbines and is now referred to as a distinct mechanism:

Extended Zeldovich mechanism:


(1) O + N2 NO + N
(2) N + O2 NO + O
(3) N + OH NO + H

Nitrous oxide:
(4) N2 + O + M N2O + M
(5) N2O + O NO + NO
(6) N2O + H NO + NH
Prompt:
(7) N2 + CH HCN + N

The prompt mechanism is followed by a sequence of reactions converting HCN to NO; reaction (7) is just the initiation.
The detailed sequence was reported by Fenimore, and the prompt mechanism is sometimes referred to as Fenimore-prompt or just
Fenimore.23 The CH reaction is also important for fuels containing nitrogen which can directly form the HCN species.
The extended Zeldovich mechanism is also known as the thermal mechanism when O and H species are at equilibrium levels.
The thermal route is a primary mechanism for NOx when ame temperatures are above approximately 1800K (2780F). Below this
temperature, the thermal reactions are relatively slow. Thus, a common approach to NOx control is to reduce the combustion temperature
so that very little thermal NOx can form.
In the absence of thermal NOx, the other mechanisms become signicant. Non-equilibrium concentration of O or H atoms in
the ame region can produce NOx via reactions (1) to (3), and this is known as Zeldovich NOx. The nitrous oxide path depends on the
intermediate species N2O which itself is generated by O-atom attack of nitrogen.

Fuel NOx

Fuel NOx is formed when fuels containing nitrogen are burned. Molecular nitrogen, present as N2 in some kinds of natural gas,
does not contribute signicantly to fuel NOx formation. Some low-Btu synthetic fuels contain nitrogen in the form of ammonia (NH3).
Other low-Btu fuels such as sewage and process waste-stream gases also contain nitrogen. When these fuels are burned, the nitrogen
bonds break and some of the resulting free nitrogen oxidizes to form NOx. With excess air, the degree of fuel NOx formation is primarily
a function of the nitrogen content in the fuel. The fraction of fuel-bound nitrogen (FBN) converted to fuel NOx decreases with increasing
nitrogen content, although the absolute magnitude of fuel NOx increases. For example, a fuel with 0.01 percent nitrogen may have 100
percent of its FBN converted to fuel NOx, whereas a fuel with a 1.0 percent FBN may have only a 40 percent conversion rate. Natural
gas typically contains little or no FBN. As a result, when compared to thermal NOx, fuel NOx is not a major contributor to overall NOx
emissions from stationary gas turbines ring natural gas.

3.2.1.2-12 Conclusions
OEMs continue to improve LPM technology; simultaneously, regulators continue to lower emissions requirements.24 R&D
efforts continue to advance technology and provide valuable contributions to design and manufacturing techniques to further enhance
performance while reducing emissions and overall plant costs.
Leveraging advances made in natural gas-fueled turbines through the ATS Program is critical to achieving performance goals
established for future coal-based systems, especially Integrated Gasication Combined Cycle (IGCC) plants and FutureGen. Gas
turbines utilized in IGCC plants operate on syngas derived from gasication. Syngas typically contributes 15 to 20 percent to the
volumetric ow through an advanced gas turbine to achieve the same heat input as natural gas. The additional mass ow theoretically
increases gas turbine power output by 30 to 40 percent. However, aerodynamic issues currently limit power gains to values lower than
those theoretically possible.
DOEs Fossil Energy Turbine Technology R&D Program being implemented by NETL was recently expanded with the selection
of ten new projects valued at $130 million. The new program will advance turbines and turbine subsystems for integrated gasication
combined cycle (IGCC) power plants and address the use of hydrogen and syngas.

225
3.2.1.2 Lean Pre-Mixed Combustion

3.2.1.2-13 Notes
_____________________________

1. U.S. Department of Energy Ofce of Fossil Energy, NETL, Turbine Program, Enabling Near-Zero Emission Coal-Based
Power Generation, October 2005.
2. Federal Register: February 18, 2005 (Volume 70, Number 33), pages 8314 8332.
3. Ibid.
4. R.Pavri and G.D. Moore, GE Power Systems, Gas Turbine Emissions and Control, GER-4211, 03/01
5. G.A. Richards, M.M. McMillan, R.S. Gemmen, W.A. Rogers, and S.R. Cully, Issues for Low-emission, Fuel-exible
Power Systems (U.S. Department of Energy); A. Biro, Effect of ame-temperature on NOx emission during natural gas
firing, (Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 1998).
6. L.B. Davis and S.H. Black, Dry Low NOx Combustion Systems for GE Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines, GER-3568G: GE
Power Systems, October 2000; R. Eldrid, L. Kaufman, and P. Marks, The 7FB: The Next Evolution of the Gas
Turbine, GER-4194: GE Power Systems April 2001; R.D. Brdar and R.M. Jones, GE IGCC
Technology and Experience with Advanced Gas Turbines, GER-4207: GE Power Systems, October 2000; F.J.
Brooks, GE Gas Turbine Performance Characteristics, GER-3567H: GE Power Systems, October 2000; L.B. Davis,
Dry Low NOx Combustion for GE Heavy Duty Gas Turbines, GER-3568A: GE Power Generation, 1983.
7. See note 4 (Pavri & Moore) and (Davis); also see note 5 (Richards and others).
8. B. Rising, letter to U.S. EPA, February 2005.
9. See note 6 (Davis & Black, 2000).
10. Alstom Power, Sequential Combustion, http://www.power.alstom.com/home/equipment_systems/turbine/gas_turbines/
GT24_andGT26__188MW_and_281MW.html.
11. R.K. Matta, G.D. Mercer, and R.S. Tuthill, Power Systems for the 21st Century H Gas Turbine Combined-Cycles,
(GE Power Systems, October 2000).
12. R. Bland, et al, Siemens W501F Gas Turbine: Ultra Low NOx Combustion System Development, (Siemens
Westinghouse Power Corporation, 2004).
13. G. A. Richards, K.H. Casleton, D. J. Maloney, and R.S. Gemmen, Federal Energy Technology Center, Addressing the
Challenge of Low-Emission Combustion (Department of Energy); also see notes 4 (Pavri & Moore) and (Davis)
and note 5.
14. See notes 5 and 13.
15. See note 6 (Brdar & Jones) and (Davis); also see notes 5 and 13.
16. U.S. Department of Energy, Ofce of Fossil Energy, NETL, Advanced Turbine Systems, Advancing the Gas Turbine
Power Industry; also see notes 2, 5 and 13.
17. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Ofce of Air Quality, Technical Bulletin EPA 456/F-pp-006R, Nitrogen
Oxides (NOx): Why and How They Are Controlled, November 1999; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Ofce of
Air Quality, AP 42, 5th ed. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors Vol.1: Stationary Point and Area Sources,
Sec. 3.1; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Ofce of Air Quality, Technology Transfer Network, Clean Air
Technology Center, RACT/BACT/LAER Clearinghouse; Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc., Database
on State Permitting Issues Air Regulations (http://www.eea-inc.com/rrdb/DGRegProject/RegBack.html); N.H.
Hydari, A.A. Yousuf, H.M. Ellis Comparison of the Most Recent BACT/LAER Determinations for Combustion
Turbines by State Air Pollution Control Agencies, June 2002; California Environmental Protection Agency,
Air Resources Board, Report to the Legislature, Gas-Fired Power Plant NOx Emission Controls and Related
Environmental Impacts, May 2004; ONSITE SYCOM Energy Corp., Cost Analysis of NOx Control Alternatives for
Stationary Gas Turbines, 11/05/99.
18. J. Calcagni, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Memorandum dated June 13, 1989, Transmittal of Background
Statement on Top Down BACT.
19. A. Jones, L. Witherspoon, and L. Cowell, Solar Turbines, Inc., Meeting Regulatory Challenges Through Advances in Gas
Turbine Emission Control, 2004.
20. See note 7 (Davis & Black), (Pavri & Moore) and (Davis); also see note 17 (EPA Tech Bulletin, Nov. 1999), (CA EPA),
and (ONSITE Sycom); note 19.
21. D.G. Nicol, R.C. Steele, N.M. Marinov, and P.C. Malte, The importance of the nitrous oxide pathway to NOx in lean
premixed combustion ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power :1995.
22. C.T. Bowman, Control of combustion generated nitrogen oxide emissions: technology driven by regulations
(Twenty-Fourth Symposium on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, PA 1992).
23. C.P. Fenimore, Formation of nitric oxide in premixed hydrocarbon ames,
(The Thirteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, PA 1971).
24. See notes 1 and 16.

226
BIOGRAPHY 3.2.1.2 Lean Pre-Mixed Combustion

William R. Bender

Technology & Management


Services, Inc.
Gaithersburg, MD 20879

phone: (301) 670-6390 x144


email: wbender@tms-hq.com

William R. Bender is a Senior Associate with Technology & Management Services, Inc. (TMS). Mr.
Bender has over 34 years of experience with gas turbine power systems as a Project Construction
Manager, Project Manager, and Project Engineer. While with a large A/E, he was a Project Engineer
on Florida Power & Lights Martin combined cycle Project and Tampa Electrics Polk Power Station.
As a TMS employee, Mr. Bender is responsible for the planning and analyzing of fossil energy
systems, policy initiatives and research, development and deployment programs in support of DOE
Headquarters and NETL. His areas of expertise include coal, oil and gas power systems; technology
and economic evaluation and assessments; energy and environmental policy analysis and multi-task
project management.
3.2.1.3
Rich Burn, Quick- 3.2.1.3-1 Introduction
Mix, Lean Burn (RQL) The Rich-Burn, Quick-Mix, Lean-Burn (RQL) combustor concept was
Combustor introduced in 1980 as strategy to reduce oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emission from
gas turbine engines.1 Later, in the 1990s, the concept was targeted by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for the reduction of nitrogen
oxides in next generation aero-propulsion engines. Today, the RQL is the anchor
combustor technology in aeroengines deployed commercially by Pratt & Whitney
under the name TALON (Technology for Advanced Low NOx). Due to safety
considerations and overall performance (e.g., stability) throughout the duty cycle,
the RQL is preferred over lean premixed options in aeroengine applications.
In stationary applications, lean premixed combustor technology is
the standard. Safety considerations are not as severe, the duty cycle is more
constrained, and the reduction in NOx emission is more substantial in contrast to
RQL technology. However, RQL combustor technology is of growing interest
for stationary applications due to the attributes of (1) more effectively processing
fuels of complex composition, and (2) processing fuels of varying composition.
The latter is becoming of importance with the increasing international competition
for fuels in general, the burgeoning interest in biomass fuels, the expanding use
of opportunity fuels (land-ll gases, digester gases, well-head gases), and the
growing use of liqueed natural gas to either complement domestic sources or
serve as the sole source of natural gas to a large region of a country or the country
as a whole. The California Energy Commission is engaged in RQL technology
research, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy, to explore the utility
of RQL strategies as an alternative to combustors for niche applications in the
stationary production of electrical power.
The RQL concept is predicated on the premise that the primary zone
of a gas turbine combustor operates most effectively with rich mixture ratios
(Figure 1). First, a rich-burn condition in the primary zone (e.g., = 1.8)
enhances the stability of the combustion reaction by producing and sustaining a high
concentration of energetic hydrogen and hydrocarbon radical species. Secondly,
rich burn conditions minimize the production of nitrogen oxides due to the relative
low temperatures and low population of oxygen containing intermediate species
(Figure 2).

Scott Samuelsen
Fig. 1. Rich-Burn, Quick-Mix, Lean-Burn Combustor (, Equivalence Ratio)
Professor of Mechanical, Aerospace,
and Environmental Engineering
Director
Advanced Power and Energy Program The efuent emanating from the rich primary zone will be high in the
University of California concentration of partially oxidized and partially pyrolized hydrocarbon species,
Irvine hydrogen, and carbon monoxide. As a result, the efuent cannot be exhausted
92697-3550 without further processing. In particular, the addition of oxygen is needed to oxidize
the high concentrations of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, hydrocarbon intermediates.
phone: 949-824-5468 This is accomplished by injecting a substantial amount of air through wall jets to
email: gss@uci.edu mix with the primary zone efuent and create a lean-burn condition prior to the
exit plane of the combustor. Ideally, this will result in the emission of an efuent
comprised of the major products of combustion (CO2, H2O, N2, O2) and a non-zero
concentration of criteria pollutants (e.g., NOx, CO, HC).

227
Fig. 2. Nitric Oxide Formation Figure 3 RQL Strategy

A major challenge for the RQL is the selection of combustor liner material. In the primary zone, for example, the use of air
for cooling the liner wall is precluded in order to avoid the generation of near-stoichiometric mixture ratios and the associated production
of nitrogen oxides in the vicinity of the wall. As a result, the temperature and composition of gases in the primary zone create a
demanding, reducing environment for the liner material. The concentrations of hydrogen alone and the concomitant demands of hydrogen
embrittlement in particular have combined to require a major investment in materials research in support of RQL technology.
A more demanding challenge is the design of the Quick-Mix section. A key to the success of the RQL is the efcacy of
mixing the air with the efuent exiting the primary zone. The mixing of the injected air takes the reaction through the conditions most
vulnerable for the high production of oxides of nitrogen (near stoichiometric conditions where both the temperature and oxygen atom
concentrations are elevated). The challenge then is to rapidly mix air into the rich-burn efuent in order to rapidly create the lean-burn
conditions (Figure 3). As a result, the label Quick-Mix is adopted to emphasize the requirement to rapidly mix the air and primary
zone efuent. As a result, RQL research has historically focused on Quick-Mix section designs to establish the most rapid mixing.

3.2.1.3-2 Quick-Mix Zone


Numerous jet in crossow studies have been conducted under non-reacting conditions to yield insight on such ow eld
characteristics as jet structure and penetration, jet entrainment of crossow uid, and the ow eld distributions resulting from jet
mixing.2 Heated jets or a heated mainow, or the doping of either the jets or mainow with a tracer have allowed the measurement of
scalars in the ow downstream of the jet orices
in order to quantify the convective and diffusive
mixing efcacy. Early studies of jets in crossow
were motivated by the aerodynamics associated
with (1) vertical/short takeoff and landing
(V/STOL) aircraft and (2) primary and dilution
jets on conventional gas turbine combustors with
a focus on jet trajectory, centerline decay, and jet
shape for unconned single jets.3 The interest in
the Quick-Mix zone of the RQL combustor has
constituted the focus of jet in crossow studies
over the past two decades.
A single round jet in a crossow is
presented in Figure 4. The jet enters the crossow
and is deected downstream in response to the
momentum of the cross ow. A recirculation zone
can form in the near-wall downstream wake of the
jet. The radial extent of jet penetration is governed
by the angle of the jet relative to the crossow,
and the entry momentum of the jet in contrast to
the momentum of the crossow. A variety of non-
reacting experiments have been used to establish
empirical correlations for the maximum penetration Fig. 4. Single Jet in Crossow
of a single jet. For example:4 228
Scott Samuelsen

(1)

Where:

Ymax = Maximum Radial Penetration of the Jet Centerline


dj = Diameter of the Jet Entry Orice jets Vjets 2
J = Jet-to-Crossow Momentum Flux Ratio = (2)
= Density main Vmain 2
V = Velocity
= Entry Angle of the Jet

In the gas turbine combustor, the jets are conned and the interaction between multiple jets is a major factor in dictating
mixing behavior. As a result, studies has been conducted to address the mixing behavior associated with the mixing of primary and
dilution jets in conventional gas turbine combustors; and optimizing the mixing section in the RQL combustor.5 For multiple jets in a
tubular duct, the correlation for the maximum penetration of a single jet must account for the effects of blockage:6

(3)
Where:

MR = Jet-to-Crossow Mass Flow Ratio

MR is much higher for an RQL combustor (~ 2.5) in contrast to the conventional combustor (~ 0.25). Since the density and
momentum-ux ratios J are about the same in the two congurations, the biggest difference between the jets in conventional and RQL
combustors is orice size.
Non-reacting studies have also been undertaken to evaluate geometrical features (e.g., orice shape, number of orices,
axial staggering of orices) and operating features (e.g., momentum ux ratio, density ux ratio, mass ow rate ratio) with the goal to
optimize the mixing. Traditionally, such studies have dened optimal mixing as the shortest axial distance from the upstream edge
of the jet orice where a uniform radial prole is established of key mixing parameters (e.g., temperature, species concentration). The
hypothesis is that the optimal mixing dened in this manner will minimize the production of nitrogen oxides. Due to the complex set
of variables, many of the studies have beneted by a design of experiments statistical approach to explore the multiple factors that can
affect jet mixing.7 In addition to non-reacting experiments and use of design of experiments methods, modeling has been effectively
employed both independent of and in conjunction with the experiments.8
While a variety of jet orice congurations has been studied (e.g., triangular, slanted, tear-drop), no option has been identied
that penetrates signicantly farther or faster than a single, round jet. For a cylindrical conguration, a NASA design method developed
by Holdeman and co-workers dened a correlation that is used to design the jet mixing section of an RQL combustor utilizing round hole
jets.9 The correlation, derived a study of jet-to-mainstream momentum-ux ratio, establishes the number of circular holes for optimum
mixing:

2J
n=
C (4)
Where:

n = Number of Circular Jet Orices to Optimize Mixing


J = Momentum Flux Ratio
C = Empirical Constant = 2.5

Reacting ow studies have also been conducted to complement the non-reacting studies and assess the impact of heat release
on the mixing processes. Typically, a mixture of propane and air is used to generate a representative rich-burn efuent. A specially
designed section is used to create a uniform presentation (e.g., temperature, velocity, composition, concentration) of the rich efuent to
the mixing section. The injection of the quick-mix jet air results in the ignition of a reaction between the rich-burn efuent and the jet
air (Figure 5). Measurements of temperature, species composition, and species concentration can then be made downstream of the jet
orices in order to establish the efcacy of mixing as a function of downstream distance.10 The results from the reacting experiments
reveal that the non-reacting experiments provide a satisfactory description of the mixing of jets in a crossow. Overall, the jets need to
penetrate to the half radius in order to maximize the mixing and avoid either under-penetration or over-penetration.11

229
3.2.1.3 Rich Burn, Quick-Mix, Lean Burn (RQL) Combustor

Fig. 5. Laboratory Model Combustor

Jet mixing in a crossow has been studied in two primary mainstream geometries. The cylindrical geometry has been the
most extensively researched and is directly relevant to combustor can congurations. In contrast, the modern annular combustor
congurations have spawned investigations of jets in the crossow of rectangular geometries. For each, Holdeman has established the
following procedures to design the most rapid mixing, Quick-Mix section:12

Cylindrical Geometry

1. Typical Mass Ratio: 2.5


2. Typical Momentum Flux Ratio: 60
3. Optimal Number of Orices:
2J
n=
C (5)
4. Orice Size: Determined by the desired mass-ow ratio and the optimum number of orices for the given momentum-
ux ratio.

Rectangular Geometry

1. Typical Mass Ratio: 2.5


2. Typical Momentum Flux Ratio: 60
3. Optimal Orice Spacing:

S/ H = C/ J (6)
Where:
S = Orice Spacing
H = Channel Height

4. Orice Size. For a given momentum-ux ratio, determined by the desired mass-ow ratio and the optimum orice
spacing. For a rectangular duct the number of orices is innite. For an annulus, the number of orices will depend
on the diameter and height of the mixing section.
5. Orice Conguration. Can be either in-line or staggered. The selection will depend on the application, and include
such factors as momentum-ux ratio. In-line congurations are usually preferred as the orices are smaller. The
optimum spacing for staggered jets is four times the optimum spacing for in-line congurations. As a result, the
orice diameter for staggered jets must be doubled for the same total orice area.

3.2.1.3-3 Formation of Nitrogen Oxides


The hypothesis that the optimization of mixing in the Quick-Mix section will minimize the production of nitrogen oxides
begs the question of proof. The rst exploration of this relationship utilized the results of non-reacting experiments, and superimposed
analytically the kinetics of NOx production. The results suggested that the best mixer may not necessarily minimize NOx emissions.13
In more recent research (Figure 6), oxides of nitrogen have been measured with the nding that the module designed to optimize
mixing (12 holes) produces 15% more NOx than an 8-hole module (Figure 6b).14 These results also suggest that an aerodynamically
optimum mixer may not minimize NOx. It is noteworthy that the data for all modules show that high concentrations of NOx occur
in the wakes of the jets adjacent to the wall. This suggests that a signicant production of NOx likely occurs in the wakes of the jets,
downstream of the orices. 230
Scott Samuelsen
The research study reported in Figure 6 explored as well the effect of air preheat on NOx formation. The main air and jet
air streams were independently heated in order to assess the relative inuence of independently preheating each ow. Three preheat
conditions are presented in Figure 7. The rst set of conditions is for no air preheat. This serves as an anchor to which the results for the
elevated inlet air temperature conditions can be compared. The second set of conditions is for jet air preheat only (no main air preheat).
The third set of conditions is for both jet air and main air preheat, representing the case usually encountered in practical combustors.
The results reveal the small impact of preheated jet air on NOx. The jet air comprises over 70 percent of the total air ow,
but preheating only the jet air results in relatively small increases in NOx emissions compared to the case where both the main and jet
air are preheated. The latter condition resulted in the largest NOx production for all the modules. The small effect of preheating the jet
air is counter intuitive to the expectation that preheating jet air should promote NOx production via the thermal (Zeldovich) mechanism.
The dominating inuence of the main air preheat may be attributed to the total xed nitrogen (TFN) production in the fuel-rich zone. In
particular, the TFN generation in the fuel-rich zone, and its subsequent transformation to NOx in the mixing zone, may be inuential in
governing the total NOx emissions than expected.

Fig. 6. Composite NOx Emissions Data Fig. 7. Effect of Air Preheat on NOx Concentrations

Source: See note 17. Source: See note 17.

The distributions of equivalence ratios reveal that preheat has a negligible effect on jet penetration. The equivalence ratio
distributions are quite uniform which is also expected as the 12 hole conguration as an optimum mixer. In addition, the O2 distributions
serve as an indice for jet penetration and are virtually the same for all preheat conditions.

3.2.1.3-4 Conclusions
The Rich-Burn, Quick-Mix, Lean-Burn (RQL) combustor has evolved over the past three decades as a major strategy for
the reduction of oxides of nitrogen from gas turbine engines. The concept has the attribute of high combustor stability due to the rich
primary zone. While the RQL is deployed commercially in aeroengine applications, lean premixed options have been selected for
stationary applications in lieu of the RQL in order to achieve lower NOx emission. Niche applications in the stationary market, however,
are driving a role for the RQL where fuels with complex compositions or fuels of varying composition are being encountered. This has
prompted new research in the exploration of NOx formation in RQL congurations. The hypothesis that optimal mixing in the Quick-
Mix section will lead to the minimization of NOx emission has been challenged by recent observations. In particular, the generation
of nitrogen containing species in the Rich-Burn zone and subsequent processing in the Quick-Mix section may affect the emission of
NOx. While the RQL concept is inherently a low-NOx generator, a further understanding of the primary zone chemistry and the coupling
between the chemical kinetics and uid mechanics in the Quick-Mix section may be required in order to optimize the RQL design. Fuels
of varying composition and varying concentrations of fuel-bound nitrogen in stationary applications create a particular demand for this
insight whereas the consistency of fuel composition in aeroengine applications allows insight derived from empirical evidence to be
sufcient for the design of commercial RQL systems.

231
3.2.1.3 Rich Burn, Quick-Mix, Lean Burn (RQL) Combustor

3.2.1.3-5 Notes
_________________________________

1. Mosier, S.A., and Pierce, R.M., 1980. Advanced Combustor Systems for Stationary Gas Turbine Engines, Phase I.
Review and Preliminary Evaluation, Volume I, Contract 68-02-2136, FR-11405, Final Report, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
2. Holdeman, J.D., 1993. Mixing of Multiple Jets with a
Conned Subsonic Crossow, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, Vol. 19, pp. 31-70, August;
Holdeman, J.D., Liscinsky, D.S., Oechsle, V.L., Samuelsen, G.S., and Smith, C.E., 1997. Mixing of Multiple
Jets With a Conned Subsonic Crossow: Part ICylindrical Ducts, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines
and Power, Vol. 119, No. 4, October, pp. 852862; Holdeman, J.D., Liscinsky, D.S., and Bain, D.B., 1999.
Mixing of Multiple Jets With a Conned Subsonic Crossow: Part IIOpposed Rows of Orices in a Rectangular
Duct, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 121, No. 3, July, pp 551-562.
3. Margason, R.J., 1993. Fifty Years of Jet in Cross Flow Research, Presented at Computational and Experimental
Assessment of Jets in Cross Flow, AGARD Conference Proceedings 534, April; Demuren. A.O: Modeling Jets in Cross
Flow. NASA Contractor Report 194965. August 1994;
4. Lefebvre, A.H., 1999. Gas Turbine Combustion, Taylor and Francis.
5. See Note 2.
6. See Note 4.
7. Hatch, M.S., Sowa, W.A., Samuelsen, G.S., and Holdeman, J.D., 1995,Jet Mixing into a Heated Cross Flow in a
Cylindrical Duct: Inuence of Geometry and Flow Variations, Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 11, No. 3,
May-June, pp. 393400; Kroll, J.T., Sowa, W.A., Samuelsen, G.S., and Holdeman, J.D., 2000. Optimization of Orice
Geometry for Cross Flow Mixing in a Cylindrical Duct, Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol . 16, No. 6,
November-December, pp 929-936.
8. See Note 2.
9. See Note 2.
10. Leong, M.Y., Samuelsen, G.S., and Holdeman, J.D., 1999. Mixing of Jet Air With a Fuel-Rich, Reacting Crossow,
Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 15, No. 5, September-October, pp. 617-622; .Leong, M.Y., Samuelsen, G.S., and
Holdeman, J.D., 2000. Optimization of Jet Mixing into a Rich, Reacting Crossow, Journal of Propulsion and Power,
Vol. 16, No. 5, September-October, pp. 729-735; Demayo, T.N, Leong, M.Y, Samuelsen, G.S., and Holdeman, J.D.,
2003. Assessing Jet-Induced Spatial Mixing in a Rich, Reacting Crossow, Journal of Propulsion and Power,
Vol. 19, No. 1, January-February, pp. 14-21.
11. See Notes 7 and 10.
12. See Note 2.
13. See Note 7.
14. Samuelsen, G.S., Brouwer, J., Holdeman, J.D., Vardarkas, M.A, and Leong, M.Y., 2006, The Effect of Air Preheat and
Number of Orices on Flow and Emissions in an RQL Mixing Section, submitted for publication (see also NASA TM-
1999-209431, 1999).

232
BIOGRAPHY
3.2.1.1 Conventional Type Combustion
3.2.1.3 Rich Burn, Quick-Mix, Lean Burn (RQL) Combustor

Scott Samuelsen
Professor of Mechanical, Aerospace, and
Environmental Engineering Director
Advanced Power and Energy Program
University of California
Irvine
92697-3550

phone: 949-824-5468
email: gss@uci.edu

Professor Scott Samuelsen is Director of the Advanced Power and Energy Program (APEP) at the
University of California Irvine and Professor of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Environmental Engineering.
He directs as well the National Fuel Cell Research Center (NFCRC) and the UCI Combustion
Laboratory (UCICL). His research is directed to advanced power systems including gas turbines, fuel
cells, and fuels. He directs anchor research on advanced coal and natural gas power plants for the co-
production of electricity and hydrogen for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), distributed generation
and information technology research for the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) in support of energy-
efcient and environmentally-responsible power generation, advanced energy systems research for
the California Energy Commission, and coal-gas and hydrogen-fueled gas turbine combustion studies.
His energy expertise is based on forty years of combustion research working with strategic alliances
involving industry with applications to gas turbine propulsion, gas turbine electronic power generation,
and combustion distributed generation resources. He holds the Ph.D. degree from the University of
California Berkeley.
3.2.1.4.1 3.2.1.4.1-1 Trapped Vortex Combustion
Trapped Vortex Combustion
Benets to IGCC Gas Turbines of Trapped Vortex Combustion

The Trapped Vortex Combustion (TVC) technology has the potential to:
Burn a wide variety of medium and low-BTU gases including hydrogen-rich
gasied coal, biomass products, and landll gas;
Operate in a low NOx, lean premixed mode combustor environment on
hydrogen-rich syngas to accommodate the high ame speed that is a
characteristic of these fuels;
Achieve extremely low NOx emissions without the added expense of exhaust
gas after-treatment;
Eliminate the costly requirement for high pressure diluent gas (nitrogen,
steam or carbon dioxide) for NOx emissions control;
Accommodate more types of gas turbines for IGCC applications by decreasing
the mass ow through the turbine section;
Improve the overall cycle efciency of the gas turbine by decreasing the
pressure drop through the combustor; and
Extend the lean blowout limit offering greater turndown, (load following),
with improved combustion and process stability.

3.2.1.4.1-2 The Challenges of IGCC Gas Turbine


Combustion
The Integrated Gasication Combined Cycle (IGCC) is emerging as a best
available technology to utilize low quality energy resources, such as coal or oil, and
meet emission limits not achievable by other conventional or advanced competing
technologies. However, the success of the IGCC in the energy sector requires
continuous enhancement in performance and reduction in capital costs. New, more
efcient, gasication technologies are in demonstration; hot gas cleanup is improving;
and gas turbines for IGCC applications are advancing in efciency, capability and
reliability.
Commercially available gas turbines have been developed for the use of
natural gas, (i.e. a methane-rich fuel with high caloric values of 800 to 1200 BTU/
scf). The gas turbines for these IGCC power plants have been adapted to burn syngas,
a hydrogen-rich fuel1 with low caloric values of 100-300 BTU/scf, but their design
features are not generally optimized for these fuel applications.

The gas turbine encounters two major changes when transitioning from
natural gas to syngas:
For the same fuel heat input, the fuel mass ow is four to ve times greater
than for natural gas, due to the lower heating value.
Robert Charles Steele Premixed natural gas and air combustion systems have become common
place for controlling NOx emissions. These systems are not used with syngas
due to the high content of hydrogen and the potential for ashback of the
Ramgen Power Systems
ame into the fuel injection system. Diffusion ame or non-premixed
11808 Northup Way, Suite W-190
combustors are used with syngas to control the NOx emissions by diluting
Bellevue, WA 98005
the syngas with nitrogen, steam or carbon dioxide. The diluent reduces the
ame temperature and consequently the formation of NOx.
425-828-4919, ext. 288
rsteele@ramgen.com
These two factors, greater fuel ow and the addition of diluent for NOx
emissions control, substantially increase the overall mass ow through the turbine.
This increase in ow creates backpressure to the compressor and can bring the engine
close to surge conditions. Some gas turbines such as the GE 9001 EC are able to
accommodate the increase in mass ow through the turbine expander. Unfortunately,
the majority of gas turbines are not able to accept the overcapacity to the turbine
expander.

233
3.2.1.4.1-3 Combustion of Syngas
NOx emissions from coal based IGCC plants are as low or lower than those from the best conventional coal red power plants.
Nevertheless, NOx emissions from syngas gas red turbines are inevitably compared to those of natural gas red gas turbines without a
good understanding of the differences in composition of the two fuels2.
Dry (i.e. no addition of steam or water) Low NOx (DLN) combustors can achieve less than 10 ppmvd (parts per million by
volume, dry, at 15% Oxygen) NOx emissions with natural gas fuel. DLN combustors rely on the premix principle that reduces the ame
temperature, and subsequently the NOx emissions. DLN combustors are able to achieve much lower NOx emissions than diluted non-
premixed combustors because of an increase in premixing time prior to entering the combustion region.
The high hydrogen content (up to 60% by volume) in syngas results in a ame speed that is up to six times faster than typical
natural gas. The high ame speed of syngas makes the use of a DLN combustion system impossible because the ame will draw back
into the premix zone and destroy the fuel injection hardware.
The diluted non-premixed combustors have a chemical kinetic limit when too much diluent is added for further reduction of
NOx emissions. The increase in diluent will cause ame instabilities in the combustion zone and eventual engine ame-out. The best
case, practical NOx reduction limit for syngas combustors is between 10 and 20 ppmvd NOx.
In order to further reduce NOx emissions in an IGCC power plant, the popular selective catalytic reduction (SCR) post-
combustion control method will be required. Unfortunately, the SCR method which is very effective for sulfur-free natural gas, will not
work if the sulfur cannot be removed from the syngas. Unlike natural gas, syngas does contain some sulfur which can be converted in
the SCR to sulfur compounds and subsequently be deposited on the tube surfaces of the heat recovery steam generator.
As an example, the Polk IGCC power plant located in Florida, owned by Tampa Electric Company, has experienced some sulfur
deposits on the tube surfaces. The DOE reported that any additional deposits that would be generated by the addition of a SCR system
would make the Polk plant inoperable on syngas in its current conguration.

3.2.1.4.1-4 DOE NETL IGCC Turbine Program


In response to the challenges of burning syngas in IGCC gas turbines, the DOE has initiated a new multiyear program (Enabling
Turbine Technologies for High-Hydrogen Fuels: DE-PS26-05NT42380) that will fund the development of technologies and products to
serve the central station power generation market.
The program will address key technologies needed to enable the development of advanced gas turbines and gas turbine-based
systems that will operate cleanly and efciently when fueled with coal-derived syngas. This is an investment in securing future U.S.
electric power production through the use of the Nations largest fossil fuel energy resource.
In order to address these technical challenges the participants in the program will pursue new combustor design approaches that
include hydrogen premixing, catalytic combustion, and novel concepts such as TVC.

3.2.1.4.1-5 Trapped Vortex Combustion Breakthrough Technology


Trapped Vortex Combustion technology holds tremendous
promise for IGCC gas turbine applications with improved efciency,
lower emissions, greater ame stability, added fuel exibility, increased
durability, and reduced capital costs.
The TVC concept was originally conceived in the early 1990s for
aero-propulsion applications with high through-put velocity requirements.
It was not until the early 2000s that research and development organizations
initiated the rst design concepts for industrial applications.
The TVC technology has the potential for product insertion
into a wide variety of industrial applications including gas turbine power
generation, manufacturing processing, chemical process heating, steam
boiler systems, and incineration.
The requirements of low fuel consumption and low pollutant
emissions are paramount for all types of combustors, with the combustor
primary zone airow pattern of prime importance to ame stability,
combustion efciency, and low emissions. Many different types of
airow patterns are employed by non-TVC concepts, but one common
feature to all is the creation of a toroidal ow reversal that recirculates
(gure 1) and entrains a portion of the hot combustion products to mix Fig. 1. Non -TVC Swirl Stabilized Combustion
with the incoming air and fuel to stabilize the ame. Although these (Courtesy of National Combustion Equipment, Inc.)
designs have long been used in many practical combustion devices, there
are limitations, especially for lean premixed applications.

234
Robert Charles Steele

Flame stability is achieved though the use of recirculation


zones to provide a continuous ignition source which facilitates the
mixing of hot combustion products with the incoming fuel and air
mixture. Swirl vanes are commonly employed (gure 2) to establish
the recirculation zones. This method creates a low velocity zone of
sufcient residence time and turbulence levels such that the combustion
process becomes self-sustaining. The challenge, however, is selection
of a ame stabilizer which ensures that both performance (emissions,
combustor acoustic and pattern factor) and cost goals are met.
In contrast to conventional combustion systems which rely on
swirl stabilization, the TVC employs cavities (gure 3) to stabilize the
ame and grows from the wealth of literature on cavity ows. Much
of the historical effort examines the ow eld dynamics established by
the cavities, as demonstrated in aircraft wheel wells, bomb bay doors
and other external cavity structures. Cavities have also been studied as Fig. 2. Industrial Fuel/Air Swirler
a means of cooling and reducing drag on projectiles and for scramjets (Courtesy of National Combustion Equipment, Inc.)
and waste incineration.
The actual stabilization mechanism facilitated by the TVC is
relatively simple. A conventional bluff or fore body is located upstream
of a smaller bluff body - commonly referred to as an aft body. The ow
issuing from around the rst bluff body separates as normal, but instead
of developing shear layer instabilities which in most circumstances is
the prime mechanism for initiating blowout, the alternating array of
vortices are conveniently trapped or locked between the two bodies.
In a TVC concept, the re-circulation of hot products into the
main fuel-air mixture is accomplished by incorporating two critical
features. First, a stable recirculation zone must be generated adjacent
to the main fuel-air ow. If the vortex region, or cavity region, is
designed properly, the vortex will be stable and no vortex shedding Fig. 3. Trapped Vortex Combustion
will occur. This stable vortex is generally used as a source of heat, or
hot products of combustion.
The second critical design feature involves transporting and mixing the heat from the vortex, or cavity, region into the main
ow. This is accomplished by using wake regions generated by bodies, or struts, immersed in the main ow. This approach ignites
the incoming fuel-air mixture by lateral mixing, instead of a back-mixing process. By using geometric features to ignite the incoming
fuel-air mixture, instead of pure aerodynamic features, the TVC concept has the potential to be less sensitive to instabilities and process
upsets. This is particularly important near the lean ame extinction limit, where small perturbations in the ow can lead to ame
extinction.
The very stable yet more energetic primary/core ame zone is now very resistant to external ow eld perturbations, yielding
extended lean and rich blowout limits relative to its simple bluff body counterpart. Early research has demonstrated that the TVC
conguration can withstand through-put velocities near Mach 1. This unique characteristic of the TVC technology provides a uid
dynamic mechanism that can overcome the high ame speed of hydrogen-rich syngas and potentially allow IGCC gas turbines to operate
the combustor in premixed mode.
This system conguration also has greater ame holding surface area and hence will facilitate the more compact primary/core
ame zone essential to promoting high combustion efciency and reduced CO emissions.

3.2.1.4.1-6 TVC Development


Several TVC approaches from government research organizations and private companies are reviewed. Each design shares in
the common fundamental features of the TVC technology but also exhibit the unique features that set them apart from each other.

1. Air Force Research Laboratory


The Air Force program started in the early 1990s at the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) in Dayton, Ohio.

235
3.2.1.4.1 Trapped Vortex Combustion

Fig. 4. AFRL First Generation TVC


Source: See note 5 (Ren, Egolfopoulos, and Tsotsis 2002).

The phenomena of locked or trapped vortices has been known to reduce aerodynamic drag for years3, and the geometric features
required to produce a locked or trapped vortex are the same features used to minimize drag. Hsu et al. in 1995 was rst to report using
this feature to stabilize reactions in gas turbine combustors for aero-propulsion applications4. Since then, several papers and patents have
described the results from using this TVC concept to achieve stable and low combustor emissions5. The AFRL continues to investigate
potential TVC applications for advanced military gas turbine engines6. The AFRL TVC development efforts have focused primarily on
liquid fuel burning aero-propulsion applications and not on industrial natural gas or syngas burning applications.
The developmental evolution of the TVC concept at the AFRL is extremely well summarized by Roquemore et al.7. The
rst generation TVC is shown in gure 4. The cavity is formed between the two disks in tandem. Katta and Roquemore used a time-
dependent, axisymmetric model to predict the results of reducing the drag of bluff-bodies in non-reacting ow and the experimental
results of the rst generation TVC8.

FLAMEHOLDERS

COMBUSTION

CHAMBER

MAIN FUEL & AIR

Fig. 5. AFRL Second Generation TVC


Source: Same source as for g. 4.

The second generation TVC design, shown in gure 5, was an axisymmetric can-type conguration with the cavity on the
outside of the main burner. The depth of the cavity was approximately the same as that for the optimum rst generation TVC.
The third generation TVC shown in gures 6 and 7 was a two-dimensional sector designed for easy replacement and optical
viewing of the cavities. The objective of the design effort was to develop a liquid fuel burning TVC concept for gas turbine engine
applications.

236
Robert Charles Steele

Fig. 6. AFRL Third Generation TVC Fig. 7. AFRL Third Generation TVC Cavity
Source: Same source as g. 4. Source: Same source as g. 4.

The development program at AFRL concluded that the TVC offers signicant improvements to aircraft gas turbine engines in
lean blow out (LBO) and altitude relight when compared to conventional swirl stabilized combustors. Also, a wider operating range and
the potential to achieve lower NOx emissions were demonstrated. The TVC concept can operate in a staged, main-pilot mode as well
as in a rich burnquick quenchlean burn (RQL) mode. Even though encouraging rig results have been obtained to date, no full engine
test as been completed with an integrated TVC concept.

2. General Electric Company


The General Electric (GE) Company has been developing TVC concepts for gas turbine engines since the mid 1990s. At least
ten GE TVC patents have been either led and/or cleared since 1995. The majority of the patent work has been in the area of military
gas turbine engines. More recently, GE has led two TVC patents for low NOx emissions industrial gas turbine engine applications. The
invention was made with support from the U.S. DOE.

Aircraft Application
GE Aircraft Engines and the AFRL have been jointly developing a
novel TVC concept for military gas turbine engines since 19969. This effort
represents an extension of earlier AFRL research with the third generation TVC
concept. The work led to the fabrication of a rectangular sector test rig shown
in gure 8 with a pressure capability of up 20.5 atmospheres and temperatures
as high as 900 K. The performance evaluation covered all aspects of a gas
turbine engine. The operating conditions with JP-8 fuel provided simulations
of current commercial and military aircraft gas turbine engine cycles as well as
some advanced cycles. Data was also obtained at selected conditions for the
LM2500 marine Navy duty cycle using #1 Diesel.
The TVC test rig demonstrated that ignition, blow out, and altitude re-
light were up to 50% improved over current swirl stabilized combustors. The
NOx emissions were in the range from 40% to 60% of the U.N. International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standard. The combustion efciency
was maintained at or above 99% over a 40% wider operating range than a
conventional aircraft gas turbine engine combustor. Fig. 8. GE TVC Sector Rig
Source: See note 9 (Phillips).
Industrial Application
GE Research is pursuing the application of TVC concepts to industrial gas turbine engines that can meet sub-9 ppmv NOx
emissions. The objective of DOE Contract No. DE-FC26-01NT41020 is to explore advanced combustor concepts that show promise to
meet future emissions requirements. The results of this DOE program are not published at this time. Any further information from GE
regarding their low emissions TVC development effort was unavailable.

3. DOE National Energy Technology Laboratory


The U.S. DOE is developing technologies for ultra-clean energy plants with efciency and emission goals that are well beyond the
capability of current gas turbine power plants. The DOE reports that ninety-percent of new power plants currently under construction
will be fueled by a natural gas-based fuel. A key feature of these future power plants will be fuel diversity and exibility. The gas turbine
combustor designs will require the capability to operate on a wide range of fuels including hydrogen-rich synfuels. The DOE has also
selected the TVC concept as a promising technology for future gas turbine combustor designs.

237
3.2.1.4.1 Trapped Vortex Combustion
A collaborative effort began in 1999 between the AFRL and the NETL
to evaluate the TVC concept for stationary power applications. The project
was co-sponsored by the DOE Advanced Turbine Systems (ATS) program
and the DOD Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program
(SERDP).
The primary intent was to assess the low-emissions capabilities of
a novel RQL staged combustor shown in gure 910. The goal was to achieve
NOx and CO emissions that are comparable to other commercial natural gas
burning DLN systems. High BTU-fuels and fuels containing signicant
amounts of fuel-bound nitrogen were evaluated.
NETL has continued to pursue the development of TVC concepts
and combustor congurations with their own internal research program and
through separate collaborative projects with GE and Ramgen Power Systems
(RPS). The recently released multi-year turbine development program (DE-
PS26-05NT42380) is evidence that the DOE is committed to the advancement
of novel combustor designs such as the TVC concept.
Fig. 9. NETL RQL TVC
NETL and RPS with support from the California Energy Commission Source: See note 10.
(CEC Contract # 500-02-025) completed in early 2005 a series of rig tests
that demonstrated less than 3 ppmv NOx at industrial gas turbine operating
conditions without the need for a stabilizing catalyst or exhaust after-
treatment.
The potential use of the RPS Advanced Vortex Combustion (AVC) technology with industrial gas turbines can best be described
in the spring 2005 edition of the DOE Clean Coal Today:

Researchers at NETLs high pressure test combustion facility, in collaboration with Ramgen Power Systems, have
completed testing of a fuel-exible Advanced Vortex Combustion (AVC) concept that can achieve NOx emissions of
less than 3 ppmv, and combustion efciencies of over 99 percent. The Advanced Vortex Combustor is dynamically
stable over a wide range of operating conditions, which makes this approach signicantly more attractive than other
lean premixed combustion approaches. In addition, the pressure drop associated with this combustion approach is
signicantly lower than a conventional gas turbine combustor, which translates into an improvement in the overall
cycle efciency. The relatively high velocities and low pressure drops achievable with this technology make the AVC
approach an attractive alternative for hydrogen fuel applications.

4. Ramgen Power Systems


RPS is pursuing the development of its unique AVC technology that has tremendous promise for improved efciency, lower
emissions, greater ame stability, fuel exibility, increased durability, and reduced manufacturing costs. RPS is evaluating the potential
for product insertion into a wide variety of industrial applications including gas turbine power generation and mechanical drive,
manufacturing processing, chemical process heating, steam boiler systems, and incineration. The immediate AVC application is for low
emissions stationary gas turbine engines.
In 2002, RPS tested the rst AVC concept
(gure 10) with support from the DOE NETL (Contract
No. DE-FC26-00NT40915) and achieved 9 ppmv NOX
emissions on natural gas in lean premixed mode11.
The testing was conducted at the GASL facility in
New York. The development of AVC concepts for
gas turbine applications has continued since the test
program at GASL. RPS and NETL with support from
the CEC have recently completed a joint project that
has shown tremendous promise for the AVC technology Fig. 10. RPS AVC Conguration
for extremely low emissions and acoustically stable Source: See note 11 (Little, Jr.).
combustion.
These test results indicate the potential to achieve unprecedented emissions levels of 1 ppmv NOx and 9 ppmv CO at industrial
gas turbine operating conditions. At these levels, the AVC technology offers the potential to meet the stringent emission requirements
in such regions as California and New York without further exhaust after-treatment.
The tests were conducted in the NETL Low Emissions Combustion Test and Research (LECTR) facility at 10 atmospheres
with combustor inlet temperature of 625F. The combustor is air-cooled to closely simulate actual gas turbine conditions. The series
of parametric tests allowed for variation in inlet pressure, fuel ow, air ow loading, lean blowout and pressure dynamics. A 4inch-by-
4inch quartz window allowed for ame visualization up to 5 atmospheres.

238
Robert Charles Steele
The test results can be summarized as follows:
Data taken at 10 atmospheres and 625F
Air-cooled combustor functioned as designed and without incident
Combustor ignited at ambient conditions
System was stable throughout start-up and shut-down
Flame structure was observed and recorded by video through the quartz window
Overall combustor pressure drop was less than 2.6%
NOx emissions are not pressure dependent under ultra-lean conditions
Lowest measured NOx with acceptable CO emissions: 3 ppmv NOx and 20 ppmv CO
Combustion efciencies greater than 99.9%
Recorded combustion pressure oscillations with high frequency probe were insignicant

RPS will continue to advance the development of its AVC technology and identify product insertion opportunities in industrial
applications including gas turbine power generation and mechanical drive applications. The AVC technology is scalable to various sizes
and heat load capabilities.

5. ALM Turbines
Many turbine and combustor experts, including those at ALM, are increasingly optimistic about the promise of TVC12. It is ALMs
position that the TVC concept has many real potential advantages over both diffusion ame and DLN combustors, including lower
emissions, multi-fuel capability, better ame stability, uniformity of ame, better dynamics, greater lean blowout limit offering greater
turndown, higher efciency due to lower combustor pressure drop losses, compactness, and lower manufacturing costs. Over the last
few years, ALM has designed, manufactured and tested a number of proprietary prototype TVCs that have demonstrated many of the
above mentioned advantages.

ALM has been developing and testing its own proprietary version of TVC for both microturbines and large MW scale industrial turbines.
In 2003, ALM and Alturdyne successfully designed, manufactured, and incorporated a TVC combustor into a Sunstrand T-62 APU.
ALM has also designed, manufactured and rig tested two MW scale prototypes at ambient conditions that meet GE 7E 85MW operating
conditions.

The ALM TVC consists of two autonomous sections a thermal nozzle


and vortex (gure 11). The time of complete fuel burning, at the primary
combustion temperature, is less than 2 milliseconds. ALM has achieved
combustion at very low temperatures without use of any catalysts. The
ALM design is notably different from all other TVC concepts. The
concept utilizes its vortex and manages the recirculation ows in a
different manner. The combustion mainly takes place in the thermal
nozzle and not in the vortex.

ALM uses a laminar boundary layer between the recirculation vortex


ow and the fuel air mixture ow, to create certain desirable chemical
reactions, and in turn a thermal nozzle effect which signicantly
improves the combustion process over other combustor designs. This Fig. 11. ALM TVC Concept
laminar boundary layer, along with ALMs unique use of the vortex Source: See note 12 (Mair).
distinguishes the ALM TVC from other TVC designs.

3.2.1.4.1-7 Notes

__________________________________

1. G. A. Richards, and J. Ciferno, Carbon Dioxide Capture and Management in Energy Generation, 4th Joint Meeting U.S.
Sections of the Combustion Institute, Philadelphia, PA, March 2005.
2. D.N. Anderson, Effect of Hydrogen Injection on Stability and Emissions of an Experimental Premixed Prevaporized
Propane Burner, NASA Report # TM X-3301, October 1975; D.N. Anderson, Emissions of Oxides of Nitrogen from an
Experimental Premixed-Hydrogen Burner, NASA Report # TM X-3393, May 1976; J.Y. Ren, W. Qin, F.N. Egolfopoulos, and
T.T. Tsotsis, Strain-Rate Effects on Hydrogen-Enhanced Lean Premixed Combustion, 2001, Combustion and Flame 124
(2001): 717-720; J.Y. Ren, F.N. Egolfopoulos, and T.T. Tsotsis, NOx Emission Control of Lean Methane-Air Combustion
with Addition of Methane Reforming Products, Combustion Science and Technology 174, No. 4 (2002): 181-205; G.S.
Jackson, R. Sai, J.M. Plaia, C. Boggs, and K.T. Kiger, Inuence of H2 on the Response of Lean Premixed CH4 Flames to
239
3.2.1.4.1 Trapped Vortex Combustion

Highly Strained Flows, 2003, Combustion and Flame 132 (2003): 503-511; R.W. Schefer, D.M. Wicksall, and A.K. Agrawal,
Combustion of Hydrogen Enriched Methane in a Lean Premixed Swirl-Stabilized Burner, Proceedings of the Combustion
Institute 29 (2002): 843-851; T. Sidwell, K. Casleton, D. Straub, D. Maloney, G. Richards, S. Beer, and D. Ferguson,
Operation of a Pressurized Lean-Premixed Research Combustor and the Effects of Hydrogen Addition on NOx and Lean
Extinction, ASME Paper # GT2005-68752; J.N.Phillips, and R.J. Roby, Enhanced Gas Turbine Combustor Performance
Using H2-Enriched Natural Gas, ASME Paper # 99-GT-115; Q. Zhang, D.R. Noble, and T. Lieuwen, Characterization of
Fuel Composition Effects in H2/CO/CH4 Mixtures Upon Lean Blowout, ASME Paper # GT2005-68907.
3. B.H. Little Jr., and R.R. Whipkey, Locked Vortex Afterbodies, AIAA Journal of Aircraft 16, no. 5 (1979): 296-302; W.A.
Mair, The Effect of a Rear-Mounted Disc on the Drag of a Blent-Based Body of Revolution, The Aeronautical Quarterly
(November 1965): 350-360.
4. K.Y. Hsu, L.P. Goss, D.D. Trump, and W.M.Roquemore, Performance of a Trapped-Vortex Combustor, AIAA Paper # 95-
0810.
5. K.Y. Hsu, L.P.Goss, and W.M. Roquemore, (1998), Characteristics of a Trapped Vortex Combustor, Journal of Propulsion
and Power 14, no. 1 (1998): 57-65; V.R. Katta, and W.M. Roquemore, Numerical Studies on Trapped Vortex Combustion
Concepts for Stable Combustion, Journal of engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 120 (January 1998): 60-68; Katta,
V.R., Roquemore, W.M., Study on Trapped-Vortex Combustor Effect of Injection on Flow Dynamics, Journal of Propulsion
and Power, Vol. 14, No. 3, May-June 1998, pp. 273-281; G.J. Sturgess and K.Y. Hsu, Entrainment of Mainstream Flow in a
Trapped-Vortex Combustor, AIAA Paper # 97-0261; C. Stone and S. Menon, Simulation of Fuel-Air Mixing and Combustion
in a Trapped-Vortex Combustor, AIAA Paper # 2000-0478;K.Y. Hsu, C.D. Carter, V.R. Katta, and W.M. Roquemore,
Characteristics of Combustion Instability Associated with Tarpped-Vortex Burner, AIAA Paper # 99-0488; W.M. Roquemore,
et al. (2001), Trapped Vortex Combustor Concept For Gas Turbine Engines, AIAA Paper 2001-0483.
6. J. Zelina, D.T. Shouse, and R.D. Hancock, Ultra-Compact Combustors for Advanced Gas Turbine Engines, ASME Paper #
GT2004-53155; R.C. Hendricks, R.C. Ryder, A. Brankovic, D.T. Shouse, W.M. Roquemore, and N.S. Liu, Computational
Parametric Study of Fuel Distribution in an Experimental Trapped Vortex Combustor Sector Rig, ASME Paper # GT 2004-
53225; V.R. Katta and W.M. Roquemore, Simulation of PAHS in Trapped-Vortex Combustor, ASME # GT2004-54165; G.
Sturgess, J. Zelina, D. Shouse, and W.M. Roquemore, Emissions Reduction Technologies for Military Gas Turbine Engines,
Journal of Propulsion and Power 21, no. 2 (March-April, 2005): 193-217.
7. See note 5 (Roquemore, Shouse, Burrus, Johnson, Cooper, Duncan, et al.).
8. See notes 3 and 5 (Katta and Roquemore, Jan 1998).
9. D.L. Burrus, A.W. Johnson, W.M. Roquemore, and D.T. Shouse, Performance Assessment of a Prototype Trapped Vortex
Combustor Concept for Gas Turbine Application, ASME Paper # 2001-GT-0087.
10. D.L. Straub, T.G. Sidwell, D.J. Maloney, K.H. Casleton, G.A. Richards, W.A. Rogers, and G.M. Golden, Simulations of a
Rich Quench Lean (RQL) Trapped Vortex Combustor, presented at the 2000 American Flame Research Committee (AFRC)
International Symposium, Newport Beach, CA; D.L. Straub, K.H. Casleton, R.E. Lewis, T.G. Sidwell, D.J. Maloney, and G.A.
Richards, Assessment of a Rich Quench Lean (RQL) Trapped Vortex Combustor, ASME Paper #GT2003-38569.
11. J. Bucher, R.G. Edmonds, R.C. Steele, D.W. Kendrick, B.C. Chenevert, and P.C. Malte, The Development of a Lean-
Premixed Trapped Vortex Combustor, ASME Paper #GT2003-38236.
l2. M. Kalin, Overview of the ALM TVC Combustor, private communication with CEO of ALM Turbines, June, 2005.

240
BIOGRAPHY 3.2.1.4.1 Trapped Vortex Combustion

Robert Charles Steele

Ramgen Power Systems


11808 Northup Way, Suite W-190
Bellevue, WA 98005

phone: 425-828-4919, ext. 288


email: rsteele@ramgen.com

Dr. Steele has almost 20 years experience in gas turbine combustion fundamentals and applications.
He was the Combustion team leader for the Mars SoLoNOx engine at Solar Turbines. He joined
Ramgen in 2000 and has been involved in the development of lean premixed trapped or advanced
vortex combustion designs for gas turbine applications. He holds a M.S. in Aeronautics and
Astronautics and a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Washington. Having
authored 30 technical publications, Dr. Steele is a prior member of the Combustion Institute, a
member of the Combustion and Fuels committee of the ASME, and an Afliate Adjunct Professor
at the University of Washington.
3.2.1.4.2 3.2.1.4.2-1 Introduction
Low Swirl Combustion Lean-premixed (LP) combustion technologies have been adopted by virtually
every industrial gas turbine manufacturer as a Dry Low NOx (DLN) method to meet
emissions regulations which are being implemented in the US and in many regions
worldwide. But to meet more stringent ultra-low emissions standards being proposed,
the DLN combustors have to operate at conditions near the lean limit of their stability
envelopes where noise, instability, ame blowoff, and ashback can seriously affect
engine performance. To mitigate these potential problems much effort has been devoted
to explore passive control, e.g., fuel and/or air staging, and active control, e.g., feed-
back loop, strategies. Other alternatives invoke more costly exhaust gas clean up or
catalytically assisted combustion. Undoubtedly, utilization of these new schemes would
lead to more complex combustion devices consisting of tightly controlled sensors and
actuators as well as many auxiliary components. For coal-based syngas engines the
instability problems are further exacerbated due to the variability of the fuel contents.
Therefore the injectors as well as the combustors have to be optimized or re-engineered
to accommodate the changes in the combustion properties. Because most turbine
combustors are designed for natural gas, they may not be readily adaptable or scalable
to burn IGCC fuels.
One promising solution to resolve fuel exibility issues of IGCC turbines
is a novel premixed combustion technology that operates on a unique low-swirl
combustion (LSC) concept. Originally developed at the Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory as a small laboratory research burner (about 15 kW) for fundamental
studies, a good understanding of its operating principle has been obtained1. This
patented combustion concept is based on exploiting the aerodynamic properties of the
propagating premixed ames2. It is a simple, robust, and readily adaptable technology
for industrial process burners and gas turbine combustors to meet stringent emissions
targets without signicantly altering their system congurations, efciencies, turndown,
and costs. LSC has been commercialized for industrial process heaters as low-swirl
burners (LSB). Products of 150 kW to 7.5 MW (0.5 to 25 MMBtu/hr) with ultra-low
emissions of 4 7 ppm NOx and CO (both @3% O2) have been available since late
2003. Central to the commercialization pathway was the scientic knowledge obtained
from laboratory studies that has provided critical information for scaling as well as
resolving system integration issues. LSC is also being adapted for natural gas turbines.
Rig tests of prototype low-swirl injectors (LSI) for 10 MW size engines show it to be a
very promising and cost-effective solution as plug-in injector replacements to enable
current DLN turbines to meet the emission targets of < 5 ppm (@ 15% O2) for both NOx
and CO.
The LSC concept is readily adaptable for burning other hydrocarbons and
hydrogen enriched fuels. Its operating principle is based on matching the oweld
to the turbulent premixed ame speeds of ultra-lean premixed ames. Laboratory
measurements of ame speeds and ame temperatures for the alternate fuels will be
necessary to obtain basic information for optimizing the LSC design. This strategy has
Robert K. Cheng already been applied to develop fuel-exible industrial LSBs. Prototypes have been
tested with propane, ethylene, natural gas diluted with ue gases (up to 40%), and renery
gases with large hydrogen constituencies (up to 50% H2). The main technical issue for
Lawrence Berkeley National adapting LSI to IGCC syngas turbines concerns the signicantly different combustion
Laboratory properties of the two principal types of gasied coal fuels. Typical compositions of
MS70-108B, 1 Cyclorton Road the syngas from oxygen blown coal gasication are 25% H2, 40% CO, 20% H2O,
Berkeley, CA 94720 with a lower heating value of 200 BTU/ft3. With the addition of CO2 separation and
sequestration, the syngas composition shifts to mostly hydrogen at 65-85% H2, and
phone: (510) 486-5438 15-35% H2O. These syngases have diverse combustion properties and the LSI needs
email: rkcheng@lbl.gov to be optimized for the slower and faster burning ames (compared to natural gas) at
operating conditions where the ame temperatures are sufciently low to prevent NOx
formation. Other concerns stem from the high H2 diffusivity and short auto-ignition
delay time. Therefore, issues on system integration will need to address the impact
on ashback, blow-off, light-off, shut-down, off-load, and load following. Currently,
the research activities have been limited to proof-of-concept laboratory experiments
using hydrogen and hydrogen/hydrocarbon blended fuels. More extensive laboratory
studies will be necessary to develop basic LSI designs optimized for syngases and the
241 accompanying scaling rules and engineering guidelines.
3.2.1.4.2-2 Principle of Low-swirl Combustion and Technology Transfer History
Swirling ow burners have been essential to both premixed and non-premixed combustion systems because of their signicant
benecial inuences on ame stability, and combustion intensity, as well as the combustor performance. Until now, gas turbine
combustors and industrial systems utilized a high-swirl type of burner in which the swirling motion generated by the injector (or burner)
is sufciently high to produce a fully developed internal recirculation zone at the entrance of the combustor. For conventional non-
premixed combustion, the role of the large recirculation zone, also know as the toroidal vortex core, is to promote turbulent mixing
of the fuel and air. In premixed DLN systems, the recirculation zone provides a stable heat source for continuous ignition of the fresh
reactants. Refer to the review of Syred and Beer for extensive background on the basic processes and practical implementation of high-
swirl combustors3.
Low-swirl combustion is a relatively recent development. It is an excellent tool for laboratory research on ame/turbulent
interactions4. Its operating principle exploits the propagating wave nature of premixed ames and is not valid for non-premixed
combustion. Premixed ames consume the reactants in the form of self-sustained reacting waves that propagate at ame speeds controlled
by the mixture compositions, the thermodynamic conditions, and turbulence intensities. In contrast, non-premixed diffusion ames do
not propagate (i.e., move through the reactants) because burning occurs only at the mixing zones of the fuel and oxidizer streams. To
capture a fast moving turbulent premixed ame as a standing wave that remains stationary, low-swirl combustion exploits a uid
mechanical phenomenon called a divergent ow. As the name implies, divergent ow is an expanding ow stream. It is formed when the
swirl intensities are deliberately low such that vortex breakdown, a precursor to the formation of ow reversal and recirculation, does
not occur. Therefore, the LSC principle is fundamentally different from the high-swirl concept of typical DLN gas turbines where strong
toroidal vortexes are the essential ow elements to hold and continuously re-ignite the ames.
The original LSB for laboratory studies known as the jet-LSB is shown in gure 15. This burner is essentially a cylindrical tube
of 5.08 cm diameter tted with a tangential air swirler section consisting of four small inclined jets of 0.63 cm in diameter. Reactants at
a given fuel air equivalence ratio is supplied to the bottom of the tube. After passing through a turbulence generating plate, the reactants
stream interacts with the tangential ow supplied through the jets. The size of the air-jets is kept small so that the swirling motions cling
to the inner wall of the burner tube and do not penetrate into the center. When the ow exits the burner, centrifugal force due to the
swirling motions causes the ow to expand and diverge. This divergent ow has a non-swirling core surrounded by a swirling shroud that
weakens progressively downstream. Within the non-swirling center core, the adverse mean axial pressure gradient is accompanied by a
linear decrease in the mean axial velocity. This velocity down ramp provides a very stable ow conguration for a premixed turbulent
ame to freely propagate and settle at a position where the local ow velocity is equal and opposite to the ame speed. The ame does
not ashback into the burner because it cannot propagate faster than the velocity at the burner exit. Blow off is also mitigated because
the center non-swirling core provides a broad region where the ame naturally settles. More importantly, over mixture inhomogeneity or
slight ow transients cause only a shift in the ame position so that the likelihood of catastrophic ameout is minimized. This is a robust
self-adjusting mechanism for the ame to withstand transients and changes in mixture and ow conditions.

Fig. 1. A jet-LSB demonstrates the principle of low-swirl ame stabilization.

242
Robert K. Cheng
The ow feature crucial to ame stabilization is illustrated by the axial velocity proles. Plotted in gure 2 are measurements
obtained by laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV) published in Yegian and Chengs article where the effects of enclosure were evaluated
by placing the jet-LSB inside quartz cylinders of 7.62 cm diameter, 20 and 30 cm in length with or without an exit constriction of 5.4
cm diameter to simulate typical combustor enclosures6. The experimental conditions were CH4/air ames with = 0.8 and 18.5 kW
corresponding to a bulk ow velocity of U0 = 3.0 m/s. From the mean axial velocity (u) proles (top), it can be seen that the velocity
at the burner exit is slightly lower than U0 (about 70%). In the region just outside the exit (x < 20 mm), a linear decaying trend (with
increasing x) shown on all the U/U0 proles is the characteristic feature of ow divergence. The leading edge of the ame brushes are
marked by the abrupt upturn in the proles at 20 < x < 40 mm. These increases are due to combustion-generated ow acceleration. The
minimum velocity on the U/U0 proles corresponds to the velocity normal to the leading edge of the turbulent ame brushes and offers
a convenient means to determine the turbulent ame speed, ST. Studies of ST using the jet-LSB show that a linear correlation exists
between ST and turbulence intensity over a very broad range of turbulence intensities 7. This is an important property that enables the
LSC concept to be scaled to the capacities of very large industrial combustion systems.

Fig. 2. Velocity prole showing that enclosures have little effect


on the ame stabilization mechanism of a jet-LSB with CH4/air
ame of = 0.8 at 18.5 kW (reproduced with permission from
Combustion Science and Technology).

Source: D.T. Yegian and R.K. Cheng, Development of a Lean


Premixed Low-Swirl Burner for Low NOx Practical Applications,
Combustion Science and Technology 139 no. 1-6 (1998): 207-227.

Technology transfer of LSC began with adaptation to residential pool heaters of 15 to 90 kW (50 to 300 KBtu/hr). These
small domestic heaters are consumer products. To be price competitive they can only accept very simple and low-cost technologies that
utilize rudimentary electronic controls. A LSB that has separate control for swirl jets and combustion air was deemed too elaborate to be
economically and practically feasible. Therefore the key task was to develop a simpler burner that is easy to manufacture and requires
few controls. The outcome of this work was a patented vane-swirler that has since been adapted for gas turbines.
The main challenge in the swirler development process was a lack of relevant background knowledge on low-swirl ows.
All prior research efforts on swirl combustion emphasized the generation of strong and stable ow recirculation. Extensive laboratory
experimentation by LDV led to the design of gure 3. This LSB was sized for domestic heaters of 18 KW with a radius Rb of 2.54 cm.
The unique feature of the swirler is a center by-pass channel (Rc = 2 cm) to allow a portion of the reactants to pass without being swirled
by the outer annulus swirl vane section tted with eight straight blades inclined at an angle of 37.5. The novelty of this design is
the use of a perforated screen to control the ow-split between the unswirled core and the swirled annulus. The screen also produces
turbulence in the center unswirled core. Because turbulence scales with ow velocity, it provides a crucial feedback control mechanism
for the ame to accelerate and decelerate in response to changes in bulk ow, i.e. load change. The perforated screen tted to the LSB in
gure 3 has 3 mm holes arranged in a rectangular grid to give 81% blockage. By recessing this swirler assembly inside the burner tube
at a distance, L, this burner produces the key oweld features same as the jet-LSB.

243
3.2.1.4.2 Low Swirl Combustion

Fig. 3. Schematics of a vane swirler developed for the low swirl burner.

As show in gure 4, the ame generated by the LSB is lifted with a bowl shape slightly different than the one produced by a
jet-LSB. To demonstrate an exceptional feature of the LSC concept, all the components of the LSB in gure 3 were made of plastic to
show that it does not receive signicant heat from the ame. This has important practical signicance because the burner suffers little or
no material degradation due to a substantial reduction in thermal stresses.
Subsequent to the development for pool heaters, several projects have been pursued to adapt LSB to industrial and commercial
heaters. The efforts began by conducting parametric studies of LSB by varying Rb (2.54, 3.8, 5.1 and 6.35 cm) Rc (0.5 < R = Rc/Rb <
0.8), (37o to 45), and L (1 < L/Rb < 4). Also investigated were other geometric variations such as the number of vanes, vane types (i.e.
,straight and aerodynamically shaped). types of center screens and their placement positions. The laboratory experiments and eld tests
were all performed with natural gas. The scientic foundation obtained for LSC has been most valuable to support data analyses and to
devise solutions that meet specic operational and performance requirements.
These studies proved that the LSB design
is robust. To investigate turndown, the smallest
LSB with Rb= 2.54 cm was red in the open and
generated stable ames from 10 to 600 kW that
remained stationary despite the 60 to 1 change in
input rate. At the lowest thermal input of 10 kW,
the bulk ow velocity Uo corresponds to 1.7 m/s.
This is the minimum allowable operating point
for natural gas ring. Flashback becomes likely
if Uo were reduced further because the velocity at
the burner exit would be too close to the ST. The
minimum Uo criterion to avoid ashback applies
unequivocally to the larger burners because the
LSB subscribes to constant velocity scaling. This
simply means that the thermal input of LSB is
directly proportional to Uo and Rb2. The effects
of enclosure geometry on LSB performances
was also investigated by testing several versions
of the Rb = 6.35 cm LSB in boilers and furnaces
at 150 kW to 2.3 MW. The results showed that
vane shape and screen placement had little effect
on ame noise, ame stability, and lean blow
off. Most signicantly, emissions of NOx depend
primarily on . As shown in gure 5 by the NOx
emissions from LSB of various sizes, the trends
with are similar despite differences in thermal
inputs and combustor geometries to show its
capability to accept different fuels. Additional
tests of the 6.35 cm LSB were performed with
alternate fuels including natural gas diluted with
up to 40% ue gases and renery gases with
hydrogen constituent up to 50%. Fig. 4. A vane-LSB ring at 18KW.

244
Robert K. Cheng

Fig 5. NOx emissions of LSB in furnaces and boilers of 300 kW to 1.8 MW.

In 2003, Maxon Corporation commercialized a line of industrial LSBs called M-PAKT burners. These products are developed
for direct process heat applications of 0.3 to 1.8 MW (1- 6 MMBtu/hr) with a guarantee of 4 7 ppm NOx and CO (both at 3% O2)
throughout its 10:1 turndown range. With these ultra-low emissions, the M-PAKT burners meet the most stringent air-quality rules in
the U.S. As shown by the schematic in gure 6, the M-PAKT burner has a very simple compact design consisting of the swirler with
air supplied by a blower through a plenum and a multi-port natural gas injector delivering fuel just upstream of the swirler. The control
system is standard with conventional mechanical linkages and ow dampers. The exceptional performance of these commercial LSBs
demonstrates that the implementation of LSC not only provides very effective emissions control but also improves system performance
and reliability by eliminating the need for elaborate controls and intricate auxiliary components. The economic and operational benet
of this approach cannot be understated. In their continuing effort to commercialize LSC technology, Maxon engineers applied the
scaling rules described in the next section to design a new LSB product of 7.5 MW (25 MMBtu/hr). The rst installation was complete
in February 2005. This large burner has a radius Rb of 25.4 cm and has an improved 20:1 turndown. It also incorporates a liquid fuel
injector for dual-fuel ring.

3.2.1.4.2-3 Scaling rules and


engineering guidelines
The current size range of LSB from the smallest
laboratory 7 kW unit of Rb = 1.27 cm to the largest 7.5 MW
industrial burner represents a scaling factor of over 1000.
This has been accomplished by using a set of scaling rules
for the geometric variables and engineering guidelines
for the LSBs to meet system integration and operational
requirements. These design rules and guidelines are the
signicant outcomes of the technology development efforts.
They represent the synthesis of the knowledge gained from
extensive laboratory experiments and analyses based on
theories on ame temperature, ame speeds, and reaction
chemistry as well as combustion aerodynamics, turbulence,
and turbulence/ame interactions. Though these rules and
guidelines have been developed for natural gas, similar
guidelines can be obtained for other fuels to account for the
resulting changes in combustion properties. Fig. 6. Emissions and schematic of a commercial LSB
manufactured by Maxon Corporation, Muncie, Indiana.

245
3.2.1.4.2 Low Swirl Combustion

Central to the scaling rule is the denition of a swirl number, S, for the LSB. It is derived from the formal denition of S based
on the ratio of angular to axial ow momentum 8:

(1)

where Gang is the angular momentum in the swirled section and Gx is the linear momentum ux through the unswirled center
core and the swirled annulus. These terms can be calculated by integrating the mean axial, U, and the mean swirl, W, velocity components
across the burner exit. However, this denition is not convenient because velocity data are not usually available. For engineering
applications, a swirl number denition based on the geometry of the device is more amenable. With the assumption that the distribution
of the axial ow remains at, and U and W at the burner exit are kinematically related to the blade angle as tan = U/W , the axial ux
of angular momentum in the annular section is then written as follows:

(2)

Here, Ua is a mean axial velocity supplied through the swirl annulus. By assuming at axial velocity distribution, the linear
momentum ux from the two regions of the burner is then calculated as follows:

(3)

where Uc is a mean axial velocity through the center core. With Equation (1) as dened, the geometric swirl number for the vane
swirl burner is then:

(4)

Here, R is the ratio of centerbody to burner radii R= Rc / Rb. It is simplied further when Uc/Ua is expressed in terms of m the
mass ux ratio (ow-split) m = m c / m a through the centerbody ( m c ) and annular ( m a ). The mass ux ratio is the same as the ratio
of the effective areas of the center core and the swirl annulus and can be determined simply by the use of standard ow pressure drop
procedure. Obviously, it is a more convenient form for engineering designs.
The scaling rules were deduced from studying the inuences of varying S, L and Rb on the burner operation. To start, the
LSB prototype of gure 2 was used as a benchmark with its swirl number varied by the use of four different screens with 65 to 75%
blockage. The swirl numbers were 0.4 < S < 0.44 corresponding to m of 0.8 to 1 meaning that 44 to 50% of the reactants bypassed the
swirl annulus. These swirlers installed with L varied from 4 to 12 cm. The 16 LSBs with various combinations were tested with methane
air ames at 5 < U0 < 25 m/s covering a thermal input range of 18 to 90 kW. All burners were found to be operable. Increasing S pulled
the ame closer to the burner but the lean blowoff (LBO) remained relatively unaffected indicating that the performance of the LSB is
not highly sensitive to a small variation in S. The differences were mainly with ame positions and the fuel/air equivalence ratio at lean
blowoff, LBO . Large swirler recesses generated a highly lifted ame but the overall ame stability remained relatively unchanged. A
short recess distance produces higher LBO indicating a compromise in the capability to support ultra-lean ames.
Additional studies were performed to explore the impact of radius Rb as well as R (0.5 to 0.8) and (30 to 45). The swirl
numbers of the burners with various combinations of Rb, R and were varied by tting them with screens of different blockages. The
most signicant nding was that the LSBs with larger diameters Rb operate at the same range of S (around 0.4 to 0.5) as the smaller
burner. Their performances in terms of ame stability and LBO were also identical. Moreover, decreasing R has no effects on emissions
or performance but brings about a signicant benet in lowering the pressure drop of the LSB. This can be explained by the fact that
reducing R enlarges the swirl annulus and lowers its drag. To maintain a swirl number of 0.4 to 0.5, a screen of lower blockage is
required. For example, the screen used for the Rb = 6.35 cm with R = 0.5 has a 60% blockage compared to 65 to 81% needed for the R =
0.8 LSB. This combination effectively lowers the overall pressure drop of the burner. The drag coefcients determined for the different
LSBs show them to depend only on R and independent of Rb. This knowledge is very important in the design of LSBs that will meet the
various system requirements and efciency targets. 246
Robert K. Cheng
The scaling rules for the LSB were established from these results. They are the same regardless of burner radius (up to Rb =
25.4 cm). For stable and reliable operation, S of a LSB should be between 0.4 and 0.55. The swirler can have straight or curved vanes
with angle from 37 to 45o. The optimum center channel to burner radius ratios R can be from 0.5 to 0.8. Once and R are dened,
the blockage of the center channel screen can be varied to set S within the range of 0.4 to 0.5. In addition, L can be from 2 to 3 times
the burner radius Rb. To determine the appropriate burner size, Rb, guidelines have been developed to optimize for the desired thermal
input range, turndown, fuel pressure, fan power (pressure drop), combustion chamber size, and other physical constraints. The criterion
for minimum thermal input is a bulk ow velocity of Uo = 3 m/s. This is simply the ashback point for natural gas (U0 1.7 m/s) with
a built-in safety factor. There is no restriction on the maximum thermal input owing to the high turndown (at least 20) available. To
optimize for the fuel pressure and fan power, the drag coefcient for different R can be used. The optimum enclosure radius for the LSB
is between 3 to 4 times Rb. Smaller enclosures restrict ow divergence and forces the ame to move inside the burner. Larger enclosures
allow the ame to over-expand and generate internal ow patterns that negatively affect emissions. These rules and guidelines are easy
to apply and are versatile enough to provide many design options to build simple and low cost LSBs for easy integration to existing or
new systems.

3.2.1.4.2-4 Floweld characteristics and their relevance to ame stability


Low-swirl combustion exploits combustion aerodynamics.
Understanding the oweld characteristics of LSB and how these
characteristics affect ame properties is central to the future
development of the technology for IGCC turbines. Laboratory
experiments remain an important step to provide an understanding
of the underlying mechanisms that enable LSB to maintain its
performance over a large range of conditions. The advent of
Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) has greatly facilitated the
characterization of the LSB owelds. In a recent investigation, a
series of experiments were conducted to investigate the evolution
of ow and ame features with increasing Uo. PIV captures in 2D
the velocity distributions in a relatively large region. Our system
was congured to have a 13 x 13 cm eld-of-view covering the
entire ame region of the laboratory burners. Shown in gure 7
is an example of the velocity vectors and turbulence stresses for
a LSB with S = 0.53, Rb = 2.54 cm, R = 0.5, = 37o and L = 6.3
cm burning a methane/air ame of = 0.8 and Uo = 5.0 m/s. The
leading edge of the ame brush is outlined by the broken line. These
velocity vectors show that the LSB oweld is relatively uniform
and free of steep velocity gradients. The background contours of
the positive (red) and negative (blue) shear stresses also show that
high turbulence stresses are relegated to the outer edges where the
reactants mix with the room air. The center ow entering the ame
brush is in fact relatively free of large shear stresses. The absence
of high stresses means that the ames are much less vulnerable
to stress induced non-uniform heat release and local quenching
at ultra-lean conditions. This feature is very unlike those in other Fig. 7. Velocity vectors and shear stresses (background
burners where steep velocity gradients are found at the ame contours) obtained in Rb = 2.54 cm LSB with methane air ame
stabilization region and the shear stresses can lead to premature of = 0.8 and U0 = 5 m/s. White dash line marks the leading
ame blowoff. edge of the ame brush.
The evolution of the oweld with Uo was investigated
by applying PIV at 5 < U0 < 17.5 m/s. Shown in gure 8 are the
normalized axial velocity proles from the non-reacting cases. The
fact that the proles of the normalized axial velocity, U/U0, and
the normalized two-component turbulent kinetic energy, q/U0 (q
= ((u2 + v`2)/2)1/2) collapse to their respective trends shows that the
LSB oweld exhibits similarity feature. Similarity is also shown
by radial proles of U/Uo and V/Uo meaning that the key oweld
features are preserved at different bulk ow velocities.

247
3.2.1.4.2 Low Swirl Combustion

a)

b)

Fig. 8. Normalized centerline proles of non-reacting ow


produced by a laboratory LSB showing self similarity features.

Floweld similarity explains why the ame maintains at a relatively xed position regardless of U0. This can be illustrated by
invoking an equality at the leading edge position of the ame brush, xf, (typically at 1.5 < x < 2.5 cm for this LSB).

(5)

Here, xo is the virtual origin of the linearly divergent portions of the axial proles and has a negative value. As discussed earlier,
ST of the LSB is linearly dependent on the rms velocity of the turbulence u such that ST = SL (1+ K u) where SL is the laminar ame
speed and K is an empirical constant that is in the order of 2.5 for methane. Substituting this into Eq. 5 and dividing both sides by Uo
results in

(6)

The similar feature of the U/Uo proles means that the normalized axial divergence rate (i.e., (dU/dx)/Uo) has a constant value
( 8 m-1 from data of Fig 8a). On the right hand side, (1 + K u)/Uo tends to a constant value for large u. This is because the turbulence
at the ame stabilization point is isotropic such that u scales linearly with U0 as expected of turbulence produced by a perforated plate.
Therefore, if SL is held constant, (i.e., at a xed ) the ame position xf attains a constant value that is independent of Uo and u. As long
as the ow similarity is preserved, the ame can be held at the same position. Changing will have an insignicant effect on xf because
the range of SL for CH4 air ames (0.2 to 0.5 m/s) is small compared to the other values and constants in Eq (6). This analysis also shows
that the turbulent ame speed ST is the important combustion parameter to consider when adapting the LSC for different fuels.
However, measurements and predictions of ST are still active areas of fundamental research and data for the type of fuels IGCC
turbines utilize are unavailable. But a lack of scientic ST data does not present a signicant technical hurdle because the LSI developed
for natural gas can be the benchmark to be adjusted for the slower and faster burning syngases. From Eq. (6) it can be seen that faster
burning gases (e.g., high H2 constituents) need a lower divergence rate. Conversely, the slower burning gases (e.g., highly diluted
syngas) need higher divergence rates. Of course, there are other combustion characteristics such as heat release ratios and preferential
diffusion of the fuel components (e.g. between H2 and CH4) that need to be considered. From our studies of methane, ethylene, propane,
and hydrogen ames, contributions from these other factors tend to be of secondary nature.
248
Robert K. Cheng

3.2.1.4.2-5 Development of low-swirl injectors for natural gas turbines


To adapt low-swirl combustion for gas turbines the most pressing question is whether or not this ame stabilization method
is operable at elevated temperatures and pressures. To seek an answer, a jet-LSB of Rb = 3.8 cm was constructed for proof-of-concept
test at Solar Turbines, San Diego. Successful ring of this LSB at typical gas turbine combustor inlet temperatures (220 and 341C),
pressures (5 and 10 atm), and loads (0.6 to 1.2 kg/s air) showed the concept to be valid. Light-off of the LSB was easy even at elevated
temperatures and pressures. The ame remained very stable and free of unacceptable pressure uctuations towards lean blow-off. The
trends of the jet-LSB emissions were also typical of other DLN injectors but the overall concentrations of NOx and CO were higher. This
was caused by the poor mixing from a rudimentary fuel spoke injector and signicant dilution from the nitrogen swirl jets.
Following the proof-of-concept tests the next logical step was to design and evaluate a vane LSI prototype. The lack of
relevant background knowledge on low-swirl ows and turbulent ame speeds at gas turbine conditions remained the main obstacle. To
circumvent this difculty and reduce engineering design efforts and prototype fabrication costs, a decision was made to pursue a fast-
track developmental path which exploited, as much as possible, the current injector hardware parts. Because the annulus swirler is the
main component of Solar Turbines SoLoNOx Taurus 70 high-swirl injectors (HSI), the preferred option was to investigate if the HSI
swirler could be converted to operate in the low-swirl mode.

Fig. 9. Schematics and photographs of the LSI (top a-c) and the HSI (bottom d-f)

The LSI (Fig. 9 a-c) converted from the HSI (Fig. 9 (e-f) has the same basic conguration as the LSB. The SoLoNOx swirler
(Fig. 9c) has a modular design such that the solid centerbody can be easily removed to form the center-channel for the LSI (Fig 9b).
Thus, the two key parameters of the LSI, (40o) and R (0.63), are xed by SoLoNOx swirler having an outer radius of 3.27 cm and
a centerbody radius of 2.06 cm with 16 aerodynamically shaped curved vanes. To congure the other LSI parameters, S and L, the
guidelines for atmospheric LSB were followed. The swirler recess of L = 9.5 cm satises the 2 < L/Rb, < 3 criterion. The swirl number,
S, was set between 0.4 and 0.55 by the use of center channel screens with blockage of 50 to 73%. These screens were tted to the LSI
and tested at laboratory conditions with CH4/air mixtures at a range of stoichiometry and a xed bulk ow velocity, U0 = 5 m/s ( 35
kW). The optimum was a 58% blockage screen that stabilized the ame at 1.5 to 2.5 cm downstream of the injector exit. From effective
area measurements, m for this LSI was 0.3, thus 23% of the reactants passed through the center channel unswirled. This gave a swirl
number S of 0.5 for the LSI. In comparison, the swirl number determined for the HSI was 0.73. Even though the difference in S between
LSI and HSI is slight, gure 9f shows that the HSI ame is attached to the centerbody while the LSI ame of gure 9c is detached.

249
3.2.1.4.2 Low Swirl Combustion
The owelds of the LSI and the HSI ames were also investigated by PIV9. Figure 10 shows the results obtained for CH4/air
ames with = 0.8 at 87 kW. Under these conditions, the bulk velocities for the LSI and HSI were 9.6 and 12 m/s respectively. To
illustrate the differences between the owelds of the two injectors, streamlines have been traced from the velocity vectors. For the
LSI, its oweld features are essentially the same as those of the LSB of gure 3. The spreading of the streamlines near the bottom
corresponds to the divergent ow and their slight bends through the ame brush are associated with heat release effects. Downstream
of the ame brush, the streamlines are relatively parallel showing a uniform ow of the hot products. The color ooded contours of the
shear stresses in the background illustrate again that the ame does not experience high stresses.
In contrast, the oweld of the LSI is characterized by several high shear regions with the ame zones encountering the highest
stress levels. These large velocity uctuations with very steep instantaneous local gradients make the ame vulnerable to stress-induced
non-uniform heat releases as well as local ame extinctions. Downstream of the ame, strong recirculation is shown by the streamlines
forming into two separate loops. This is the crucial ow structure for HSI that provides a steady source of hot products for igniting
the incoming reactants and holding the propagating ame. The PIV results clearly show that HSI owelds are dominated by very
large velocity gradients and vortex structures. With the LSI oweld showing more uniformity, the ame characteristics and behavior
produced by the two injectors are fundamentally different.

Fig. 10. Streamlines and shear stresses of HSI and LSI burner CH4/air ames at = 0.8 and 87 kW.
The turbulent ame brushes are outlined by the white dash lines.

Subsequent to the laboratory tests, the LSI was evaluated to determine its operability at gas turbine conditions as well as its
effectiveness in lowering emissions. The rst set of tests was performed with preheated air at atmospheric pressure to observe ame
positions, ame shift with Uo, and sensitivity to mixture homogeneity. Visual observation during these tests showed that the locations of
the ames were not highly sensitive to U0, and initial temperature T0. Flashback did not occur throughout the test matrix. The ame
size was similar to that of the HSI ame indicating that the LSI can use the same combustor liner. Tests performed with two premixers
with +/- 3% and +/- 10% mixture uniformity showed no effects on NOx emissions, overall ame behavior and ame characteristics.

250
Robert K. Cheng

Next the LSI was tted to a standard lm-cooled


combustor liner and tested in a high pressure combustion
rig. The combustor rig-test matrix covering To of 360 to
430C, P0 of 5 to 15 atm and air ow of 0.4 to 1.33 kg/s
represented the partial and full load conditions of Solar
Turbines SoLoNOx engines of 5 to 7 MW. Successful
ring of the LSI at these conditions showed that its
operating range is fully compatible with that of the
HSI. Throughout these tests, there were no indications
of shifting in ame positions or ashback. Excessive
acoustic amplitudes were not observed and peak rms
acoustics pressures were generally below the allowable
3.4 kPa established for production hardware. Figure 11
shows NOx and CO emissions from the LSI (corrected to
15% O2) compared with the emissions of HSI. Due to the
variation in T0 and P0, the combustion temperature was not
proportional to . Instead, the emission data was plotted
Fig. 11. NOx and CO emissions of natural gas LSI and HSI from
against the theoretical adiabatic ame temperature Tad
rig-tests at 5 < P0 < 15 atm and 360C < T0 < 430C.
(for the combustor-rig Tad was calculated for the primary
zone). As can be seen, all the NOx emissions from LSI
collapsed onto a consistent trend that crossed the 5 ppm
threshold at Tad < 1920K. The strong correlation of NOx
emissions with Tad showed that thermal NOx was the predominant reaction pathway. In comparison, NOx emissions of HSI were generally
higher and only approached the 5 ppm NOx threshold before LBO. The over 2.5 times NOx emissions reduction offered by LSI represents
a signicant improvement of DLN technology. Moreover, these results imply that the LSI can operate farther away from LBO (higher
Tad) where it is less prone to combustion oscillation. Although the CO emissions in gure 8b do not show a consistent trend, all but one
point from the high T0 and P0 runs is below 5 ppm. Therefore, the LSI does not entail compromising CO for the sake of lowering NOx.
The emissions from LSI rig-tests are very encouraging and show that the LSI has the potential to bring about a substantial
reduction in NOx emissions from DLN gas turbines without incurring signicant add-on cost or system complexity. The lowest NOx
emission of < 2 ppm (at 15% O2) is comparable with those from the more costly and much less durable catalytic combustor. Despite
the complexity of the NOx formation mechanisms, the oweld characteristics of LSI may provide an explanation for why it is highly
effective in reducing NOx. Recent studies of high-swirl combustion have shown a correlation between NOx emissions and the residence
time within the recirculation zone. Trapped by the recirculation vortex, a portion of the combustion products resides for a prolonged
period at high temperature, which allows the NOx formation mechanism to continue and increase in concentrations. The PIV results
show clearly that the LSI does not have a recirculation zone to trap a large recirculating mass, therefore, the residence time of the hot
products in a LSI is much shorter than in a HSI and truncates NOx formation in the post ame region.
Continuing the effort to develop the LSI for SoLoNOx turbines, additional tests were conducted to show that the emissions
and ame stability of LSI are not highly sensitive to mixture inhomogeneity. Its design can easily incorporate components needed for
normal engine operations, e.g., plenum, liner, ignitor, pilot, and premixer. Therefore, adaptation of LSI to current engines does not
require signicant hardware modications or change in control strategy or protocol. Currently, an engine-ready LSI prototype has been
designed and has undergone a series of single-injector rig tests to verify its readiness for start up, shutdown, load change and ofoad. It
uses the production swirlers made for Solar Turbines Taurus 70 engines integrated with a pilot and a multi-spokes fuel injector similar
to the kind used in current HSIs. The prototype LSIs have been designed to be backward-compatible as drop-in replacements for the
current HSIs.

3.2.1.4.2-6 Development of LSI for IGCC


The development of LSI for natural gas turbines shows that laboratory research is directly applicable to engineering of the
turbine hardware. This process is efcient and cost effective and does not require extensive computational uid dynamics efforts. The
same approach is being taken to adapt the LSI concept for IGCC turbines. Currently, progress has been limited to proof-of-concept
laboratory demonstration of LSI burning hydrogen and hydrogen/hydrocarbon blended fuels. Much more extensive laboratory studies
will be necessary to obtain better understanding of the properties of the various syngas ames to congure the LSI to accommodate
the changes in the reactivity, diffusivity and exothermicity. The laboratory studies will also be used for developing scaling rules and
engineering guidelines that can be applied to IGCC gas turbines of different sizes.
Due to the different constituencies and concentrations of the two principal types of gasied coal fuels, accommodating the
variability in fuel properties is the main challenge in adapting the LSC technology for IGCC turbines. From oxygen-blown coal
gasication, typical compositions of the syngas are 25% H2, 40% CO, 20% H2O. This fuel has a lower heating value of only 8.3 Mj/m3
compared to 42 Mj/m3 for natural gas. Due to the high level of dilution, the ame speeds of this syngas are much lower than those of
natural gas and they also burn at lower ame temperatures. The key design issue is to stabilize these weak and not highly ammable
ames without affecting engine operability. Mitigating NOx emissions will not be a signicant challenge due to the lowered ame
251
3.2.1.4.2 Low Swirl Combustion

temperatures. The second type of syngas is produced with CO2 separation and sequestration to change the compositions to mostly
hydrogen at 65-85% H2, 15-35% H2O. This syngas is much more ammable with ame speeds several times higher than natural if it
is not diluted by N2 from the air separation unit. The basic issues for LSI development are now shifted to stabilizing these potentially
faster ames at very lean conditions where the ame temperatures are sufciently low to prevent NOx formations. Additional issues
arise due to the high diffusivity of H2 and its low ammability limit. Moreover, H2 rich mixtures have shorter auto-ignition delays than
hydrocarbon mixtures. Therefore, integration of the LSI with fuel injection and premixer will be a signicant part of the development.
To gain insights on some of these issues, a study was performed with a LSB of Rb = 2.54 cm, R = 0.6 by burning blended
mixtures of laboratory grade CH4 and H2 with concentrations progressively varied from pure CH4 to pure H2. The test conditions were
the same (Uo = 10 m/s) as the conditions for the original laboratory experiments performed to develop the natural gas LSI. While this
LSB was found to burn pure H2-air ames, a limiting ame phenomenon was found. Shown in gure 12 is the ame stabilization map
obtained for the CH4-H2 mixtures consisting of the (LBO) limit as well as an additional limit where partially rim-attached ames were
observed. The LBO limit is the boundary between the blowoff region and the stable lifted ame region. It has a decreasing trend towards
lower values with increasing H2. This is consistent with increasing ammability due to the presence of H2. However, for a mixture
with more than 20% H2, the ames transition from fully-lifted ames to partially rim-attached ames when is increased. The attached
ame indicates that the mixing layer between the swirling reactants and the surrounding air has become ammable. This is caused by
H2 diffusing preferentially into the surrounding ambient air when the overall fuel concentration increases with . partially attached
ame is a consequence of the tail end of the lifted ame curled back upstream to ignite the mixing zones. While this phenomenon does
not seem to affect the ame at the center region, it alters the overall oweld dynamics and how the ame behaves within a combustor.
The limit for partially attached ames also showed a decreasing trend with increasing H2 and thus the range of conditions for pure H2
ames was very small. This phenomenon showed that the highly diffusive nature of H2 needs to be carefully considered in the design of
LSI for syngases.
At test condition of U0 = 10 m/s, the 100% H2 ames are close to the ashback point. This is because of the high laminar ame
speeds compared to those of methane. In accord with Eq. (6), the faster burning H2 ames also sit closer to the burner exit. The close
proximity of the H2 ames can be one of the contributing factors for the onset of partial ame attachment. Therefore, to modify the
current natural gas LSB for syngases with high H2 constituency, the ame needs to be maintained at a position further downstream. This
can be accomplished by relaxing the normalized divergence rate (dU/dx)/Uo through lowering of the swirl number S. Conversely, for
syngases with low heating values, the current LSB will generate ames that are further downstream and this is not optimum. To draw
these ames closer to the burner exit, it would be necessary to increase the normalized divergence rate by increasing S. This illustrates
that the ame speed is the important parameter for engineering the LSI for
different fuels.
Consequently, adjusting the LSI swirl number for each fuel is the
rst step toward development for IGCC turbines. Using the natural gas LSI as
a benchmark, the strategy is to determine the S range for different fuels with
various dilution levels. The results will be analyzed to obtain operating maps
expressed in terms of S, Tad, and . Using the ame temperature and NOx
emissions as the reference parameters, these maps will guide the development
of fuel-exible LSI prototypes that can accommodate several fuel types.
Renement of the designs to further optimize for differences in combustion
characteristics such as exothermicity, preferential diffusion of the fuel
components (e.g., between H2 and CH4) and other non-linear behavior can be
accomplished through further rig tests with preheated air and at simulated gas
turbine conditions.
As LSI technology is still under development, issues concerning its
full integration to gas turbine engines are still being investigated. The signicant
outstanding issue is, of course, the combustion oscillation characteristics of
the LSI. The interesting question from both the scientic and technological
perspectives is whether or not the absence of a large recirculation zone in the
LSI ame will have an inuence on the combustion oscillation characteristics.
From eld tests of atmospheric boiler and furnaces, the LSBs show relatively
low tendencies to incite combustion oscillations. Rig-tests of the LSI at Fig. 12. Stability limits of a Rb = 2.54 cm, R =
simulated gas turbine conditions also indicate the absence of a strong 0.6 LSB for CH4-H2-air ames at Uo = 10 m/s.
characteristic acoustic signature from the ame. Though these observations are
encouraging, the combustion oscillation characteristics of LSB and LSI need
to be investigated more systematically to gain a fundamental understanding
for addressing issues that may arise when the technology is adapted for more
complex systems such as IGCC gas turbines.

252
Robert K. Cheng

3.2.1.4.2-7 Conclusions
Low-swirl combustion (LSC) is a very promising simple, robust, and cost-effective solution to attain single-digit NOx operation.
Already commercialized for industrial process heaters and currently being adapted for natural gas turbines, development of LSC for
IGCC turbines can provide a simple and direct solution to resolve important complex coupling issues concerning fuel-variability,
reliability, and emissions. LSC exploits a patented combustion aerodynamic process to burn ultra-lean premixed turbulent ames that
emit very low levels of NOx. Originally developed for basic research, a good understanding of its operating principle has been obtained.
The principle is fundamentally different than the high-swirl method used in all current DLN engines. Instead of relying on a very high
level of swirl to generate a well formed vortex to hold the ame, LSC takes the opposite approach. By lowering the swirl intensity until
a recirculation zone is not formed, it generates a divergent ow with a non-swirling center ow region. Linear velocity decay within the
center region provides a stable ow conguration where the premixed ame freely propagates and maintains itself at the position where
the local ow velocity is equal and opposite to the turbulent ame speed. Flash back is prevented because the ame cannot propagate
faster than the velocity upstream. Blow-off is mitigated because the center ow region provides a broad range of velocities where the
ame naturally re-settles during occasional swings in ow or mixture conditions.
For practical implementations, the scientic background of LSC provides a sound foundation for the development of a patented
vane swirler. It consists of an annulus swirl vane section found in many other swirler designs but with an open center channel that allows
a portion of the reactants to remain unswirled. Laboratory experiments, prototype development and testing, and extensive analysis of the
ow and emission data have produced a set of scaling rules and engineering guidelines that have been applied successfully to develop
and commercialize low-swirl burners (LSB) of 17 kW to 7.5 MW for meeting ultra-low emission goals of < 7 ppm NOx and CO at 5%
O2. Central to the rules and guidelines is a new denition of the swirl number based on the geometric variables that include the vane
angle, ratio of the center channel radius to burner radius, swirler recess, and the ow split between the center core and swirled ow. By
setting specic ranges for the swirl number and for the geometric variables, LSB can be congured to meet emissions goals as well as
system integration, performance, and operational requirements. These rules and guidelines have also been applied to develop low-swirl
injectors (LSI) for 5 to 7 MW gas turbine engines. To be compatible with existing engines, the LSI prototypes were made using the
key components engineered for current production high-swirl injectors. Single injector rig-tests of the LSI prototypes showed them to
emit < 5 ppm NOx and CO at 15% O2 at simulated part-load and full-load conditions. This represents a 2.5 times emissions reduction
compared to current DLN high-swirl combustion technology. These results also showed that atmospheric laboratory experiments are
directly applicable for designing and engineering of gas turbine hardware. Upon the completion of the single injector rig-tests, a set of
pre-production LSI prototypes is being fabricated for engine tests in late 2006. These prototypes have been designed to utilize many key
components from current production DLN high-swirl injectors and congured to be drop-in replacements for existing engines. Due to
the robust low-swirl combustion mechanism, the operability of the engine such as lightoff, shutdown, off load, and load change are not
expected to be affected when the new LSI are used. From system integration and cost standpoints, the most signicant feature of both
the LSBs and LSIs is that they can be fully compatible with current systems using some of the same components (i.e., plenum, swirler,
air compressors, blowers, premixer, pilots and ignitor) but with signicant performance improvements in terms of emissions, turndown,
and stability.
The laboratory studies also provide the scientic insights necessary for adapting the technology to accept different gaseous
fuels. Measurements of the velocity distributions and turbulence statistics have shown that low-swirl produces self-similar owelds
that scale linearly with bulk velocities (i.e., input power). Because premixed turbulent ames propagate at turbulent ame speeds that
also scale linearly with the turbulence intensity and bulk ow velocity, the ow and ame features are coupled optimally to give LSC its
exceptional performances. Therefore, the adaptation of LSC to different IGCC syngases involves primarily the adjustment of the LSC
oweld via the swirl intensity and other geometric variables to accommodate for the changes in the ame speeds. Proof-of-concept
laboratory experiments have already been performed and have shown that LSC can burn pure H2/air ames. The plan towards further
development for IGCC includes experimental measurements of the ame speeds for syngases and developing guidelines for fuel-exible
LSIs.

253
3.2.1.4.2 Low Swirl Combustion

3.2.1.4.2-8 Notes

___________________________

1. C.K. Chan et al., Freely Propagating Open Premixed Turbulent Flames Stabilized by Swirl,Proc. Comb. Inst., 24 (1992): 511-
518; B. Bedat and R.K. Cheng, Experimental Study of Premixed Flames in Intense Isotropic Turbulence, Combustion and
Flame 100, no. 3 (1995): 485-494; R.K. Cheng, Velocity and Scalar Characteristics of Premixed Turbulent Flames Stabilized
By Weak Swirl, Combustion and Flame 101, no.1-2 (1995): 1-14.
2. R.K.Cheng, 1998. Ultralean Low Swirl Burner. U.S. Patent 5735681, (The Regents of the University of California), led
March 19, 1993 and issued April 7, 1998; R.K. Cheng and D.T. Yegian, 1999. Mechanical Swirler for a Low-NOx Weak-
Swirl Burner. U.S. Patent 5,879,148, (The Regents of the University of California), led April 16, 1997 and issued March 9,
1999 .
3. N. Syred and J.M. Beer, Combustion in Swirling Flow: A Review, Combustion and Flame 23 (1974): 143-201.
4. T. Plessing et al., Measurement of the Turbulent Burning Velocity and the Structure of Premixed Flames on a Low Swirl
Burner, Proc. Comb. Inst. 28 (2000): 359-366; I. G. Shepherd et al., Premixed Flame Front Structure in Intense Turbulence,
Proc. Comb. Inst. 29 (2002): 1833-1840; R.K. Cheng, et al., Premixed Turbulent Flame Structures in Moderate and
Intense Isotropic Turbulence, Combustion Science and Technology 174, no.1(2002): 29-59; C. Kortschik, T. Plessing, and N.
Peters, Laser Optical Investigation of Turbulent Transport of Temperature Ahead of the Preheat Zone in a Premixed Flame,
Combustion and Flame 136, no.1-2 (2004): 43-50; L.P.H. de Goey et al., Analysis of the Flame Thickness of Turbulent
Flamelets in the Thin Reaction Zones Regime, Proc. Comb. Inst. 30, no 1 (2005): . 859-866; also see
note 2 above.
5. See note 2 above (Bedat & Cheng).
6. See note 1 above.
7. See note 2 above (Bedat & Cheng).
8. See note 4 above.
9. M.R. Johnson et al., A Comparison of the Flowelds and Emissions of High-swirl Injectors and Low-swirl Injectors for
Lean Premixed Gas Turbines, Proc. Comb. Inst. 30 (2005): 2867 - 287

254
BIOGRAPHY 3.2.1.4.2 Low Swirl Combustion

Robert K. Cheng

Lawrence Berkeley National


Laboratory
MS70-108B, 1 Cyclorton Road
Berkeley, CA 94720

phone: (510) 486-5438


email: rkcheng@lbl.gov

Dr. Robert K. Cheng is a Senior Scientist and the leader of the Combustion Technologies Group
in the Environmental Energy Technolgies Division of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. He
received a B. S., a M. S., and a Ph. D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of California
at Berkeley. Since 1977, he has been leading experimental research on fundamental combustion
uid mechanics with an emphasis on lean premixed turbulent ames and has published over
sixty papers on fundamental turbulent ame properties. His recent discoveries of novel ame
stabilization concepts for ultra-low NOx combustion systems have generated three patents. These
technologies are in various stages of development and commercialization for industrial heating
equipment and gas turbines.
3.2.2.1 3.2.2.1-1 Introduction
Fuel-Rich Catalytic
Combustion Currently, gas turbines operating on natural gas offer the lowest
achievable NOx emissions without exhaust-gas aftertreatment, as compared
to other fuels. Commercially, this has been achieved through the use of lean-
premixed combustion systems, allowing NOx emissions below 9 ppm (at 15%
O2) to be guaranteed for natural gas operation, and emissions near 5 ppm to be
demonstrated1. Lower emissions are needed, however, and are possible through
the use of catalytic combustion2.
Because natural gas has historically offered the greatest potential for
low emissions, catalytic combustor development has until recently focused
largely on methane and natural gas operation. As a result, the unique properties
of methane have led to a number of development issues and design strategies,
Dr. Lance Smith generally related to the behavior of Pd-based catalysts used for methane
oxidation.
In particular, for methane oxidation under fuel-lean conditions, only
Pd-based catalysts among the PGM group are currently practical, because
only they offer acceptable activity, lightoff temperature, and resistance to
volatilization3. Unfortunately Pd-PdO catalyst morphology and its reactions
with methane are complex, and lead to complex behaviors such as deactivation
at high temperature (above about 750C / 1380F), hysteresis in reaction rate
over heating and cooling cycles4, and oscillations in activity and temperature5.
In addition, lightoff and extinction temperatures are well above 300C (570F)
for fuel-lean reaction on Pd-based catalysts, thus requiring the use of a preburner
Dr. Shahrokh Etemad in many engine applications6.
Fuel-rich operation of the catalyst circumvents many of these issues
and provides signicant catalyst advantages, including a wider choice of
catalyst type (non-Pd catalysts are active to methane under fuel-rich conditions),
improved catalyst durability (non-oxidizing catalyst environment), and low
catalyst lightoff and extinction temperatures. Catalyst extinction temperature is
particularly low, and is generally less than 200C (400F) for the precious-metal
catalysts used in the work reported here (that is, once the catalyst has been lit
off, the catalyst remains lit at inlet air temperatures less than 200C / 400F), and
a preburner is generally not required. A more complete discussion of fuel-rich
versus fuel-lean catalyst behavior for methane oxidation is given by Lyubovsky
Dr. Hasan Karim et al.7.
In addition to catalyst material challenges, commercial acceptance of
catalytic combustion by gas turbine manufacturers and by power generators has
been slowed by the need for durable substrate materials. Of particular concern
is the need for catalyst substrates which are resistant to thermal gradients and
thermal shock8. Metal substrates best ll this need, but their temperature must
be limited to less than 950C (1750F) to assure sufcient material strength and
long life. Downstream of the catalyst, combustion temperatures greater than
about 1100C (2000F) are required for gas-phase reactions to complete the
burnout of fuel and CO in a reasonable residence time (on the order of 10 ms).
Dr. William C. Pfefferle Thus, only a portion of the fuel can be reacted on the catalyst.
A major challenge, then, is to limit the extent of reaction within the
catalyst bed such that excessive heat does not damage the catalyst or substrate,
yet release sufcient heat that downstream gas-phase combustion is stabilized
Gas Turbine Group, Precision
under ultra-low emission conditions. For systems which lean-premix fuel and
Combustion, Inc.
air upstream of the catalyst, the degree of reaction can be limited by chemical
410 Sackett Point Road, CT
reaction rate upon the catalyst, or by channeling within the reactor such that only
06473
a limited fraction of the fuel contacts the catalyst. In all cases, however, it is
imperative that uncontrolled gas-phase reactions do not occur within the catalyst-
phone: (203) 287-3700 x217
bed, since this implies a loss of reaction limitation and ultimate over-temperature
email: setemad@precision-
and failure of the catalyst bed. Preventing such gas-phase reactions is especially
combustion.com
challenging in applications to advanced, high-ring temperature turbines, where
fuel/air ratios in the catalyst-bed can be well within the ammability limits.

265
3.2.2.1-2 Fuel-Rich Catalyst Systems
Another approach to limiting the extent of reaction is to operate the catalyst fuel-rich. In this case, there is insufcient oxygen
to fully oxidize all fuel in the catalyst bed, and the extent of reaction is therefore limited even if gas-phase reactions occur. To use a fuel-
rich catalyst bed in a catalytic combustion system, additional air is introduced downstream of the catalyst so that combustion completion
can occur fuel-lean. Based on this concept, fuel-rich catalytic reactors were tested by NASA and contractors for liquid fuel applications,
and showed good soot-free performance9. An examination of fuel-rich catalysis on a variety of liquid fuels was also conducted at Yale
University under support from NASA10. Like the NASA results, this work showed soot-free catalyst performance on a range of fuel
types, including a surrogate jet fuel. United Technologies Research Center11 also investigated fuel-rich catalytic reaction of liquid fuels,
to reduce downstream thermal NOx generation by removing some heat of reaction prior to gas-phase combustion.
For these liquid hydrocarbon fuel applications, ultra-low NOx emissions (< 3 ppm) have not been considered feasible because
of these fuels propensity for autoignition during mixing with additional combustion air downstream of the catalyst. Even for natural
gas fuel, previous systems have not permitted mixing of raw catalyst efuent with additional combustion air. For example, Acurex
tested a two-stage natural gas combustion system having a fuel-rich catalyst stage followed by inter-stage heat extraction12. Additional
combustion air was introduced only after heat extraction, and prior to a nal fuel-lean catalytic combustion stage.
Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI), however, demonstrated that it is possible to directly mix catalyst efuent with additional
combustion air without incurring autoignition13. This is possible because signicant improvement in combustion stability is imparted to
the downstream fuel-lean combustion process even at catalyst efuent temperatures well below the instantaneous autoignition temperature
of the efuent. Thus, low-temperature low-emissions combustion requires only moderate catalyst temperatures, and autoignition can be
avoided.
This improvement in combustion stability with only moderate heat release on the catalyst can be quantied most simply by
modeling the gas-phase combustion process as a zero-dimensional stirred reactor, as shown in gure 1. A simple Perfectly-Stirred-
Reactor (PSR) combustion model demonstrates that combustion stability is signicantly improved when catalytic pre-reaction heats the
combustor inlet gases from 400C to 700C, well below the instantaneous autoignition temperature. Details of the model are described
by Smith et al. and model results for methane/air combustion are plotted here in gure 1 as ame temperature at incipient blowout
(y-axis) versus combustor inlet temperature (x-axis)14. In this model, combustor inlet temperature is 400C when there is no catalytic
reaction. For the 400C no-catalyst case lean blowout occurs at a ame temperature near 1305C . With catalytic pre-reaction providing
a 700C inlet temperature to the combustor, however, the ame temperature at lean blowout drops by 55C (100F) to near 1250C, a
signicant improvement.
This improvement is achieved without risk of autoignition. For a catalyst efuent temperature (combustor inlet temperature)
of 700C, the estimated autoignition delay time is about 25 ms. This autoignition delay time was calculated using the correlation of
Spadaccini and Colket for a representative natural gas composition (94.9% CH4, 3.1% C2H6, 0.65% C3H8, 0.3% C4H10, 0.1% C5H12, 0.1%
C6H14, 0.05% C7 and higher-order hydrocarbons, and 0.8% diluent)15. For this calculation, pressure was 15 atm, equivalence ratio was
0.5 and the effect of vitiation from catalytic pre-reaction was neglected.
Note that this 25 ms autoignition delay time at 700C catalyst efuent temperature is far greater than the 2 to 5 ms residence
time required to mix catalyst efuent with nal combustion air, and is also greater than the typical 10-20 ms residence time of gas
turbine combustors. Thus, complete mixing without autoignition is in fact possible downstream of the catalyst, yet combustion stability
is markedly improved as a result of catalytic pre-reactions. The result is stable, low-temperature, ultra-low-NOx combustion.

1320
1310 2392
1300 2372
at imminent blowout, F
at imminent blowout, C

o
PSR exit temperature
PSR exit temperature
o

1290 2352
1280 2332
1270 2312
1260
2292
1250
2272
1240
1230 2252
1220 2232
1210 2212
1200 2192
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
o
PSR inlet temperature (post-catalyst), C

Fig. 1. Gas temperature (ame temperature) within PSR reactor at imminent


blowout, as a function of PSR inlet temperature (catalyst exit temperature).

266
Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle

3.2.2.1-3 Rich-Catalytic Lean-burn (RCL) Combustion


Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI) has developed a Rich-Catalytic Lean-burn combustion system (trademarked by PCI as
RCL) based on this concept of stabilizing combustion of catalyst efuent having a temperature below the instantaneous autoignition
temperature. The system catalytically reacts a portion of the fuel upstream of the combustor, thus preheating (and vitiating) the fuel/air
mixture entering the combustor, and thereby improving combustion stability especially at low ame temperatures. NOx emissions are
improved by operating at lower allowable (stable) ame temperatures, and turndown to low engine power can be improved by operating
at still lower ame temperatures without excessive emissions of CO or unburned hydrocarbons.
A schematic of PCIs rich-catalytic combustion system is shown in gure 2. As shown, the combustion air stream is split
into two parts upstream of the catalyst. One part is mixed with all of the fuel and contacts the catalyst, while the second part is used to
backside cool the catalyst. At the exit of the catalytic reactor, the catalyzed fuel/air stream and the cooling air stream mix and then burn
to completion to provide the nal burner outlet temperature. As shown, combustion (fuel oxidation) occurs in two stages: a fuel-rich
catalyst stage and an overall fuel-lean gas-phase combustion stage. Note that the catalyst is cooled only by primary combustion air, so
that no heat is extracted from the system.
With this approach, the fuel-rich mixture contacting the catalyst has insufcient oxygen to completely oxidize all of the fuel,
thus limiting the extent of catalyst-stage reaction and enabling limitation of the catalyst-stage operating temperature to a safe value.
Catalyst
Cooling Combustion

Air Burned Gas


Fuel
Premixer Catalytic Post-Catalyst
Reactor Mixing
Fig. 2. Schematic of Rich-Catalytic Lean-burn system, showing two-stage (rich-lean) combustion process.

3.2.2.1-4 Performance and Operating Characteristics of RCL Combustion


PCI has tested the RCL catalytic reactor at pressures from 1 to more than 15 atm, in both sub-scale and full-scale tests and for
multiple fuel types, providing design data over a wide range of operating conditions. Key performance parameters for RCL combustion
are listed below, and measured values for these parameters are given in this section.

From full-scale full-pressure rig tests using natural gas fuel:

Combustor emissions and turndown


Combustor noise levels
Combustion system pressure drop
Catalyst operating temperatures

From sub-scale full-pressure rig tests to date:

Catalyst lightoff and extinction temperatures


Alternate (non-methane) hydrocarbon fuel capability
Non-hydrocarbon fuel capability, e.g. syngas (discussed in later section)

In addition to these performance criteria, engine operational issues are also of interest, including method for engine start and
catalyst lightoff, fuel staging needs, complexity of required controls, and transient capability such as load shifting and load rejection.
To address these operational concerns, PCI and Solar Turbines have operated a modied Saturn engine using RCL combustion; these
results are also presented here.

267
3.2.2.1 Fuel-Rich Catalytic Combustion

3.2.2.1-5 Full-Scale Full-Pressure Test at Solar Turbines


Under DOE support and in cooperation with Solar Turbines, Inc., a full-scale fuel-rich catalytic reactor was fabricated and
combustion tested to provide well-characterized experimental conrmation of the capabilities of Rich-Catalytic Lean-burn combustion
for ultra-low-NOx power generation. The tests were performed in Solar Turbines full-pressure single-injector combustion rig using
natural gas fuel, and are described in detail by Smith et al.,and summarized here16.
A schematic of the catalytic combustor assembly, including premixer, catalytic reactor, and downstream combustor liner as
tested in the rig is shown in gure 3. The catalytic reactor design is described generally in Smith et al. and includes backside cooling
of the catalyst17. An annular reverse-ow premixer was tted around the catalytic reactor, to provide a premixed fuel-rich mixture to
the catalyst. Note that all fuel entered via this premixer, and all fuel contacted the catalyst. Catalyst cooling air bypassed the premixer,
and entered from the left-hand side in gure 3. Downstream of the catalyst, but upstream of the combustor, the fuel-rich mixture and
the catalyst cooling air were combined in a post-catalyst mixing duct (post-mix duct) to create a partially-reacted fuel-lean fuel/air
mixture. The premixer, catalytic reactor, and post-mix duct together constitute what we call the RCL-injector. Conceptually, the
RCL-injector replaces a conventional Dry Low-NOx (DLN) premixer/swirler arrangement, such as Solars SoLoNOx injector. For the
tests reported here, a single Solar Turbines Taurus 70 SoLoNOx injector was replaced by an RCL-injector having a 3.0-inch diameter
catalyst. An actual Taurus 70 engine would have 12 such injectors installed in its annular combustor.
In Solars single-injector rig, the combustor liner was cylindrical, 8.0 inches in diameter, and backside-cooled. Four 0.5-inch
diameter holes were located at the combustors downstream end, to allow dilution air to enter the combustor after cooling it. Some
leakage air also entered the combustor at the injector insertion seal (grommet seal), where the RCL-injector was inserted into the
combustors head end, or dome. A small amount of cooling air was also used to cool the combustor dome, and entered the combustor
along the liner walls.
A ameholding cone was installed at the exit of the post-mix duct, as shown in gure 3. Recirculation of hot combustion gases
in the cones wake provided a ame anchor zone in the central part of the combustor. The expansion (dump) of the combustor liners
dome also served to anchor combustion. In general, the RCL-injector catalyst is intended to improve combustion stability and turndown
at the ame anchor point, but is not necessarily intended to provide gas-phase ignition. Solars torch igniter was used to ignite gas-phase
combustion during rig testing.

Fig. 3. Assembly of 3-inch diameter fuel-rich catalytic reactor with 8-inch diameter
combustor liner in Solar Turbines single-injector combustion test facility. Bulk ow is from
left-to-right.
Combustor Emissions and Turndown

Emissions performance and turndown were measured for the RCL combustion system depicted in gure 3, at nominal Taurus
70 operating conditions (16-17 atm pressure and 4 pps total airow to the single-injector combustor). Measured NOx and CO emissions
are plotted in gure 4 as a function of adiabatic ame temperature at the emissions rake. For the tests reported here, the emissions rake
was located just upstream of the combustor dilution air holes, corresponding to about 30 ms combustor residence time. NOx and CO
emissions are reported after correction to 15% O2 on a dry basis. UHC emissions are reported on a wet basis, corrected to 15% O2.
It is also worth noting that, as discussed earlier, some leakage and cooling air entered the combustor between the RCL-injector
and the emissions rake. For this reason, fuel/air ratio as measured at the emissions rake gave an adiabatic ame temperature that was
about 130C (230F) lower than that based on fuel/air ratio measured at the RCL-injector exit. Imperfect mixing of this leakage air with
the injectors fuel/air mixture can increase NOx emissions to values slightly higher than expected for perfectly premixed combustion at
the adiabatic ame temperatures measured at the emissions rake. In fact, the NOx emissions shown in gure 4 are about 1 ppm higher
than expected at 1450C (2650F) based on perfectly premixed combustion.
As shown in gure 4, the RCL combustion system achieved ultra-low emissions over a wide operating window of approximately
110C (200F) variation in ame temperature, with CO below 10 ppm and NOx below 3 ppm (and as low as 1 ppm). Unburned
hydrocarbons (UHC) remained less than 2 ppm at all conditions shown in gure 4.

268
Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle

These high-pressure ultra-low-emissions results provide experimental conrmation of the ultra-low-NOx capability of the
RCL combustion concept. In particular, they demonstrate that it is possible to mix fuel-rich catalyst efuent with nal combustion
air, without inducing autoignition, yet imparting signicant combustion stability to the downstream combustion process to allow low-
temperature low-emissions combustion with wide turndown.
Calculated Primary Zone Temperature (F)

2550 2600 2650 2700 2750 2800 2850


5.0 20
NOx CO
NOx (ppm, 15% O2 dry) 4.5 18
4.0 16

CO (ppm, 15% O2 dry)


NOx
3.5 14
3.0 12
CO
2.5 10
2.0 8
1.5 6
1.0 4
0.5 2
0.0 0
2400 2450 2500 2550 2600 2650 2700

Adiabatic Flame Temperature at Emissions Rake (F)

Fig. 4. NOx and CO emissions, as a function of adiabatic ame temperature at


emissions rake. Data obtained at 16 atm pressure.

Combustor Noise Levels

Combustion-driven pressure oscillations (noise) were also monitored during full-scale combustion tests at Solar, and remained
less than 2.4 kPa (0.35 psi) peak-to-peak (less than 0.15% peak-to-peak of mean combustor pressure) at all conditions tested, indicating
quiet operation. Low levels of combustion noise are expected, since gas-phase energy release in the combustor (the driving force for
combustion noise) is reduced when a portion of the fuel is catalytically reacted prior to gas-phase combustion.

Combustion System Pressure Drop

Pressure drop through the fuel-rich catalytic reactor is a primary determiner of RCL-injector size for any given application.
For the 3-inch diameter reactor tested at Solar, pressure drop through the entire combustion system at simulated Taurus 70 full load
conditions varied from about 3.5% to 5% of combustor inlet pressure, depending on hardware modications made to redirect airow
during rig testing. This pressure drop includes both the losses through the fuel-rich catalytic reactor and losses in the downstream
combustor (pressure drop across ameholder, dump loss at combustor inlet, fundamental combustion loss, etc.). We estimate that losses
in the downstream combustor account for about 0.5% pressure drop, with the remaining best-case 3% attributable to the catalytic reactor
in Solars rig. Additional pressure loss data has been obtained for other full-scale RCL-injectors not tested in Solars rig, but designed
for reduced pressure drop. Data from other rigs indicate that at Solar rig conditions pressure drop would be about 2%.

Catalyst Operating Temperatures

Figure 5 shows steady-state catalyst surface temperatures plotted against adiabatic ame temperature at the full-scale RCL-
injector exit, as tested at Solar. As shown in gure 5, catalyst surface temperature increases only slightly as fuel ow is reduced, and
all catalyst surface temperature measurements remain below 780C (1430F) over the complete range of operating conditions tested
(1440-1700C / 2620-3090F range in adiabatic ame temperature).
RCL catalyst temperatures do not vary signicantly with fuel/air ratio because reaction rate (heat release) upon the catalyst
surface is controlled by oxygen ow (air ow) under fuel-rich conditions, and because heat removal (heat transfer) from the catalyst is
also determined primarily by air ow. Fuel ow has little effect on reaction rate and little effect on heat removal rate. This insensitivity
of catalyst temperature to fuel/air ratio is advantageous in allowing combustor and turbine operation over a wide range of ame
temperatures (including ame temperatures well above the low-NOx-emissions range), making the RCL system suitable even for
advanced high-ring-temperature machines.

269
3.2.2.1 Fuel-Rich Catalytic Combustion

800

750

Catalyst Temperature (C)


700

650
P = 15 - 16 atm
600
Tinlet air = 440 C
550

500

450

400
1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750
Adiabatic Flame Temperature at RCL Injector Exit (C)

Fig. 5. Catalyst surface temperature as a function of adiabatic ame temperature at RCL-injector exit.

3.2.2.1-6 Sub-Scale Test Data for Hydrocarbon Fuels

Catalyst testing under controlled conditions is best conducted at sub-scale, where smaller-size equipment allows for accurate
metering and control of ow and temperature. Thus, accurate values for catalyst lightoff and extinction temperature are obtainable.
Sub-scale testing is also useful for evaluating new concepts, such as use of alternative fuels.

Catalyst Lightoff and Extinction Temperatures

Catalyst lightoff and extinction tests


have been performed under well-controlled
experimental conditions at sub-scale for pressures 15 atm pressure
from 9 to 15 atm. For natural gas fuel having one
or two percent ethane, PCIs fuel-rich catalysts 1470 F
typically light off in the vicinity of 300C. For
natural gas fuel with greater than two percent
ethane (or higher-order hydrocarbons) lightoff
can occur at inlet temperatures below 280C. 1110 F
This is shown in gure 6 below, which indicates
a lightoff temperature between about 260 and
280C for natural gas fuel, at 15 atm pressure. In 750 F
gure 6, inlet gas temperature, catalyst surface
temperature, and gas temperature exiting the
module (following mixing of the catalytically
reacted stream with the catalyst cooling air
stream, but prior to gas-phase combustion) are
plotted as a function of time in minutes. Lightoff
Fig. 6. Catalyst lightoff in a sub-scale high-pressure (15 atm) fuel-rich reactor
occurs when the heat of reaction results in an
operating on natural gas fuel. Inlet gas temperature (T gas in), catalyst
increase in catalyst operating temperature and surface temperature (T catalyst), and gas temperature exiting the module (T
catalyst exit temperature as compared to the gas gas out) are plotted as a function of time in minutes.
inlet temperature, as described in Section 3.2.2.
of this Handbook

270
Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle

15 atm pressure

1470 F

1110 F

750 F

390 F

Fig. 7. Catalyst extinction does not occur until the fuel is shut off at an inlet air temperature
less than 200 C. Data were obtained for the same sub-scale high-pressure (15 atm)
fuel-rich reactor for which data were shown in Figure 6. Again, inlet gas temperature
(T gas in), catalyst surface temperature (T catalyst), and gas temperature exiting the
module (T gas out) are plotted as a function of time in minutes.
Following catalyst lightoff, the inlet air temperature can be reduced well below the initial lightoff temperature without
extinguishing the catalyst. Thus, once lit (active), the catalyst remains lit (active) down to inlet temperatures approaching ambient.
Following the catalyst lightoff event depicted in gure 6, the inlet air temperature was reduced to less than 200C, but catalyst activity
was not diminished. This is shown below in gure 7, which plots the same parameters as gure 6, now after several hours of testing
following the initial lightoff. Here, still at 15 atm pressure and with the same ow of natural gas fuel, catalyst activity was maintained
until the fuel was shut off at an inlet air temperature less than 200C.

Alternate Hydrocarbon Fuel Capability

Sub-scale fuel-rich catalyst tests have also been performed using alternative (non-natural-gas) hydrocarbon fuels. In particular,
liquid fuels have been tested (gasoline and Diesel No. 2 fuel) with performance similar to that obtained using methane or natural gas,
and a simulated landll gas fuel has also been tested.

COMBUSTOR BURNOUT SECTION

CATALYTIC
REACTOR

WATER COOLED
SAMPLE LINES
BACK PRESSURE
VALVE

Fig. 8. Photograph of PCIs 10 atm sub-scale combustion rig, for testing fuel-
rich catalytic reactors with downstream combustion. Bulk ow is from right to
left in this photograph.

Sub-scale tests with alternative fuels were performed in a 10 atm combustion test rig at PCI equipped for obtaining combustion
emissions measurements, as shown in gure 8. The gas-phase combustion section of this rig is nominally 2 inches in diameter and
18 inches in length, and is fabricated from high-temperature ceramic and housed in a steel pressure vessel as shown in the photograph
271 of gure 8. Reactants enter the ceramic-lined combustor through an air-cooled fuel-rich catalytic reactor of nominally 3/4-inch
3.2.2.1 Fuel-Rich Catalytic Combustion

diameter. Combustion emissions reported for the alternative-fuel tests were obtained from a water-cooled gas sampling probe location
corresponding to 30 ms residence time in the ceramic-lined combustor downstream of the catalyst.
A single sub-scale fuel-rich catalytic reactor was tested in PCIs high-pressure combustion rig with three different fuels: methane,
simulated landll gas, and Diesel No. 2 (the rst three listed in Table 3). No changes were made to the reactor or combustor for operation
on these different fuels. For diesel fuel, however, a prevaporizer was added upstream of the reactor. Two different prevaporizers were
used: initially we used a simple preheater to directly heat diesel fuel after adding less than 10% N2 (by weight) to assist in atomization;
later we improved prevaporization by mixing steam with the diesel fuel. The latter was considered ideal for co-generation applications.
Note that liquid fuel tests were generally performed at 6-8 atm pressure, based on limitations of the fuel prevaporizers.
Prior to testing of the rst three fuels listed in Table 3, a separate fuel-rich catalytic reactor of similar design was tested with
gasoline and natural gas. For these initial liquid fuel tests gasoline was chosen for its high volatility, simplifying prevaporizer design.
For all fuels, the most relevant measures of performance for PCIs two-stage catalytic combustion system are catalyst
temperatures in the rst stage (catalyst-stage) and combustor emissions from the second stage (gas-phase combustion stage). We
especially wish to compare these measures of performance for operation on various types of fuels.

Fig. 9 (left panel). Combined graph showing catalyst operation for Fig. 10 (right panel). Catalyst surface temperatures, and
both natural gas and liquid fuel (gasoline) at 7 atm pressure and lightoff and extinction temperatures, for diesel fuel operation.
0.4 equivalence ratio (), as a function of time. For both fuels, the Tests were performed with non-steam prevaporizer, at 6 atm
inlet gas temperature (Tgas in) was initially held steady at about pressure and 0.33 overall equivalence ratio (). "Tinlet"
350 C, and then ramped down to about 200 C without catalyst represents air temperature entering the reactor, and "Tcatalyst"
extinction. represents catalyst surface temperature.

In gure 9, catalyst temperatures for 7 atm operation on gasoline are compared to those for natural gas. As shown, catalyst
operating temperature (Tsurfaces) and catalyst lightoff temperature are both very similar for the two dissimilar fuels. Note that for
both fuels the overall equivalence ratio was 0.4 downstream of the catalyst, after mixing of catalyst cooling air with fuel-rich catalyst
efuent.
Catalyst lightoff and extinction temperatures for diesel fuel were tested using the rst-generation prevaporizer at 6 atm pressure
and 0.33 equivalence ratio, as shown in gure 10. For this test, temperature of the prevaporized fuel was between 350 and 380C before
mixing with air. For catalyst lightoff, inlet air temperature was ramped up from about 345C until denitive lightoff occurred at about
360C inlet air temperature, as indicated by a rapid increase in catalyst temperature. Prior to this event, some reaction occurred along
the length of the reactor, as evidenced by catalyst temperatures nearly 75C higher than the inlet temperature (e.g. 420C versus 350C).
After lightoff, inlet air temperature was ramped down until sudden loss of activity (catalyst extinction) occurred at about 200C inlet
air temperature. Note that for all fuel types tested under fuel-rich conditions, catalyst extinction temperature was well below catalyst
lightoff temperature. Also note the similar catalyst operating temperatures for diesel fuel as compared to gasoline and natural gas
operating temperatures, as a result of fuel-rich operation of the catalyst.
Although successful operation on diesel fuel was obtained using the non-steam prevaporizer, it could only provide enough
prevaporized fuel to establish an overall equivalence ratio of 0.33 downstream of the catalyst. A steam prevaporizer was therefore
designed and used, allowing catalyst temperatures and combustion emissions to be measured over a wider range of equivalence ratios
(ame temperatures), as shown in gures 11 and 12.
For diesel fuel operation using the second-generation prevaporizer, steady-state catalyst temperature data (T surface) are
shown as a function of the reactors overall equivalence ratio in gure 11. Diesel fuel operating data were obtained at the prevaporizers
maximum operating pressure of 6 atm, and at 430C inlet temperature. Average gas temperature exiting the reactor (T gas out) is also
shown. Note that T gas out and overall equivalence ratio are both dened after mixing of catalyst efuent with catalyst cooling air.

272
Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle

Fig. 11. Catalyst performance with diesel fuel versus methane, for second-generation prevaporizer
(~5:1 steam:fuel ratio by weight) operating at 6 atm pressure and 430C inlet air temperature.
Compare to methane tests at 9 atm and 440C inlet temperature.

As shown in gure 11, catalyst operating temperatures are insensitive to operating condition (overall equivalence ratio) for both
methane and diesel fuels, and in general very similar catalyst performance was obtained for both fuels.
As stated earlier, catalyst temperatures do not vary signicantly with fuel/air ratio because reaction rate (heat release) upon the
catalyst surface is controlled by oxygen ow (air ow) under fuel-rich conditions. Thus, the oxygen available for reaction (the limiting
reactant under fuel-rich conditions) is the same at all test conditions, with the result that heat release and temperatures in the catalyst bed
are insensitive to equivalence ratio, and are very similar for both methane and diesel fuels despite a wide difference in reactivity between
these two fuels.
NOx emissions from the fuel-lean combustion zone downstream of the fuel-rich catalyst were also measured for both liquid
fuels and gaseous fuels, as shown in gure 12. Note that NOx emissions from the diesel fuel are primarily due to fuel-bound nitrogen,
except at the highest ame temperature tested (near 2900F). The Diesel fuel tested was red-dyed Diesel No. 2 fuel, and its nitrogen
content was measured at 188 ppm by weight by an independent laboratory. At this concentration, nearly complete conversion of fuel-
bound N to NOx is expected [4]. Thus, based on fuel-bound nitrogen content, the diesel fuel would emit at least 8.1 ppmv NOx (at 15%
O2) when burned. Fuel-bound nitrogen for all other fuels was zero.
NOx emissions are shown in gure 12 for three fuel types: methane, simulated bio-mass landll gas (essentially diluted
methane), and Diesel No. 2 fuel. Here, NOx emissions are measured on a dry basis and are corrected to 15% excess O2. NOx emissions
are shown as a function of maximum measured ame temperature (via type S thermocouple) for each data point. For all data points
obtained, CO and unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) emissions were less than 2 ppmv.

273
3.2.2.1 Fuel-Rich Catalytic Combustion

NOTE: For methane data measured and calculated flame temperatures generally agree within 50 degrees Fahrenheit.
20
Methane - measured NOx (32 ms, 9 atm) , calculated adiabatic flame temperature
18 Biofuel - measured NOx (32 ms, 9 atm) , calculated adiabatic flame temperature

16 Diesel (prevap, steam) - measured NOx (32 ms, 6 atm), measured flame temp

Diesel (prevap, steam) - measured NOx (32 ms, 6 atm), measured flame temp
14
NOx (15% O2) ppmv

Calculated NOx emissions from fuel-bound nitrogen in Diesel

12 Prediction 10 atm, 30 ms

10
8

6
4

2
0
1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 2600 2700 2800 2900
Flame Temperature (F)
Fig. 12. NOx emissions for three fuel types (methane, biomass landll gas, and Diesel No. 2 fuel). For all data points,
CO/UHC emissions were less than 2 ppmv. For the Diesel No. 2 fuel, fuel analysis indicated that 8.1 ppmv
NOx would be emitted as a result of fuel-bound nitrogen alone.

For methane and bio-mass landll gas fuels, NOx emissions were below 3 ppm for measured ame temperatures below 2600F.
For diesel fuel, NOx emissions were about 10 ppm for measured ame temperatures below 2600F, compared to the 8.1 ppm expected
based on fuel-bound nitrogen alone. Thus, about 2 ppm NOx is likely formed by prompt (non-thermal) mechanisms at low ame
temperatures (below 2600F). At higher ame temperatures, NOx increases due to thermal formation mechanisms for all three fuels, as
shown. The low NOx levels at low ame temperature indicates that well-mixed fuel-lean combustion was achieved downstream of the
catalyst for all three fuels: methane, bio-mass landll gas, and diesel.

3.2.2.1-7 Engine Test Results

Based on the successful full-scale single-injector rig tests at Solar Turbines, a cluster of four RCL-injectors was installed in
a modied (single can combustor) Solar Turbines Saturn engine, to assess controls compatibility and transient operation in an engine
environment, including engine start, acceleration, and load variation. In addition, steady-state operating data were obtained, including
NOx and CO emissions at the engine exhaust. The engine test also provided a basis for evaluating fuel-rich reactor robustness in an
engine environment, over a range of operating conditions and demands (including start, acceleration, and load).

Test Engine Specications and Conguration

Combustor Housing
Compressor Discharge Air Pipe
Combustor Primary Zone Air Pipe
Dilution Air Pipe
Burner Outlet Pipe (to turbine)

274
Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle

Fig. 13. Side-mounted combustor conguration in modied Fig. 14. Photograph of four-RCL-injector assembly, prior to
Saturn engine, showing variable airow control valves in installation in Saturn engine.
primary zone air pipe and dilution air pipe.

The test engine was a modied version of a two-shaft recuperated Saturn T1200 engine, nominally rated at 750 kW (1000 hp)
after modication. This engine was selected as a test bed because its external combustor conguration was amenable to modication.
For catalytic combustor testing, the recuperator was removed, but the compressor discharge scroll and turbine inlet scroll were retained,
allowing a single side-mounted combustor can to be installed.
The overall combustor conguration is shown in gure 13. Note that variable airow buttery valves were tted in the
combustor primary zone air pipe and the dilution air pipe, to allow combustor air to be varied for best emissions at any given fuel ow
(engine load). Also note that a preburner was located in the combustor primary zone air pipe below the buttery valve, to temporarily
increase catalyst inlet air temperature to about 350C (660F) to ensure catalyst lightoff. The preburner was turned off after catalyst
lightoff, and before engine emissions were measured.
All fuel and air entered the combustor through the four RCL-injectors (neglecting leakage air). The combustor liner was
backside cooled with dilution air, before the dilution air entered the hot gas path 24 inches downstream of the combustors upstream
end (the round plate through which the post-mix ducts are inserted, visible in gure 14, forms the combustors upstream end). The
combustor liner itself was cylindrical and 15 inches in diameter. At full Saturn engine load, and assuming 1.3 pps airow through each
RCL-injector for ultra-low-emissions operation, combustor residence time was about 35 ms.

Engine Operating Procedure

Engine start-up data are shown in gure 15, with annotations, giving a graphical depiction of the start-up procedure. Note that
there are three fuel circuits: a preburner fuel stage, which received about 25 kg/hr (55 pph) fuel during catalyst lightoff, and two RCL-
injector fuel stages, which together received up to about 275 kg/hr (600 pph) fuel at load. RCL-injector fuel stage A supplied fuel to the
top two injectors, while RCL-injector fuel stage B supplied fuel to the bottom two injectors.
At cold crank conditions (29% gas producer shaft speed, Ngp) the preburner was ignited and adjusted to 260C (500F)
outlet temperature, below the catalyst lightoff temperature. As seen in gure 15, the small preburner fuel ow provided little motive
power to the engine and negligible increase in engine speed. Next, while still at 29% Ngp, fuel was introduced to the RCL-injectors
and combustion was ignited by a torch igniter in the main combustor. With the starter motor still engaged, fuel ow was ramped up
as the engine accelerated to 65% Ngp. At 65% Ngp the starter motor was disengaged and the engine controller added fuel to maintain
a constant idle speed of 65% Ngp (no load). Preburner outlet temperature remained at 260C (500F), and the catalysts remained
inactive.

275
3.2.2.1 Fuel-Rich Catalytic Combustion

250 100
Preburner Fuel (Wf_pbn) Ngp
225 RCL Stage A fuel (Wf_A) 90
RCL Stage B Fuel (Wf_B)

Gas producer shaft speed (Ngp, %)


200 Shaft Speed (Ngp) Adjust combustor air 80
valves for best emissions

Fuel mass flow (Wf, kg/hr)


175 idle 70

150 fuel RCL injectors, Wf_A 60


ignite combustion,
125 accel to 65% Ngp 50
Wf_B
100 40
cold crank
75 increase preburner fuel 30
(RCL inlet temp) to
50 preburner fuel light-off catalysts 20
on @ 29% Ngp
25 turn preburner fuel off @ 80% Ngp -- 10
catalysts remain active (lit off)
0 0
12:36:00 12:43:12 12:50:24 12:57:36 Wf_pbn
13:04:48 13:12:00
Time

Fig. 15. Saturn engine start-up data, showing engine acceleration, catalyst activation by preburner (followed by preburner shutoff with
continued catalyst activity), and operation at engine load by fuel supplied through four RCL-injectors.

Preburner temperature was then increased to about 350C (660F) to ensure catalyst lightoff. Engine speed was increased to
80% Ngp, the preburner was turned off, and the catalysts remained active. Engine speed was then increased to 90% and the variable
airow valves were adjusted to obtain optimum emissions. The valves served to vary the airow to the RCL-injectors thus allowing
control of NOx and CO emissions. Emissions data were taken as engine speed was reduced in increments of about 1% Ngp. The airow
valves were adjusted for best emissions at each speed.
Engine controls were based on a Saturn T1202R design and used a state of the art Allen-Bradley microprocessor console to
run the logic. For the RCL combustor engine tests, catalyst temperatures were not used in the fuel control algorithm. Instead, fuel
control was performed according to standard DLN methods (primarily monitoring engine speed versus set point), with the addition of a
preburner fuel control during initial start and catalyst lightoff. This was possible because catalyst temperature is insensitive to fuel/air
ratio under fuel-rich conditions, as shown in gure 2.1.2 for the single-injector rig tests. In addition, the RCL catalyst is air-cooled by
a large fraction of the total combustion air, and reactions on the catalyst are limited by available oxygen (fuel-rich); thus, the catalyst is
resistant to ashback, autoignition, and overheating damage, and can operate safely without active temperature control.

Engine Performance with RCL Combustor

With RCL combustion, Saturn engine NOx emissions averaged 2.1 ppm with less than 10 ppm CO over an achievable engine
operating range (82% to 89% Ngp), as shown in gure 16. Over this engine operating range, UHC emissions remained below 3 ppm,
and combustion-driven pressure oscillations (CDPO) remained less than 0.7 kPa (0.1 psi) peak-to-peak (less than 0.15% peak-to-peak
of mean combustor pressure).
At 89% Ngp, combustor inlet air (compressor discharge air) was at 5.0 atm and 223C (434F). At 82% Ngp, combustor inlet
air was at 3.9 atm and 191C (376F). For all data points shown in Figure 2.1.16 the preburner was turned off, the catalyst remained
active at the available compressor discharge temperatures (as low as 191C / 376F), and NOx emissions remained below 3 ppm.
Measured power output ranged from 237 kW (318 hp) to 453 kW (607 hp) over the 82% to 89% Ngp operating range, or about
32% to 61% load based on a 750 kW (1000 hp) nominal power rating for this modied engine. Engine load was delivered to a water
dynamometer.
Engine operation was limited to the 82% to 89% speed range. At less than 82% Ngp the compressor was at its surge condition,
and the compressor bleed valve was opened to prevent surge. This reduced the airow to the RCL-injectors thus increasing NOx
emissions. At speeds greater than 89% Ngp operation was limited by locally hot temperatures within the scroll ducting downstream of
the combustor. This limitation was not attributable to the RCL combustion technology but to inadequate mixing of combustor dilution
air. Improving the test rig dilution mixing was deemed unnecessary to document the controllability of the RCL system.
Table 1 summarizes the Saturn engine operating data at the low-end and high-end of the achievable operating range. In general,
the results show good combustor performance (low emissions and low combustion-induced pressure oscillations, or CDPO) even at very
low inlet temperatures. In addition, the Saturn engine operation shows the feasibility of engine start-up, acceleration, and operation at
load using RCL combustion with simple engine controls. The engine was successfully started, accelerated, and powered at load by fuel
injected through the four catalytic reactors, using conventional engine instrumentation and controls without instrumentation input from
the catalyst.
276
Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle

10
9

NOx / CO (ppm, @ 15% O2 dry)


8
7
6
NOx
5
CO
4
3
2
1
0
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
Ngp (gas producer shaft speed, % of max)

Fig. 16. RCL combustor emissions during Saturn engine operation, showing
ultra-low NOx and CO emissions over an achievable engine operating
range of 82% to 89% speed.

Table 1 Saturn engine operating data at low-end and high-end of achievable operating range. Note catalyst
activity and ultra-low-emissions achieved at inlet temperatures as low as 191 C (376 F).

Engine Speed 82% Ngp 89% Ngp


NOx Emissions 2.2 ppm 2.2 ppm
CO Emissions 9.5 ppm 5.7 ppm
CDPO (noise) < 0.7 kPa pk-pk < 0.7 kPa pk-pk
Power Output 237 kW / 318 hp 453 kW / 607 hp
Nominal Load 32% 61%
Comb. Inlet Pressure 3.9 atm 5.0 atm
Comb. Inlet Temp. 191 C / 376 F 223 C / 434 F

3.2.2.1-8 Ultra-Low NOx Combustion of Coal-Derived Syngas and High-Hydrogen


Fuels
While early development of PCIs Rich-Catalytic Lean-burn (RCL) combustion system was focused on the use of natural gas
fuel, fuel-rich operation of the catalyst is also advantageous for alternative fuels, including high-hydrogen fuels and coal-derived syngas.
As with natural gas, combustion stability is improved (especially at low ame temperatures) by catalytically reacting a portion of the
fuel upstream of the combustor, thus preheating (and vitiating) the fuel/air mixture entering the combustor. And, as with natural gas, this
allows improved NOx emissions by operating the combustor at lower allowable (stable) ame temperatures.
For low-Btu fuels such as blast furnace gas, ame stability improvement by catalytic pre-reaction of a portion of the fuel is
especially important since combustion may be otherwise unsustainable even at the highest possible ame temperatures. With catalytic
pre-reaction and concomitant pre-heating, however, fuels having heating values as low as 82 Btu/ft3 have been successfully combusted
at PCI, with near-zero emissions of unburned fuel, CO, and NOx.
For fuels with more moderate dilution levels, such as the syngas delivered from a coal gasier, combustion of the raw fuel can
occur without a catalyst, but low-emissions combustion is difcult as a result of the high levels of hydrogen. In particular, lean-premixed
combustion for syngas fuels has not generally been considered feasible, because the high concentration of hydrogen leads to increased
risk for ashback and ameholding in regions upstream of the combustor. Thus, syngas fuels are generally burned in a non-premixed
mode, with NOx control accomplished by dilution of the fuel stream with water and/or nitrogen. This introduces combustion stability
issues, however, such that low-single-digit NOx emissions have not yet been achieved in gas turbines burning coal-derived syngas.
One solution to this combustion stability problem is to catalytically react some portion of the syngas fuel prior to gas-phase
combustion, effectively providing a higher inlet temperature to the combustor. This is exactly the role of a catalyst in a lean-premixed
combustion system, and it can also be applied to combustion of syngas fuel, allowing greater dilution of the fuel and reduced NOx
emissions.

277
3.2.2.1 Fuel-Rich Catalytic Combustion

For any fuel type, whether syngas, low-Btu gas, or hydrocarbon, fuel-rich catalytic reactor performance is insensitive to the
fuels reactivity, because reaction rate (heat release) upon the catalyst surface is controlled primarily by oxygen ow (air ow) under
fuel-rich conditions, and not by fuel ow or reactivity. Performance on different type fuels will therefore be similar when heat release
per atom of oxygen reacted is similar, and when the fuels mass and thermal capacity is negligible in the fuel/air mixture. This is
generally the case for hydrocarbon fuels, and the primary remaining issue for operation on heavy liquid fuels is prevaporization.
For coal-derived syngas fuel, heat release per atom of oxygen reacted is similar to hydrocarbon fuels, and additionally
prevaporization is not an issue. However, unlike fuels consisting only of hydrocarbons, the large volume (low Btu value) of syngas fuels
is not negligible, particularly when the syngas is highly diluted with steam or nitrogen for NOx control. Thus, while fuel-rich catalytic
reactor performance for syngas fuels can be made similar to that obtained on hydrocarbon fuels (on the basis of heat release per atom of
oxygen reacted), the reactor design must consider the large volume ow of fuel that it must pass, as well as the oxygen ow required for
the desired level of pre-reaction or pre-heat.

3.2.2.1-9 Sub-Scale Test Data for Syngas Fuel

A sub-scale fuel-rich catalytic reactor was fabricated at PCI for testing with syngas fuel in PCIs high-pressure sub-scale
combustion rig (pictured in gure 8). For the syngas tests, two independently controllable air supplies are provided, both heated and
at high pressure. The larger air supply (entering from the right in gure 8) provides catalyst cooling air, which becomes primary zone
combustion air in the gas-phase combustor, and the smaller air supply (entering from the vertical pipe at the top-right of gure 8)
provides air to the fuel-rich fuel/air mixture. For operation with syngas fuel, two heaters are also provided (but not shown in Figure 8);
one heater heats N2 diluent just before it is mixed with fuel, and the second heater heats all other fuel components and CO2.
Dry, oil-free, high-pressure air is supplied to the rig from compressors, at pressures up to about 145 psia entering the rig. At this
ow rate, the rig inlet air can be heated to about 500C. Fuel and diluent are supplied from bottles or Dewar asks at high pressure, and
are pressure regulated to the proper delivery pressure to the rig. All ows (air, fuel, and diluent) are metered with electronic mass ow
controllers. Each fuel component is separately metered and then mixed with the other components to simulate the desired coal-derived
syngas composition. Up to ve fuel components can be introduced: H2, CO, CH4, CO2, and N2.
For syngas operation, combustion rig startup was accomplished by bringing the reactor to fuel-rich conditions using unheated
methane fuel, with some diluent addition to ensure proper mixing. When necessary, a small amount of H2 was temporarily added to the
unheated methane to light off the reactor. Once the catalyst and combustor were lit and the rig was thermally stable, syngas fuel ow
was ramped up while methane fuel ow was ramped down, holding catalyst equivalence ratio approximately constant. This startup
procedure was economical and safe: it minimized the use of high-volume (costly) laboratory syngas fuel blend, and also avoided use
of H2 during transient and ignition events, where there was a concern that unburned H2 might enter the exhaust stack and create an
explosion hazard. This procedure is similar to syngas combustor startup in actual engine applications.

Catalyst Lightoff

Prior to high-pressure testing with syngas, atmospheric-pressure tests were performed to provide some initial experience in
syngas fuel operation, and in catalyst and combustor behavior using syngas fuels. The results were used to help guide reactor design and
test planning for the subsequent high-pressure tests. Catalyst lightoff tests were an important part of these early atmospheric pressure
tests, and a lightoff temperature of 180C was measured for fuel-rich reaction of syngas. This value was most carefully measured for a
syngas mixture composed of 25% H2 and 35% CO (remainder diluent), but it was found that lightoff temperature is relatively insensitive
to syngas composition unless CO levels drop to very low values, leaving essentially a high-hydrogen fuel having signicantly lower
lightoff temperature. In all cases, the 180C or lower lightoff temperature is well below compressor discharge temperatures of industrial
and large-frame turbines, and the need for a preburner is thereby avoided in expected syngas applications.

High-Pressure Test Conditions

For the high-pressure sub-scale syngas tests, baseline operating conditions were scaled from those published for the IGCC
plant at Tampa Electrics Polk Power Station. The Tampa Polk plant operates a GE 107FA combined cycle system on syngas generated
from a Texaco oxygen-blown coal gasier. Nitrogen injection reduces the effective heating value of the fuel, for NOx control.
Data from references by the U.S. DOE, GE Power Systems, and Brdar and Jones were used to establish a baseline syngas
fuel composition representative of the Tampa Polk IGCC power plant fuel after dilution with nitrogen for NOx control, as well as a
baseline full-load ring temperature18. This baseline syngas composition was used for most sub-scale high-pressure testing at PCI, and
is tabulated in the rst row of Table 2 as noted. The baseline full-load ame temperature was determined to be about 2550F (1400C),
and represents a maximum in NOx emissions for an expected syngas application of fuel-rich catalytic combustion.
Additional tests were performed for a highly-diluted low-Btu syngas, to demonstrate the ame stability augmentation provided
by the catalyst. The second row of Table 1 lists the composition of this low-Btu syngas mixture. Note that for all sub-scale tests at PCI,
the nitrogen diluent was added to the syngas fuel prior to mixing with air, and well upstream of the catalyst.

278
Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle

Table 2 Syngas fuel compositions used for high-pressure sub-scale tests.


H2 CO CO2 N2 LHV
Syngas Composition
(%) (%) (%) (%) (Btu/ft3)
Baseline 20 20 10 50 117
Low-Btu 15 15 10 60 88

Emissions measurements reported here were obtained from a water-cooled gas sample probe located 15 inches downstream of
the catalyst, corresponding to about 50 ms residence time in the 2-inch inside-diameter ceramic-lined combustor. This represents the
maximum residence time expected in a low-emissions gas turbine combustor, and therefore also represents the maximum expected NOx
emissions for a given operating condition. Note that all emissions reported in ppm are parts per million by volume, and are corrected to
15% O2 dry.
All measurements were made with a combustor inlet air temperature of 750F (400C) and a syngas fuel temperature of 570
F (300C). Adiabatic ame temperatures were calculated based on fuel/air ratio as measured by the emissions analyzers (i.e. from gas
samples extracted at the 15-inch gas sample probe location).

Combustor Emissions and Turndown

Figure 17 plots measured NOx and CO emissions as a function of adiabatic ame temperature at 10 atm pressure for the baseline
syngas composition listed in row 1 of Table 2, having a Lower Heating Value (LHV) of 117 Btu/ft3. With this fuel composition, NOx
emissions were 2.0 ppm (0.011 lbs/MMBtu) at the 2550F (1400C) ame temperature data point corresponding to baseline operation
in the Tampa Polk IGCC plant at 100% load.
As the fuel/air ratio was decreased, CO emissions remained near zero for ame temperatures greater than about 2250F (1230
C), permitting a 300F (150C) turndown in ame temperature from the 2550F (1400C) baseline point, allowing ultra low emissions
operation over a wide range of loads. These results CO near zero, and NOx equal to or less than 2 ppm (0.011 lbs/MMBtu) for full
load and below easily met PCIs emissions goals for these tests.

0.030 5.4
Syngas: 20% H2, 20% CO, 10% CO2, 50% N2
(LHV = 117Btu/ft3)
0.025 4.5
NOx / CO (ppm @ 15% O2)
NOx ((lbs NOx)/MMBtu)

Combustor rig data, P = 10 atm


0.020 3.6
CO Baseline Combustor NOx
0.015 2.7
Temp (2550 F)

0.010 1.8

0.005 0.9

0.000 0.0
2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 2600 2700 2800
Adiabatic Flame Temperature @ emissions probe (F)

Fig. 17. Measured NOx and CO emissions for 10 atm baseline syngas tests,
as a function of adiabatic ame temperature at the emissions probe.

279
3.2.2.1 Fuel-Rich Catalytic Combustion

0.040 7.2
Except as noted:
P = 10 atm; res = 50 ms
0.035 6.3
air @ 400 C (750 F), syngas @ 300 C (570 F)

NOx (ppm, 15% O2) - Baseline Syngas Only


0.030 baseline syngas composition, LHV = 117Btu/ft
3
5.4

NOx ((lbs NOx)/MMBtu)


(20% H2, 20% CO, 10% CO 2, 50% N2)
0.025 4.5

0.020 3.6

0.015 2.7
LHV = 117 Btu/ft3 3
LHV = 88 Btu/ft
0.010 Btu/ft 1.8

0.005 0.9

0.000 0.0
2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 2600 2700 2800

Adiabatic Flame Temperature @ emissions Probe (F)

Fig. 18. Measured NOx emissions for two different syngas compositions having
LHVs of 88 and 117 Btu/ft3.

Subsequent to the baseline tests, the heating value of the diluted syngas fuel was reduced to determine operability and emissions
for highly-diluted low-Btu syngas fuels. NOx emissions are shown in gure 18 for the low-Btu syngas composition listed in row 2 of
table 2, as well as for the baseline syngas composition. It is important to note that the right-hand vertical axis in gure 18 (NOx values
in ppm) is only applicable to the baseline syngas composition, as marked. For the fuel composition with the lower heating value (88
Btu/ft3), NOx emissions in ppm are slightly lower than shown (for the low-Btu fuel, 0.011 lbs/MMBtu is equivalent to 1.6 ppm).
It is worth noting that, as shown in gure 18, catalytic combustion allows stable operation with low emissions for the low Btu
syngas case (88 Btu/ft3) even at ame temperatures as low as 2300F (1260C). CO emissions were less than 5 ppm in all cases, and
were near zero for ame temperatures greater than 2200F (1200C).

3.2.2.1-10 Sub-Scale Test Data for High-Hydrogen and Low-Btu Fuels

In addition to syngas, other fuels containing non-hydrocarbon heating values are also of interest for power generation with low
emissions. Industrial process and waste gases are particularly of interest, and PCI has therefore tested its fuel-rich catalytic combustion
system with two such fuels: a low-Btu Blast Furnace Gas (BFG) and a high-hydrogen renery fuel gas. Both gases were simulated in the
laboratory by blending gases obtained from bottles or Dewars, using the same equipment that was used for the syngas fuel tests. Again,
tests were performed in PCIs high-pressure sub-scale combustion test rig, pictured in gure 8.

Blast Furnace Gas

RCL combustion of an 82 Btu/ft3 blast furnace gas was tested using a catalytic reactor that had previously been used for syngas
testing. Results for the blast furnace gas show that combustion of this gas is extremely stable following fuel-rich catalytic reaction, even
at adiabatic ame temperatures as low as 2250F (1230C). For these tests the simulated blast furnace gas comprised 23% CO, 22%
CO2, 1.4% H2, 0.6% CH4, and 53% N2, and entered the reactor after being heated to about 450F (230C). Air entered the reactor and
combustor at about 660F (350C).
Note that the high diluent fraction (low Btu value) of the blast furnace gas means that high fuel-lean equivalence ratios are
needed in the combustor burnout zone to achieve the desired ame temperature. Therefore, tests were performed over a low range of
adiabatic ame temperatures in the combustor burnout section, from about 2250F(1230C) to 2500F (1370C), representing maximum
fuel ow capability of the rig for this blast furnace gas composition. For comparison, the stoichiometric ame temperature for this blast
furnace gas is only about 2700F (1480C) for the inlet temperatures tested.
Because the catalyst was able to stabilize complete combustion at such low ame temperatures, NOx and CO emissions
were ultra-low for all conditions tested. NOx emissions for blast furnace gas operation are plotted in gure 19, as measured by sample
extraction from the cooled probe located 15 inches downstream of the catalyst exit. For all conditions tested, NOx emissions were
measured below 2.5 ppm on a raw basis (uncorrected) and below 1 ppm corrected to 15% O2 dry. CO emissions were near zero (< 1
ppm) for all conditions shown.
Because measured oxygen concentrations after fuel-lean burnout were very low, varying between about 2.5% and 5.5% for
the conditions shown, the standard emissions reporting correction to 15% O2 may be misleading. In fact, because of the high level of
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Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle

diluent in the blast furnace gas, oxygen levels would never approach 15% in an actual engine application. Therefore, the raw NOx data
are probably as relevant as the corrected NOx data, or perhaps more so, and both are therefore plotted in gure 19. In either case, NOx
emissions were ultra-low as a result of the low blast furnace gas ame temperatures.
3

2.5
raw
(uncorrected)
NOx
2

NOx @ 15% O2 dry


1.5
corrected
NOx(15% O2)
1

0.5

0
2200 2250 2300 2350 2400 2450 2500

Adiabatic Flame Temperature (F)

Fig. 19. NOx emissions, uncorrected and corrected to 15% O2, as a


function of adiabatic ame temperature in the downstream
combustion zone of the RCL combustor burning blast furnace
gas (23% CO, 1.4% H2, 0.6% CH4, 22% O2, and 53% N2).

Renery Fuel Gas

Testing of RCL combustion of renery fuel gas was also conducted using the same hardware conguration as previous tests
for syngas and blast furnace gas. Results showed NOx emissions below 3 ppm for ame temperatures below 2800F (1538C).
For the renery fuel gas tests, the simulated renery fuel gas comprised 30% H2 and 70% CH4, and entered the reactor without
passing through a fuel heater. However, some fuel heat was obtained from hot combustor rig components so that the fuel plenum gas
temperature measured about 347F (175C). Combustion air entered the reactor at about 734F (390C).
Tests were performed over a range of adiabatic ame temperatures, from about 2400 to 3000F (1315 to 1650C) in the
combustor burnout section, and at a pressure of about 10 atm. NOx and CO emissions were measured at each condition, as well as O2
and CO2.
NOx emissions for the RCL combustion of renery fuel gas are plotted in gure 20, as measured by sample extraction from the
cooled probe located 15 inches downstream of the catalyst exit, corresponding to about 50 ms residence time. As shown, NOx emissions
were measured below 3 ppm for ame temperatures less than about 2800F (1540C). CO emissions were less than about 1 ppm for all
conditions shown.

7
NOx @ 15% O2 dry

0
2400 2500 2600 2700 2800 2900 3000
Adiabatic Flame Temp (F)
TTeTemperature (F)

Fig. 20. NOx emissions, corrected to 15% O2, as a function of adiabatic ame
temperature in the downstream combustion zone burning renery fuel
gas (30% H2 and 70% CH4).
281
3.2.2.1 Fuel-Rich Catalytic Combustion

3.2.2.1-11 Technology Status and Outlook


For natural gas fuel, RCL combustion system has been demonstrated in engine testing of a modied Solar Turbines Saturn
engine, and in full-scale full-pressure rig tests at Taurus 70 conditions and beyond, including F-engine type ame temperatures. The
technology has been demonstrated viable in-engine, and the next step in technology maturity will be eld demonstration for an extended
period. Thus, the major challenges that lie ahead for natural gas applications will be durability demonstration and design integration for
specic engine applications.
RCL combustion system has also been tested at sub-scale with multiple alternative fuels, as listed in table 3. For all fuels
tested, catalyst temperatures were well controlled and combustor emissions were held to single-digit values over a wide turndown range,
conrming the benet of catalytic reactions in achieving low emissions for multiple types of fuels. The results also conrm that fuel-rich
operation of the catalyst allows similar catalyst and reactor performance with widely varying fuel types.
For liquid fuel applications, the major outstanding development issue is prevaporization of the fuel prior to fuel-rich catalytic
reaction. The primary concern here is autoignition and overheating of the premixer hardware. Likewise, the propensity for high-
hydrogen fuels to autoignite is also problematic, as in syngas fuels. In both cases, the air-cooled catalyst structure is able to tolerate
autoignition and gas-phase reactions, but conventional premixing devices located upstream of the catalyst may not. Therefore, advanced
premixing concepts are to be developed for both liquid fuel and high-hydrogen fuel (e.g. syngas) applications.

Table 3 Composition of seven different fuel types tested.


C/H Ratio Fuel-Bound
Fuel Tested Chemical Formula by Wt (%) N by Wt (%)
Methane CH4 75 / 25 0
Landll Gas 0.65 CH4 + 0.35 CO2 46.5 / 10.1 0
Diesel No. 2 Multi component 87.6 / 13.0 0.0188
Gasoline not analyzed not analyzed ~0
Renery Fuel Gas 0.70 CH4 + 0.30 H2 71.2 / 28.8 0
Syngas 20% H2 + 20% CO + 10% CO2 + 50% N2 14.75 / 1.64 0
Blast Furnace Gas 23%CO+22%CO2+1.4%H2+0.6%CH4+53%N2 17.6 / 0.17 0

In addition, for IGCC applications with coal-derived syngas fuels, consideration must be given to the high volume ow of fuel
that must pass through the catalytic reactor, to prevent excessive size or pressure drop penalties. Depending upon the application, this
may require system level re-design and development of the catalyst and combustor.
Finally, it is also recognized that syngas fuels carry trace levels of catalyst contaminants that may affect long-term catalyst
durability. This needs to be examined and remediated if problematic. Long-term durability tests are required, preferably in an actual
syngas slipstream at an operating IGCC plant, where real contaminants will be present.

3.2.2.1-12 Conclusions
For natural gas operation, the Rich-Catalytic Lean-burn (RCL) combustion concept has been tested at gas turbine conditions,
rst in a full-scale full-pressure single-injector rig, and second in a modied industrial gas turbine. These constitute two signicant
experimental milestones:

1. Experimental conrmation of the ultra-low-NOx capability of the RCL combustion concept. In particular, we conrm the ability
to mix fuel-rich catalyst efuent with primary combustion air, without inducing autoignition, yet imparting signicant stability to
the downstream combustion process.

2. Demonstration of RCL combustion feasibility for gas turbine engine operation. In particular, we demonstrate engine start-up,
acceleration, and robust operation at load by fuel injected only through RCL-injectors (effectively a single fuel stage, with all fuel
contacting the catalyst), and with simple engine controls that do not monitor catalyst temperature.

In summary, the data presented show that fuel-rich catalytic reactions can stabilize fuel-lean premixed combustion to provide
stable, quiet combustor operation with ultra-low NOx and CO emissions. In addition, the air-cooled fuel-rich catalyst system can
operate safely without active temperature control because its temperature is insensitive to fuel/air ratio.
The RCL system also provides signicant operational advantages as compared to earlier catalytic combustion systems. Most
notably, the RCL reactor requires no preburner, is immune to issues of auto-ignition and ashback (and can therefore operate safely
in high-ring-temperature machines such as F-class), and provides long catalyst life (as a result of the non-oxidizing fuel-rich catalyst
environment).
282
Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle

Finally, fuel-rich operation of the catalyst allows operation on multiple types of fuels, as successfully demonstrated at sub-scale
for gaseous and liquid hydrocarbon fuels, for low-Btu fuels and high-hydrogen fuels, and for simulated coal-derived syngas. For all of
these fuels catalyst temperatures were well controlled, and ultra-low emissions were achieved.

3.2.2.1-13 Notes

________________________

1. C.L. Vandervort, 9 ppm NOx / CO Combustion System for F Class Industrial Gas Turbines, ASME Paper
No. 2000-GT-0086, ASME Turbo Expo May 8-11, 2000, Munich, Germany.
2. D.K. Yee, K. Lundberg, and C.K. Weakley, Field Demonstration of a 1.5 MW Gas Turbine with a Low Emissions Catalytic
Combustion System, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 123 (2001): 550-556; L.L. Smith, H. Karim, M.J.
Castaldi, S. Etemad, W.C. Pfefferle, V.K. Khanna, and K.O. Smith, Rich-Catalytic Lean-Burn Combustion for Low-Single-
Digit NOx Gas Turbines, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 127 (2005): 27-35.
3. J.H. Lee and D.L. Trim, Catalytic Combustion of Methane, Fuel Processing Technology 42 (1995): 339-359; R.A. Dalla
Betta, Catalytic Combustion Gas Turbine Systems: the Preferred Technology for Low Emissions Electric Power Production
and Co-generation, Catalysis Today 35 (1997): 129-135; P. Forzatti and G. Groppi, Catalytic Combustion for the Production
of Energy, Catalysis Today 54 (1999): 165-180.
4. R.J. Farrauto, M.C. Hobson, T. Kennelly, and E.M. Waterman, Catalytic Chemistry of Supported Palladium for Combustion
of Methane, Applied Catalysis A: General 81 (1992): 227-237; R.J. Farrauto, J.K. Lampert, M.C. Hobson, and E.M.
Waterman, Thermal Decomposition and Reformation of PdO Catalysts; Support Effects, Applied Catalysis B: Environmental
6 (1995): 263-270; J.G. McCarty Kinetics of PdO Combustion Catalysis, Catalysis Today 26 (1995): 283-293; N.M.
Rodriguez, S.G. Oh, R.A. Dalla-Betta, and R.T.K. Baker, In Situ Electron Microscopy Studies of Palladium Supported on
Al2O3, SiO2, and ZrO2 in Oxygen, J. Catalysis 157 (1995): pp. 676-686.
5. R.A. Dalla Betta, T. Shoji, K., Tsurumi, and N. Ezawa (1994). Partial Combustion Process and a Catalyst Structure for Use
in the Process, U.S. Patent No. 5,326,253; T. Furuya, K. Sasaki, Y. Hanakata, T. Ohhashi, M. Yamada, T. Tsuchiya, and Y.
Furuse (1995). Development of a Hybrid Catalytic Combustor for a 1300C Class Gas Turbine," Catalysis Today 26 (1995):
345-350; Y. Ozawa, Y. Tochihara, N. Mori, I. Yuri, T. Kanazawa, and K. Sagimori, High Pressure Test Results of a
Catalytically Assisted Ceramic Combustor for a Gas Turbine, ASME Paper No. 98-GT-381, Stockholm, Sweden, 2-5 June
1998; R. Carroni, V. Schmidt, and T. Grifn, Catalytic Combustion for Power Generation, Catalysis Today 75 (2002): 287-
295.
6. S.T. Kolaczkowski, Catalytic Stationary Gas Turbine Combustors: A Review of the Challenges Faced to Clear the Next Set of
Hurdles, Trans. I. Chem. E. 73 Part A (1995): 168-190; D.B. Fant, G.S. Jackson, H. Karim, D.M. Newburry, P. Dutta, K.O.
Smith, and R.W. Dibble, Status of Catalytic Combustion R&D for the Department of Energy Advanced Turbine Systems
Program, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 122 (2000): 293-300.
7. M. Lyubovsky, L.L. Smith, M. Castaldi, H. Karim, B. Nentwick, S. Etemad, R. LaPierre, and W.C. Pfefferle, Catalytic
Combustion over Platinum Group Catalysts: Fuel-Lean versus Fuel-Rich Operation, Catalysis Today 83 (2003): 71-84.
8. R.E. Hayes and S.T. Kolaczkowski, Introduction to Catalytic Combustion (Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers,
1997); E.M. Johansson, D. Papadias, P.O. Thevenin, A.G. Ersson, R. Gabrielsson, P.G. Menon, P.H. Bjornbom and S.G. Jaras,
Catalytic Combustion for Gas Turbine Applications, Catalysis 14 (1999): 183-235; also see note 6 (Kolaczkowski).
9. R.J. Rollbuhler, Fuel-Rich, Catalytic Reaction Experimental Results, 27th Joint Propulsion Conference, Sacramento, CA,
24-27 June 1991, NASA Technical Memorandum 104423, AIAA Paper No. 91-2463; T.A. Brabbs and S.A. Merritt, Fuel-Rich
Catalytic Combustion of a High Density Fuel, NASA Technical Paper 3281 (1993).
10. G.O. Kraemer, (1996). Fuel-Rich Catalytically Stabilized Combustion for Aircraft Engine Applications, Ph.D. thesis, Yale
University.
11. M.B. Colket, A.S. Kesten, J.J. Sangiovanni, M.F. Zabielski, D.R. Pandy, and D.J. Seery (1993). Method and System for
Combusting Hydrocarbon Fuels with Low Pollutant Emissions by Controllably Extracting Heat from the Catalytic Oxidation
Stage, U.S. Patent No. 5,235,804.
12. J.P. Kesselring, W.V. Krill, E.K. Chu, and R.M. Kendall. In proceedings of New fuels and advances in combustion
technologies symposium, Mar. 26-30, 1979, New Orleans, LA.
13. W.C. Pfefferle, L.L. Smith, and M.J. Castaldi (2002). Method and Apparatus for a Fuel-Rich Catalytic Reactor, U.S. Patent
No. 6,358,040.
14. See note 2 (Smith).
15. L.J. Spadaccini, and M.B. Colket, Ignition Delay Characteristics of Methane Fuels, Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 20 (1994):
431-460.
283
3.2.2.1 Fuel-Rich Catalytic Combustion

16. See note 2 (Smith).


17. L.L. Smith, S. Etemad, M.J. Castaldi, H. Karim, and W.C. Pfefferle (2002). Method and Apparatus for a Fuel-Rich Catalytic
Reactor, U.S. Patent No. 6,394,791.
18. United States Department of Energy (2000). Clean Coal Technology Topical Report Number 19, Tampa Electric Integrated
Gasication Combined-Cycle Project, An Update July 2000; GE Power Systems (2002). Gas Turbine and Combined Cycle
Products, available at www.gepower.com/corporate/en_us/assets/gasturbines_heavy/prod/pdf/gasturbine_2002.pdf; R.D.
Brdar and R.M. Jones (2000). GE IGCC Technology and Experience with Advanced Gas Turbines, GE Power Systems
Report No. GER-4207, October 2000.

284
BIOGRAPHY
3.2.2 Catalytic Combustion & 3.2.2.1 Fuel-Rich Catalytic Combustion

Dr. Lance L. Smith

Gas Turbine Group, Precision Combustion, Inc.


410 Sackett Point Road,
North Haven, CT 06473

Dr. Lance L. Smith is a senior research & development engineer in the Gas Turbine Products
group at Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI), and a visiting assistant professor in the Engineering
Department at Trinity College. Dr. Smith has 14 years experience in combustion research and
combustor development, including work in turbulent non-premixed combustion, premixed
combustion and premixing, aerodynamic design of combustor components, pulsed combustion,
and catalytic combustion. His academic research has been primarily experimental, with a focus on
laser-based measurements in ames, including work conducted as a visiting researcher at Sandia
National Laboratories and as a post-doctoral researcher at UCLA. Dr. Smith is a principal engineer
of, and holds multiple patents for, the RCLTM catalytic reactor. At PCI, he works with OEM gas
turbine manufacturers to develop integrated catalytic combustion systems for ultra-low emissions
gas turbines. A graduate of Brown University (B.S., 1986) and of University of California, Berkeley
(M.S., 1990 and Ph.D., 1994), Dr. Smith is an elected member of the Tau Beta Pi and Sigma Xi
honor societies, and a member of the Combustion Institute.
Dr. Shahrokh Etemad

Gas Turbine Group, Precision Combustion, Inc.


410 Sackett Point Road,
North Haven, CT 06473

phone: (203) 287-3700 x217


email: setemad@precision-combustion.com

Dr. Shahrokh Etemad as Manager of Gas Turbine Products at Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI)
in North Haven, Connecticut, has full responsibility for technical and commercial development
of two major products. He manages an advanced technology group to develop low-emissions
combustion products in close collaboration with several OEM gas turbine engine manufacturers
and the U.S. Department of Energy. Dr. Etemad is responsible for budgeting, funding opportunities,
technology direction, proposal preparation and complete R&D operations including concept
development, computational analysis, experimental testing, full-size performance demonstration
and productionization. Prior to his present position at PCI, he worked for several years at Textron
Lycoming and United Technologies, Carrier. Dr. Etemad has published 28 technical articles and
holds 28 patents in the eld of turbomachinery, combustion, and thermouid systems. He earned
bachelors and masters degrees at Sussex University and University of London respectively, and
received his Ph.D. from the University of Washington in 1984. He has been a member of ASME
since 1995 and won the 2003 ASME Gas Turbine award.
Dr. Hasan Karim

Gas Turbine Group, Precision Combustion, Inc.


410 Sackett Point Road,
North Haven, CT 06473

Dr. Hasan Karim is a senior research & development engineer at Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI),
where his responsibilities include design, development, analysis, numerical and computational
uid dynamics, and testing of catalytic combustors for natural gas, syngas, and liquid fuel. He is
the principal investigator for the catalytic combustor development project for the U.S. Navy and
lead engineer for the catalytic pilot and catalytic combustor for downhole combustion programs.
After receiving a bachelors degree from Indian Institute of Technology-Kharagpur in 1987, Dr.
Karim earned his M.S. from New Jersey Institute of Technology in 1991, and his Ph.D. from Yale
University in 1998. He is a co-inventor of air-cooled rich and lean reactor technology.
Dr. William C. Pfefferle

Gas Turbine Group, Precision Combustion, Inc.


410 Sackett Point Road,
North Haven, CT 06473

Dr. William C. Pfefferle invented the original catalytic combustor for gas turbine engines in the
early 1970s and now holds over 90 U.S. patents. In 1986, Dr. Pfefferle co-founded Precision
Combustion, Inc. (PCI), a Connecticut-based company dedicated to developing clean and efcient
technology for clean air. His research has led to important industrial advances such as the RCL
catalytic combustor for ground power gas turbine engines, which is now in late-stage development
and evaluation by several major gas turbine manufacturers, and the Microlith catalytic reaction
system, which forms the basis for paradigm-shift, high heat mass transfer catalytic reactors for
fast-lightoff automotive catalytic converters and fuel processor reactors. With a B.S. in Chemical
Engineering from Drexel University (1944) and a Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from the University
of Pennsylvania (1952), Dr. Pfefferle is a member of the American Chemical Society (ACS), and
received the ACS 31st Northeast Regional Industrial Innovation Award. He was inducted into the
New Jersey Inventors Hall of Fame in February 1990. He continues to work full-time to develop
catalytic devices for clean and efcient energy.
3.2.2.2
Catalytic Combustion in 3.2.2.2-1 Introduction
Large Frame Industrial Large frame gas turbine engines employ three different types of
Gas Turbines combustion systems: diffusion ame, lean premixed combustion and catalytic
combustion. In diffusion ame combustors the fuel and air are injected separately
into the combustion zone where they mix and react. Because of the nature of
the design, these combustion systems tend to have ame temperatures that are
typical of stoichiometric combustion and therefore produce high NOx emissions.
Obtaining reasonable emissions from a diffusion ame combustion system generally
requires the injection of diluents into the combustion section to lower the ame
temperature, typically either water or steam. At current F-class ring temperatures
these systems can produce NOx emissions in the range of 25 ppm NOx. In the
lean premixed combustion system, the fuel and air are allowed to premix upstream
of the ame zone. This results in a signicantly lower ame temperature than
the standard diffusion ame combustor resulting in lower NOx emissions without
the need to inject water or steam. The limitation on low emissions from the lean
premixed combustion systems is the combustion instabilities which occur as the
lean ammability limit of the mixture is approached. These instabilities can lead
to large pressure uctuation in the combustion chamber. At F class temperatures
the lean premixed combustion system can obtain NOx emissions in the range
of 7-9 ppm. The catalytic combustion system shows promise to achieve lower
emissions because the combustion instabilities at the lean ammability limit are
no longer a limiting factor. Although catalytic combustion systems have not yet
been employed in large industrial gas turbines, results from current development
are encouraging and emissions in the range of 2-3 ppm are achievable.

3.2.2.2-2 Catalytic Combustion Design


The major development effort for catalytic combustion in large frame gas
turbine engines was initiated as part of the DOE ATS program1. The goal of the
ATS program was the development of a highefciency, high-ring temperature
engine (>1700 K) with NOx emissions less than 10 ppm for lean premixed systems
and 5 ppm for the catalytic system. On this program the basic design of the catalytic
combustor for a large industrial gas turbine was developed. Since this program,
considerable progress has been made on the design.
At the high ring temperatures of a typical gas turbine engine, it is not
possible to design a pure catalytic approach where all of the fuel is reacted in the
catalyst section. In the current design philosophy a hybrid catalytic two stage
system is employed where the catalyst stage is followed with a homogeneous
burnout region. Generally these systems will react 20-40% of the fuel in the
catalytic stage. By reacting a portion of the fuel in the catalyst the stability of the
ame in the homogeneous burnout zone is signicantly improved. The hybrid
catalytic combustion systems that have been investigated for large gas turbine
Walter Ray Laster engines are the lean catalytic lean burn (LCL) design and the rich catalytic lean
burn (RCL) design.
Siemens Power Generation Figure 1 shows the basic concept of the LCL design. In this design all
Corporation of the fuel and air are premixed upstream and enter the catalyst section under fuel
4400 Alafaya Trail MC Q3 -042 lean conditions. At the end of the catalyst section any fuel not reacted is burned out
Orlando, FL 32826 in a homogeneous reaction zone. To insure proper catalyst activity, this concept
requires an inlet temperature of fuel air mixture to the catalyst of approximately
phone: (407) 736-5796 500 C. Since this temperature is higher than the compressor exit temperature of
email: walter.laster@siemens.com a typical gas turbine engine, a preburner will be necessary to achieve the desired
catalyst inlet conditions. Operation of the catalyst in the lean region requires very
close control of the air fuel ratio in the vicinity of the catalyst to avoid high reaction
rates and excessive catalyst temperatures. The lean combustion concept has been
pursued by Catalytica in their patented Xonon technology. This technology has
been commercially operated on a small scale in the Kawasaki 1.5 MW engine.
On large frame engines this technology has been studied by General Electric and
Siemens Westinghouse.
285
Figure 2 shows a basic concept of the RCL design. In this design the inlet air ow to the catalyst is separated into two streams.
A portion of the air is mixed with the fuel and reacts on the surface of the catalyst under fuel rich conditions. The remaining air is
used to backside cool the catalyst. The two streams mix at the catalyst exit and then react and burnout in the homogeneous reaction
zone. By operating the catalyst in the fuel rich region, the reaction rate is limited by the rate of diffusion of oxygen to the catalyst
surface. Therefore this design is able to tolerate wider variations in air fuel ratio within the catalyst region than the LCL design. In this
design the preburner is no longer required as the fuel and air react at compressor exit temperature typical of gas turbine engines. The
choice of catalyst material is critical for this design in order to insure proper catalyst lightoff. Precision Combustion, Inc and Siemens
Westinghouse have pursued the RCL combustion design2.

Catalys t Flam e

Inlet B .S . Cooled Catalytic R eactor B urnout of CH4 and CO

A ir + Fuel @ 950F/500C M ixing


M ix R eacted and N on-R eacted
E ffluent

Fig. 1. LCL Combustion System


Rich-Catalytic/Lean-Burn Module (ATCC3 - PCI)

Fuel Inlet, with A ir


Fuel + A ir @ 750F/400C

Flam e
B urnout of
CH4 and CO

A ir Inlet Catalys t M ixing


A ir @ 750F/400C A ir-Cooled Catalytic R eactor
N o preburner M ix A ir w/ Partially R eacted
Fuel/A ir

Fig. 2. RCL Combustion System

286
Walter Ray Laster

3.2.2.2-3 Rich Catalytic Combustion Applied to Large Gas Turbine Engines


As part of the ATS program, Siemens Fuel-MixerFuel
Westinghouse performed an evaluation of both Manifold
the RCL and LCL systems. Based on subscale Fuel Inlet
module testing of both technologies, it was clear Air Inlet
that either design could meet the emission targets
Reactive Gas 45o (~15%)
Mixture Jets
of the catalytic program. The RCL design was Cooli
ng Mixing Zone
chosen for two main reasons. By eliminating
Air
the pre-burner, the design was much more
compact and could be easily t into the existing Inlet
envelope of the current gas turbine combustor ~85%
306 - Tubes with Catalytic Coating on the Outside
without major modication to the casing. Also
because of the operation in the rich region the Fig. 3. Rich Catalytic Module Design
design was much more tolerant of variations
in both air and fuel ow. Over ring tests
were performed on both designs and the RCL
design was able to survive a severe over fuel
transient without damage. This was not the case
for the LCL design. Under the ATS program,
the basic design of the RCL catalytic module
was developed and the conceptual design of
catalytic basket was developed. This design
was continued for application to the lower ring
temperature SGT6-3000E engine. Full scale
basket testing was performed on this design at
both E-class and F-class ring temperatures.
During the initial development phase
of the RCL design, testing was performed on the
subscale module level. The full scale combustor
basket was divided into 6 individual subscale
modules each of which was designed to operate
at 1/6 of the total combustor basket ow. The
basic design of the RCL catalytic module is
shown in gure 3. In this design the catalyst
is composed of tubes with catalytic coating on
the outside surface. These tubes are brazed to a Fig. 4. Rich Catalytic Module Design
plate on the upstream end and ared on the down
stream end. A portion of the inlet air (~15%)
enters the fuel mixing chamber where fuel is
injected and allowed to mix before entering the
catalyst region. This rich fuel air mixture ows
along the outside of the tubes and is allowed to
react on the catalyst surface. The remaining
air enters the inside of the tubes and provides
backside cooling for the catalyst surface. Both
streams are allowed to mix down stream of the
catalyst zone before they enter the homogeneous
reaction zone. The ratio of air ow between
the reacting fuel region and the cooling air is
determined by pressure drops between the two
ow paths. For a given design the fuel split
is xed. Figure 4 shows the catalytic module
design used for testing.
Catalytic module testing was performed
at full engine conditions for both the STG-6-
3000E and the STG-6-5000F engines. Module
testing conrmed that emissions could be
maintained at less than 2 ppm NOx and 10 ppm Fig. 5. Catalytic Combustor for the Siemens SGT6-5000F Engine

287
3.2.2.2 Catalytic Combustion in Large Frame Industrial Gas Turbines

CO for a wide range of conditions including both the E and F class engines.
Throughout all conditions the catalyst and metal temperatures remained within
limits.
A full scale combustor basket was designed using 6 catalytic modules
surrounded by a central pilot3. Figure 5 shows the combustor conguration
envisioned for use in the Siemens gas turbine engine. The pilot is necessary
to insure stable operation of the combustor basket at low loads. The goal of
the design is to minimize or completely shut off the fuel ow to the pilot at
baseload conditions. Although the pilot contributes to NOx emissions, this can
be minimized by replacing the standard diffusion pilot design with a premixed
pilot. Based on this concept, a full scale basket was fabricated and tested at the
Siemens full pressure single basket test facility in Italy. This facility duplicates
the geometry and ow conditions (pressure, temperature, air and fuel ow) of
a single basket as installed in a Siemens gas turbine engine. Data was obtained
for a range of ring temperatures encompassing the SGT-6-3000E and the
SGT-6-5000F engines. The basket used for these tests is shown in gure 6.
As expected, the emissions for the full basket tests were slightly
higher than those of the module tests due to the pilot. For the SGT-6-3000E
engine it was necessary to add dilution air to raise the combustor temperature
in order to achieve proper CO burnout. At these conditions the catalytic
combustion system was able to produce emissions of 3.3 ppm NOx and 7 ppm
CO. When the temperature was increased to SGT-6-5000F conditions, the
improved stability at higher temperatures enabled the combustor to run at a
signicantly lower pilot fraction. The resulting NOx and CO emissions were
nearly the same as for the lower ring temperature conditions, 3.6 ppm NOx
and 9 ppm CO. Basket and catalyst metal temperatures and combustor pressure
oscillations were well below the design limits during the test. As part of this
test program, an overring test was performed, with no damage to the catalytic
module components.
Fig. 6. Full Scale Catalytic Combustor

3.2.2.2-4 Conclusions
The rich catalytic combustion approach has been designed for application to the Siemens SGT-6-3000E and STG-6-5000F
engine. Rig testing has shown that the design is capable of emissions in the range of 2 3 ppm at SGT-6-5000F temperatures. This design
has been shown to be robust with respect to variation in air and fuel ow. Additional work is underway to reduce the emissions. Current
development on the RCL concept is focused on the fuel exibility aspects of the design and the application to syngas and hydrogen
fuels.

3.2.2.2-5 Notes

_________________________

1. D.B Fant,G.S. Jackson, H. Karim, D.M. Newburry, P. Dutta, K.O. Smith, and R.W. Dibble, Status of Catalytic Combustion R&D
for the Department of Energy Advanced Turbine Systems Program, ASME Journal of Enginering for Gas Turbines and Power,
(2000): 293-300.

2. L. Smith, et al, US Patent No. 6,174,159, Method and Apparatus for a Catalytic Firebox Reactor, 1999; W.C. Pfefferle, L.
Smith, M.J. Castaldi, US Patent No. 6,358,040, Method and Apparatus for a Fuel Rich Catalytic Reactor, 2000.

3. D.M. Newburry, US Patent No. 6,415,608, Piloted Rich-Catalytic Lean-Burn Hybrid Combustor, 2000.

288
BIOGRAPHY
3.2.2.2 Catalytic Combustion in Large Frame Industrial Gas Turbines

Walter Ray Laster


Siemens Power Generation
4400 Alafaya Trail MC Q3 -042
Orlando, FL 32826

phone: 407-736-5796
email: walter.laster@siemens.com

Dr Laster has a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from Purdue University with a specialty in the
area of combustion. He taught combustion and heat transfer at Texas A&M University. He has 12
years industrial experience in the gas turbine eld at Siemens Westinghouse. He has been involved
in the design of dry low NOx combustors and catalytic combustion systems. He has been involved
in several projects related to alternatuve fuels for gas turbine systems.
3.2.2.3 3.2.2.3-1 Introduction
Surface Stabilized
Combustion Surface-stabilized combustion is a simple approach that can maximize the
emissions benet of lean fuel/air premixing by increasing ame stability, and doing
so in a compact and exible manner. ALZETA Corporation is developing a surface-
stabilized combustion system for industrial turbine applications capable of sub-3 ppm
emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOX) with simultaneous low emissions of carbon
monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC). The application of surface-stabilized
combustion to gas turbines is being developed under the name nanoSTAR. The
development has been reported in a series of technical papers given at various ASME
conferences1.
Low emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOX), as well as carbon monoxide
(CO) and unburned hydrocarbons can be achieved with thorough fuel/air mixing
and control of the adiabatic ame temperature of that mixture below about 1920 K
(3000 F). One of the great difculties with such lean premixed systems has been
maintaining ame stability in the narrow ame temperature range between high NOX
production and lean ame extinction. Aerodynamically stabilized injectors have very
narrow ranges of operation, necessitating multiple injector staging (up to four stages
in some systems) or piloting2. When control of NOx emissions is achieved without the
use of steam or water injection, it is referred to as a dry method, such Dry Low NOx, or
DLN systems, have been successfully deployed to achieve sub-25 ppm NOx emissions
in several gas turbine applications, and in some cases much lower.
Surface-stabilized combustion is a simple approach that extends the operating
range of lean premixed systems to achieve sub-3 ppm NOx emissions. The technology
has advanced through proof-of-concept testing in pressurized rigs and demonstration
in a one megawatt test engine. Prototype injectors for small industrial turbines have
been designed, built, and rig tested. Multiple injectors have been tested in an annular
combustor with varied combustion air inlet temperatures under atmospheric and
elevated pressures while work is progressing toward an engine demonstration.

3.2.2.3-2 Technology
The surface-stabilized combustion inherent in nanoSTAR injectors is best
described as laminar blue-ame combustion stabilized by signicant velocity gradients
above a porous metal-ber mat. The operation of this type of surface-stabilized
combustion is characterized by the schematic to the left of gure 1, which shows
premixed fuel and air passing through the metal ber mat in two distinct zones.

Neil K. McDougald B

ALZETA Corporation
2343 Calle del Mundo
Santa Clara, CA 95054 A A

phone: (408) 727-8282


email: nmcdougald@alzeta.com Fuel/Air

Fig.1. Surface-Stabilized Combustion (reproduced by permission of the publisher from


American Society of Mechanical Engineers [ASME])

Source: S. J. Greenberg, N. K. McDougald, and L. O. Arellano, Full-Scale


Demonstration of Surface-Stabilized Fuel Injectors for sub-Three ppm NOx Emission,
ASME Paper # GT2004-53629 (presented at the 2004 ASME Turbo Expo, Vienna,
289 Austria, June 14-17, 2004).
In the porous-only zone true surface combustion (A) is realized. Under lean conditions this will manifest as very short laminar
amelets, but under rich conditions the surface combustion will become a diffusion-dominated reaction stabilized just over a millimeter
above the metal matrix, which proceeds without visible ame and heats the outer surface of the mat to incandescence. This type of
radiant surface combustion can be seen between the laminar amelets to the right of gure 1.
Portions of the metal ber mat are perforated to allow higher mass ux (B). In these zones stretched laminar ames are
established that are anchored by the adjacent surface combustion. This produces the distinctive ame pattern seen in the right-hand
picture of gure 1. The specic perforation arrangement and pattern control the size and shape of the laminar amelets. The perforated
zones operate at ow velocities of up to 10 times the laminar ame speed producing a factor of ten stretch of the ame surface and
resulting in a large laminar amelets. The alternating arrangement of laminar blue ames and surface combustion, allows high ring
rates to be achieved before ame liftoff occurs, with the surface combustion stabilizing the long laminar ames by providing a pool of
hot combustion radicals at the ame edges.
At atmospheric operation, nominal injector output would be 3.15 MW/m2 (1.0 million Btu/hr/ft2), so an injector with a red area
of .047 m2 (0.5 ft2) would have a capacity of 146.5 kW (500,000 Btu/hr). Assuming the ring rate of the injector increases linearly with
pressure, the SFR remains constant as pressure increases. This results in a compact injector size for a given capacity in high pressure
systems. Therefore the 146.5 kW (500,000 Btu/hr) injector at 0.1 MPa (1 atm) becomes nominally a 1,465 kW (5 million Btu/hr injector)
at 1 Mpa (10 atm). Put another way, based on a gas turbine with a heat rate of 10,000 Btu/kilowatt-hour and a combustion pressure of
10 atmospheres, only about one square foot of injector surface area would be required for every megawatt of gas turbine output.
NanoSTAR injectors are constructed of small metal bers which are compressed and sintered, resulting in an all-metal structure.
This porous pad is perforated to produce a proprietary arrangement of perforation zones. The perforated metal ber pads have a very
low pressure drop but excellent ow uniformity. They also display excellent durability in red service. In an atmospheric cycling test,
a nanoSTAR metal ber pad withstood over 15,000 ignition/cooling cycles over a 30-day period without a signicant loss in operability.
Further material and oxidation studies are being conducted in order to estimate injector life which is expected to exceed 8000 hours.
Figure 2 depicts an injector in a gas turbine combustor liner.

COMBUSTOR LINER

SINTERED METAL FIBER PAD


LINER DILUTION HOLES

PREMIXED
FUEL/AIR

DISTIBUTOR
SELECTIVE
PERFORATIONS
MOUNTING RING

Fig. 2. Surface-Stabilized nanoSTAR Injector (reproduced by


permission of the publisher from American Society of Mechanical
Engineers [ASME])

Source: See g. 1.
The laminar blue ame combustion zones created by the surface stabilization contribute to lower NOX emissions in three ways.
The dominant mechanism is the expected benet from using a fully premixed fuel and oxidizer, resulting in a uniform temperature across
the reaction zone, and lean burning, resulting in reaction temperatures below the 1920 K (3000 F) limit for thermal NOX formation. The
second is the much lower residence time in the hot combustion zone. The peak temperatures are realized in the combustion front formed
by each laminar amelet which, like that of a Bunsen injector ame, is very thin. So the residence time in the peak ame temperature
zone for a nanoSTAR injector is a fraction of that of a typical aerodynamically-stabilized injector. The third mechanism is a more rapid
post-ame cooling of each blue-ame zone via the gas phase radiation mechanism. By spreading the ame over a larger surface, the gas
layer thickness at any specic location on the injector is thin (relative to that of a conventional injector) and can more rapidly transfer
energy as a result.
These mechanisms combine in a nanoSTAR injector to produce lower NOX emissions than a typical lean premixed
aerodynamically-stabilized injector. Figure 3 shows a comparison between nanoSTAR injector emission results from a high-pressure
rig test and perfectly-premixed aerodynamically-stabilized emission results from a 1990 paper by Leonard and Correa3. In both cases
the tests were conducted at 1.01 Mpa (10 atm) and 535-590 K (500-600 oF) inlet temperatures. A nanoSTAR injector ring in under
atmospheric pressure in a quartz enclosure is shown in gure 4.
In addition to lower emissions with a wide turndown window, nanoSTAR injectors can be designed to t within existing
combustor liners and tted to existing fuel/air premixers without extensive modication to the combustion equipment or pressure case.
Furthermore, they require no extraordinary control schemes or equipment beyond that which would be required for an aerodynamically-
stabilized lean-premixed injector.
290
Neil K. McDougald

Fig. 3. Surface-Stabilized Compared to Aerodynamically- Fig. 4. Surface-Stabilized nanoSTAR Injector (reproduced by


Stabilized Emission Results at 1.01 MPa (10 atm) Pressure permission of the publisher from American Society of Mechanical
and 535-590 K (reproduced by permission of the publisher Engineers [ASME]).
from American Society of Mechanical Engineers [ASME]).
Source: See g. 1.
Source: See g. 1.

3.2.2.3-3 Experimental Results


Calculated Adiabatic Flame Temperature (oF)

The nanoSTAR injectors


2900 2950
have
3000
been3100
3050
extensively
3150 3200
tested
3250
10
in sub-scale rigs over a broad range of inlet temperatures and operating
2750 2800 2850

pressures. Representative results are shown in gure 5 comparing single and dual injector results at 1.2 MPa (12 atm). These results
Single Injector
conrmed8 that injectors could be red in close proximity without impacting emissions or operability clearing the way for full-scale
)

Dual Injectors - 3" Separation


2

annular combustor testing.


6

Calculated Adiabatic Flame Temperature (oF)


4
2750 2800 2850 2900 2950 3000 3050 3100 3150 3200 3250
10

2 Single Injector
)Emissions

Dual Injectors - 3" Separation


x
2

8
NO

0
(ppm, corrected 15% O Emissions

6 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050


Calculated Adiabatic Flame Temperature (K)

2
x
NO

0
(ppm, corrected 15% O

1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050


Calculated Adiabatic Flame Temperature (K)

Fig. 5. Comparison of Sector Rig NOX Data with Single Injector Rig Data Fig. 6. Interior of Full Scale Annular Combustor during
at 1.2 MPa (12 atm) Pressure and 640 K (690F) Inlet Temperature Atmospheric Testing (reproduced by permission of the
(reproduced by permission of the publisher from American Society of publisher from American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Mechanical Engineers [ASME]). [ASME]).

Source: See g. 1. above. Source: See g. 1. above.

A full-scale annular combustor was tted with twelve equally spaced nanoSTAR injectors. The assembly was tested under
atmospheric conditions which allowed for visual observation of the red injectors as in gure 6. Four thermocouple rakes recorded
temperatures around the combustor outlet to create the outlet prole shown in gure 7. The outlet prole was uniform with an overall
pattern factor of 0.16 that is well within acceptable limits.
291
10
3.2.2.3 Surface Stabilized Combustion
8

Calculated Adiabatic Flame Temperature (oF)


4
2600 2650 2700 2750 2800 2850 2900 2950 3000
16
2

Emissions
14
0

)
NOx

2
12
CO

(ppm, corrected 15% O


10

Emissions (ppm, corrected 15% O


2

0
1700 1725 1750 1775 1800 1825 1850 1875 1900
Calculated Adiabatic Flame Temperature (K)

Fig. 7. Plot of Temperature Contours at Exit Plane Fig. 8. Emissions Data Collected During Full Scale Pressurized
of Annular Combustor at Atmospheric Pressure and Testing at 0.5-1.2 MPa (5-12 atm) Pressure and 475-700 K
650 K (700F) Inlet Temperature (reproduced by (400-800F) Inlet Temperature (reproduced by permission of
permission of the publisher from American Society of the publisher from American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Mechanical Engineers [ASME]). [ASME]).

Source: See g.1. above. Source: See g. 1. above.

The full-scale combustor was installed in a high pressure test cell and operated at pressures between 0.5-1.2 MPa (5-12 atm)
with inlet air temperatures between 475-700K (400-800F). Emissions data collected during these tests are presented in gure 8. The
results were consistent with previous sub-scale results and provided data necessary to design an engine-ready combustor.

3.2.2.3-4 Conclusions
Surface stabilized combustion extends the lean premixed combustion stability allowing ultra-low emissions to be realized
under small industrial gas turbine operating conditions. ALZETAs nanoSTAR technology has progressed through a series of sub-scale
and full-scale rig tests consistently demonstrating ultra-low NOx emissions of less than 3 ppm (corrected to 15% O2) over a broad range
of operating conditions. The next stage in the development is an engine demonstration which should be completed by the end of 2005.

3.2.2.3-5 Notes
_________________________

1. C.K. Weakley, S. J. Greenberg, R. M. Kendall, N. K. McDougald, and L. O. Arellano, Development Of Surface-


Stabilized Fuel Injectors With Sub-Three ppm NOX Emissions, ASME Paper # IJPGC2002-26088 (presented at the 2002
International Joint Power Generation Conference, Phoenix, AZ, June 24-26, 2002; Greenberg, S. J.); N. K. McDougald, C. K.
Weakley, R. M. Kendall, and L. O. Arellano, Surface-Stabilized Fuel Injectors With Sub-Three ppm NOX Emissions for a 5.5
MW Gas Turbine Engine, ASME Paper # GT2003-38489 (presented at the 2003 ASME Turbo Expo, Atlanta, GA, June
16-19, 2003); S. J. Greenberg, N. K. McDougald, and L. O. Arellano, Full-Scale Demonstration of Surface-Stabilized Fuel
Injectors for sub-Three ppm NOx Emission, ASME Paper # GT2004-53629 (presented at the 2004 ASME Turbo Expo,
Vienna, Austria, June 14-17, 2004.).
2. C. L. Vandervort, 9 ppm NOX/CO Combustion System for F Class Industrial Gas Turbines, ASME J. of Engineering for
Gas Turbines and Power 123 (2001): 317-321.
3. G. L. Leonard and S. M. Correa, NOX Formation in Premixed High-Pressure Lean Methane Flames, Fossil Fuel Combustion
Symposium 1990, S. N. Singh, ed. (New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1990): 69-74.

292
BIOGRAPHY 3.2.2.3 Surface Stabilized Combustion

Neil K. McDougald

ALZETA Corporation
2343 Calle del Mundo
Santa Clara, CA 95054

phone: (408) 727-8282


email: nmcdougald@alzeta.com

Since July 2000, Dr. McDougald has been leading ALZETAs effort to develop nanoSTAR, an ultra-
low emissions combustion system for gas turbines. The nanoSTAR is a surface-stabilized lean
premixed combustion technology that provides ultra-low NOx emissions while avoiding unstable
combustion dynamics. As Director of Product Development, he is responsible for management
and technical support for ALZETAs existing and emerging combustion products.
3.2.2 3.2.2-1 Introduction
Catalytic Combustion
The earliest work on what is now termed catalytic combustion was conducted
by Pfefferle at Engelhard Corporation in the 1970s and introduced the use of both
catalytic and non-catalytic combustion reactions in a temperature range amenable
to both1. The original-type catalytic combustor is a ceramic honeycomb monolith
containing catalytically-coated parallel channels and placed within a combustion
chamber2. In this original-type catalytic combustor, surface reactions release heat and
reactive intermediates into the boundary layer above the surface, eventually inducing
gas-phase (non-catalytic) reactions. As a consequence, combustor operation can be at
lean limits well beyond those feasible without the inuence of a catalyst, and pollutant
emissions can be extremely low. Early work on systems of this type were conducted
Dr. Lance Smith at Engelhard, Acurex, Westinghouse, NASA, the Air Force, and elsewhere3.
Active interest in catalytic combustion for power generation increased during
the early 1990s as it became clear that continued pressure for reduced emissions
could not be met simply by re-design of conventional combustors. A new approach
of partial conversion in the catalyst bed and the use of metal catalyst substrates to
circumvent thermal shock issues, revived catalytic combustion for power generation.
Metal-substrate type catalyst beds were thus employed for catalytic combustion with
increasing success during the 1990s, demonstrating the low NOx potential of catalytic
combustion for gas turbine applications4.
Ultimately, two very different systems emerged during this period: a fuel-lean
Dr. Shahrokh Etemad catalyst system developed by Catalytica, Inc. and a fuel-rich catalyst system developed
by Precision Combustion, Inc5. Engine tests of these two systems are described,
respectively, in Yee et al. and Smith et al.6 . These systems are also described in greater
detail in Sections 3.2.2.1.1 and 3.2.2.1.2 of this Handbook.

3.2.2-2 Role of Catalysis in Combustion


In broad terms, a catalyst is used to promote a desired chemical reaction.
Catalysts nd a wide range of applications in the production of energy and power, but
for combustion turbines there are three basic classes of reactions that one may desire
Dr. Hasan Karim to promote: fuel preparation such as reforming prior to combustion, fuel oxidation
with heat release, and pollutant destruction. Catalytic combustion normally refers
to fuel oxidation with heat release, particularly when the catalyst is placed inside an
engine and within the combustor casing. We restrict our discussion here to catalytic
combustion and exclude other catalytic processes such as fuel reforming or exhaust-
gas cleanup.
In simple terms, the presence of a combustion catalyst enables complete
combustion at lower temperatures than otherwise possible. This fact can be used
for multiple benets, but the primary motivation for low temperature combustion is
reduced NOx emissions and/or increased combustor turndown. In particular, most
non-catalytic combustors operate with peak ame temperatures higher than 1525C
Dr. William C. Pfefferle (2780F) to ensure adequate ame stability and margin from blowout. As is well
known, NOx emissions even for perfectly premixed fuel-air ames at 1525C (2780
F) can exceed the 3 ppm threshold (at 15% O2) targeted for many new power plants7.
Catalytic combustors, however, can operate stably with ame temperatures far below
Gas Turbine Group, Precision
1525C (2780F), offering both reduced NOx emissions and improved combustor
Combustion, Inc.
turndown.
410 Sackett Point Road, CT
06473
3.2.2-3 Catalyst Materials for Combustion
phone: (203) 287-3700 x217 Applications
email: setemad@precision-
combustion.com
By denition a catalyst promotes a chemical reaction, such as fuel with
oxygen, but is itself neither consumed nor produced by the reaction. Precious
metal catalysts are useful in promoting combustion reactions, and it is desirable to
preserve such valuable catalysts by xing them to a stationary, solid surface known
as a substrate. The reactants, fuel and air, react on contact with the catalyst surface
255
forming combustion products. For solid fuels such as coal, this means that liquefaction or gasication of the fuel is required to enable
contact with the solid catalyst surface in the presence of air.
Regardless of fuel type, the need for the reactants to contact a solid catalyst surface also means that a high substrate surface
area is desirable, as is a high rate of mass transfer to the solid surface. Thus, catalyst substrates typically take the form of small pellets,
rods, wires, tubes, honeycombs, foams, or other high-surface-area shapes through which ow can pass. Channel diameters through such
structures are typically between 1 mm and 1 cm in diameter, depending on size and pressure drop requirements.
Substrates can be made of metal or ceramic materials, but must withstand the expected operating environment in a gas turbine
engine, particularly with regard to thermal gradients and thermal shock8. Metal substrates best ll this need, but their temperature must
be limited to less than 950C (1750F) to ensure sufcient material strength and long life. Ceramic materials can operate at higher
temperatures, but issues of thermal shock failure during the transient operating conditions required for gas turbine operation have not
been fully resolved. Thus, despite their inherent temperature limitations, metal substrates have been nearly universally adopted for gas
turbine catalytic combustion, even for machines with ring temperatures hundreds of degrees higher than 950C (1750F). As a result,
a prominent feature of successful catalytic combustor designs has been control or limitation of catalyst temperature without sacrice in
engine, combustor, or emissions performance.
Once the reactants are in contact with the substrate surface, it is also desirable that catalytic reactions proceed quickly. This
requires a large number of active catalyst surface sites per unit surface area of substrate. For this purpose a high-surface-area support
material such as a porous ceramic washcoat may be applied to the substrate, creating a new rough or porous surface that can have
thousands of times the surface area of the raw substrate. The catalyst is nely dispersed across this rough surface and throughout its
pores, to give a high density of active sites for chemical reaction. Specic procedures for preparing such supported catalysts have been
disclosed in the literature9. Figure 1 presents a cross-sectional view of an actual washcoat support, containing precious-metal catalyst,
and bonded to an underlying metal substrate.
A high density of active surface sites is especially important in achieving the lowest possible lightoff temperature for a given
catalyst. For practical applications of catalytic
combustion, lightoff temperature is a critical
parameter that determines both system operation and
system design. The lightoff process can be depicted reactants (gas)
graphically as suggested by Pfefferle and Pfefferle
and as shown schematically here in gure 210.
100 m catalyst / support
Prior to catalyst lightoff the temperature
difference between the catalyst surface and the reactant
gas stream is small (tens of degrees or less) and the
(0.004 in)
reaction rate is slow enough that this temperature
difference is sufcient to remove all heat released substrate (solid)
at the surface. Pre-lightoff operating conditions
correspond to region I in gure 2. However, if gas
and catalyst temperatures are increased, reaction rates
will increase exponentially with temperature until Fig. 1. Microscope photograph of sectioned catalyst support and substrate. The
reactants are consumed as quickly as they arrive at catalyst support is a ceramic washcoat, bonded to the underlying metal substrate.
the surface. When this occurs, the surface reaction is The scale of this photograph is roughly 100 m (0.004 in) in total height.
said to be mass transfer limited, since mass transfer of
fuel and oxygen to the surface now limit the overall
reaction rate and temperature has little impact. At
this condition the catalyst temperature will greatly
heat release III
exceed (by hundreds of degrees) the temperature
of the reactant gas stream, and in fact, the catalyst
will operate close to the adiabatic ame temperature Heat
of the reactant gas stream if no external cooling is Rate II
provided. This changeover to mass transfer limited
(W)
operation at greatly increased catalyst temperature
is known as catalyst lightoff, and occurs rapidly (on
heat removal
the order of seconds) once the lightoff temperature is Ql.o.
reached. I
Figure 2 indicates how lightoff temperature
is dened and why lightoff is rapid. The solid curve Tgas Tl.o. Temperature (K)
represents heat release rate (in Watts, for example)
from exothermic reactions at the catalyst surface, Fig. 2. Representation of heat generation and heat removal as
as a function of catalyst temperature. The dashed a function of catalyst temperature, as during catalyst lightoff
curve indicates the effect of catalyst temperature on
the rate of heat removal from the catalyst surface,
256
Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle
predominantly by convection to the reactant stream. The dashed curves point of intersection on the x-axis is the gas stream temperature.
Note that the solid curve is independent of gas stream temperature, but the dashed curve will slide left and right, depending on gas stream
temperature, with a constant slope determined by the convective heat transfer coefcient.
For steady-state operation heat removal must equal heat release, so operation must be at an intersection point of the solid and
dashed curves. Furthermore, for this intersection point to be a stable operating condition, an increase in catalyst temperature must lead
to greater heat removal than heat release. At lightoff, this stability condition fails, and lightoff temperature Tl.o. is dened at the point of
tangency between the solid and dashed curves, as shown. At this point, any increase in catalyst temperature leads to greater heat release
than heat removal, with the result that catalyst temperature rapidly increases until reaction rate is limited by mass transfer of reactants
to the catalyst surface. Thus, catalyst temperature passes through the unstable region II, and stabilizes at its mass-transfer-limited value
in region III where the dashed curve and the solid curves again intersect. Catalyst lightoff is therefore a rapid transient event, and can
be measured for any catalyst material with only weak dependence on heat transfer coefcient. Note that some authors dene lightoff
temperature in terms of the gas temperature Tgas during lightoff, instead of catalyst temperature Tl.o. at lightoff as dened here.
Catalyst materials for combustion applications have been carefully evaluated by a number of researchers11. Methane and natural
gas fuels have been the recent focus of interest because natural gas is currently the low-emissions fuel of choice for power-generating gas
turbines. Johansson and co-workers have reviewed the catalytic combustion literature and summarized lightoff temperatures for fuel-
lean oxidation of methane on various catalysts, as listed in table 112. Dalla Betta (1997) reviewed and summarized fuel-lean methane
reaction rates at 400C (750F) for a range of catalyst materials tested, and the more active of these are also listed in table 113. In both
reviews, palladium (Pd) catalysts show the greatest activity for methane oxidation, and in general the consensus in the literature has
been that, for fuel-lean combustion of methane, Pd-based catalysts are the only practical choice because only they offer acceptable
activity, lightoff temperature, and resistance to volatilization. However, the adoption of Pd-based catalysts has come with difculties
resulting from the complex morphology and behavior of the Pd-PdO system and its reactions with methane, including deactivation at
high temperature (above about 750C (1380F)), hysteresis in reaction rate over heating and cooling cycles, and oscillations in activity
and temperature14. In addition, lightoff and extinction temperatures are well above 300C (570F) for fuel-lean reaction of methane on
Pd-based catalysts, thus requiring the use of a preburner in many engine applications15.
A wider choice of catalysts is possible for fuel-rich reaction of methane, and the complex behaviors of fuel-lean methane
reaction on Pd are avoided. For example, Lyubovsky et al. compared fuel-lean and fuel-rich activity for three precious metal catalysts
in an isothermal reactor, and demonstrated that all three could be practically used for fuel-rich catalytic reactors16. A comparison of
measured catalyst activity for Pd, Pt, and Rh catalysts, under both fuel-rich and fuel-lean conditions, is shown here in gure 3 as a
function of catalyst temperature17. Note that gure 3 does not depict thermal lightoff in the same sense as gure 2, since the data in gure
3 were obtained at isothermal conditions (heat transfer was essentially innite, so the catalyst could not self heat).
The rst observation to make in gure 3 is that, for all three catalysts, methane conversion (a measure of catalyst activity)
is generally much higher under fuel-rich conditions than under fuel-lean conditions. Furthermore, under fuel-lean conditions, only
the Pd catalyst shows sustained measurable activity below 600C (1110F), whereas all three catalysts are always active in this range
under fuel-rich conditions. Evidently the oxidizing environment of fuel-lean mixtures leads to oxidation of the catalyst and this has a
pronounced effect on catalyst activity. Oxidation also leads to greater volatilization of Pt catalyst, limiting the usable life of Pt-based
catalysts even at temperatures far below 950C (1750F). For fuel-rich combustion of methane, however, Pd, Pt, or Rh-based catalysts
may be used without suffering from oxidation.

Table 1 Lightoff temperature and reaction rate for methane oxidation under fuel-lean conditions, for various catalyst materials

Specic Examples 1
Lightoff
2
Reaction Rate
Catalyst Type
of Catalyst Type Temperature(C) (10-7 mol / g-s)
Platinum Group Metals
Pd / Al2O3 340 460 300
Pt / Al2O3 590 710 50
Perovskite 390 690
La0.5Sr0.5CoO3 7
LaCoO3 1
Hexa-aluminate 500 700
Sr0.8La0.2MnAl11O19 3

Zeolite 600 - 750

Source: see note 4 (Dalla Betta) and note 8 (Johansson).

257
3.2.2 Catalytic Combustion

Fig. 3. Catalyst activity for methane oxidation under fuel-rich and fuel-lean
conditions. Filled symbols represent increasing temperature, and closed symbols
represent decreasing temperature (the selected temperature ramp was externally
controlled by electric heaters).
For syngas and high-hydrogen fuels, catalyst lightoff of CO and H2 is of interest for both fuel-lean and fuel-rich conditions.
Recent work at Precision Combustion, Inc., sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy, has shown a precious-metal catalyst lightoff
temperature of 180C (350F) for fuel-rich reaction of syngas. This value has been measured for a syngas mixture composed of 25% H2
and 35% CO (remainder diluent), but the lightoff temperature is relatively insensitive to syngas composition unless CO levels drop to
very low values, thus leaving essentially a high-hydrogen fuel having signicantly lower lightoff temperature. Light-off temperatures
for fuel-lean syngas mixtures were also measured below 180C (350F). In all cases, the 180C (350F) or lower lightoff temperature
is well below the compressor discharge temperatures of industrial and large-frame turbines, and the need for a preburner is thereby
avoided.

Flame Temperature Considerations

Actual ame temperatures for catalytic combustion will vary depending on the design approach used to integrate the catalytic
reaction zone with the gas-phase combustion zone and also on the turbine inlet temperature requirement for the application engine.
In any case, ame temperatures greater than about 1100C (2000F) are required for gas-phase reactions to complete the burnout
of hydrocarbon fuels and CO in a reasonable residence time (on the order of 10 ms). Thus, systems which rely on catalyst-induced
autoignition to stabilize combustion will normally have a minimum gas-phase combustion zone temperature of about 1100C (2000
F), although the catalyst itself may be limited to temperatures well below this value. Systems which use conventional ameholding
techniques without catalyst-induced autoignition (but with catalyst augmentation of ame stability) normally require higher ame
temperatures to prevent blowout, with typical minimum ame temperatures exceeding 1300C (2400F) for hydrocarbon fuels.
In most power generation applications, it is required that the turbine operates over a range of loads while meeting emissions
regulations. The combustor must therefore be designed to operate with ame temperatures above the minimum achievable value at
base load (full power) so that the machine can be turned down to a ame temperature near the minimum achievable value at the lowest
required low-emissions load point. Thus, actual ame temperatures at base load are generally higher than the minimums listed in the
previous paragraph.
In addition, for modern high-efciency engines having high turbine inlet temperatures, actual ame temperatures at base load
may need to be higher than the minimums listed above simply to meet the required turbine rotor inlet temperature after the addition of
necessary cooling air. For example, General Electrics 7FA engine has a published turbine rotor inlet temperature of 1325C (2420F)
(Eldrid et al., 2001) and a published temperature drop due to cooling air addition at the rst stage nozzle (stator) of 140C (280F),
giving a minimum ame temperature of 1480C (2700F) prior to the rst-stage nozzle18.
The above considerations establish the minimum required ame temperature at base load, but for ultra-low NOx operation a
maximum ame temperature is also present, based on increasing formation of thermal NOx with increasing temperature19. It is generally
accepted that at temperatures above about 1525C (2780F) NOx emissions increase markedly with temperature, and generally exceed
3 ppm (at 15% O2) for premixed ames of hydrocarbon fuels in air. Thus, for a given low-emissions application the design choice for
base load ame temperature falls within a window that is generally less than 1525C (2780F) but higher than the minimum required.
Based on such ame temperature considerations, catalytic combustion systems for gas turbines can be classied in three basic
categories as shown in table 2. The categories are most directly stated in terms of turbine rotor inlet temperature requirements. For the
rst two categories in table 2 (low-temperature and high-temperature turbines), turbine rotor inlet temperatures are sufciently below
the 1525C (2780F) thermal NOx limit that catalytic combustion can be used to provide stable operation, thus providing ultra-low
NOx emissions even at base load. For the third category (ultra-high temperature turbines); however, ame temperatures in excess of
1525C (2780F) may be required simply to meet the required turbine rotor inlet temperature after the addition of necessary cooling
air. Therefore, NOx emissions for such applications may be higher than 3 ppm unless cooling air requirements are reduced (as in the
steam-cooled H-engine for example), or unless alternative developments are advanced to allow low-NOx operation at higher ame
temperatures (as discussed further below). 258
Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle
Note that in all cases, catalytic combustion provides additional benets other than low emissions. In particular, catalytic
combustion can be used to provide extended turndown by allowing stable combustion at low part-load ame temperatures and can also
be used to reduce combustion dynamics (combustion-induced pressure oscillations) by shifting fuel energy release to the catalyst surface
and away from the gas-phase combustion zone. Reduced combustion dynamics may be an especially important benet in high-ring-
temperature machines that are susceptible to combustion dynamics as a result of their inherent high rate of fuel energy release.

Table 2 Categories for gas turbine applications of catalytic combustion, based on turbine rotor inlet temperature. The term 1-Stage
means a single stage system combining both catalyst and gas-phase reactions. The term 2-Stage means that combustion occurs in two
stages, sequential and separate, where the rst stage is catalytic and the second is gas-phase. (See Figure 4 for schematic examples
of 1-Stage and 2-Stage systems.)

Low-Temperature High-Temperature Ultra-High Temperature


(Uncooled) Turbines (Cooled) Turbines (> F-Class) Turbines
Engine Industrial FB-Class
Microturbines
Applications D-, E-, F-Class G-Class
Approaches
1- or 2-Stage Low Oxygen
to Catalytic 1-Stage or 2-Stage 2-Stage 2-Stage
Ceramic 2-Stage (EGR)
Combustion
Benets:
1. Emissions ?
2. Turndown
3. Dynamics
Barrier Materials Cycle & Machine
- - -
Issues Develop. Develop.

Specic considerations for each of the categories in table 2 are discussed in the following subsections, especially as related to catalytic
combustion system design for each category.

Catalytic Combustion at Low Flame Temperatures (Uncooled Turbines)

For uncooled turbines such as microturbines, turbine inlet temperatures are generally within catalyst material temperature
limits (less than 1000C (1830F). This means that the catalyst and substrate can tolerate the maximum required ame temperature,
and if complete combustion can be sustained, there is no need to separate the gas-phase combustion zone from the catalyst. Thus, a
simple catalytic combustor for this application can comprise only a premixer and a catalyst bed, as shown schematically in the right-
hand panel of gure 4. This simple system is considered a single-stage system, although fuel is oxidized within this single stage by both
catalytic reactions on the catalyst surface and gas-phase reactions in the uid stream above the surface. Because these reactions can go
to completion (all fuel converted to products) within the catalyst stage, this single-stage system is also known as a total conversion
catalytic reactor.

Catalytic Premixer Catalytic Reactor


Premixer
Reactor
Air Homogenous Air
Reaction
Fuel Fuel

Partial Conversion Total Conversion

Fig. 4. Schematic examples of 2-Stage (partial conversion catalyst) and 1-Stage (total conversion
catalyst) catalytic combustors, in left and right panels, respectively

259
3.2.2 Catalytic Combustion

Note that the single-stage total conversion catalytic reactor requires gas-phase reactions to complete the oxidation of all fuel
in a reasonable length or residence time. Complete combustion (e.g. 99.9% combustion efciency) without gas-phase reactions would
require mass transfer of nearly all fuel (e.g. 99.9%) to the catalyst surface for reaction, which would require an impractically sized
catalyst in terms of length, cross-sectional area, and/or channel size. Thus, the single-stage total conversion catalytic reactor must
provide sufcient catalytic reaction and concomitant heating of the fuel/air mixture that gas-phase autoignition is induced throughout,
providing combustion completion even if the fuel/air mixture is outside its ammability limits. Based on the adiabatic ame temperature
of the fuel/air mixture passing over the catalyst, this autoignition requirement determines the minimum required catalytic conversion of
fuel. Or, in the opposite sense, based on the practically achievable catalytic conversion of fuel, the autoignition requirement determines
the minimum adiabatic ame temperature of the fuel/air mixture.
A separate consideration is, as stated earlier, the adiabatic ame temperature of the fuel/air mixture must generally exceed at
least 1100C (2000F) to provide complete burnout in a reasonable residence time. At 1100C (2000F) metal substrates cannot be used
to support the catalyst, and a ceramic substrate must be used. Thus, the single-stage catalytic combustor is generally ceramics-based, and
is prone to ceramics-related issues such as thermal stress and thermal shock. Early catalytic combustors of the type originally developed
at Engelhard were single-stage ceramics-based systems20.
Currently, however, metal substrates have gained favor in many catalyst applications, including catalytic combustion. Metals
are especially suitable for gas turbine applications since they are able to withstand gas turbine demands such as thermal stress and thermal
shock. But metal temperatures must normally be limited to less than about 950C (1750F) for long-term durability, and this precludes
the use of the single-stage total conversion system described above. Instead, a two-stage partial conversion system must be used
where only a portion of the fuel is reacted in the catalyst stage, and gas-phase combustion completion occurs downstream of the catalyst.
This is shown schematically in gure 5, where there are two physically distinct stages having different temperature requirements (< 950
C (1750F) in the catalyst stage to meet long-term durability requirements, and > 1100C (2000F) in the gas-phase combustor stage to
provide combustion completion).
The success of the two-stage system is dependent upon the catalyst stages ability to limit reactions (and thus temperature), so
that the metal substrate within the reactor may operate below its maximum material temperature limit. In the catalyst stage, the degree of
reaction can be limited by chemical reaction rate upon the catalyst, by mass transfer of reactants to the catalyst, or by channeling within
the reactor such that only a limited fraction of the fuel can contact the catalyst. In all cases it is imperative that uncontrolled gas-phase
reactions do not occur within the catalytic reactor, since this implies a loss of reaction limitation and ultimately the over-temperature and
failure of the catalyst bed.
While there are many design variations and
Ultra low emissions
possibilities for the catalyst-stage, there are only two Fuel / Air
(NOx, CO, UHC)
mechanisms for sustaining gas-phase combustion in the
combustion stage: catalyst-induced autoignition (as implied Catalyst Gas phase burnout
schematically in gure 5), or ameholding via backmixing of <950 C >1100 C
hot combustion products (as shown schematically in gure
4, left panel). If catalyst-induced autoignition is used in the Fig. 5. Schematic representation of metal-based two-stage
catalytic combustion system, showing catalyst stage requiring <
two-stage system, the primary challenge is to prevent such
950 C (1750 F) temperature for long-term metal durability, and gas-
autoignition from occurring within the catalyst-stage, as it phase combustion stage requiring > 1100 C (2000 F) temperature
does in the single-stage system described above. for combustion completion

Catalytic Combustion at Moderate Flame Temperatures (Low NOx Cooled Turbines)

For modern, cooled turbines having turbine rotor inlet temperatures well above 1100C (2000F), the single-stage catalytic
combustor of gure 4 (right-hand panel) is no longer feasible since ame temperatures prior to the addition of combustor and stator
cooling air will generally exceed material temperature limits for available catalyst and substrate materials, even if ceramics are used.
Thus, two-stage catalytic combustion is used in these machines, and metal catalyst substrates have generally been adopted for
their robustness in the gas turbine environment. Catalyst-stage temperatures must therefore remain below 950C (1750F), while gas-
phase combustion temperatures may reach 1525C (2780F) before NOx emissions increase beyond acceptable levels. Ultra-low NOx
emissions have been successfully demonstrated in recent engine tests of two different two-stage systems21.
Note that if catalyst-induced autoignition (gure 5) is the intended means of sustaining gas-phase combustion, it becomes
increasingly difcult to prevent autoignition or ashback from overheating the catalyst when gas-phase combustion temperatures
increase to meet advancing turbine rotor inlet temperatures. At F-engine type conditions, where ame temperatures must reach 1480
C (2700F) as discussed earlier22, no successful engine operation of a two-stage catalytic combustor has been reported using catalyst-
induced autoignition to sustain gas-phase combustion. However, successful results have been obtained over a wide range of ame
temperatures, reaching 1480C (2700F) and beyond, by using conventional ameholding techniques (backmixing of hot combustion
products, left-hand panel of gure 4) while maintaining catalyst-stage temperatures below the autoignition temperature of the fuel/air
mixture23.

260
Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle

Catalytic Combustion at High Flame Temperatures (Tame > 1525 C (2780 F))

In the highest ring-temperature machines used for power generation, such as the recent FB-class and G-class machines, gas-
phase combustion temperatures may need to exceed 1525C (2780F), before addition of necessary cooling air, in order to meet turbine
rotor inlet temperature requirements. At the current level of machine, combustor, and catalyst materials development, this means that
NOx emissions will likely exceed 3 ppm at 15% O2. In spite of this, there are possible developments to reduce NOx emissions at these
high ame temperatures, and there are non-emissions-related benets of catalytic combustion (improved turndown and combustion
dynamics) that are available immediately.
Combustion dynamics in particular have been problematic in low-emissions high-ring-temperature machines24, and there is
great incentive to nd an economical solution. One possible solution is catalytic combustion. Catalytic combustors have been reported
to have low combustion dynamics (Smith et al., 2005; Schlatter et al., 1997), since gas-phase energy release in the combustor is the
driving force for combustion-induced pressure oscillations (combustion dynamics) and these oscillations are reduced when a portion
of the fuel is catalytically reacted prior to gas-phase combustion25. Thus, regardless of pollutant emissions levels, catalytic combustion
may prove useful even when ame temperatures must be well in excess of 1525C (2780F) to meet high turbine inlet temperature
requirements. In fact, it is at these high ame temperatures that combustion dynamics often become most problematic and a solution is
most needed.
In addition, non-catalytic premixed combustors now often employ piloting or fuel staging to tune out combustion dynamics,
at the cost of increased NOx emissions. Thus, a catalytic combustor that operates with low combustion noise without piloting or fuel
staging (that is, with more perfectly premixed combustion) may offer reduced NOx emissions as compared to an equivalent non-catalytic
system, even at the same overall combustor outlet temperature.
There is also the potential that catalytic combustion may allow low-NOx operation even at ame temperatures above 1525C
(2780F). While it has generally been reported that NOx emissions exceed 3 ppm (at 15% O2) when ame temperatures exceed 1525
C (2780F) for hydrocarbon fuels burning in air, these reports have typically focused on conventional ame stabilization techniques
that use recirculation or backmixing of hot combustion products to sustain combustion. Schlegel and co-workers have shown through
experiments and modeling that lower NOx emissions are possible for two reasons26.
First, their work shows that NOx production is most signicant in the stirred or backmixed ame stabilization zone, and that NOx
emissions can be reduced by reducing the size (bulk residence time) of such backmixing zones. Catalytic combustion can facilitate
such NOx reduction by improving ame stability and lean blowout, such that smaller (shorter residence time) backmixed zones are
feasible. For example, model results by Schlegel and co-workers show that NOx emissions from a 1500C (2730F) combustion process
can be reduced by more than 1 ppm by decreasing the stirred-zone residence time from 0.6 ms to 0.1 ms27. Because of this potential,
a question mark was indicated in table 2 for the emissions benet of 2-stage catalytic combustion in ultra-high ring-temperature
machines.
Second, Schlegel and co-workers have shown that by increasing the percentage of fuel that is reacted on the catalyst, NOx
emissions are reduced because the chemical mechanisms for NOx formation are affected in the gas-phase combustion zone28. This
effect is most pronounced at high levels of catalytic fuel conversion (> 50%, preferably > 80%) as shown in their 1500C (2730F)
combustion experiments and modeling. At these fuel conversion levels, NOx reductions of more than 1 ppm are possible at 1500C
(2730F) ame temperature. Note that materials development will be required to effectively implement this technique with long-term
durability, since catalyst operating temperatures will greatly exceed the limits of currently available materials at such high levels of
fuel conversion. Table 2 therefore indicates low emissions in a 1- or 2-stage ceramic-based catalytic combustor, with the caveat that
materials development is required for implementation.
The third approach to catalytic combustion listed in table 2 for ultra-high ring-temperature machines is a low-oxygen
environment, where NOx emissions can remain below 3 ppm even at ame temperatures in excess of 1525C (2780F). Exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR) is one possibility for obtaining such a low-oxygen environment and has been investigated for gas turbine emissions
reduction in the past without the use of catalysts29. Because premixed combustion can be difcult to sustain under such low-oxygen
conditions, a catalytic combustor will be benecial in providing the needed ame stability, and could permit ultra-low NOx emissions
even from ultra-high temperature machines. Development needs are great for such systems; however, since this concept requires a
signicant change in the working uid of the engine. This is indicated in table 2 with regard to both cycle and machine development
needs.

3.2.2-4 Systems for Catalytic Combustion

As discussed earlier, two very different catalytic combustion systems have been developed and engine tested in recent years30
, although both are based on the two-stage catalytic combustor concept and both use metal-based catalyst substrates. Thus, in both
systems combustion completion occurs in a downstream gas-phase combustion stage that is physically separated from the upstream
catalyst stage.
The system developed by Catalytica, Inc. is much like that pictured schematically in gure 5, and is described in greater detail
in Section 3.2.2.1.2 of this Handbook31. The Catalytica system premixes all combustion fuel and air upstream of the catalyst, and uses a
261 partial conversion catalytic reactor to oxidize only a portion of the fuel in the catalyst stage. The temperature rise due to fuel oxidation
3.2.2 Catalytic Combustion
in the catalytic reactor induces gas-phase autoignition in the downstream gas-phase combustion stage, where combustion is completed.
The catalyst stage is operated fuel-lean and uses a Pd-based catalyst. A preburner is generally employed to ensure that the catalyst
remains active (lit off) during low-emissions engine operation.
The system developed by Precision Combustion, Inc. is shown schematically in gure 6, as originally developed for operation
on natural gas32. This system is described in greater detail in Section 3.2.2.1.1 of this Handbook. Briey, the Precision Combustion
system is based on fuel-rich operation of the catalyst, and sustains fuel-lean gas-phase combustion downstream of the catalyst via
recirculation-based ameholding. All the fuel and part of the air pass through the catalyst with the remainder of the air providing catalyst
cooling. This cooling air then mixes with the catalyst efuent establishing a fuel lean ame. Fuel-rich operation of the catalyst provides
greater catalyst activity than fuel-lean operation, such that a preburner is not normally required during low-emissions engine operation.
Flashback and autoignition issues are also precluded because fuel oxidation and heat release in the catalyst stage are limited by available
oxygen, and the system can therefore be operated safely even at the highest desired combustion-stage temperatures. Fuel-rich operation
also allows similar catalyst and reactor performance with widely varying fuel types, since catalyst-stage reactions are starved of oxygen,
thereby limiting the extent of fuel oxidation and heat
release regardless of the fuels intrinsic reactivity on Catalyst
Cooling Combustion
the catalyst. The system has been successfully tested
on multiple fuels, including Diesel No. 2, simulated
renery fuel gas and syngas, and other low-Btu fuels. Air Burned Gas
Catalytic combustion systems can also be Fuel
combined with non-catalytic lean-premixed systems to
Premixer Catalytic Post-Catalyst
offer unique capabilities in terms of performance, cost,
Reactor Mixing
pressure drop, and space requirements. For example,
Precision Combustion, Inc. has developed a catalytic Fig. 6. Schematic of Precision Combustions two-stage catalytic combustion
pilot system that combines its RCL system with non- system, as originally developed for operation on natural gas. Fuel-rich catalyst
catalytic swirl-based fuel/air injection. This system efuent mixes with catalyst cooling air prior to fuel-lean gas-phase combustion,
has been tested in cooperation with Solar Turbines and the system is therefore called Rich-Catalytic Lean-burn combustion
and is described by Karim and co-workers33. (trademarked as RCL by Precision Combustion, Inc.)

3.2.2-5 Challenges for Catalytic Combustion


While the art and science of chemical reactor design using heterogeneous catalysis is well known, the application of this
technology to catalytic combustion has required signicant development efforts due to both the exothermicity of combustion and the
operational needs of gas turbine engines. A catalytic process for a gas turbine engine must contend with rapid heat release and high
operating temperatures, variable feed composition (fuel/air ratio may change, and fuel quality and composition may vary), variable
thermodynamic conditions (inlet pressure and temperature), and variable reactor residence time (space velocity). To provide this
exibility, the catalytic combustor is not generally required to maximize yield or selectivity to a particular product; instead, the catalyst
is required to provide stability to a combustion process, usually by providing a temperature rise to a fuel/air mixture. For catalytic
combustion, the overriding constraints are robustness and controlled catalyst temperatures over the wide operating range of the engine.

For natural gas combustion, these challenges have been met and initial engine demonstrations have successfully shown that
catalytic combustion is capable of driving a gas turbine engine and delivering ultra-low NOx emissions. For other fuels, however, further
development and demonstration is required. For catalytic combustion of liquid fuels such as Diesel No. 2, development of an adequate
and robust prevaporizer technology is required to prevent wetting of the catalyst surface and to allow reaction of mixed, prevaporized
fuel and air on the catalyst surface. For solid fuels such as coal, gasication is required upstream of the catalyst, and there has been
growing interest in catalytic combustion of gasied coal or syngas.
Because high-hydrogen fuels such as coal-derived syngas are prone to autoignition and ashback, lean-premixed combustion
has not been adopted for low-emissions combustion of these fuels34. Instead, non-premixed combustion is used, and diluents such as
nitrogen, water, and/or carbon dioxide have been used to reduce ame temperatures and therefore NOx emissions35. Unfortunately, ame
stability issues arise at high dilution levels, and NOx emissions below 3 ppm (at 15% O2) have not been reported for non-catalytic syngas
combustion.
Catalytic combustion, however, can stabilize combustion at lower ame temperatures, or with increased levels of dilution,
and offers the potential for IGCC plant emissions below 3 ppm. Precision Combustion, Inc. under contract to DOE has recently
demonstrated NOx emissions below 3 ppm in high-pressure, sub-scale catalytic combustion rig tests simulating Tampa Electrics Polk
Power plant operating conditions. However, further development is required to bring this technology to an engine, and eventually to
commercialization.
As with conventional combustion of syngas, and especially after diluent addition, the very low Lower Heating Values (LHV) of
such fuels means that a very high volume ow of fuel is required. For catalytic combustion, this high volume ow must be accommodated
within the catalytic reactor, and this raises issues of catalyst size and pressure drop, possibly requiring system level re-design and re-
development of the catalytic combustor.
262
Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle

The propensity for high-hydrogen fuels to autoignite, together with their wide ammability limits, require special attention
to premixing design. In addition, syngas fuels carry trace levels of catalyst contaminants that may affect long-term catalyst durability,
and this needs to be examined and remediated if problematic. Long-term durability tests are required, preferably in an actual syngas
slipstream at an operating IGCC plant, where real contaminants will be present.

3.2.2-6 Conclusions
Catalytic combustion has been established as providing low NOx emissions for modern gas turbines along with subsequent
reduction in combustion dynamics and improved operability. Feasibility of catalytic combustion has been established for both high
and low ring temperature gas turbines.
For natural gas combustion, the challenges of catalytic combustion have been met and initial engine demonstrations have
successfully shown that catalytic combustion is capable of driving a gas turbine engine and delivering ultra-low NOx emissions. Further
eld trials and engine operating experience will advance the catalytic combustion applications for gas turbines. For alternative fuels,
particularly coal-derived syngas, further development is required; but, initial demonstrations have shown the potential for ultra-low
emissions catalytic combustion in future IGCC power plants.
In recent years, metal catalyst substrates have been adopted, together with a two-stage approach to catalytic combustion
that maintains catalyst temperatures within their material limits. In addition, the two-stage approach allows gas-phase combustion
temperatures to rise to the levels needed for good combustion efciency and high efciency turbine operation. Prior material limitations
have been largely resolved through design concepts such as reactor backside cooling and reactor mode of operation as well as availability
of high temperature metal alloys.
Multiple approaches to catalytic combustion have been pursued over the years in the quest for ultra-low NOx emissions from
power generating gas turbines. Low, single digit, NOx emissions with low combustion dynamics have been demonstrated in engine
environments permitting a wider operating regime from part load to full load conditions. These benets make catalytic combustion a
viable, low cost approach as compared to selective catalytic reduction (SCR) to meet the low emissions requirements.

3.2.2-7 Notes
________________________

1. W.C. Pfefferle, R.V. Carruba, R.M. Heck, and G.W. Roberts, Catathermal Combustion: A New Process for Low
Emissions Fuel Conversion, ASME Paper No. 75-WA/Fu-1(1975).
2. Ibid.
3. D.N. Anderson, R.R. Tacina, and T.S. Mroz, Performance of a Catalytic Reactor at Simulated Gas Turbine Operating Conditions,
NASA Technical Memorandum X-71747(1975); J.P. Kesselring, W.V. Krill, E.K. Chu, and R.M. Kendall. In proceedings of New
fuels and advances in combustion technologies symposium, Mar. 26-30, 1979, New Orleans, LA; P.W. Pillsbury, Update of Full-
Scale Catalytic Burner Testing for Combustion Turbines, ASME Paper No. 84-GT-54 (1984); T.J. Rosfjord, AIAA Paper No. 76-
46 (Washington DC, Jan. 1976).
4. R.A. Dalla Betta et al., Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 119 (1997):, 844-851; P. Dutta, D.K. Yee, and R.A.
Dalla Betta, ASME Paper No. 97-GT-497 (1997); S. Etemad, H. Karim, L.L. Smith, and W.C. Pfefferle, Advanced Technology
Catalytic Combustor for High Temperature Ground Power Gas Turbine Applications, Catalysis Today 47 (1999): 305-313; D.A.
Smith, S.F. Frey, D.M. Stansel, and M.K. Razdan, ASME Paper No. 97-GT-311(1997).
5. R.A. Dalla Betta, T. Shoji, D.K. Yee, and S.A. Magno. Catalyst Structure Employing Integral Heat Exchange. U.S. Patent
5,512,250; R.A. Dalla Betta, N. Ezawa, K. Tsurumi, J.C. Schlatter, and S.G. Nickolas, Two Stage Process for Combusting Fuel
Mixtures, U.S. Patent No. 5,183,401 (1993); W.C. Pfefferle, L.L. Smith, and M.J. Castaldi, Method and Apparatus for a Fuel-
Rich Catalytic Reactor, U.S. Patent No. 6,358,040 (2002).
6. D.K. Yee, K. Lundberg, and C.K. Weakley, Field Demonstration of a 1.5 MW Gas Turbine with a Low Emissions Catalytic
Combustion System, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 123 (2001): 550-556; L.L. Smith, H. Karim, M.J.
Castaldi, S. Etemad, W.C. Pfefferle, V.K. Khanna, and K.O. Smith, Rich-Catalytic Lean-Burn Combustion for Low-Single-Digit
NOx Gas Turbines, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 127 (2005): 27-35.
7. G. Leonard and J. Stegmaier, Development of an Aeroderivative Gas Turbine Dry Low Emissions Combustion System, Journal
of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 116 (1994): 542-546.
8. E.M. Johansson, D. Papadias, P.O. Thevenin, A.G. Ersson, R. Gabrielsson, P.G. Menon, P.H. Bjornbom and S.G. Jaras, Catalytic
Combustion for Gas Turbine Applications, Catalysis 14 (1999): 183-235; R.E. Hayes and S.T. Kolaczkowski, Introduction to
Catalytic Combustion (Amsterdam:Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1997); D. Anson, M. DeCorso and W.P. Parks,
Catalytic Combustion for Industrial Gas Turbines, International Journal of Energy Research 20 (1996): 693-711; S.T.
Kolaczkowski, Catalytic Stationary Gas Turbine Combustors: A Review of the Challenges Faced to Clear the Next Set of
263 Hurdles, Trans. I. Chem. E. 73 Part A (1995): 168-190.
3.2.2 Catalytic Combustion

9. J.G. McCarty, Kinetics of PdO Combustion Catalysis, Catalysis Today 26 (1995): 283-293; R. Burch and P.K. Loader,
Investigation of Pt/Al2O3 and Pd/Al2O3 Catalysts for the Combustion of Methane at Low Concentrations, Applied Catalysis B:
Environmental 5 (1994): 149-164; R.J. Farrauto, M.C. Hobson, T. Kennelly, and E.M. Waterman, Catalytic Chemistry of
Supported Palladium for Combustion of Methane, Applied Catalysis A: General 81 (1992): 227-237; T. Kennelly and R.J.
Farrauto, Catalytic Combustion Process Using Supported Palladium Oxide Catalysts, U.S. Patent No. 5,216,875 (1993); R.A.
Dalla Betta, K. Tsurumi, and T. Shoji, Graded Palladium-Containing Partial Combustion Catalyst and a Process for Using It, U.S.
Patent No. 5,248,251 (1993).
10. L.D. Pfefferle and W.C. Pfefferle, Catalysis in Combustion, Catal. Rev.-Sci. Eng. 29 (1987): 219-267.
11. W.S. Blazowski and D.E. Walsh, Catalytic Combustion: An Important Consideration for Future Applications, Combustion
Science and Technology 10 (1975): 253-244; P. Forzatti and G. Groppi, Catalytic Combustion for the Production of Energy,
Catalysis Today 54 (1999): 165-180; J.H. Lee and D.L. Trimm, Catalytic Combustion of Methane, Fuel Processing Technology
42 (1995): 339-359; F.H. Ribeiro, M. Chow, and R.A. Dalla Betta (1994). J. Catal., 146 (1994): 537.
l2. See note 8 above (Johansson).
13. R.A. Dalla Betta, Catalytic Combustion Gas Turbine Systems: The Preferred Technology for Low Emissions Electric Power
Production and Co-generation, Catalysis Today 35 (1997): 129-135.
14. R.J. Farrauto, J.K. Lampert, M.C. Hobson, and E.M. Waterman, Thermal Decomposition and Reformation of PdO Catalysts;
Support Effects, Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 6 (1995): 263-270; T. Furuya, K. Sasaki, Y. Hanakata, T. Ohhashi, M.
Yamada, T. Tsuchiya, and Y. Furuse, Development of a Hybrid Catalytic Combustor for a 1300C Class Gas Turbine, Catalysis
Today 26 (1995): 345-350; Y. Ozawa, Y. Tochihara, N. Mori, I. Yuri, T. Kanazawa, and K. Sagimori, High Pressure Test Results
of a Catalytically Assisted Ceramic Combustor for a Gas Turbine, ASME Paper No. 98-GT-381 (Stockholm, Sweden, 2-5
June 1998); N.M. Rodriguez, S.G. Oh, R.A. Dalla-Betta, and R.T.K. Baker, In Situ Electron Microscopy Studies of
Palladium Supported on Al2O3, SiO2, and ZrO2 in Oxygen, J. Catalysis 157 (1995): 676-686; R. Carroni, V. Schmidt, and T.
Grifn, Catalytic Combustion for Power Generation, Catalysis Today 75 (2002): 287-295.
15. D.B. Fant, G.S. Jackson, H. Karim, D.M. Newburry, P. Dutta, K.O. Smith, and R.W. Dibble, Status of Catalytic
Combustion R&D for the Department of Energy Advanced Turbine Systems Program, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines
and Power 122 (2000): 293-300.
16. M. Lyubovsky, L.L. Smith, M. Castaldi, H. Karim, B. Nentwick, S. Etemad, R. LaPierre, and W.C. Pfefferle, Catalytic
Combustion over Platinum Group Catalysts: Fuel-Lean versus Fuel-Rich Operation, Catalysis Today 83 (2003): 71-84.
17. M. Lyubovsky, private communication (2005).
18. T.C. Paul, R.W. Schonewald, and P.J. Marolda, Power Systems for the 21st Century H Gas Turbine Combined Cycles, General
Electric Power Systems Report No. GER-3935A (1996).
19. C.T. Bowman, Control of Combustion-Generated Nitrogen Oxide Emissions: Technology Driven by Regulations, in proceedings
of Twenty-Fourth Symposium (International) on Combustion (1992): 859-878; S.M. Correa, A Review of NOx Formation Under
Gas-Turbine Combustion Conditions, Combustion Science and Technology 87 (1992): 329-362.
20. See note 2 above.
21. See note 6 above.
22. R. Eldrid, L. Kaufman, and P. Marks, The 7FB: The Next Evolution of the F Gas Turbine, General Electric Power Systems
Report No. GER-4194 (2001); also, see note 18 above.
23. See note 6 above (Smith).
24. D.E. Hobson, J.E. Fackrell, and G. Hewitt, Combustion Instabilities in Industrial Gas Turbines Measurements on Operating
Plant and Thermoacoustic Modelling, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 122 (2000): 420-428; T. Lieuwen and
K. McManus, Introduction: Combustion Dynamics in Lean-Premixed Prevaporized (LPP) Gas Turbines, Journal of
Propulsion and Power 19 (2003): 721; H.C. Mongia, T.J. Held, G.C. Hsiao, and R.P. Pandalai, Challenges and Progess in
Controlling Dynamics in Gas Turbine Combustors, Journal of Propulsion and Power 19 (2003): 822-829.
25. J.C. Schlatter, R.A. Dalla Betta, S.G. Nickolas, M.B. Cutrone, K.W. Beebe, and T. Tsuchiya, Single-Digit Emissions in a Full-
Scale Catalytic Combustor, ASME Paper No. 97-GT-57 (1997); also see note 6 above.
26. A. Schlegel, P. Benz, T. Grifn, W. Weisenstein, and H. Bockhorn, Catalytic Stabilization of Lean Premixed Combustion: Method
for Improving NOx Emissions, Combustion and Flame 105 (1996): 332-340.
27. Ibid.
28. Ibid.
29. K.K. Botros, G.R. Price, and G. Kibrya, Thermodynamic, Environmental and Economic Assessment of Exhaust Gas
Recirculation for NOx Reduction in Gas Turbine Based Compressor Station, ASME Paper No. 99-GT-173 (1999).
30. See note 6 above.
31. See note 5 above.
32. See note 5 above (Pfefferle).
33. H. Karim, K. Lyle, S. Etemad, L.L. Smith, W.C. Pfefferle, P. Dutta, and K. Smith. Advanced Catalytic Pilot for Low
NOx Industrial Gas Turbines, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 125 (2003): 879-884.
34. R.M. Jones and N.Z. Shilling, IGCC Gas Turbines for Renery Applications, General Electric Power Systems
Report No. GER-4219 (2003).
35. Ibid.
264
BIOGRAPHY
3.2.2 Catalytic Combustion & 3.2.2.1 Fuel-Rich Catalytic Combustion

Dr. Lance L. Smith

Gas Turbine Group, Precision Combustion, Inc.


410 Sackett Point Road,
North Haven, CT 06473

Dr. Lance L. Smith is a senior research & development engineer in the Gas Turbine Products
group at Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI), and a visiting assistant professor in the Engineering
Department at Trinity College. Dr. Smith has 14 years experience in combustion research and
combustor development, including work in turbulent non-premixed combustion, premixed
combustion and premixing, aerodynamic design of combustor components, pulsed combustion,
and catalytic combustion. His academic research has been primarily experimental, with a focus on
laser-based measurements in ames, including work conducted as a visiting researcher at Sandia
National Laboratories and as a post-doctoral researcher at UCLA. Dr. Smith is a principal engineer
of, and holds multiple patents for, the RCLTM catalytic reactor. At PCI, he works with OEM gas
turbine manufacturers to develop integrated catalytic combustion systems for ultra-low emissions
gas turbines. A graduate of Brown University (B.S., 1986) and of University of California, Berkeley
(M.S., 1990 and Ph.D., 1994), Dr. Smith is an elected member of the Tau Beta Pi and Sigma Xi
honor societies, and a member of the Combustion Institute.
Dr. Shahrokh Etemad

Gas Turbine Group, Precision Combustion, Inc.


410 Sackett Point Road,
North Haven, CT 06473

phone: (203) 287-3700 x217


email: setemad@precision-combustion.com

Dr. Shahrokh Etemad as Manager of Gas Turbine Products at Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI)
in North Haven, Connecticut, has full responsibility for technical and commercial development
of two major products. He manages an advanced technology group to develop low-emissions
combustion products in close collaboration with several OEM gas turbine engine manufacturers
and the U.S. Department of Energy. Dr. Etemad is responsible for budgeting, funding opportunities,
technology direction, proposal preparation and complete R&D operations including concept
development, computational analysis, experimental testing, full-size performance demonstration
and productionization. Prior to his present position at PCI, he worked for several years at Textron
Lycoming and United Technologies, Carrier. Dr. Etemad has published 28 technical articles and
holds 28 patents in the eld of turbomachinery, combustion, and thermouid systems. He earned
bachelors and masters degrees at Sussex University and University of London respectively, and
received his Ph.D. from the University of Washington in 1984. He has been a member of ASME
since 1995 and won the 2003 ASME Gas Turbine award.
Dr. Hasan Karim

Gas Turbine Group, Precision Combustion, Inc.


410 Sackett Point Road,
North Haven, CT 06473

Dr. Hasan Karim is a senior research & development engineer at Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI),
where his responsibilities include design, development, analysis, numerical and computational
uid dynamics, and testing of catalytic combustors for natural gas, syngas, and liquid fuel. He is
the principal investigator for the catalytic combustor development project for the U.S. Navy and
lead engineer for the catalytic pilot and catalytic combustor for downhole combustion programs.
After receiving a bachelors degree from Indian Institute of Technology-Kharagpur in 1987, Dr.
Karim earned his M.S. from New Jersey Institute of Technology in 1991, and his Ph.D. from Yale
University in 1998. He is a co-inventor of air-cooled rich and lean reactor technology.
Dr. William C. Pfefferle

Gas Turbine Group, Precision Combustion, Inc.


410 Sackett Point Road,
North Haven, CT 06473

Dr. William C. Pfefferle invented the original catalytic combustor for gas turbine engines in the
early 1970s and now holds over 90 U.S. patents. In 1986, Dr. Pfefferle co-founded Precision
Combustion, Inc. (PCI), a Connecticut-based company dedicated to developing clean and efcient
technology for clean air. His research has led to important industrial advances such as the RCL
catalytic combustor for ground power gas turbine engines, which is now in late-stage development
and evaluation by several major gas turbine manufacturers, and the Microlith catalytic reaction
system, which forms the basis for paradigm-shift, high heat mass transfer catalytic reactors for
fast-lightoff automotive catalytic converters and fuel processor reactors. With a B.S. in Chemical
Engineering from Drexel University (1944) and a Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from the University
of Pennsylvania (1952), Dr. Pfefferle is a member of the American Chemical Society (ACS), and
received the ACS 31st Northeast Regional Industrial Innovation Award. He was inducted into the
New Jersey Inventors Hall of Fame in February 1990. He continues to work full-time to develop
catalytic devices for clean and efcient energy.
3.2
Combustion Strategies for
3.2-1 Introduction
The technical challenges surrounding syngas and hydrogen fuel
Syngas and High-Hydrogen combustion have been outlined in section 3.1. Given the issues presented
Fuel there, various options can be considered for combustor design and operation.
First, it is critical to dene the type of combustion system that will be used.
There are two broad categories: diffusion ame combustors, and premixed
combustors. These are described below, but before discussing the combustion
strategies, it is useful to review how NOx pollutants are formed.

3.2-2 NOx Formation


There are several routes to form NOx pollutants and these may be
broadly catalogued as thermally-generated, ame-generated, or fuel-bound
George Richards NOx. Different authors use different names to catalogue these mechanisms and
National Energy Technology Laboratory there is still continuing research to understand the most prominent mechanisms
3610 Collins Ferry Rd. at ultra-low NOx conditions. For example, in hydrogen fueled systems, the
P.O. Box 880 prominence of H radicals may contribute to NOx in a manner that is different
email: george.richards@netl.doe.gov than in systems fueled by natural gas.1
phone: (304) 285-4458 Thermal NOx is formed by oxidation of nitrogen in air and requires
sufcient temperature and time to produce NOx. A rule of thumb is that below
approximately 1700K, the residence time in typical gas turbine combustors
is not long enough to produce signicant thermal NOx. Where temperatures
higher than 1700K cannot be avoided, it is necessary to limit residence time to
control NOx formation, which favors very short combustor designs. Thermal
NOx production also increases with the square root of operating pressure,
making it more difcult to reduce in higher-pressure aeroderivative gas
turbines.
As the name implies, ame-generated NOx occurs in the ame front,
Nate Weiland created on the short time scale associated with primary combustion reactions.
National Energy Technology Laboratory There are a variety of chemical mechanisms involved, all linked to intermediate
P. O. Box 10940 combustion species that exist only in the reaction zone of the ame. It is
Pittsburgh, PA 15236 important to understand that in practical combustors, the reaction zone is just
email: nathan.weiland@netl.doe.gov a small portion of the total combustor volume most of the combustor volume
phone: (412)386-4649 is sized to complete the relatively slow approach to equilibrium products
(notably CO to CO2 oxidation). Thus, residence time in the whole combustor
does not affect the ame-generated NOx produced a signicantly different
behavior compared to thermal NOx. A convincing demonstration of this
point was presented by Leonard and Stegmaier2 who studied multiple ame
holders, operating conditions, and residence times from 2 to 100 milliseconds,
demonstrating that the ame temperature alone (not residence time) determined
the NOx production for emissions under 10 ppmv. Fig. 1, is useful to estimate
the ame NOx produced at a given ame temperature, accounting for ideal,
and poor premixing (not carefully dened in note 2). Note that the effect of
poor premixing raises the NOx levels by as much as a factor of three. These
Pete Strakey data were recorded in turbulent ames, where combustion products are mixed
Energy Systems Dynamics Division with the fresh reactants right at the ame. It has been suggested that other
National Energy Technology Laboratory combustion congurations, without signicant stirring between the ame front
3610 Collins Ferry Rd. and products, may reduce the ame generated NOx.3 This may be the basis for
P.O. Box 880 NOx reductions reported in the Low-Swirl Combustion section.
Morgantown, WV 26507-0880 Finally, fuel-bound NOx is produced by nitrogen species in the fuel
phone: (304) 285-4476 reacting with air during combustion. For coal syngas, the most prominent
email: peter.strakey@netl.doe.gov fuel nitrogen species is ammonia, generated during gasication from nitrogen
compounds in coal. The ammonia should ideally be removed from the
fuel before entering the combustor, or it will be converted to NOx by most
combustion strategies. Where this is not possible, rich-lean strategies have
the most potential to reduce NOx pollutants. In this approach, combustion
is rst carried out under fuel-rich conditions, followed by completing
combustion under fuel lean conditions. In fuel rich conditions, with sufcient
203 residence times, the ammonia can be reduced to nitrogen and water, rather than
atmospheric oxygen. A number of studies have been conducted to evaluate rich-lean combustion as an approach to reducing fuel bound
NOx. These studies have shown as much as 95% of the fuel ammonia can be reduced to nitrogen and water using rich-lean combustion,
with the remaining 5% converting to NOx.4 Untreated syngas ammonia concentrations can exceed 1000ppm, where even 5% conversion
would lead to 50ppm NOx, which is well above desired emissions levels. Thus, it is desirable to remove fuel ammonia during gas
cleanup, rather than rely on combustion techniques to reduce it to water and nitrogen.

10

NOx (ppmvd) @15% O2


Poor Premixing
6
4

2
Ideal Premixing
1
1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950
Flame Temperature (K)

Fig. 1. NOx emissions, adopted from Leonard and Stegmaier.

Source: See note 2.

3.2-3 Diffusion Flame Combustion


In this style of combustion, fuel and air are introduced in separate passages, and the ame is stabilized where the fuel and
air streams mix. Combustion reactions are typically so fast that fuel and oxidant consumption is limited by transport to the reaction
zone (i.e., diffusion), and the reaction proceeds locally at nearly stoichiometric conditions. The Lewis number (Le) describes the ratio
of thermal transport to species transport from this reaction zone. Where Le = 1, the temperature in the reaction zone will equal the
adiabatic ame temperature because thermal energy diffuses away as fast as the reactants are supplied. The fuel species in hydrocarbon
combustion typically have fuel Lewis numbers ( mix / Dij fuel ) in the range of 0.9 to 1.2, meaning that diffusion ame combustors will
have ame temperatures near the adiabatic ame temperature. These temperatures are high enough to oxidize nitrogen in air, producing
appreciable NOx pollutants. Hydrogen itself has a fuel Lewis number as low as 0.4, making it even more difcult to reduce NOx
because the peak laminar ame temperatures are higher than adiabatic due to differential diffusion effects. The effect of fuel Lewis
number on ame temperature has been observed experimentally as well as with direct numerical simulations (DNS).5
Because of their high ame temperatures, diffusion ame combustors require some method to achieve low-NOx performance.
An obvious technique is to dilute the fuel, lowering the adiabatic ame temperature. A common diluent is steam, which can both
lower the ame temperature, and reduce the production of non-thermal NOx. The hydroxyl radical OH is increased by the presence
of additional water, and these radicals favorably scavenge HCN fragments which might otherwise produce NOx. Steam dilution is
already used on IGCC applications, but it is not completely desirable. The extra energy that is needed to make steam from water is not
recovered in the turbine expansion, penalizing cycle efciency, (but raising power output from the added mass ow). The additional
steam in the exhaust produces a modest increase in the turbine nozzle heat transfer, raising metal temperatures. The protective thermal
oxide layers in turbine material sets can be affected by increased moisture levels. Finally, steam consumption by stationary turbines
should be minimized to conserve water resources. For these reasons, any further development of diffusion ame combustors for IGCC
applications would ideally use nitrogen from the air separation plant, rather than steam. The amount of nitrogen available for ame
dilution is established by the engine cycle and the ASU, and it can be shown that for example, hydrogen could be diluted up to about
50% with nitrogen in a typical IGCC conguration. Unfortunately, this level of dilution produces an adiabatic ame temperature around
2025 K, which is still too high for ultra-low NOx performance.
Given the dilution limit on adiabatic ame temperature, it is important to consider other methods to reduce the diffusion ame
temperature. As noted above, the diffusion ame temperature is set by the ratio of thermal diffusion away from the reaction zone to
heat generated by reactants. If the reaction zone is strained by uid shear, it is possible to change the balance between diffusion
and reaction in the reaction zone, changing the ame temperature. Strongly sheared ows can locally extinguish the ame, providing
opportunity for fuel air mixing before combustion is initiated elsewhere. This raises the possibility that strong shearing could be used
to make a diffusion ame combustor behave more like a premixed combustor. The required levels of shearing (known as stretch or
strain) have not been fully characterized. These concepts are discussed in the Highly-Strained Diffusion Flame Combustion section.

204
Pete Strakey, Nate Weiland, Geo Richards

3.2-4 Lean Direct Injection


Lean Direct Injection (LDI) combustion was developed as a low NOx alternative to Lean Prevaporized Premixed (LPP)
combustion for aircraft gas turbines, where the inherent ashback and dynamic instability concerns of LPP combustion are considered
too great of a risk for ight application. In LDI combustors, liquid fuel is directly injected into the combustion chamber, where it is
mixed with air in the shortest possible distance. The intent is to provide an essentially lean premixed fuel/air mixture that burns in a
low-NOx ame, similar to LPP combustors, which are discussed in the Premixed Combustion section below.6
Low-NOx performance is compromised in an LDI combustor if the fuel and air are not perfectly mixed before combustion
occurs, creating regions with higher fuel content that burn hotter and generate more NOx. Similarly, the mixture may burn upstream of
the premixed zone in a diffusion ame, with combustion occurring at stoichiometric conditions that result in higher temperatures and
NOx production. Nevertheless, ashback and auto-ignition concerns are nearly eliminated in LDI combustors, and they can operate over
a wide turndown range with a high degree of static and dynamic stability using a wide range of fuels.
The desire to burn high-hydrogen fuels in gas turbines used for power applications raises similar concerns of ashback and
instability when operating in the Lean Premixed mode of combustion, so LDI combustors seem to be a natural t for burning these fuels
in a low NOx gas turbine system. To demonstrate the potential of LDI combustors, researchers at NASA Glenn have recently studied
various low NOx LDI concepts for pure hydrogen combustion in aircraft gas turbine combustors.7 Five separate injector concepts
from different manufacturers were tested at aircraft gas turbine conditions (4.8 13.6 atm, Tin = 600 1000 F). At low combustor exit
temperatures, it was possible to achieve very small NOx levels (~1 ppmv, wet, uncorrected). NOx emissions were primarily controlled
by lowering equivalence ratios to limit combustion temperatures, and no hydrogen dilution cases were considered.
One of the tested injectors at NASA Glenn was similar to those used in current IGCC gas turbines that burn syngas, where fuel
is injected axially into a swirling airow. Although this injector was very robust, it produced substantially higher NOx than the other
tested injectors. Some of the other tested injectors were similar to those studied recently at GE Energy, where multiple fuel jets were
injected at an angle into a central air jet.8 Their results show that more fuel injection ports per air jet reduce NOx emissions due to higher
fuel jet momentum and mixing. Increasing the number and decreasing the size of the air jets is shown to reduce NOx by reducing the
length of the combustion zone, although this comes at the expense of increased combustor pressure drop. Similar injector congurations
studied at NASA Glenn had better NOx emissions, due in part to the shortened combustion zone. However, in some cases, this also led
to overheating problems and injector failure, since the combustion zone was located much closer to the fuel and air injectors.
Pressure drops in the NASA Glenn injectors were sometimes very large (4-25%). Redesign and optimization for power
gas turbines could reduce these pressure drops. In addition, large pressure drops may have been required to reduce the ashback or
ameholding potential in those injector designs that operated more in a premixed combustion mode than a diffusion combustion mode.
As the injectors were tested on pure hydrogen, dilution with nitrogen will reduce ame speeds and may decrease the necessity for large
injector pressure drops and high air velocities to avoid these issues.

3.2-5 Highly-Strained Diffusion Flame Combustion


Though not discussed explicitly in the above studies, successful LDI diffusion ame combustors use jets of fuel and air that
introduce high strain rates in the combustion zone. In a pure diffusion ame, strain rate can be quantied by measuring or calculating the
velocity gradients in the mixing ow eld. In regions of high strain and uid shear, mixing rates and bulk transport rates are faster than
chemical reaction rates, thus local reactions are not allowed to go to completion before the ow carries the combustion radicals away
from the reaction zone. The net result of this process is a reduction in peak ame temperature of a highly strained ame, which in turn
reduces thermal NOx production. It should be pointed out, however, that thermal NOx is not only a function of temperature, but also of
ame residence time and O-atom concentration in the reaction zone. Increasing the ame strain also tends to reduce the residence time
in the ame, but it also can increase the O-atom concentration in the ame by an order of magnitude. This effect is shown in Figure 2,
where intermediate strain rates tend to increase the production rate of NO due to the increased O-atom concentration, while at high strain
rates, the reduction in ame temperature overcomes the inuence of the O-atom concentration, and NO production rates are reduced.
This points to increased strain rates as a possible path to reducing or effectively eliminating thermal NOx in a diluted diffusion ame,
where dilution of the fuel alone does not reduce ame temperatures enough to satisfy ultra-low NOx emission goals.
Increased strain rates are typically attained by increasing the fuel and/or air jet velocities to increase uid shear, though at the
expense of increased combustor pressure drop. In addition, the static stability of the ame is a strong function of these jet velocities,
where too high of a jet velocity could cause the ame to blowout. Thus, ame stability concerns place limits on allowable levels of
ame strain, particularly for diluted high-hydrogen content fuels, since ameholding ability is closely linked to the ame speed of the
fuel/air mixture, which decreases as more diluent is added to the fuel stream. From this perspective, impinging fuel and air jet injector
congurations9 hold an advantage over co-axial jet congurations, as forced mixing of the fuel and air should improve the ameholding
abilities of these diffusion ames.
Much more study could be done in this area to determine injector congurations that maximize ame strain while minimizing
stability and combustor pressure drop concerns. In addition, the effect of strain rate on NOx emission from diffusion ames has only
been partially quantied for simple diffusion ames, and there are no such studies in practical LDI-type diffusion ame combustors using
hydrogen, syngas, and/or fuel diluents. Other areas requiring further study include the effects of increased ame strain on combustion
efciency and on in-ame NOx production mechanisms.
205
3.2 Combustion Strategies for Syngas and High-Hydrogen Fuel

3000 0.12
Tmax
2500 0.1

w NO (kg/m s) and X O
2000 0.08

Tmax (K)
1500 0.06

3
wNO
1000 0.04
10 XO
500 0.02

0 0
1 10 100 1000 10000
Strain Rate (1/s)
Fig. 2. Strain rate effects, adapted from Sanders et. al. wNO = NO formation rate,
XO = O-atom mole fraction, Tmax = peak temperature

Source: Sanders, J. P. H., Chen, J.-Y., and Gokalp, I., Flamelet-Based Modeling of NO Formation in
Turbulent Hydrogen Jet Diffusion Flames, Combustion And Flame, Vol. 111, pp. 1-15, 1997.

3.2-6 Premixed Combustion


As the name implies, premixed combustion is accomplished by mixing the fuel and air upstream of the ame. The fuel-air
ratio normalized by the stoichiometric value is known as the equivalence ratio , and in many practical premixed turbine combustors,
has a value of slightly more than 0.5. Thus, there is approximately the fuel needed to burn all the air, or conversely twice as much
air as needed to burn all the fuel. The excess air serves to dilute the combustion and keep the ame temperatures low enough to avoid
thermal NOx formation. While the concept of premixed combustion is simple and effective at reducing NOx, it also has drawbacks.
The combustor must operate in a very narrow range of equivalence ratio to avoid blowout at (typically) < 0.5 , and increasing NOx
formation for somewhat greater than 0.6. The combustor controls must include some form of staging, since the range of desired exit
temperatures usually cannot be achieved with such a small range of . For example, if four fuel injectors are used in a combustor, it
is possible to reduce the heat input 50% keeping two injectors operating, but turning two off. The difculty with this approach is that
the air ow from inactive injectors can quench the boundary of the ame from operating injectors, raising CO emissions, but this can
be addressed with good aerodynamic design. Staging in this manner is used on commercial engines.10 Beyond simply de-activating
injectors, staging is also accomplished by operating some injectors at slightly richer equivalence ratios, to improve ame stability. This
can also be accomplished using pilots on individual injectors. The pilot ame is typically supplied with some air for partial premixing,
and the pilot fuel circuit is controlled to achieve stable combustion at the lowest possible NOx emissions, as described in the following
section.

3.2-7 Tuning and Combustor Control


Balancing the fuel delivery among various fuel circuits to meet operating requirements is known as tuning and has become a
critical part of both commissioning and operating low-emission gas turbines. Various strategies have been used, or are being developed
so that the emissions targets can be met with stable combustion. Because combustion stability is affected by inlet temperature and fuel
composition, tuning may need to be adjusted to accommodate ambient environment temperatures and even fuel composition. In addition
to controlling the fuel split, for some turbines, tuning may include adjustment of compressor inlet guide vanes or bleeding compressor
ow11. This allows an adjustment of the combustor air ow at xed compressor speed, providing another tuning option even on single-
speed (synchronous) gas turbines.
It is important to understand that turbines must be able to contend with requirements for load rejection while low-emission
combustors operate near the blowout condition. Without careful development, cutting the fuel during load rejection can lead to ame
blowout, requiring (sometimes) unacceptable time to re-light and establish power, or making the engine unable to meet grid requirements.
An interesting account of the development of combustor and control system required to meet stringent rejection requirements is given
in the references.12
On some engines, fast acting valves are used to enhance lean-blowout performance13 and allow operation right near the limits
of stable combustion. A more advanced concept is to modulate the fuel to counteract combustion oscillations, usually called active
combustion control. Active control has been studied in many research projects14, but has only been deployed on one test engine15 and on
one commercial engine installation16 to date.
An important aspect of combustion tuning and control is diagnosing conditions in the combustor so that the control system can
respond to maintain stable, low-emission operation. For example, it is possible to improve engine operation by monitoring combustion
performance from available engine sensors.17 A number of recent papers have shown the potential of using ame optical signals,
acoustic signals, or ame ionization to monitor and control the combustion process.18 206
Pete Strakey, Nate Weiland, Geo Richards

3.2-8 Oxy-Fuel Combustion


As noted in section 1.3.1, advanced engine cycles using oxy-fuel combustion have been proposed as a means of capturing
CO2 from engine operation. These oxy-fuel cycles require a different approach to combustor design because the combustion is ideally
operated at stoichiometric conditions having just enough oxygen to completely oxidize the fuel. Oxygen is produced from air separation,
such that any excess oxygen is produced with an accompanying penalty to the overall cycle efciency. In addition, after the water is
condensed from the exhaust, any excess oxygen should be eliminated from the compressed CO2 to avoid corrosion in handling the CO2
gas. For these reasons, the combustor design must achieve very high combustion efciency at conditions with little excess oxygen.
This requirement places a premium on achieving high levels of mixing uniformity in the combustor, because even modestly unmixed
fuel stream will be starved for oxygen. It should be noted that boiler designs also ideally operate near stoichiometric, but typically use
1-3% excess oxygen, and have relatively long residence times to complete fuel oxidation. For the oxy-fuel turbine, the excess oxygen
would ideally be lower, with much shorter residence times (~30ms) to avoid excessively large pressurized combustion chambers. Oxy-
fuel combustion for power cycles has been studied in a number of papers.19 The easiest combustion strategy is to employ a diffusion
ame combustor. The stability and simple operation of diffusion ame systems make them appealing for oxy-fuel systems. There
is no need to control NOx, since the products are sequestered, and there is otherwise little nitrogen in the combustor. Even without
sequestration, the peak ame temperature in diffusion ames can be controlled by the level of diluent added, thereby avoiding NOx
formation. Nevertheless, a potential advantage of premixed combustion is that premixing the fuel and oxidant can reduce the unmixed
streams of fuel and oxygen that are created in diffusion ame systems where relatively small fuel jets must penetrate and mix in the
large combustion volume. There is relatively little fundamental data on premixed oxy-fuel ames diluted by water or CO220 such that
proposed designs must include some margin with respect to fundamental issues like ame speed.

3.2-9 Notes
__________________________

1. Konnov, A.A., Colson, G., De Ruyck, J. (2000). The new Route to Forming NO via NNH, Combustion and Flame, Vol.
121, pp. 548-550.
2. Leonard, G., Stegmaier, J. (1994). Development of an Aeroderivative Gas Turbine Dry Low Emissions Combustion
System, ASME J. Eng. For Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 116, pp. 542 546.
3. Sattelmayer, T., Polifke, W., Winkler, D., Dobbeling, K., (1998). NOx-Abatement Potential of Lean-Premixed Gas Turbine
Combustors, ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 120, pp. 48- 59.
4. Fietelberg, A. S., Lacey, M. A., (1997). The GE Rich-Quench-Lean Gas Turbine Combustor ASME 97-GT-127;
Hasegawa,T., Sato, M., Ninomiya, T. (1997). Effect of Pressure On Emission Characteristics In LBG-Fueled 1500C-
Class Gas Turbine, ASME 97-GT-277; Constant, D. R., Bevan, D. M, Cannon, M. F., Kelsall, G. J. (1997). Development
of an LCV Fuel Gas Combustor for an Industrial Gas Turbine ASME 97-GT-38; Folsom, B.A., C.W. Courtney, Heap, M.
P. (1980). The Effects of LBG Composition and Combustor Characteristics on Fuel NOx Formation, ASME J. Eng.
Power, V102, pp459-467; Domeracki, W.F., Dowdy, T. E., Bachovchin, D. M. (1997). Topping Combustor Status for
Second-Generation Pressurized Fluidized Bed Cycle Applications, ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 119,
pp. 27 33.
5. Takagi, T., Xu, Z. and Komiyama, M., Preferential Dissusion Effects on the Temperature in Usual and Inverse Diffusion
Flames, Comb. and Flame 106: 252-260 (1996); Gabriel, R. Navedo, J. E. and Chen R.,, Effects of Fuel Lewis Number on
Nitric Oxide Emission of Diluted H2 Turbulent Jet Diffusion Flames, Comb. and Flame 121:525-534 (2000).
6. Tacina, R., Wey, C., Liang, P., and Mansour, A., A Low NOx Lean-Direct Injection, Multipoint Integrated Module
Combustor Concept for Advanced Aircraft Gas Turbines, Clean Air Conference, Porto, Portugal, NASA/TM-2002-
2111347; Tacina, R. R., Wey, C., Choi, K. J., Flame Tube NOx Emissions Using a Lean-Direct-Wall-Injection
Combustor Concept, 37th Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, Salt Lake City, Utah, July 8-11, 2001,
AIAA-2001-3271.
7. Marek, C. J., Smith, T. D., and Kundu, K., Low Emission Hydrogen Combustors for Gas Turbines Using Lean
Direct Injection, 41st Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, Tuscon, Arizona, AIAA-2005-3776, July 10-13, 2005;
GE Energy, Premixer Design for High Hydrogen Fuels Final Report, DOE Cooperative Agreement No. DE-FC26-
03NT41893, November, 2005.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid.
10. Joshi, N. D., Mongia, H. C., Leonard, G., Stegmaier, J. W., Vickers, E. C. (1998). Dry Low Emissions Combustor
Development, ASME 98-GT-310; Lefebvre, A.H. (1998). Gas Turbine Combustion, 2nd ed, pp. 349, Taylor and Francis.
11. Sewell, J. B., Sobieski, P. A., (2005). Monitoring of Combustion Instabilities: Calpines Experience, in Combustion
Instabilities in Gas Turbine Engines, Lieuwen, T. C. , Yang, V. [eds.], American Institute of Astronautics and
207 Aeronautics, pp. 147 162.
3.2 Combustion Strategies for Syngas and High-Hydrogen Fuel
12. Myers, G., Tegel, D., Feigl, M., Setzer, F., Bechtel, W., Fitts, D., Couture, B., Tuthill, R. (2003). Dry, Low-Emissions
For the H Heavy Duty Industrial Gas Turbines: Full-Scale Combustion System Rig Test Results, ASME GT2003-38193;
Feigl, M., Setzer, F., Feigl-Varela, R., Myers, G., Sweet, B. (2005). Field Test Validation of the DLN2.5H Combustion
System on the 9H Gas Turbine at the Baglan Bay Power Station, ASME GT2005-68843.
13. Mongia, H.C., Held, T. J., Hsiao, G. C., Pandalai, R.P. (2003). Challenges and Progress in Controlling Dynamics in Gas
Turbine Combustors. AIAA Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 822-829.
14. Cohen, J. H., Rey, N.M., Jacobson, C. A., Anderson, T.J. (1999). Active Control of Combustion Instabilities in a Liquid-
Fueled Low-NOx Combustor. ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 121, No. 2, pp.
281 - 284; Sattinger, S.S, Neumeier, Y., Nabi, A., Zinn, B. T., Amos, D. J., Darling, D. D. (1998). Subscale
Demonstration of the Active Feedback Control of Gas Turbine Combustion Instabilities, ASME Paper 98-GT- 258;
Jones, C. M., Lee, J. G., Santavicca, D. A. (1999). Closed-loop Active Control of Combustion Instabilities Using
Subharmonic Secondary Fuel Injection, Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 1-7.
15. Richards, G. A., Thornton, J. D., Robey, E. H., Arellano, L (2004). Open-Loop Active Control Of Combustion Dynamics
On A Gas Turbine Engine, ASME IMECE2004-59702
16. Seume, J. R., Vortmeyer, N., Krause, W., Hermann, J., Hantschk, C.-C., Zangl, P., Gleis, S., Vortmeyer, D., and
Orthmann, A., (1998). Application of Active Combustion Instability Control to a Heavy Duty Gas Turbine. ASME
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 120, No. 4, pp. 721 -726.
17. Angello, L. C., Castaldini, C. (2004).Combustion Instability Tuning Guidelines: Understanding and Mitigating Dynamic
Instabilities in Modern Gas Turbine Combustors, ASME GT2004-54081.
18. Muruganandam, T., Seitzman, J.M. (2003). Optical Sensing of Lean Blowout Precursors in a Premixed Swirl Stabilized
Dump Combustor. ASME GT 2003-38104; Lieuwen, T. (2004). Online Combustor Stability Assessement using
Dynamic Pressure Data, ASME GT2004-53149; Benson, K., Thornton, J. D., Straub, D. L., Huckaby, E. D., Richards, G.
A. (2005). Flame Ionization Sensor Integrated Into a Gas Turbine Fuel Nozzle, ASME Journal of Engineering For Gas
Turbines and Power, Vol. 127 pp. 42 - 48
19. Chorpening, B. Richards, G. A., Casleton, K. H., Woike, M., Willis, B., Hoffman, L., (2005). Demonstration of a Reheat
Combustor for Power Production with CO2 Sequestration. ASME Journal of Engineering For Gas Turbines and Power,
Vol 127, pp. 740 747; Richards, G. A., Casleton, K. H., Chorpening, B. T., (2005). CO2 and H2O Diluted Oxy-Fuel
Combustion for Zero-Emission Power, Proc. IMecheE, Vol 219, Part A, J. Power and Energy, pp. 121 126.
20. Lewis, B., von Elbe, G., (1987). Combustion, Flames, and Explosions of Gases, 3rd ed. , ppAcademic Press; Koroll,
G. W., Mulpuru, S. R., (1986). The Effect of Dilution with Steam and the Burning Velocity and Structure of
Premixed Hydorgen Flames, The Twenty First Symposium (international) On Combustion, The Combustion Institute,
pp. 1811-1819.

208
BIOGRAPHY
3.2 Combustion Strategies for Syngas and High-Hydrogen Fuel

George Richards

National Energy Technology Laboratory


3610 Collins Ferry Rd.
P.O. Box 880
email: george.richards@netl.doe.gov
phone: (304) 285-4458

Geo Richards received his Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from Purdue University on the subject
of gas turbine combustion. Since coming to the National Energy Technology Laboratory in 1988, he
has conducted research on various topics in thermal science and energy production, with a particular
emphasis on combustion dynamics. He currently leads the Energy System Dynamics Focus Area,
providing technical direction for research groups investigating turbine combustion, carbon dioxide
capture, high-temperature fuel cells, fuel processing, and stationary reciprocating engines. In addition
to conducting his own research, Dr. Richards responsibilities include developing and executing
cooperative research agreements with private industry and academia, and evaluating proposed concepts
related to energy conversion. He also serves as a research advisor for both graduate and post-graduate
investigators visiting NETL from academic institutions.
Nate Weiland

National Energy Technology Laboratory


P. O. Box 10940
Pittsburgh, PA 15236
email: nathan.weiland@netl.doe.gov
phone: (412) 386-4649

Nate Weiland graduated with a Bachelors Degree in Mechanical Engineering from Purdue University
in 1997, received his Masters Degree in Mechanical Engineering from Georgia Tech in 2000, and
completed his PhD in thermoacoustics at Georgia Tech in 2004. He is currently an ORISE Post-doctoral
Research Fellow at the National Energy Technology Laboratory, where he is investigating various gas
turbine combustor concepts burning dilite diffusion hydrogen ames. His reserach interests include
experimental, computational and theoretical studies of the interactions between acoustic, thermal, and
chemical processes, and the development of novel devices utilizing these interactions.
Pete Strakey

Energy Systems Dynamics Division


National Energy Technology Laboratory
3610 Collins Ferry Rd.
P.O. Box 880
Morgantown, WV 26507-0880
phone: (304) 285-4476
email: peter.strakey@netl.doe.gov

Pete Strakey received his Ph.D. in 1995 from the Pennsylvania State Univeristy in the eld of
Mechanical Engineering. The emphasis of his research is uid dynamics, combustion and laser
diagnostics. He spent 9 years at the Air Force Research Laboratory, Edwards AFB, CA working
in the eld of rocket propulsion, specically high-pressure liquid rocket injector atomization
and mixing. Since coming to NETL, he has been primarily involved in research on gas turbine
combustion and the application of laser diagnostic techniques to combustion systems. He has also
been involved in computational uid dynamics (CFD) modeling of combustion systems as well as
model validation. He has authored numerous technical papers on liquid atomization, combustion
and laser diagnostics.

7XUELQH&RROLQJ'HVLJQ
$QDO\VLV 4.1-1 Introduction
Turbine cooling methods have provided the
ability to increase turbine inlet temperatures above
melting temperatures of turbine airfoil components with
not only airfoil survivability, but also extending airfoil
life. These cooling methods can be broadly classified into
internal and external methods. Internal cooling methods
include the use of geometric features placed in the flow
path of internal channels within the turbine airfoils to
promote turbulence, thereby enhancing convective heat
transfer coefficients. These geometric features generally
include ribs, pin fins, and impingement holes. External
cooling methods include the use of film-cooling holes
that are placed in the surface of the airfoils with the hole
shapes and hole placement being the design issue.
Because the flow fields across turbine vanes
and blades vary relative to the position on the airfoil,
one would expect that the cooling design would vary.
Consider that the flow at the airfoil mid span is primarily
two-dimensional while the flow at the airfoil edges is
clearly influenced by the inner hub and outer casings
of the turbine. The flows influencing the inner hub
and outer cases often contain vortices that give rise to
velocity components that are orthogonal to the primary
flow direction. Not only do the cooling schemes vary in
these regions, but the methods that are used to analyze
these various sections also vary. Because these cooling
schemes are relatively complex, the analysis methods
employed are not straightforward.
Section 4.1 is aimed at providing the reader
with methods that are currently used to analyze complex
turbine cooling schemes as well as a background for
understanding relevant effects on the different cooling
methods. Turbine airfoil geometries have also evolved
over the years to reduce pressure losses across each stage
resulting in three-dimensional airfoil designs. Section
4.2 provides the reader with an understanding of three
dimensional airfoil geometries.

- Karen Thole


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4.2.1
Cooling Design Analysis
4.2.1-1 Introduction
The technology of cooling gas turbine components via internal convective ows
of single-phase gases has developed over the years from simple smooth cooling
passages to very complex geometries involving many differing surfaces, architectures,
and uid-surface interactions. The fundamental aim of this technology area is to
obtain the highest overall cooling effectiveness with the lowest possible penalty on
the thermodynamic cycle performance. As a thermodynamic Brayton cycle, the
efciency of the gas turbine engine can be raised substantially by increasing the ring
temperature of the turbine. Modern gas turbine systems are red at temperatures in
excess of the material melting temperature limits. This is made possible by utilization
of thermal barrier coating materials and by the aggressive cooling of the hot gas path
(HGP) components using a portion of the compressor discharge air, as depicted in the
aero-engine schematic of gure 1. The use of 20 to 30% of this compressed air to
cool the high-pressure turbine (HPT) presents a severe penalty on the thermodynamic
efciency unless the ring temperature is sufciently high for the gains to outweigh
the losses. In all properly operating cooled turbine systems, the efciency gain is
signicant enough to justify the added complexity and cost of the cooling technologies
employed.

HP TURBINE
VANE

COMPRESSOR
DISCHARGE

HP TURBINE
COMBUSTION BLADE
ZONE

Fig. 1. Aero-engine High Pressure Turbine and Combustor

Ron S. Bunker Cooling technology, as applied to gas turbine components such as the high-
pressure turbine vanes and blades (also known as nozzles and buckets), is composed
GE Global Research of ve main elements: (1) internal convective cooling, (2) external surface lm
One Research Circle, K-1 ES-104 cooling, (3) materials selection, (4) thermal-mechanical design, and (5) selection
Niskayuna, NY 12309 and/or pre-treatment of the coolant uid. Internal convective cooling is the art of
directing coolant via the available pressure gradients into all regions of the component
phone: (518) 387-5086 requiring cooling, while augmenting the heat transfer coefcients as necessary to
email: bunker@crd.ge.com obtain distributed and reasonably uniform thermal conditions. The enhancement of
internal convective ow surfaces for the augmentation of heat transfer has occurred
through a myriad of surface treatments and features as well as the forceful direction
of ows via diverters, swirl devices, etc. The most common turbine airfoil interior
surface features have been rib-rougheners or turbulators, and also pin-banks or pin-
ns, which continue to play a large role in todays turbine cooling designs. Film
cooling is the practice of bleeding internal cooling ows onto the exterior skin of
the components to provide a heat ux reducing cooling layer. Film cooling is
intimately tied to the internal cooling technique used in that the local internal ow
295 details will inuence the ow characteristics and temperature of the lm jets injected
on the surface. Materials most commonly employed in cooled parts include high-temperature, high-strength nickel or cobalt-based
superalloys coated with yttria-stabilized zirconia oxide ceramics (thermal barrier coating, TBC). The protective ceramic coatings are
currently used to actively enhance the cooling capability of the internal convection mechanisms. The thermal-mechanical design of
the components must integrate these rst three elements into a package that has acceptable thermal stresses, coating strains, oxidation
limits, creep-rupture properties, and aero-mechanical response. Under the majority of practical system constraints, this allows for the
highest achievable internal convective heat transfer coefcients with the lowest achievable frictional coefcient or pressure loss. In
some circumstances, pressure loss is not a concern and the highest available heat transfer enhancements are sought for cooling, while in
other applications pressure loss may be so restricted as to dictate a very limited means of heat transfer enhancement. The last cooling
design element concerns the correct selection of the cooling uid to perform the required function with the least impact on the cycle
efciency. This usually is achieved through the use of compressor bleed air from the most advantageous stage of the compressor, but can
also be done using off-board cooling sources such as closed-circuit steam or air, as well as intra-cycle and inter-cycle heat exchangers.
In many respects, the evolution of gas turbine internal cooling technologies began in parallel with heat exchanger and uid
processing techniques, simply packaged into the constrained designs required of turbine airfoils (ie. aerodynamics, mechanical
strength, vibrational response, etc.). Turbine airfoils are after all merely highly specialized and complex heat exchangers that
release the cold side uid in a controlled fashion to maximize work extraction. Actively or passively cooled regions of the hot
gas path in both aircraft engine and power generating gas turbines include the stationary vanes or nozzles, the rotating blades or
buckets of the HPT stages, the shrouds bounding the rotating blades, and the combustor liners and ame holding segments. Also
included are the secondary ow circuits of the turbine wheelspaces and the outer casings that serve as both cooling and positive
purge ows. The ever present constraints common to all components and systems include but are not limited to pressure
losses, material temperatures, component stresses, geometry and volume, aerodynamics, fouling, and coolant conditions.
An overview of the cooling design analysis system or method is presented in the generic summary diagram of gure 2. For
the present purpose, the design analysis method is shown as a three level system, working from Level 1 outwards. Level 1 concerns
the conceptual design of the components largely based on nominal target conditions and divorced from the surrounding systems
constraints and competing requirements or trade-offs. Level 1 analysis can be performed based on 1D, 2D, or 3D complexities and
details, and is primarily used to compare various options in design. Analysis at the conceptual level must still be detailed enough
however to allow ranking and down-selection between options. Level 2 cooling analysis is the much more detailed inclusion of
surrounding effects and constraints from aerodynamics, material properties, mechanical loads, ling limitations, clearances etc. as
depicted in the design cycle diagram of gure 3. The analyses performed in Level 2 often must be combined thermal-mechanical
predictions using very detailed nite element models, sometimes even sub-models of certain component sections. Most Level 2
analyses are performed at one steady-state operating condition, e.g. 100% load. The result of Level 2 analysis, after various alterations
and iterations, is the basic system design with balanced choices that satisfy the engine design goals. Level 3 analysis brings in the
operational transient aspects to determine if requirements or constraints are violated under conditions such as normal start-up, fast
start-up, trips, and hot restarts. Level 3 results can require that additional changes be made with new analyses at Levels 1 and 2.
In all cooling system design analysis levels, engine experience design factors and known engine degradation factors must be
included. As examples, such factors may include the use of 3 material properties, knock-down factors on cooling augmentation, and
loss of coatings or metal thickness. In addition, there is a Level 0 analysis not shown in gure 2. Level 0 is the preliminary design of
the engine. The preliminary design deals mainly with the mission requirements, such as efciency, cost-of-electricity, power sizing
and number of starts. Level 0 sets the target goals on the cooling system, including the coolant consumption, turbine airfoil life, and
inspection intervals.

Operational Transients Level 3


Cycle
T41
% Wc
Level 2 Engine Experience Engine Degradation SFC
Design Factors Aero Design Life
Aero Max Flow Flowpath Mission mix
Airfoils LCF
Work External Heat Internal Heat Material
Transfer Coefficients Transfer Coefficients
Combustor Bearing Cost Repairability
Profile External Gas T Coolant T Thrust
Distribution Cooling Commonality Servicing
Max T Materials Aero-
Design Discharge Coefficients Clearances
Base metal Manufacturing Durability Mechanical
Adiabatic Film Analysis Coatings HCF
Oxidation Effectiveness Wall Thicknesses Leakages Composites Vibration
Level 1
LCF Emissivity Thermal Conductivities Assembly
Thermal
Creep Mass Balance Repair Design Mech. Design
Flow Rates Bulk Temp Stresses
HCF Energy Balance Cost Max. T Creep
Wall Ts % Wc

Fig. 2. Cooling Design Analysis System Fig. 3. Turbine Engine Design Cycle

296
Ron S. Bunker

4.2.1-2 Level 0 Preliminary Cooling Design Analysis


At this very early stage in the denition of an engine design, the cooling system is completely wrapped up in a single set of
performance characteristic curves, usually presented in graphical format, known as Cooling Technology Maps. A generic cooling
technology performance chart is shown in gure 4 for a turbine airfoil, either a vane or a blade. The technology curves shown on this
chart present the gross airfoil cooling effectiveness versus a heat loading parameter, dened as non-dimensional quantities:

Gross Cooling Effectiveness = (Tgas Tbulk metal) / (Tgas Tcoolant supply)

Heat Loading Parameter = (mcoolant * Cp coolant) / 2 * Hgas * Agas

The quantities in these terms are as follows:

Tgas = average hot gas temperature (e.g. ring temperature for blade)
Tbulk metal = average metal temperature of entire airfoil with endwalls
Tcoolant supply = temperature of coolant entering the airfoil
Hgas = average external gas heat transfer coefcient (corrected for radiation)
Agas = external gas wetted surface area
mcoolant = coolant ow rate to airfoil
Cp coolant = coolant specic heat.

The heat loading parameter ratios the overall hot gas 100%
tion+
heat ux (source) delivered to the component against the overall Convec +TB C
oling
coolant capability to accept heat ux (sink). Since the gas and Film c o
coolant temperatures are not in this term, the ratio is not unity,
Gross Cooling Efficiency

but does provide a relative scale for placement of past and current
ng
designs. The symbolic points on the chart represent various engine m c ooli
tion+Fil
Convec
experience data points for different designs. Several curves will
generally be present showing major levels of cooling technology. on c ooli
n g
Convec ti
Such maps may also present extrapolated design points based on
analysis only, or target design points for new engines.
In this preliminary Level 0 design phase, cooling
analysis is simply a matter of looking up the expected or projected
coolant ow rates based on the cycle or mission design goals.
Temperatures may be altered by various choices of cycles, surface 0
areas by overall power requirements or aerodynamics, coolant
Heat Loading Parameter
specic heat by selection of cooling uid, airfoil temperatures by
cooling mass ow rate, and so forth. All of which lead to differing Fig. 4. Cooling Technology Performance Chart
impacts on overall engine efciency, emissions, life, and cost.
A similar set of performance curves may be used to examine the
effect of wheelspace and casing leakage ows from the secondary
cooling circuits. Here, variations may be made in the complexity
e

2D
s id

n side

of seals to obtain lower overall leakages ows with potential


re
ssu

Suctio

consequences such as higher rotor rim material temperatures. 3D


Pre

4.2.1-3 Level 1 Conceptual Cooling X=0

Design Analysis
X

Component design may take on one of several depths of Hot Air


analysis, from preliminary estimates, to detailed two-dimensional X
1D
Flat plate external flow
analyses, to complete three-dimensional computational
predictions including the conjugate effects of the convective Coolant Internal cooling flow
and radiative environments. Each mode of analysis has its use Air
as the design progresses from concept to reality. Figure 5 shows
a three-dimensional vane airfoil and endwalls reduced rst Fig. 5. Simplied to Complex Cooling Design Analysis
to a two-dimensional, constant thickness cross-section of the
aerodynamic shape, and then again to a one-dimensional basic
297
4.2.1 Cooling Design Analysis

at plate representing ow from the leading edge stagnation point to the trailing edge. Preliminary design uses mostly bulk quantities
and one-dimensional simplied equations to arrive at approximate yet meaningful estimates of temperatures and ow requirements.
While the actual airfoil / endwall shape involves many complexities of accelerating and decelerating ows, secondary ows, and
discrete lm injection holes, a good estimate may still be obtained using fundamental at plate relations. Two-dimensional design
incorporates boundary layer analyses, network ow and energy balances, and some thermal gradient estimates to rene the results for
local temperature and ow predictions suitable for use in nite element stress modeling. Three-dimensional design may use complete
computational uid dynamics and heat transfer modeling of the internal and external ow elds to obtain the most detailed predictions
of local thermal effects and ow losses. Design analyses may of course also mix these methods, such as the use of CFD to predict the
hot gas path pressures, velocities, and temperatures for the aerodynamic prole only, while the internal cooling and lm cooling are
predicted using semi-empirical correlations.

One-Dimensional Analysis Preliminary Design

The simplest one-dimensional analysis may be best understood as an iterative sequence of several steps leading to an overall model
that is approximately optimized for material thicknesses, cooling conguration, and cooling ow. Figure 6 shows the one-dimensional
thermal model that applies to any discrete location on the airfoil. These steps include the following:

1. Estimation of the external heat transfer coefcient distribution on the airfoil, which may include effects such as surface
roughness and freestream turbulence. This estimate may include thermal radiative heat ux separately, or as part of an
effective convective heat transfer coefcient;
2. Calculation of the average adiabatic wall temperature due to lm cooling;

3. Calculation of the conductive material thermal resistances, e.g. TBC, bondcoat, and substrate.

4. Estimation of the internal heat transfer coefcients due to cooling;

5. Calculation of the required aggregate cooling ow rate; and

6. Iteration of the solution to achieve target metal temperatures, thermal gradients, material thicknesses, etc., or to comply
with target constraints.

The solution is iterative to account for uid property changes with temperature, both internal and external to the airfoil, as well
as temperature rise in the cooling uid.
TBC-Metal T

Metal T
TBC T

H rad
Gas T(x,y,z,t)
Adiabatic Coolant T(x,y,z,t)
wall T
Film exit T
Hgas (k, t)TBC (k, t)Metal Hcoolant
haw
Q

Fig. 6. General Thermal Resistance Model

Two-Dimensional Analysis Conceptual Design

The simple one-dimensional model is not of much use in conceptual design unless it is knit into a sectional or complete model
representing the cooled airfoil. This means applying the simple analysis to many regions of the airfoil (wall elements) making up a 2D
sectional view as depicted in gure 5. This is analogous to a nite element model construction, and in many cases can be achieved using
a FEM approach. The elements can be disconnected from thermal conduction as a rst estimate, or simply connected to include axial
conduction effects within the airfoil section. Such conduction effects are more important in regions that are not well modeled by a single
wall thickness, like the trailing edge. Taking this a step further, many radial sections of the airfoil may be stacked to form a pseudo-3D
model of the nearly complete component (without endwalls, tip, or shank). Again, this can be accomplished with or without complete
thermal conduction connections. These are each valid conceptual design modeling approaches with varying levels of accuracy. Note
that such approaches do not typically integrate the airfoil and its endwalls, but treat these portions separately by similar analytical means.
298
Ron S. Bunker

One may ask why a FEM approach is not always Tip


employed for the conceptual design of cooled airfoils, and
also why the airfoil and endwalls are not always integrated
into a single component. The answer is the same for both
questions, and lies partially in historical design methods

Leading Edge

Trailing Edge
and partially in the state-of-the-art computational analysis.
Looking at the turbine blade of gure 7, a candidate cooling
circuit design can be very complex. In this example, the
main portion of the blade is cooled using a turbulated ve- Tip section
pass serpentine circuit, the leading edge is cooled using a
radial passage impinging through crossover holes into the
concave stagnation region, and the trailing edge is cooled
with a radial pin-bank array and aft ejection channels. Film
cooling is employed heavily in the leading edge region and
tip, with additional rows of lm holes on both the pressure
and suction sides of the blade. The blade has three distinct
Fig. 7. Cooled HPT Blade (Bucket)
cooling circuits isolated in the shank cooling supply. This
blade design, and for that matter any other, must be analyzed
and modied with the following in mind:

Typical internal cooling technologies including turbulators, pin-ns, turns, impingement jets, trailing edge holes, swirl cooling,
vortex cooling, convoluted passages, tip purge holes, and basic number and sizing of passages must be readily (i.e. easily)
manipulated to investigate design options and their effects on performance. Manipulation includes movement to new locations,
change of size, change of number or spacing, addition to and subtraction from the component. Performance evaluation usually
refers to cooling effectiveness and aerodynamic mixing losses at this stage of analysis.
Film cooling holes and rows of holes need to be readily moved or altered in the design, including lm hole angles and
shaping.
Rotational cooling circuit differences must be evaluated by altering the general passage layouts.
Balancing of ow rates with coolant temperature rises and pressure losses must be performed readily.
Changes in the external heat transfer coefcient distributions due to new estimates of freestream turbulence, surface roughness,
lm injection heat transfer coefcient augmentation, wakes / unsteadiness, hot-streaks / clocking, prole and pattern factors
must be accommodated.
Wall thickness and TBC coating thickness may also be changed in design at virtually any location.

These factors and more dictate that complex


FEM and CFD analyses of cooled airfoils at the
conceptual design phase are simply not practical. As
an example, gure 8 shows three more blade cooling
designs, none of which would be easily obtained from
some initial generic design if FEM or CFD were used
for every change and alteration being investigated1.
In addition to these design manipulation
requirements, the majority of current knowledge concerning
internal cooling and lm cooling is still contained in
empirical and semi-empirical correlations. State-of-the-
art computational predictions are as yet not sufciently
advanced to provide prime reliant data for the design
of cooled airfoils. As such, conceptual design methods
must make use of a multitude of design correlations based
on experimental data obtained by the original equipment US patent 4,753,575 US patent 4,753,575 US patent 5,931,638
manufacturers (OEMs) and/or contained in open literature.
Fig. 8. Diversity of Cooled Designs
Putting the foregoing discussion into practice,
the two-dimensional or pseudo three-dimensional cooling
analysis of the airfoil portion for a vane or blade is typically
performed in the following manner.

299
4.2.1 Cooling Design Analysis

Given a current prediction of the aerodynamics (static pressure distributions) and gas temperatures surrounding the airfoil
sections, the external heat transfer coefcient distribution is calculated for each radial section using either boundary layer
analysis or computational heat transfer. The distributions must account for some or all of the inuencing factors including:
Airfoil loading
Subsonic boundary layer laminar and turbulent transitions
Bypass transition
Transonic shocks
Surface roughness distribution
Freestream turbulence
Freestream approach swirl
Rotational effects
Boundary layer disturbances due to lm coolant injections
Boundary layer disturbances due to coating spallations
Periodic unsteadiness and wake passing
Secondary ow injections in hub and tip regions
Radiative heat ux distributions

A detailed ow network model of the internal cooling circuits of the airfoil is built using the current known coolant supply
pressure and temperature, and the external airfoil static pressure distribution as boundary conditions. The network ow model
should allow compressible ow effects, though some models may be sufcient with incompressible ow only. The ow model
is executed with an initial solution guess and iterated to convergence based upon the current boundary conditions and internal
geometry. This cooling circuit model includes:
Flow area distributions for each passage
Detailed local geometry for each internal feature or repeating feature, such as turbulators, pin-ns, etc.
Cooling passage aspect ratio distributions
Impingement cooling geometry denitions locally
Geometry details for all internal cooling holes
Film cooling extraction locations
Convective heat transfer coefcient correlations
Coefcient of friction correlations
Coefcient of pressure loss correlations for turns, holes, etc.
Cooling uid properties

The ow network model can also be arranged to contain a material shell representing the airfoil, such that the model may
interact with the external conditions via thermal exchange. This merely requires denition of
Wall thickness distributions for each section
Internal dividing rib thickness distributions
Protective coating thickness distributions
Material property tables

In addition, the ow model is extended to include the ow and discharge of all lm cooling holes. This is done by providing
information on
Film hole or lm row exit locations
Film hole sizes, shaping factors, spacing, and orientations
Film hole discharge coefcient correlations
Film hole or lm row adiabatic effectiveness correlations
Film injection mixing loss correlations
Film hole internal heat transfer coefcient correlations

300
Ron S. Bunker

This total airfoil model can be modied through relatively simple and quick adjustment of the several input distributions and
boundary conditions. Execution of the model is straight forward as long as the boundary conditions and geometry parameters are
realistic. It must be recognized that such a model contains multiple inlet and exit boundary conditions and parallel ow circuits, of
which some ow circuits may be in communication. The complexity of the model must be sufcient to include/resolve all signicant
pressure losses. The output of the airfoil model can include predictions of all internal heat transfer coefcients, all ow distributions,
individual lm hole ow rates and mixing losses, total cooling ow rate, the external lm temperatures, and of course the local material
temperatures. This model can be further coupled to a prediction of the external heat transfer coefcients to update the heat loads for
effects of lm injection and wall temperature distributions. Once such a model is nalized upon a desired design and result, it may then
be exercised to further study manufacturing effects on lm hole discharge coefcients and turbulated cooling passages, tolerances for
material properties, wall thicknesses, hole diameters, and core shifts, and special considerations for IGCC designs, including surface
roughness, TBC spallation, and lm hole blockage effects.

Cooling Design Analysis Correlations

A major consideration in the above cooling analysis is the provision of good correlations for both internal ows and lm cooling
under conditions representative of engines. These correlations are numerous as the variation of internal cooling geometries and lm
cooling parameters are vast. Because there are so many possible combinations and variations, design analysis is founded on several basic
generic correlations from the open literature, and augmented by many geometry-specic correlations determined by OEM research. The
following is a list of the primary correlation sources from open literature:

Impingement jet array heat transfer coefcients (Nusselt numbers) may be obtained from the correlation of Florschuetz et al. for
average jet Reynolds numbers typical in engine design2. For square arrays of jets at somewhat lower Re numbers, the graphical
data of Kercher and Tabakoff may be used3.

Impingement cooling that involves the use of individual jets, or slot type jets, or other non-standard congurations, may be
determined by correlations in the summary paper of Martin4.

Simple fully-developed duct ow turbulent heat transfer may be estimated quite well by the Dittus-Boelter correlation, Nu =
.023 Re0.8 Pr0.33 ,or other variants on this correlation that can be found in any modern textbook. Care should be taken to account
for the wall-to-uid temperature ratio.

Most fully-developed turbulated duct ow heat transfer correlations are of the format Nu = C * Ren Prm . The basic correlations
for stationary turbulated ducts with transverse or angled rib rougheners can be found in Han et al.5. This research also includes
the coefcients of friction.

Rotating passage heat transfer data with and without turbulators is contained in the NASA HOST program data sets6.

Pin bank internal heat transfer and pressure loss correlations are contained in the works by Metzger et al. and Van Fossen7.

Fundamental equations and correlations concerning various cases of idealized slot lm cooling, such as might be encountered
in various leakage ow paths, are summarized in the review of Goldstein8.

The best source of both adiabatic lm effectiveness and heat transfer aw = C1 / ( x/Ms )n
coefcient augmentation factors due to lm injection for round and
shaped holes is contained in the recent series of studies from the aw = C1 / ( x/Ms + C2 )
Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery at the University of Karlsruhe,
Germany9. Such data is generally put into a simplied form to aw = C1 Re0.2 / ( x/Ms )0.8
describe the centerline or laterally averaged adiabatic effectiveness
as a function of distance and mass velocity ratio. Figure 9 shows aw = C1 / { 1 + C2 ( x/Ms)0.8 }
several correlation formats that have been used.
where
A broad set of data for discharge coefcients of lm cooling holes is
aw = ( Trec Taw ) / ( Trec Trec coolant )
available from the research of Hay and Lampard and also from the
ITS Karlsruhe group10. M = (V)coolant / (V)gas

Aerodynamic lm injection mixing losses may be estimated by the Re = film jet Reynolds number
use of the method of Hartsel11. s = equivalent film row slot width

Fig. 9. Denitions of Adiabatic Film Effectiveness


301
4.2.1 Cooling Design Analysis

Other excellent sources of summarized data and correlations


exist in the open literature, but it is up to the design team to determine
what to use and how to use it in analysis. One such source is the
HPT Blade BC Uncertainty
Lecture Series accumulated by the von Karman Institute of Fluid BC % Impact
Dynamics, Brussels. Specic lecture series that cover turbine
cooling include Dailey et al., , Harasgama et al., and Glezer et al.12.
While the above referenced correlations provide a good 50
starting point for the most common methods of cooling, there are 40
dozens of special regions, geometries, and circumstances in cooling 30
design analysis that require case-by-case data. For these cases, the 20
relevant literature is too large to mention here. Most of these cases 10
deal with the so-called edge regions of the cooled components, 0

External Gas
Temperature
including the endwalls, platforms, airfoil leading and trailing edges,

Transfer Coefficient

Adiabatic Film
Effectiveness

TBC Thermal

Metal Thermal
External Heat

Transfer Coefficient
Properties

Internal Coolant
blade tips, interfacial rails, llets, and any isolated corners. All of

Properties

Temperature
Internal Heat
these may be treated by the use of similar thermal-ow network
models, or integrated into the airfoil model as special regions.
Is this level of cooling analysis detail really required?
Figure 10 shows the characteristic uncertainties in engine boundary
conditions that affect the complete cooling design analysis of a
HPT blade. Also shown is the percentage impact of each boundary Fig. 10. Impact of Boundary Condition Uncertainties
condition on the nal result (these add to 100%). It should be clear
that no detail is unimportant here. Also clear is that the accuracy
of certain data, such as the adiabatic lm cooling effectiveness
distribution, is of very high importance.

Additional Factors

Two additional considerations must be incorporated into the cooling design analyses as indicated in gure 2:

1. Engine experience design factors such as lm knockdown, coating of lm hole interiors, hole spacings, etc; and,

2. Engine degradation factors such as combustor gas prole changes, tip erosion, etc.

These factors account for past experience in both test engines and operational engines that cannot be obtained through
research and design activities. These adjustments account for the unknown, or at least poorly understood, conversions from
laboratory data and predictions to the reality of complex engine conditions. Another way to look at these factors is as lessons
learned. For the cooling design analyses, experience factors will include lm effectiveness realization or knockdown multipliers,
lm hole diameter reductions due to protective coating applications, minimum allowable hole spacings to avoid hole-to-hole
cracking, reduction of internal heat transfer coefcients due to debris collection, typical TBC spallation sizes (if any), surface
roughness distribution patterns, and any other generic or design-specic experience gained. Example engine degradation
factors will include alterations to the hot gas temperature proles or magnitudes due to combustor system operation, blade tip
erosion, lm hole blockages due to deposits, and even modied material properties with exposure at elevated temperatures.
These additional factors are typically incorporated into the design process by one of two methods. First, the data from engine
experience can be data matched to the design prediction to arrive at the required adjustment factors to be used in the design correlations.
Second, modications due to degradation can be carried through the design analysis in a statistical manner to determine magnitudes of
change, as well as sensitivity coefcients.

4.2.1-4 Three-Dimensional Analysis


The two-dimensional or pseudo three-dimensional analysis described above is very similar to the simple one-dimensional analysis
in format, but includes all of the required detail to perform design manipulations and trade-off studies to arrive at a nal cooled
component design. Once this iterative process has produced a design that is sufciently polished a more precise three-dimensional
design analysis can be performed. The three-dimensional analysis primarily adds thermal-mechanical detail through the use of a full,
accurate FEM of the component. The FEM is executed using mapped convective boundary conditions of local heat transfer coefcients
and uid temperatures from the 2D model results. The FEM solution presents the complete temperature distributions of the materials.
The 3D analysis can also be performed completely through the use of computational modeling, with the prediction of external and
internal ow elds and heat transfer coefcients, or coupled with the use of a conjugate model. This method of cooling design analysis
must however be in agreement with the conventional design result, since the latter contains a great deal of empirical data and experience
factors built in. Sufcient agreement is dictated by the sensitivity of the design to inaccuracies. For example, it is not generally sufcient
for the predicted average heat transfer coefcient in a cooling passage to match the average correlation result. 302
Ron S. Bunker

4.2.1-5 Level 2 Detailed Component and System Cooling Design Analysis


Component Analyses

As indicated in gure 2, Level 2 cooling design analysis is how and where the results of the Level 1 analysis interface with the
other component and system goals and requirements. The Level 2 subjects noted in gure 2 do not comprise an exhaustive list, but
do represent the diversity of requirements. These aspects of overall design, manufacturing, and operation apply to all of the cooled
hot gas path components and their portions vanes, blades, endwalls, platforms, shrouds, supports, and dovetails. There is no single
cooling design analysis method that can be described here. Level 2 analysis must pass and receive results to/from the other engine
design analysis packages in an iterative method until an acceptable total design solution is obtained. This may require many changes
to the Level 1 design with subsequent re-analysis. As one example of the requirements and complexity of this process, the HPT blade
tip region design interaction is considered, as presented in the review of Bunker13. (Reprinted by permission of the American Institute
of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.)

In designing blade tips, both cooled and uncooled, for proper operation within the larger turbine system one must consider the
following major factors (in no particular order):
Stage and turbine aerodynamic efciency are greatly affected by the blade tip design in terms of the resulting effective leakage
clearance. The effective clearance, which may also be thought of as an effective overall tip discharge coefcient, is determined not
only by the tip geometry, but also by the tip aerodynamic distribution, injected cooling ows, tip sealing arrangement, rotational
speed, shroud surface treatments, and much more. As a rst estimate, each stage can be thought of as having an isolated tip region
aerodynamically, but the reality of multistage turbines is that all stages must be designed together to obtain maximum benet.
Another important aspect of the aerodynamic efciency directly tied to blade tips is the mixing loss associated with the tip leakage
ows as they combine with the high momentum suction side passage ow.
Stage thermal efciency, and then also overall turbine efciency, is strongly affected by the amount of chargeable cooling air
used to maintain blade tip integrity and life. In highly cooled HPT blades, the tip region alone may account for as much as 20% of
the total blade cooling ow.
Bulk material temperature limits must be considered for the entire blade structure. While the tip region is generally not subject
to the same limitations as the rest of the blade in this respect, the tip design does inuence the resulting bulk temperatures of the
lower blade sections through the overall cooling design. The tip may also present enough weight to require lower bulk temperatures
in the main blade sections to avoid creep rupture issues.
Maximum local material temperatures are typically a major concern for blade tips as these regions are the most difcult to cool.
Temperature limits will be placed on the metal substrate, the bond coat, and the thermal barrier coating (TBC) to avoid, for example,
excessive oxidation, high coating strains, and melt inltration of surface deposits, respectively.
Tip sealing methods vary widely, but all methods attempt to reduce the effective tip clearance. The type of sealing arrangement
is intimately tied to the other system design aspects. In many ways, the sealing design is the result of which system design
parameters are given the most emphasis.
Casing out-of-roundness (ie. non-cylindrical) will be transmitted through the structure response to the hot gas ow path
roundness bounding the blade tips. This leads to non-uniform tip gaps around the circumference, and potential tip rubs.
Shroud segment variation, such as bowing, can result from the thermal gradients present in the design, again leading to non-
uniform tip gaps either radially and/or axially.
Approaching and leaving disturbances in the ow around blade tips can affect both the aerodynamics and the cooling.
Approaching disturbances are most notably associated with the wakes and shocks being shed from the upstream vane row, which
to some degree must inuence the tip ow and heat transfer by the introduction of unsteady effects. Approaching and leaving
disturbances may be encountered in tip designs that involve shroud recesses and axial ow gaps between the stationary shrouds and
attached tip shrouds.
Gas temperature proles are the result of the particular combustion system design, the operational point, and mixing through
the subsequent stages. The radial gas temperature prole may have severe impact on the blade tip, both in respect to the temperature
eld itself and the pressure distribution. Stronger radial ows may bring hotter gases to the blade tip than desired, while gas
temperatures may drive strong material thermal gradients and cause lower cooling effectiveness.
Aeromechanics must be considered in the overall blade structural design, and the tip region must be included in this response.
Stresses, both mechanical and thermal, are key in turbine blade survival. Blade tips must typically deal with very high thermal
stresses locally. Higher cooling effectiveness in the tip can alleviate thermal stresses, but must be weighed against the cost to the
cycle efciency. As noted earlier, the blade tip design will inuence the weight distribution in the entire blade, which must then be
dealt with in the allowable stresses, as well as the low cycle fatigue (LCF) and high cycle fatigue (HCF) responses. This effect will
also be transmitted into stress requirements for the blade shank, dovetail, rotor disk posts, and the rotor disk.
Operating conditions must be considered at various limiting points in the engine cycle, because these change the gas and
coolant ow rates, temperatures, and pressures. A blade tip design focused solely on steady state takeoff conditions may not be well
suited for cruise conditions. A balanced or optimized cycle design must be sought.
Transients play a major role in the durability and life of any effective blade tip design. The relative displacements, radial and
303 axial, of the rotor and stator systems during various transients will determine the ultimate steady state operating clearances, as well
4.2.1 Cooling Design Analysis

as the potential for detrimental interference.


Durability is desired for both the blade tip and the opposing shroud as a system. In the long term, durability may be associated
with oxidation, while in the short term durability is a matter of survival in the face of tip rubs (intentional or unintentional), plugged
cooling holes, and thermal stresses.
Materials and material loss must be planned in blade tip design. Blades and blade tips are not automatically designed with the
highest temperature capability material, nor the highest strength material. The tip material may be different from the rest of the
blade. The compatibility of the tip and shroud materials must be considered, for example, if a highly abrasive shroud should damage
a relatively weak tip material.
Cumulative damage of blade tips is typically experienced in certain characteristic locations in each design type. Uniform
damage or material loss is not the general rule. The change in tip geometry with characteristic damage and loss will alter the
aerodynamics and heat transfer, usually leading to accelerated loss.
Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) is directly and strongly affected by blade tip clearance. Any improvement in effective tip
sealing will preserve valuable EGT margin.
Cost of new parts and cost of repair depend on the complexity of tip design.
Blade weight impacts the blade root stresses, LCF life, and blade creep. This is not limited to a simple matter of centrifugal
stresses, but can also have severe effects on the overall aerodynamic design, changing the reaction and work of the stage.
Thrust bearing location and bearing housing distortion affect axial motion and disk sag, which in turn are transmitted through
the rotor to the blade tip potentially creating larger clearances on one side of the turbine and rubs on the other side.
Rotor and stator systems should be thermally matched to minimize variations in blade tip clearances during transients. Active
clearance control systems can aid in this goal by providing fast thermal response of the shroud radial location.
Blade tips are commonly at least partially damaged or worn in the course of operation. The ability or inability to repair blade
tips becomes an important factor in lifetime cost. The complexity of a blade tip design impacts the decision to provide more or less
cooling to balance the cost of repairs. Unrepairable blade tips result in scrapped blades.

While this summary of system design aspects may appear quite detailed and daunting for such a relatively small region of the
turbine, there is one requirement that exceeds all others the blade tip system design must never cause such severe damage as to liberate
blades or pieces of blades in operation. As in the other interacting system relationships within the turbine, prior design and operational
experience must guide and temper improved designs.

Combustor-Turbine System Analysis

The turbine has a special relationship with the combustion system. Turbine cooling design analysis is directly inuenced by the type
of combustor system, the combustor exit conditions, and the change in combustor conditions at various cycle points. The combustion
system operation and its design relative to the turbine has potential impact in at least six main respects:

Hot gas temperature proles


Hot streak clocking relative to the turbine
Turbulence characteristics
Airfoil backow margins
NOx emissions
Fuel type

Each different combustor system design has its own set of characteristic radial and circumferential gas temperature proles.
The set of proles refers to the fact that the full power radial prole differs from any part-power prole. For example, some systems
have annular combustors, some have can-annular combustors, and others have dump combustors. Full annular combustors may be
single, dual, or even triple annular systems with respect to the number of fuel nozzle rings present. In such cases, combustor nozzle
staging may be used for differing power requirements. Another major difference arises between the low NOx systems of power turbine
engines and aero-engines, the former employing very little dilution or lm ow injection within the combustors, and the latter utilizing
a great deal of dilution and lm injection. Most power generation turbines tend toward very at radial proles, while aero-engines
tend to have more peaked radial proles that may change peaking location with power condition. Power turbines may also have radial
temperature prole changes as operation is changed from diffusion mode to premixed mode. The key for turbine cooling design is to
know as much as possible about the combustor system exit conditions for all operating conditions, and to carry this information through
to the design for each cycle point.
Combustion systems have circumferential gas temperature and pressure proles as well, due to the discrete nature of virtually all
designs with respect to air/fuel injection and ame holding. While radial proles are caused by the combined effects of fuel nozzles
and combustor dilution / cooling ows, circumferential proles or pattern factors are caused primarily by the number and spacing of
the fuel nozzles. Since the turbine inlet vanes are also of a nite number, this leads to the interesting aspect of hot streak clocking.
The combustor hot streak may be aligned directly on a vane leading edge, or midway between two vanes. In fact, the hot streaks may
be variable around the entire vane ring depending on the relative count of fuel nozzles and turbine inlet vanes. Different unsteady gas
conditions may be incident upon the rotating blade row. The center hot streak may pass through the passage with little vane interaction,
304
Ron S. Bunker

while the leading edge hot streak may be greatly modied by interaction with the vane and its cooling ows. There are of course
immediate consequences for the vane, but this also translates through to the blade.
As with the hot streak effects, combustion system turbulence and swirl ow are additional complicating factors. The turbulence
intensity levels, distributions, and length scales will not be the same as those generated by the grids used in simplied studies. The
combustor exit ow, in addition to temperature proles, may also contain signicant swirl content. These factors may not be entirely
washed out by the inlet vane row. Some studies have indicated that combustor exit average turbulence intensity over the entire region
is as high as 30%.
Of great concern in all gas turbine designs is the attainment of single digit NOx emission levels. The cooling of low-emissions
combustor liners is achieved primarily through the use of convective backside heat transfer, with little or no injection of coolant into the
hot gas path. Given the high levels of ow required to perform this cooling, the pressure drop allocated to the combustion system is an
important factor. A typical combustion system may use up to 7% of the available pressure from the compressor. This cooling system
pressure loss is roughly equivalent to 1% in cycle efciency, a very signicant amount. It is therefore of great concern to designers
to achieve the greatest possible cooling effectiveness with the lowest possible pressure loss. It is equally important to the design to
achieve a greater cooling effectiveness while matching the pressure loss required by the compressor and turbine design. In this respect,
lower pressure loss combustion systems can impose higher loading on the turbine inlet nozzle, and can also present problems in meeting
backow margin requirements. Additionally, since lower NOx emissions can be obtained by stealing cooling air from the turbine, this
puts pressure on turbine cooling design to use less air.
Fuel exibility is another clear objective in power turbines, with the desire to use gas, liquid distillates, various syngases, and even
heavy oils. The operation of a turbine on multiple fuels presents multiple scenarios for the cooling design analysis. In most cases, this
means analysis for the most severe cases. Future turbine systems may conceive of controllable turbine cooling to accommodate such
changes in operation.
These several issues concerning the combustor-turbine system all point to the requirement that the cooling design analysis must not
only be performed for changing conditions due to the combustor, but in some cases will even lead to vane-to-vane differences in the
cooling analysis.

4.2.1-6 Turbine Secondary Cooling Circuit Outboard air supplies


Analyses Shrouds & hangers

While much attention is given to the cooled airfoils of the


turbine, the secondary ow cooling circuits deserve equal scrutiny Lab seals

and diligence to arrive at a total engine design solution. Figure 1 Nozzle


diaphragm
shows the secondary ow circuits typical of an aero-engine HPT,
Inboard air supplies

and gure 11 shows an example of the secondary ow regions for a Upper wheelspaces

heavy frame turbine. Secondary circuits of the turbine include the


following:

Lower wheelspaces or disk cavities inboard of the hot gas


path
Supply circuits from the compressor discharge region to the Lower wheelspaces
inboard turbine ows Fig. 11. Heavy Frame Turbine Secondary Flow Regions
Upper wheelspaces including buffer and trench cavities
around the angel wings
Supply circuits from the compressor discharge to the outer turbine casing ows
Outboard nozzle and shroud cooling air plenums and connections
All rotating seals in these areas, e.g. labyrinth and brush seals
All stationary seals in these areas, e.g. labyrinth and cloth seals
Component interface leakage pathways and their seals, such as nozzle-to-combustor gaps, nozzle-to-nozzle gaps, shroud-to-
shroud gaps, nozzle-to-shroud gaps, and blade-to-blade gaps (spline seals, C-seals, W-seals, leaf seals, etc.)
Rotating orices
Stationary orices
Pre-swirl supply nozzles
Inducers and cover plate systems
Blade dovetail / shank leakages
Bolt leakages
Nozzle support leakages
Outboard-to-inboard cooling circuits routed through turbine airfoils
Nozzle diaphragm chambers
Supply ows bled from earlier compressor stages
Shroud hanger system ows and leakages
305
4.2.1 Cooling Design Analysis

The cooling design analysis for the secondary ow systems is performed in much the same way as that of the turbine airfoils,
the main difference being that most of these ow circuits do not directly interact with the hot gas path. Because there is no external hot
gas ow involved, the thermal-uid design analysis of these regions becomes an elaborate ow network model with thermal boundary
conditions at the hardware surfaces. Just as in the turbine
airfoil analysis, the secondary ow models may be simple or
complex depending on the design stage.
Ultimately, some regions will require complex CFD Nozzle Bucket
analysis to resolve full details. The primary location where
this level of design analysis is required concerns the points at
which the secondary ows do interact with the hot gas path.
One such region is the forward wheelspace sealing cavities
between the turbine inlet nozzle and the rst stage blade, as
depicted in gure 12. A source of cooling air is supplied Hot
Hotfluid
fluidmay
mayenter
enter
the
theregion
regionbetween
from the inboard location and routed through the stationary- the
between
thetwo
twoanglewings
anglewings
rotating seal cavities, in this case a buffer cavity and then the and
andmixmixwith
withcolder
colder
trench cavity at the turbine ow path. Aside from this ow wheelspace
wheelspacepurgepurge
fluid.
circuit, there are several other leakage pathways inuencing fluid.

the region, as depicted in gure 13. In addition, the exit of the


ow circuit sees a very three dimensional ow that varies in
the circumferential direction due to nozzle wakes and blade
leading edge effects. Such interaction regions can involve
substantial mixing of the cold and hot ows. A more detailed
Fig. 12. Purge Flow Circuit for Turbine Wheelspace
knowledge or prediction level of the heat transfer coefcients
and gas temperatures in these regions is required.
Secondary ow design analysis begins with overall, large Bucket
network models representing the compressor discharge and Hot gas Nozzle
bleeds to the eventual exit ows into the turbine ow path,
Slashface leakages
accounting for all key ow areas, lengths, restrictions, and Platform
discharge coefcients, using approximate thermal boundary leakage
conditions for heat transfer. More detailed models are made to
examine separate portions of the ow circuits and add greater
delity to the boundary conditions. Open literature sources may Nozzle support Shank leakage
be used for most of the required information concerning ow leakages
restrictions, friction coefcients, and discharge coefcients.
Some commercial ow network solvers contain correlations
for much of this information. Heat transfer boundary
conditions can be estimated by simple forced duct ow and
natural convection correlations in most locations other than the Dovetail leakage
radial disk ow, radial cavity ow, and labyrinth seal regions. Purge cooling
A good summary of the ow and heat transfer in radial rotating flow
disk and disk cavity systems for various situations is that of Fig. 13. Cooling Flows and Leakages in Buffer Cavity Region
Owen and Rogers and the subsequent literature publications of
Owen and co-workers14. Labyrinth seal ow and heat transfer data for planar and stepped geometries may be found in the research of
the ITS Karlsruhe group, such as that of Waschka et al.15.
The thermal condition of the hardware surrounding the secondary ow circuits must be included in the nal design analysis. These
boundaries cannot in most cases be treated as adiabatic. For example, the bucket dovetails are connected to the wheel in the disk-posts.
While the forward and aft surfaces of the dovetail and disk-post are exposed to the secondary ows of the upper wheelspace, the primary
cooling ow of the bucket is routed between the bottom of the dovetail and the wheel, and the coolant ows inside the dovetail to the
airfoil. This forms an additional network that connects the secondary ow circuit and the coolant circuit of the buckets. This internal
cooling of the bucket dovetail and shank will thermally affect the response of the disk-post and wheel. Even the cooling of the bucket
airfoils and platforms has an inuence on the top portion of the wheel, serving to conduct energy from the hot gas path down into the
wheel. This latter effect is usually analyzed by applying lumped or equivalent thermal masses to the top of the wheels or bucket shanks
to act as heat sources. Detailed thermal models of the airfoils, supports, and wheels are rarely if ever done in the same model. In a
similar manner, the outer shrouds and their hangers must be modeled together to provide the complete prediction of ows and thermal
response. Individual wheels may be modeled, or the entire turbine rotor system. In fact, at some detailed design level, the entire turbine
rotor must be thermally analyzed as one in order to correctly predict all clearances. Going one step further, the so-called unit rotor,
which is the combined compressor-turbine-generator rotor must also be analyzed with thermal boundary conditions, albeit with a less
detailed application of conditions.
306
Ron S. Bunker

4.2.1-7 Level 3 Transient Operational Cooling Design Analysis


All of the foregoing cooling design analyses are commonly applied to steady-state operating conditions at some well dened
point in the cycle deck or operational map of the turbine engine. The reality of turbine operation however is that both slow and fast
transients must considered in the design process. Slow transients include normal startup and shutdown, or load following operations,
while fast transients include quick starts for peaking power, engine trips, and hot restarts. Within even the normally slow startup
procedure for a heavy frame turbine, there are several intermediate operating points and transients, such as turning gear operation, low
RPM holding, and ~80% power point warm up. Other transients may include specic operating domains dictated by the combustion
system, water washing, and power augmentation (e.g. water injection to post-combustion).
Figure 14 shows an approximate transient growth behavior for the turbine rotor and stator during a fast start (< 30 minutes). The
transient growth of the rotor is a combination of all portions making up the rotor, with contributions from centrifugal and thermal
effects. The transient growth of the stator and casing outboard of the rotor is thermally dominated, occurring at a different rate than
the rotor. The cooling design analysis of all transients is performed using a sufcient number of steady-state analyses and their
associated boundary conditions. Each steady-state analysis is performed using the Level 2 methods discussed in the pervious section.
The boundary conditions of these several operating points, ow rates, pressures, gas temperature proles, heat transfer coefcients,
and lm effectiveness, are used to form the anchor points of the transient analysis. Since the number of steady-state analysis points is
typically limited, the boundary conditions at several intermediate steps must be obtained by interpolation. As the basic uid dynamic
and thermal domains of the hot gas and cooling ows also change with operating conditions, these interpolations are performed using
explicit or ad-hoc rules. The exact nature and denition of these rules are very dependent on the turbine design and operation, and as
such are specic to the OEMs.
Transient analyses of individual components, such as the turbine airfoils, follow the same general guidelines. Usually, the
concerns associated with these components are not the same as those of the overall turbine stator and rotor systems. Instead, issues
with clearances, leakage gaps, binding, and hot gas backow or ingestion are scrutinized. In addition, transient effects on peak
material stress and strain are important, as evidenced by the potential for TBC spallation under severe thermal transients. The transient
cooling design analysis for hot gas path components may therefore focus on certain transients, or portions of transients, known to be
of greatest concern.

Steady State
RPM
R RPM Trip
tor

r
to

Potential
S ta

Ro

Disk Thermal
Growth Tip Rub

Blade Thermal
Growth
Blade & Disk
Centrifugal Growth
0 5 10 15 20
Cold Start Time (min)

Fig. 14. Transient Rotor and Stator Growth for Fast Startup. (From Bunker13, reprinted by permission of the American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.)

307
4.2.1 Cooling Design Analysis

4.2.1-8 Notes

________________________

1. J. L.Levengood and T. A. Auxier, Airfoil with Nested Cooling Channels, U.S. Patent 4,753,575, 1988; D. A. Krause, D. J.
Mongillo, F. O. Soechting, and M. F. Zelesky, Turbomachinery Airfoil with Optimized Heat Transfer, U.S. Patent 5,931,638,
1999.
2. L. Florschuetz, C. Truman, and D. Metzger, Streamwise Flow and Heat Transfer Distributions for Jet Array Impingement with
Crossow, Journal of Heat Transfer 103 (1981): 337-342.
3. D. Kercher, and W. Tabakoff, Heat Transfer by a Square Array of Round Air Jets Impinging Perpendicular to a Flat
Surface Including the Effect of Spent Air, Journal of Engineering for Power, 92 (1970): 73-82.
4. H. Martin, Heat and Mass Transfer Between Impinging Gas Jets and Solid Surfaces, Advances in Heat Transfer 13 (1977):
1-60.
5. J. C. Han, J. S. Park, and C. K. Lei, Heat Transfer Enhancement in Channels with Turbulence Promoters, Journal of Engr. for
Gas Turbines and Power 107 (1985): 628-635.
6. T. J. Hajek, J. H. Wagner, B. V. Johnson, A. W. Higgins, and G. D. Steuber, Effects of Rotation on Coolant Passage Heat
Transfer, NASA Contractor Report 4396 (1991).
7. D. E. Metzger, R. A. Berry, and J. P. Bronson, Developing Heat Transfer in Rectangular Ducts with Staggered Arrays of Short
Pin Fins, Journal of Heat Transfer 104 (1982): 700-706; G. J. VanFossen, Heat Transfer Coefcients for Staggered Arrays of
Short Pin Fins, Journal of Engineering for Power 104 (1982): 268-274.
8. R. J. Goldstein, Film Cooling, Advances in Heat Transfer 7 (1971): 321-379.
9. M. Gritsch, A. Schulz, and S. Wittig, Adiabatic Wall Effectiveness Measurements of Film-Cooling Holes with Expanded
Exits, Paper 97-GT-164 (IGTI Conference, Orlando, Florida [1997]); M. Gritsch, A. Schulz, and S. Wittig, Heat Transfer
Coefcients Measurements of Film-Cooling Holes with Expanded Exits, Paper 98-GT-28 (IGTI Conference, Stockholm,
Sweden [1998]); C. Saumweber, A. Schulz, and S. Wittig, Free-Stream Turbulence Effects on Film Cooling with
Shaped Holes, Paper GT-2002-30170 (IGTI Turbo Expo, Amsterdam, Netherlands [2002]); J. Dittmar, A. Schulz, and S.
Wittig, Assessment of Various Film Cooling Congurations Including Shaped and Compound Angle Holes Based on Large
Scale Experiments, Paper GT-2002-30176 (IGTI Turbo Expo, Amsterdam, Netherlands [2002]).
10. N. Hay and D. Lampard, Discharge Coefcient of Turbine Cooling Holes: A Review, Journal of Turbomachinery 120
(1998): 314-319; M. Gritsch, A Schulz, and S. Wittig, Discharge Coefcient Measurements of Film-Cooling Holes with
Expanded Exits, Paper No. 97-GT-165 (IGTI Turbo Expo, Orlando [1997]); M. Gritsch, C. Saumweber, A. Schulz, S.
Wittig, and E. Sharp, Effect of Internal Coolant Crossow Orientation on the Discharge Coefcient of Shaped Film-Cooling
Holes, Journal of Turbomachinery 122 (2000): 146-152.
11. J. E. Hartsel, Prediction of Effects of Mass Transfer Cooling on the Blade Row Efciency of Turbine Airfoils, AIAA Paper
72-11 (AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting, San Diego, California [Jan. 17-19, 1972]).
12. G. M. Dailey, M. Taslim, D. L. Rigby, P. Sagaut, M. Cakan, B. Han, R.J. Goldstein, and J.M. Buchlin, Aero-Thermal
Performance of Internal Cooling Systems in Turbomachines, Von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics Lecture Series
VKI-LS 2002-01 (2002); S.P. Harasgama, J.C. Han, S. Dutta, H. Iacovides, G. Rau, J.M. Owen, and M. Wilson, Heat
Transfer and Cooling in Gas Turbines, Von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics Lecture Series VKI-LS 1996-01
(1996); B. Glezer, N. Harvey, C. Camci, R. Bunker, and A. Ameri, Turbine Blade Tip Design and Tip Clearance Treatment,
Von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics Lecture Series VKI-LS 2004-02 (2004).
13. Bunker, R.S., Axial Turbine Blade Tips: Function, Design, and Durability, to be published in the AIAA Journal of
Propulsion and Power, March-April, 2006 special issue on Turbine Science & Technology.
14. J. M. Owen and R.H. Rogers, Flow and Heat Transfer in Rotating Disc Systems, vol. 1 (Somerset, England: Research Studies
Press, 1989); J. M. Owen and R. H. Rogers, Flow and Heat Transfer in Rotating Disc Systems,vol. 2 ( Somerset, England:
Research Studies Press, 1989).
15. W. Waschka, S. Wittig, and S. Kim, Inuence of High Rotational Speeds on the Heat Transfer and Discharge Coefcients
in Labyrinth Seals, Paper No. 90-GT-330 (IGTI Turbo Expo Conference, Brussels, Belgium, 1990); W. Waschka, S.
Wittig, S. Kim, and T. Scherer, Heat Transfer and Leakage in High-Speed Rotating Stepped Labyrinth Seals, AGARD
Conference Proceedings 527, Heat Transfer and Cooling in Gas Turbines (1993).

308
BIOGRAPHY 4.2.1 Cooling Design Analysis

Ron S. Bunker
GE Global Research
One Research Circle, K-1 ES-104
Niskayuna, NY 12309

phone: (518) 387-5086


email: bunker@crd.ge.com

Dr. Bunker is an internationally recognized research engineer in the eld of Gas Turbine Heat
Transfer. Dr. Bunker received his PhD in Mechanical Engineering from Arizona State University
in 1988. After a one-year post-doctoral research fellowship from the Alexander von Humboldt
Foundation of Germany, Dr. Bunker joined GE Aircraft Engines in Cincinnati. In 1993, Dr. Bunker
joined the GE Global Research Center. He has worked on R&D activities focused on turbine vane
and blade internal and external heat transfer. The main thrust of efforts during the most recent
years has been new technology development for the Advanced Turbine System H power plant.
Dr. Bunker is a Fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and Associate Technical
Editor for the Journal of Turbomachinery. Dr. Bunker has been awarded 35 US patents and is the
author of 75 technical publications.
4.2.2.1
Airfoil Film Cooling
4.2.2.1-1 Introduction

Fig. 1. Schematic of lm cooling congurations on a vane

Source: (from http://lttwww.ep.ch/research/htprojects/lmcool.htm)

Film cooling is a major component of the overall cooling of turbine airfoils. An


example of a lm cooled turbine vane is shown in gure 11. From the schematic of the
airfoil in gure 1, it is evident that there are holes placed in the body of the airfoil to
allow coolant to pass from the internal cavity to the external surface. The ejection of
coolant gas through holes in the airfoil body results in a layer or lm of coolant gas
owing along the external surface of the airfoil. Hence the term lm cooling is used to
describe the cooling technique. Since this coolant gas is at a lower temperature than the
mainstream, the heat transfer into the airfoil is reduced. The adiabatic lm effectiveness
has a predominant effect in the design of the overall airfoil cooling. Consequentially, in
this section details of lm cooling performance are reviewed.

4.2.2.1-2 Fundamentals of Film Cooling Performance


The primary process by which lm cooling reduces the heat transfer to the wall
is by reducing the gas temperature near the wall, i.e. reducing the driving temperature
potential for heat transfer to the wall. As the coolant ows from the coolant holes, it
mixes with the mainstream gas resulting in an increase in coolant temperature. A typical
example of this is presented in gure 2 which shows measurements of the temperature
prole along the centerline of a coolant jet as it ows downstream of the coolant hole.
In this gure the temperature contours are presented as normalized contours where
David G. Bogard is dened as:

Mechanical Engineering Department T T


University of Texas at Austin = (1)
T Tc
Austin, TX 78712
where T is the local temperature, T is the mainstream temperature, and Tc is
email: dbogard@mail.utexas.edu the coolant temperature at the exit of the hole. Note that = 1 is the normalized initial
coolant temperature and = 0 is the normalized mainstream temperature. The contours
in gure 2 show that coolant quickly increases in temperature as it ows downstream.
The coolant temperature at the wall will be at the adiabatic wall temperature, Taw, and
this temperature is generally assumed to be the driving temperature potential for heat
transfer into the wall. Generally a normalized form of Taw, referred to as the adiabatic
effectiveness or lm effectiveness, is used to characterize the lm cooling performance.
The lm effectiveness, , is dened as follows:
309

1.5 0.9
0.8
0.7
1 0.6
y/D 0.5
0.5 0.4
0.3
0.2
0 0.1
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 0
x/D

Fig. 2. Thermal proles showing the coolant distribution owing from a lm cooling hole.

(2)

Where Tc,exit is the coolant temperature at the coolant hole exit. For perfect lm cooling performance, the lm effectiveness
would have a value of = 1.0, i.e. Taw would be equal to the coolant temperature at the exit of the hole; while a value of = 0 would
indicate that the lm cooling has not reduced the gas temperature at the wall. In practice, values decrease rapidly downstream of the
coolant holes due to the strong turbulent dispersion of the coolant jet.

As mentioned above, typically Taw is presumed to be the driving temperature potential for heat transfer into the wall. Consequently,
the heat ux into the wall with lm cooling, q f , is determined using the heat transfer coefcient with lm cooling, hf, dened as
follows:

(3)

To evaluate the performance of the lm cooling in reducing the heat ux to the wall, q f should be compared to the local heat ux to
the wall that would occur without lm cooling, i.e. q0 that is determined based on the heat transfer coefcient without lm cooling,
h0, using the following:
q0 = h0 (T Tw ) (4)

Examining equations (3) and (4), it is apparent that a reduced temperature for Taw relative to T will result in a reduced heat ux to
the wall. However, these equations also highlight that there is potentially a difference in heat transfer coefcients for the lm cooling
case and the no-lm cooling case. In fact, the disturbance caused by the injection of coolant often causes an increase in the heat
transfer coefcient. This increase in heat transfer coefcient causes an increase in heat transfer to the wall, and hence is detrimental.
Consequently the overall performance of the lm cooling conguration needs to be evaluated in terms of the a net heat ux reduction
which takes into account decreased gas temperature provided by the coolant lm and the increased heat transfer coefcient due to the
coolant injection process.

This net heat ux reduction, qr, is obtained by combining equations (3) and (4) resulting in the following:

(5)

which can be rewritten as: hf


qr = 1 1
h0 (6)

where is the non-dimensional metal temperature for the operational turbine airfoil, and is dened as follows:

T Tw
=
T Tc, internal (7)

where Tc,internal is the coolant temperature inside the internal cooling passages of the turbine airfoil. Note that is an unknown that is not
generally determined in the laboratory experiment, and a value for must be assumed in order to estimate a net heat ux reduction using
equation (6). A typical value for operational lm cooled turbine airfoils is = 0.6, and this value is generally assumed when analyzing
laboratory data.

310
David G. Bogard

4.2.2.1-3 Correlations of Film Cooling Performance


The primary measure of lm cooling performance is the lm effectiveness, , since this has a dominating effect on the net heat
ux reduction. Furthermore, industrial designers typically will focus on the laterally averaged lm effectiveness, , which is the
average over a line normal to the ow and extending a distance equal
to the pitch between holes. Besides the simplication in processing lm
effectiveness results by using only laterally averaged data, there is a 56

physical rationale for using only the laterally averaged lm effectiveness.


Recall that represents the normalized adiabatic wall temperature 54
which corresponds to the gas temperature adjacent to the surface. As the
coolant jet ows downstream of the coolant hole there is a large spatial 1
variation of gas temperature near the wall as is evident by the contour 52
0.9
plots shown in gure 3. However the large conductivity of the metal
turbine airfoil causes a much more uniform distribution of the metal 0.8
50
temperature. Consequently the laterally averaged lm effectiveness 0.7
is a reasonable representation of the effect of the coolant jet2, and most 0.6
of the correlations for lm effectiveness presented in this section are in 48
0.5
terms of laterally averaged cooling effectiveness. However, it should be

z/d
recognized that for purposes of understanding the physical processes of 0.4

coolant dispersion, and for validation and improvement of computational 46 0.3


predictions, the spatial distribution of is important information. 0.2

44 0.1
Ideally a lm of coolant would be introduced to the surface of an
airfoil using a slot angled almost tangential to the surface in order to 0

provide a uniform layer of coolant that remain attached to the surface. 42


However, long slots in the airfoil would seriously reduce the structural
strength of the airfoil, and hence are not feasible. Consequently coolant
is typically introduced to the airfoil surface using rows of holes. The 40
lm cooling performance is dependent on the hole geometry and
conguration of the layout of the holes. Furthermore, various factors
38
associated with the coolant and mainstream ows, and the airfoil -36 -34 -32 -30 -28 -26 -24 -22
geometry, also signicantly affect the cooling performance. A listing x/d
of the various factors inuencing lm cooling performance is presented
in table 13. Considering the many factors listed in table 1, the difculty
in predicting lm cooling performance is evident. The effects of these Fig. 3. Typical lm effectiveness contours.
factors are discussed in the following subsections.

Film Effectiveness at Varying Blowing Ratios

In the following description of lm cooling performance, a baseline geometry of cylindrical holes spaced 3d apart and inclined
30 to the surface and aligned in the ow direction is used. A comprehensive study of the lm effectiveness for this conguration
was done by Baldauf et al. using a at, smooth surface test facility4. Results for a range of blowing ratios are presented in
gure 4. The blowing ratio, M, is the ratio of the coolant mass ux to the mainstream mass ux and is dened as follows:

cU c
M = (8)
U
where c and are the coolant and mainstream density, respectively, and Uc and U are the coolant and mainstream velocity, respectively.
Figure 4 shows that the level of increases systematically with an increase in M until M = 0.6, but for M 0.85, the peak level of
begins to decrease, and the position of the peak moves downstream. The initial increase in with increasing M is expected due to the
greater mass ow of coolant. The decrease in for M 0.85 is due to the coolant jet separating from the surface. This is graphically
illustrated in the sequence of thermal prole measurements presented in gure 5 (generated from data from Thole, Sinha, Bogard &
Crawford5) showing the non-dimensional temperature along the centerline of a coolant jet exiting a cylindrical coolant hole inclined
35 to the surface. Three blowing rates are presented, but they are identied in terms of the momentum ux ratio I which is dened as
follows:

311
4.2.2.1 Airfoil Film Cooling

Table 1 Factors Affecting Film Cooling Performance

Coolant/Mainstream Conditions Hole Geometry and Conguration Airfoil Geometry

Hole location
Mass ux ratio* Shape of the hole*
- leading edge

- main body

Momentum ux ratio* Injection angle and compound angle of the coolant hole * - blade tip

- endwall

Mainstream turbulence* Spacing between holes, P/d Surface curvature*

Coolant density ratio Length of the hole, l/d Surface roughness*

Approach boundary layer Spacing between rows of holes and number of rows
Mainstream Mach number
Unsteady mainstream ow
Rotation

* Factors that have a signicant effect on predictability of lm cooling performance.

a)

b)

c)

Fig. 4. Distributions of for varying blowing ratios Fig. 5. Thermal proles showing three states of coolant jets:
presented as a function of the streamwise distance attached, detached then reattached, and fully detached
x/d (reproduced with permission from Journal of (reproduced with permission from Hemisphere Publishing
Turbomachinery). Corporation).

Source: reproduced from Figure 2(b) in Baldauf et al. Source: See note 5.
(see note 4).

312
David G. Bogard

The three proles presented in gure 5 represent samples of three states for the coolant jets6: (a) fully attached coolant jets
shown in g. 5a, (b) coolant jets that detached then reattached shown in g. 5b, and (c) coolant jets that were fully detached shown
in g. 5c. Clearly as the coolant jets begin to detach the coolant temperature at the wall decreases ( increases) as the core of the
coolant jet travels above the surface. The range of momentum ux ratios for each of these ow states was found to be I < 0.4 for fully
attached jets, 0.4 < I < 0.8 for detached/reattached jets, and I > 0.8 for fully detached jets for at surface ows7. Clearly, whether or
not the coolant jets are attached strongly affects the cooling performance.
To rst order, the lm effectiveness performance for varying blowing ratios can be scaled using the parameter x/MSe where Se is the
equivalent slot length with Se = Ahole/P where Ahole is the cross-sectional area of the coolant hole and P is the pitch between holes8. The
distributions for the Bauldauf et al. data shown in gure 4 presented in terms of the x/MSe parameter are shown in gure 69. At rst
this does not appear to collapse the data; but, if results are considered only for 0.2 < M < 0.85, then there is a good collapse of the
proles. These measurements were made using coolant with a density ratio of DR = 1.8, and consequently the blowing ratio of M = 0.85
corresponds to a momentum ux ratio of I = 0.4. As will be shown below, coolant jets with I > 0.4 are in blowing regimes where there
is detachment of the coolant jets. Consequently, the performance scales well with x/MSe when the coolant jets are attached, i.e. I
0.4. For prediction of lm effectiveness for higher blowing ratios, Baldauf et al. developed more sophisticated correlation techniques
that will not be detailed here10.

Fig. 6. Distributions of for varying blowing ratios presented as a


function of the x/Mse parameter (reproduced with permission
from Journal of Turbomachinery).
Source: reproduced from Figure 7 (a) in Baldauf et al. (See note 4.)

Film Effectiveness at Density Ratios

Typically the coolant to mainstream density ratio for engine conditions is DR 2, but often experimental measurements of lm
cooling performance are conducted with density ratios that are much smaller, even with DR 1. Because of this range of density ratios
used in testing, it is valuable to understand how the coolant density ratio affects lm cooling performance. When testing with lower
density ratios, coolant ows at a given mass ux ratio will have higher velocity and momentum ux ratios. Recall that coolant jet
separation is primarily a function of momentum ux ratio, so lower density coolant jets will tend to separate before higher density ratio
jets. Consequently the maximum lm effectiveness for lower density ratio coolant jets is less than for the higher density ratio jets, but
the difference in lm effectiveness levels is generally small. For example, Sinha et al., Pederson et al., and Baldauf et al. found that the
maximum laterally averaged lm effectiveness was nominally 20% higher for coolant DR 2 compared to DR 1.2 near the hole (x/d <
20) but was essentially the same farther downstream11. These tests were for smooth, at surfaces. Tests for a vane leading edge, pressure
side and highly curved suction side showed similar lm effectiveness for low and high density coolant, but the low density ratio coolant
has 10% lower lm effectiveness in some cases12.

For low momentum ux ratios where coolant jets are fully attached, lm effectiveness performance for low density coolant is
essentially the same as for high density coolant when compared at the same mass ux (blowing) ratio. However, at higher momentum
ratios where the coolant jets begin to detach, I > 0.4, the lm effectiveness for low and high density ratio coolant jets are most similar
for similar I. However, for showerhead blowing, lm effectiveness for low and high density ratio coolant is best matched using M for
all blowing ratios13.

313
4.2.2.1 Airfoil Film Cooling

Heat Transfer Coefcients

The disturbance to the ow caused by coolant injection might be expected to increase heat transfer coefcients downstream of the
coolant holes. Generally this is true, but the increase in heat transfer coefcient relative to the no-blowing case is relatively small, less
than 5% beyond x/d = 5, for momentum ux ratios of I < 0.314. For higher momentum ux ratios the heat transfer coefcient can be
increased by 10% to 20%, but these higher momentum ux ratios are not likely to be used because of poor lm effectiveness. Most
studies of heat transfer coefcients were done with low density ratio coolant, but results showed that the effects on the heat transfer
coefcient were not very sensitive to the density ratio, with the lower density ratio coolant causing a larger increase due to the higher
momentum for lower density ratio coolant15.

4.2.2.1-4 Effects of Hole Geometry and Conguration on Film Cooling


Performance
As described in table 1, there are many hole geometry and conguration variables that affect lm cooling performance. Compound
angle injection and shaped holes have major effects on lm cooling performance and will be discussed in this section. This is a summary
of a more comprehensive review of the effects of the varying hole congurations presented in Gas Turbine Film Cooling16.

Film Cooling with Compound Angle Holes

For the baseline case described above, the coolant holes were angled such that the exiting coolant jets are parallel with the mainstream
direction. When the coolant hole is angled to the mainstream direction, this is referred to as compound angle injection. Compound
angles can be as much as 90, i.e. normal to the mainstream direction. Coolant injected at a compound angle is quickly turned to the
mainstream direction, but will generally have a broader distribution of coolant. Furthermore, the coolant presents a broader prole to
the mainstream so that the mainstream has a larger impact on the jet more effectively turning the jet towards the wall. This inhibits jet
separation, and results in better lm effectiveness for the compound angle holes at higher blowing ratios. Film effectiveness performance
for 90 compound angle holes compared to of 0 (streamwise oriented holes), shown in gure 7, illustrates this point. These data are for
cylindrical holes spaced 6.5d apart on a smooth at test surface with low mainstream turbulence levels. Maximum lm effectiveness
for the 90 compound angle holes was similar to that for the 0 holes and occurred at a similar momentum ux ratio. However the 90
compound angle holes sustained high lm effectiveness for very high blowing ratios. For momentum ux ratios greater than I = 1.0, the
lm effectiveness for the 90 compound angle holes was a factor of 2 to 3 higher than that for the streamwise-oriented holes. Although
the lm effectiveness for compound angle holes is signicantly better than for streamwise-oriented holes at high momentum ux ratios,
the net heat ux reduction for compound angle holes is similar to the streamwise- oriented holes17. This is illustrated in gure 8 for
90 compound angle holes. At the higher momentum ux ratio of I = 1.1 the average q r over the 90d distance downstream of the
coolant holes was about the same for 90 and 0 compound angle holes. The similarity of the net heat ux reduction even though the
lm effectiveness is much greater for 90 compound angle holes is due to a greater increase in heat transfer coefcient for these holes
compared to streamwise-oriented holes. Even though the average increase in heat transfer coefcient by the compound angle holes was
only 10%, this was sufcient to offset the improved lm effectiveness.

0.30 0.30 0.30


Laterally averaged effectiveness

(a) x/D = 3 (b) x/D = 25


= 0 (c) x/D = 90
= 90
0.20 0.20 0.20
Smooth surface, Tu = 0.3%

0.10 0.10 0.10

0.00 0.00
0.00
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Momentum flux ratio, I

Fig. 7. Comparison of streamwise and laterally directed holes in terms of laterally averaged effectiveness as a function of momentum
ux ratio for a smooth surface and low free-stream turbulance

Source: See note 14 (Schmidt & Bogard).

Film Cooling with Shaped Holes


Improved lm effectiveness can be achieved if the exit of the hole is expanded so that coolant is slowed through a diffuser. Examples
of shapes investigated in the open literature are shown in gure 9. There are two advantages for such a shaped hole: the coolant
exit velocity is reduced and a broader jet cross-section is presented to the mainstream ow. Both these characteristics will reduce the
tendency for the coolant jet to separate. This results in good lm effectiveness levels for shaped holes at very high blowing ratios as
shown in gure 10. These data were obtained with a row of coolant holes angled 30 with the surface and spaced 4d apart. The spatially
averaged lm effectiveness, , was based on a average from x/d = 2 to 22. The blowing ratio for this gure is based on the average
314
David G. Bogard

velocity of the coolant at the inlet to the coolant hole, so the mass ow of coolant for the cylindrical and shaped holes are the same for
the same M. Film effectiveness for cylindrical holes begins to decrease for M > 0.7 which corresponds to a momentum ux ratio of I >
0.3 given that the density ratio for these tests was DR = 1.7. This decrease is due to separation of the coolant jets. In contrast the lm
effectiveness for the shaped holes continues to increase for blowing ratios up to M = 2.5 (I = 3.7) showing that the diffusing hole shape
is very effective in keeping the coolant jets attached.

0.4
I=0.3, = 0
I=0.3, = 90
0.3 I=1.1, = 0
I=1.1, = 90

0.2

qr

0.1

0 20 40 60 80 100
x/D
Fig. 8. Comparison of streamwise and laterally directed holes in
terms of net heat ux reduction for a smooth surface and
high free-stream turbulence.

Source: See note 14 (Schmidt & Bogard).

Fig. 9. Schematics of different cooling hole shapes (reproduced with permission from
Journal of Turbomachinery).

Source: C. Saumweber, A. Schulz, and S. Wittig, Free-Stream


Turbulence Effects on Film Cooling with Shaped Holes,
Journal of Turbomachinery 125 (2003): 65-73.
315
4.2.2.1 Airfoil Film Cooling

0.5

0.4

0.3
Cylindrical Hole, Tu=3.6%, L=2.7D
Cylindrical Hole, Tu=7.5%, L=2.7D
Fan-Shaped Hole, Tu=3.6%, L2.7D
0.2 Fan-Shaped Hole, Tu=7.5%, L2.7D

0.1

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
M

Fig. 10. Comparison of spatially averaged cooling effectiveness for cylindrical holes and shaped holes
(reproduced with permission from Journal of Turbomachinery).

Source: same as for g. 9.

4.2.2.1-5 Airfoil Surface Effects on Film Cooling Performance


Surface curvature and surface roughness are signicant factors affecting lm cooling performance. Clearly for turbine airfoils
strong convex curvature exists around the leading edge and along the suction side of the airfoil. Sometimes strong concave curvature
is encountered on the pressure side of the airfoils. Surface roughness varies with the length of operation of the engine; new airfoils are
relatively smooth, but after some period of operation the surfaces can become quite rough due to erosion, spalation of thermal barrier
coatings, and deposition of contaminants. The following is a brief review of these surface effects.

Surface curvature
Several studies have shown that surface curvature can signicantly change lm effectiveness; convex curvature increasing and
concave curvature decreasing at typical operational blowing ratios18. The effects of varying strengths of curvature are demonstrated
in gure 11 in which the laterally averaged lm effectiveness, , at x/d = 40 are presented for a range of curvatures, 46 < 2r/d < 126,
with zero pressure gradient (r is the radius of curvature for the surface). These studies indicated that an increased convex curvature
(decreasing 2r/d) greatly enhances lm effectiveness, while concave curvature decreases lm effectiveness except at high momentum
ux ratios. These effects of surface curvature can be explained by the wall normal pressure gradients that necessarily exist with wall
curvature. When the momentum of the jet tangential to the wall is less than the mainstream momentum the normal pressure gradients
drive the coolant jets towards or away from the wall for convex and concave curvature, respectively. For convex curvature, the inward
pressure broadens the coolant distribution by pressing the jet to the wall, and keeps the jet attached for higher momentum ux ratios.
For concave curvature the opposite occurs, i.e. the coolant jets are pushed away from the wall.
Surface Roughness

Signicant increases in surface roughness during typical operating conditions have been reported by several studies19, with maximum
roughness levels as high as as Rek = 500 where Rek is the equivalent sandgrain roughness Reynolds number20. Given that fully rough
conditions exist when Rek > 70, this roughness level is extremely large. Also, maximum roughness heights were observed to greater
than 250 m, which is 0.5d for typical coolant hole diameters. Surface roughness degrades lm cooling performance by increasing the
heat transfer coefcient and potentially reducing lm effectiveness. Heat transfer coefcients can be increased by as much as 50% to
100%21. Studies of the effects of surface roughness on lm effectiveness using at surface facilities22 showed small reductions (<10%)
of average lm effectiveness for lower blowing ratios, and small increases for high blowing ratios. However, a study of roughness
effects on lm effectiveness on the suction side of a vane23 showed surface roughness decreased lm effectiveness by as much as 25% at
the optimum blowing ratio, but increased lm effectiveness as much as 50% at higher blowing ratios. The decrease in lm effectiveness
at the optimum blowing ratio was primarily due to the roughness upstream of the coolant holes. The upstream roughness doubled the
boundary layer thickness and signicantly increased turbulence levels which resulted in more separation of the coolant jets and increased
dispersion of the coolant.
316
David G. Bogard

Fig. 11. Effect of convex and concave


curvature on lm effectiveness (reproduced
with permission from Journal of
Turbomachinery).

Source: see note 18 (Schwarz, Goldstein,


and Eckert).

4.2.2.1-6 Mainstream Effects on Film Cooling Performance


There are a number of mainstream factors that can affect lm cooling performance including approach boundary layers, turbulence
levels, Mach number, unsteadiness, and rotation24. Because of the very high levels of mainstream turbulence exiting the combustor
and entering the turbine section, turbulence levels have the largest effect on lm cooling performance. Mainstream turbulence levels
exiting the combustor can be higher than Tu = 20% and have been found to be nominally isotropic in simulated combustor studies25.
Furthermore the integral length scale of the turbulence is large relative to the coolant hole diameters, i.e. f/d > 10 (based on f values
given in Radomsky and Thole26). Primarily due to the acceleration of the mainstream as it passes around the rst vane, the local
turbulence levels reduce to less than 5% on the suction side of the vane, and to about 10% for much of the pressure side. These are still
relatively high turbulence levels, and it is important to recognize the effects on lm cooling performance.

High mainstream turbulence levels degrade lm cooling performance by increasing heat transfer coefcients and generally
decreasing lm effectiveness. Simulations of the large scale turbulence with levels of Tu = 10% to 17% showed an increase in heat
transfer coefcient of 15% to 30%, respectively27. The effects of high mainstream turbulence levels on lm effectiveness are shown
by the laterally averaged lm effectiveness levels for Tu = 0.3%, 10%, and 20% shown in gure 12. Results in gure 12 were obtained
using a at surface test facility with a row of cylindrical holes spaced 6.5d apart, with an injection angle of 30 and aligned with the
mainstream direction. Smooth and rough surfaces were tested. The coolant density ratio was DR = 2.0. For a smooth surface with low
turbulence levels the optimum momentum ux ratio was I = 0.3. At this momentum ux ratio, a turbulence level of Tu = 17% caused a
factor of two decrease in lm effectiveness near the hole, and almost a complete loss of cooling for x/d > 25. The optimum momentum
ux ratio for high mainstream turbulence conditions was about I = 1.1, substantially higher than would have been expected from low
mainstream turbulence tests. At this higher momentum ux ratio the lm effectiveness for the high mainstream turbulence case was
higher than for the low mainstream turbulence case. This difference was attributed to the higher mainstream turbulence mitigating the
effect of coolant jet separation by returning some of the coolant towards the surface with the increased coolant dispersion caused by the
higher turbulence levels. These results show the importance of accounting for realistic mainstream turbulence levels when predicting
lm cooling performance.

317
4.2.2.1 Airfoil Film Cooling

4.2.2.1-7 Airfoil Leading Edge Film Cooling


Film cooling of the leading edge of vanes and blades is distinctly different than lm cooling of the aft-body of the airfoils because
coolant is injected into a stagnation region rather than into a cross-ow. Furthermore, the heat loads are typically much larger along the
leading edge, so generally a dense array of coolant holes is used around the leading edge. This array of holes around the leading edge is
referred to as the showerhead and generally consists of six to eight rows of holes for vanes and three to ve rows of holes for blades.
Holes are typically aligned radially, i.e. normal to the mainstream direction, with injection angles relative to the surface ranging from
20 to 45.

a)

b)

c)

Fig. 12. Effect of freestream turbulence Fig. 13. Film cooling performance for a
level on laterally averaged effectiveness simulated blade leading edge with three rows
as a function of momentum ux ratio for of holes. Mainstream turbulence was Tu =
a smooth surface and low free-stream 10%. Stagnation line coolant holes at x/d = 0.
turbulance Performance in terms of (a) laterally averaged
lm effectiveness, (b) laterally averaged heat
Source: D.L. Schmidt and D.G. Bogard, transfer coefcient augmentation, and (c)
Effects of Free-Stream Turbulence and laterally averaged net heat transfer reduction.
Surface Roughness on Film Cooling,
ASME Paper 96-GT-462, 1996. Source: See note 2.

318
David G. Bogard

Film cooling performance for a simulated blade leading edge is presented in gure 13 in terms of the laterally averaged lm ef-
fectiveness, , heat transfer coefcient increase, hf/h0, and net heat ux reduction, qr 28. These data were measured using a simulated
blade leading edge with a three-row coolant hole conguration with laid back shaped holes oriented radially, an injection angle of 20,
and a spacing between holes of 7.6d. Blowing ratios were based on the approach velocity to the leading edge and ranged from M = 1.0
to 2.5. As shown in gure 13, lm effectiveness continues to increase with increasing blowing ratio. Coolant injection caused a 10% to
35% increase in heat transfer coefcients. Finally the net heat ux reduction mirrored the lm effectiveness performance. High levels
of net heat ux reduction can be attributed to the high levels of lm effectiveness.

4.2.2.1-8 Notes

_____________________________

1. Figure from web site: http://lttwww.ep.ch/research/htprojects/lmcool.htm


2. B.D. Mouzon, E.J. Terrell, J.E. Albert, and D.G. Bogard, Net Heat Flux Reduction and Overall Effectiveness for a
Turbine Blade Leading Edge, ASME paper GT2005-69002, 2005.
3. D. G. Bogard and K.A. Thole, Gas Turbine Film Cooling, accepted AIAA Journal of Propulsion and Power, 2006.
4. S. Baldauf, M. Scheurlen, A. Schulz, and S. Wittig, Correlation of Film-Cooling Effectiveness from Thermographic
Measurements at Enginelike Conditions, Journal of Turbomachinery 124 (2002): 686-698.
5. K.A. Thole, A. Sinha, D. G. Bogard, and M. E. Crawford, Mean Temperature Measurements of Jets with a Crossow
for Gas Turbine Film Cooling Application, Rotating Machinery Transport Phenomena, J. H. Kim and W. J. Yang, ed.
Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, New York, New York, 1992.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. R. J. Goldstein, Film Cooling, Advances in Heat Transfer 7 (1971): 321-380.
9. See note 4 above.
10. Ibid.
11. A.K. Sinha, D.G. Bogard, and M.E. Crawford, Film Cooling Effectiveness Downstream of a Single Row of Holes with
Variable Density Ratio, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 113, no. 3 (1991): 442-449; D.R. Pedersen, E. Eckert,
and R. Goldstein, Film Cooling with Large Density Differences Between the Mainstream and the Secondary Fluid
Measured by the Heat-Mass Transfer Analogy, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 99 (1977): 620-627; also see note 4
above.
12. Cutbirth, J. and Bogard, D., Effects of Coolant Density Ratio on Film Cooling, ASME Gas Turbine Expo,
GT2003-38582, Atlanta, Georgia, June, 2003, pp 1-10; M. I. Ethridge, J.M. Cutbirth, and D.G. Bogard, Scaling of
Performance for Varying Density Ratio Coolants on an Airfoil with Strong Curvature and Pressure Gradients, ASME
Journal of Turbomachinery 123, (2001): 231-237.
13. See note 12 above (Cutbirth).
14. V.L. Eriksen and R. Goldstein, Heat Transfer and Film Cooling Following Injection Through Inclined Circular Tubes,
ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 96, no.1 (1974):. 239-245; Schmidt, D.L. and Bogard, D.G., Effects of Free-Stream
Turbulence and Surface Roughness on Laterally Injected Film Cooling, Proceedings of the 32nd National Heat
Transfer Conference, HTD-Vol. 350, vol. 12, pp. 233-244, 1997.
15. S. Baldauf, M. Scheurlen, A. Schulz, and S. Wittig, Heat Flux Reduction From Film Cooling and Correlation of Heat
Transfer Coefcients from Thermographic Measurements at Enginelike Conditions, Journal of Turbomachinery 124
(2002): 699-709
16. See note 3 above.
17. B. Sen, D.L. Schmidt, and D.G. Bogard, Film Cooling with Compound Angle Holes: Heat Transfer, ASME Journal
of Turbomachinery 118, no. 4 (1996): 800-806; also see note 14 (Schmidt).
18. S. Ito, R. Goldstein, and E. Eckert, Film Cooling of a Gas Turbine Blade, Journal of Engineering for Power 100
(1978): 476-481; S. Schwarz, R. Goldstein, and E. Eckert, The Inuence of Curvature on Film Cooling Performance,
Journal of Turbomachinery 112 (1990): 472-478.
19. J.P. Bons, R. Taylor, S. McClain, and R.B. Rivir, The Many Faces of Turbine Surface Roughness, Journal of
Turbomachinery 123 (2001): 739-748; D.G. Bogard, D.L. Schmidt, and M. Tabbita, Characterization and Laboratory
Simulation of Turbine Airfoil Surface Roughness and Associated Heat Transfer, Journal of Turbomachinery 120 (1998):
337-342.
20. D.G. Bogard, D. Snook, and A. Kohli, Rough Surface Effects on Film Cooling of the Suction Side Surface
of a Turbine Vane, ASME Paper No. EMECE2003-42061, 2003.
319
4.2.2.1 Airfoil Film Cooling

21. J.L. Rutledge, D. Robertson, and D.G. Bogard, Degradation of Film Cooling Performance on a Turbine Vane Suction
Side Due to Surface Roughness, ASME Gas Turbine Expo, GT2005-69045, 2005; also see note 19 (Bogard).
22. R.J. Goldstein, E.R.G. Eckert, H.D.Chiang, and E. Elovic, Effect of Surface Roughness on Film Cooling Performance,
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 107 (1985): 111-116; D.L. Schmidt, B. Sen, and D.G. Bogard,
Effects of Surface Roughness on Film Cooling, ASME Paper No. 96-GT-299, 1996.
23. See note 20 and 21.
24. See note 3.
25. R.W. Radomsky and K.A. Thole, Floweld Measurements for a Highly Turbulent Flow in a Stator Vane Passage,
Journal of Turbomachinery 122 (2000): 255-262.
26. Ibid.
27. See note 19 (Bogard).
28. J. E. Albert, F. Cunha, and D. G. Bogard, Adiabatic and Overall Effectiveness for a Film Cooled Blade,
ASME Paper GT2004-53998, 2004.

320
BIOGRAPHY 4.2.2.1 Airfoil Film Cooling

David G. Bogard
Mechanical Engineering Department
University of Texas at Austin
Austin, TX 78712

email: dbogard@mail.utexas.edu

Dr. David Bogard is a Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin,
and holds the John E. Kasch Fellow in Engineering. He received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in
Mechanical Engineering from Oklahoma State University, and his Ph.D. from Purdue University.
He has served on the faculty at the University of Texas since 1982. Dr. Bogard has been active
in gas turbine cooling research since 1986, and has published over 100 peer-reviewed papers. He
was awarded the ASME Heat Transfer Committee Best Paper Award in 1990 and 2003, and is a
fellow of the ASME.
4.2.2.2
Enhanced Internal Cooling 4.2.2.2-1 Introduction
of Turbine Blades and Vanes
Gas turbines play a vital role in the todays industrialized society, and as the
demands for power increase, the power output and thermal efciency of gas turbines
must also increase. One method of increasing both the power output and thermal
efciency of the engine is to increase the temperature of the gas entering the turbine.
In the advanced gas turbines of today, the turbine inlet temperature can be as high
as 1500C; however, this temperature exceeds the melting temperature of the metal
airfoils. Therefore, it is imperative that the blades and vanes are cooled, so they can
withstand these extreme temperatures. Cooling air around 650C is extracted from
the compressor and passes through the airfoils. With the hot gases and cooling air,
the temperature of the blades can be lowered to approximately 1000C, which is
permissible for reliable operation of the engine.
It is widely accepted that the life of a turbine blade can be reduced by half if
the temperature prediction of the metal blade is off by only 30C. In order to avoid
premature failure, designers must accurately predict the local heat transfer coefcients
and local airfoil metal temperatures. By preventing local hot spots, the life of the
turbine blades and vanes will increase. However, due to the complex ow around
the airfoils it is difcult for designers to accurately predict the metal temperature.
Figure 1 shows the heat ux distribution around an inlet guide vane and a rotor blade.
At the leading edge of the vane, the heat transfer coefcients are very high, and as
the ow splits and travels along the vane, the heat ux decreases. Along the suction
Je-Chin Han side of the vane, the ow transitions from laminar to turbulent, and the heat transfer
coefcients increase. As the ow accelerates along the pressure surface, the heat
transfer coefcients also increase. The trends are similar for the turbine blade: the
heat ux at the leading edge is very high and continues decrease as the ow travels
along the blade; on the suction surface, the ow transitions from laminar to turbulent,
and the heat ux sharply increases; the heat transfer on the pressure surface increases
as the ow accelerates around the blade.

Lesley M. Wright

Turbine Heat Transfer Laboratory


Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas 77843-3123,
USA

email: jc-han@tamu.edu

Fig. 1. Cross-Sectional View and Heat Flux Distribution of a Cooled Vane and Blade

321
Due to the complex ow, designers need data that will aid them in the development of efcient cooling designs. They need
detailed hot gas path heat transfer distributions. Heat transfer and lm cooling data are also needed for the airfoils. The surface heat
transfer on a stator vane is affected by the combustor-generated high turbulence, the laminar-to-turbulent transition, acceleration, lm
cooling ow, platform secondary ow, and surface roughness. These factors as well as the rotational, centrifugal forces and blade tip
clearance and leakage must be considered for the rotating blades.
After the potential hot spots on the airfoil surface are identied, the internal cooling schemes can be developed. Designers need
new internal heat transfer data to improve current rotor blade cooling performance. They also need detailed ow and heat transfer data to
understand the ow physics and to improve the current internal cooling designs. Many techniques have been developed to enhance the
heat transfer in these passages. The cooling passages located in the middle of the airfoils are often lined with rib turbulators. Near the
leading edge of the blade, jet impingement (coupled with lm cooling) is commonly used. Jet impingement is also used throughout the
cross-section of the stator vanes. Pin-ns and dimples can be used in the trailing edge portion of the vanes and blades. These techniques
have also been combined to further increase the heat transfer from the airfoil walls.
A number of traditional cooling concepts are used in various combinations to adequately cool the turbine vanes and blades;
these techniques are identied and described throughout this chapter. In addition, newly developed, advanced cooling concepts are also
introduced as possible cooling alternatives. The interested reader is referred to Gas Turbine Heat Transfer and Cooling Technology
by Han et al. for a more in depth description of turbine blade heat transfer and cooling1. In addition, Lakshminarayana reviewed
recent publications involving turbine cooling and heat transfer, and Dunn put together a detailed review of convective heat transfer
and aerodynamics in axial ow turbines2. A symposium volume discussing heat transfer in gas turbine systems is also available by
Goldstein3.

4.2.2.2-2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Vanes


A typical cooled turbine vane is shown in gure 2. As shown in the
gure, the vane is hollow, so cooling air can pass through the vane internally.
The coolant is extracted from the internal channel for impingement and pin-
n cooling. Jet impingement is a very aggressive cooling technique which
very effectively removes heat from the vane wall. However, this technique
is not readily applied to the narrow trailing edge. The vane trailing edge is
cooled using pin-ns (an array of short cylinders). The pin-ns increase the
heat transfer area while effectively mixing the coolant air to lower the wall
temperature of the vanes. After impinging on the walls of the airfoil, the
coolant exits the vane and provides a protective lm on the vanes external
surface. Similarly, the coolant traveling through the pin-n array is ejected
from the trailing edge of the airfoil.

Impingement Cooling

Impingement cooling is commonly used near the leading edge of


the airfoils, where the heat loads are the greatest. With the cooling jets
striking (impinging) the blade wall, the leading edge is well suited for
impingement cooling because of the relatively thick blade wall in this area.
Impingement can also be used near the mid-chord of the vane. Figure 2
shows jet impingement located throughout the cross-section of an inlet
guide vane. Several aspects must be considered when developing efcient
cooling designs. The effect of jet-hole size and distribution, cooling channel
cross-section, and target surface shape all have signicant effects on the
heat transfer coefcient distribution. Jet impingement near the mid-chord
of the blade is very similar to impingement on a at plate; however, the Fig. 2. Schematic of a Turbine Vane Cross-Section with
sharp curvature at the leading edge of the vane must be considered when Impingement and Trailing Edge Pin-Fin Cooling
utilizing impingement in this region.

Jet Impingement from Multiple Jets

As shown in gure 2, many jets are used to increase the heat transfer from the vane wall. It has been shown by Metzger et al.
that multiple jets perform very differently from a single jet striking a target surface4. They concluded that for multiple jets, the Nusselt
number is strongly dependent on the Reynolds number, while there is no signicant dependence on the jet-to-target plate spacing.
The difference is due to the jet cross-ow from the spent jets. Studies by Florschuetz et al. and Koopman and Sparrow showed
that the mass from one jet moves in the cross-jet ow direction, and this ow can alter the performance of neighboring jets5. The cross-
ow attempts to deect a jet away from its impinging location on the target plate. In situations with very strong cross-ow and sufciently 322
Je-Chin Han and Lesley M. Wright

large jet-to-target plate spacing, the cross-ow can completely deect the jet away from the impingement surface. Florschuetz and Su
reported that cross-ow decreases the overall heat transfer from the impingement surface6. They determined that cross-ow enhances
the convective heat transfer, but the enhancement from the jets decreases, as the jets are deected. Because the enhancement from the
impingement jets is much greater than the convective enhancement, the overall Nusselt numbers decrease in the presence of cross-ow.
A typical test model used by Florschuetz et al. is shown in gure 37. As shown in this gure, the coolant jets impinge on the target surface
from the jet plate in an inline array. As the coolant travels along the test surface, the spent air from the upstream jets effects the heat
transfer coefcient distributions of the downstream jets, and this effect increases as more spent air accumulates on the target surface.

Fig. 3. A Typical Test Model for Impingement Cooling Studies

Correlations based on experimental data were developed by Kercher and Tabakoff and Florschuetz et al. to estimate the heat
transfer enhancement from an array of impinging jets8. Although the correlations are in different forms, they both demonstrate the
dependence of the heat transfer enhancement on the amount of cross-ow. Florschuetz et al. also showed the cross-ow effect is much
stronger in staggered arrays of jets than an inline array9. Bailey and Bunker extended the correlation developed by Florschuetz et al. to
include the effect of jet spacing10. The correlation has been extended to include dense impingement arrays.
Huang et al. controlled the direction of the cross-ow and obtained detailed distributions of the heat transfer coefcients for
three target plates11. Their results clearly indicate when the cross-ow travels in two opposite directions, the heat transfer enhancement
on the target plate is much greater than when the cross-ow is restricted to one direction. This study was extended by Ekkad et al. to
include the effect of coolant extraction for lm cooling12. The heat transfer enhancement on the target plate decreases near the edges
due to the decreased coolant ow (for lm cooling). Wang et al. investigated cross-ow through a conned space; they also considered
cross-ow traveling in one direction and two directions13. This study also concluded that increasing cross-ow results in degraded heat
transfer; however, the heat transfer coefcient distribution is much more uniform.
The heat transfer coefcient distributions on target plates with stretched arrays of impinging jets were studied by Gao et al.14.
This array varies from the traditional square array in which the jets are evenly spaced. They concluded the existing correlations for
square arrays over-predict the effect of cross-ow in the target surface.
The presence of initial cross-ow also effects the heat transfer enhancement from the target plate. The cross-ow described
above is created by the spent ow from the jets. Therefore, the rst row of jets is not affected by the cross-ow. However, in many
situations, cross-ow may develop upstream of the rst row. The ow from upstream of the impingement jets can signicantly alter the
ow near the jets, and thus alter the heat transfer coefcients on the target surface. Florschuetz et al. investigated the effect of initial
cross-ow on the heat transfer enhancement15. The results of this study were similar to those mentioned above describing cross-ow:
the heat transfer enhancement on the target plate decreases when initial cross-ow is present.

Jet Impingement on a Curved Surface

The above studies investigated the heat transfer on at target plates. The results obtained for at plates can be applied to
impingement near the mid-chord of the blade. However, the effect of target surface curvature must be considered when implementing
jet impingement near the leading edge of the airfoil. The curvature of the airfoil creates different cross-ow behavior, and therefore,
the heat transfer coefcients on the curved surface are different than those on the at surface. Chupp et al. studied impingement on a
curved surface, and this group concluded that the average Nusselt number ratio increases as the curvature of the target plate increases16.
The effect of target surface shape was also pursued by Bunker and Metzger17. They concluded that a sharper nose radius yields a more
323
4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes

uniform Nusselt number distribution compared to a smooth-nosed chamber. This study was also extended to include the effect of coolant
extraction for lm cooling18. When the bleed from the pressure and suction surfaces is equal, the greatest reduction in the Nusselt
numbers occurs.

Pin-Fin Cooling

Due to manufacturing constraints in the very narrow trailing edge of the blade, pin-n cooling is typically used to enhance the
heat transfer from the blade wall in this region. The pins typically have a height-to-diameter ratio between and 4. In a pin-n array
heat is transferred from both the smooth channel endwall and the numerous pins. Flow around the pins in the array is comparable to ow
around a single cylinder. As the coolant ows past the pin, the ow separates and wakes are shed downstream of the pin. In addition to
this wake formation, a horseshoe vortex forms just upstream of the base of the pin, and the vortex wraps around the pins. This horseshoe
vortex creates additional mixing, and thus enhanced heat transfer.
Many factors must be considered when investigating pin-n cooling. The type of pin-n array and the spacing of the pins in
the array effect the heat transfer distribution in the channel. The pin size and shape also have a profound impact on the heat transfer in
the cooling passage. Because pin-ns are commonly coupled with trailing edge ejection (as shown in gure 2), the effect of this coolant
extraction must also be considered.

Pin Array and Partial Length Pin Arrangement

There are two array structures commonly used. One is the inline array and the other is the staggered array. Figure 4 shows
a typical experimental test model with a staggered array of pin-ns. Metzger et al. used staggered arrays of circular pins with 1.5 to
5 pin diameter spacing in a rectangular channel19. A closer spaced array (smaller x/D) shows a higher heat transfer coefcient. Their
observations clearly indicate that addition of pin-ns signicantly enhances the heat transfer coefcient. However, the addition of pins
also increases the pressure drop in the ow channel. Chyu et al. showed that the heat transfer coefcient on the pin surface for both arrays
is consistently higher than that of the channel endwall20. The pin surface heat transfer is observed to be 10 to 20 percent higher for the
presented case. Experimental results have been correlated by Metzger et al. and VanFossen to predict the Nusselt number in channels
with pin-n arrays21. The average Nusselt number in a channel with short pin-ns is primarily dependent on the Reynolds number of the
ow, and a weaker dependence is shown for the pin spacing.

Fig. 4. A Typical Test Model and Secondary Flow for Pin-Fin Cooling Studies

Arora and Abdel-Messeh studied the effects of partial length pins in a rectangular channel22. The surface containing pins is not
affected by the pin tip clearance. Whereas the opposite surface, that does not have pins, shows a decrease in heat transfer coefcient with
an increase in the pin tip clearance. The friction factor is lower for partial pins compared to full-length pins. In general, the heat transfer
coefcient decreases with partial length pins.

324
Je-Chin Han and Lesley M. Wright

Effect of Pin Shape and Array Orientation

Metzger et al. studied the effects of pin shape and array orientations23. They reported the effect of ow incident angle on oblong
pins. All incident angles except 90 yield higher Nusselt numbers than circular pins. The = 90 array yields signicantly lower Nusselt
numbers, especially toward the lower end of the Reynolds number range. The = 30 array has the highest Nusselt numbers, about 20
percent higher than the circular pin array on the average. Except for = 90, the pressure drop for oblong pins are signicantly higher than
circular pins. This increase in the friction factor is associated with the ow turning caused by oblong pins. The pin shapes mostly studied
are straight cylinders. However, the casting or other manufacturing processes cannot make perfect cylinders and these manufacturing
imperfections may affect the heat transfer performance.
Chyu studied the effect of a llet at the base of the cylindrical pin24. Straight cylinders in staggered array formation have
the highest heat transfer followed by lleted cylinders in the staggered formation. It is interesting to note that the llet cylinder inline
formation has better heat transfer than the straight cylinders in the inline formation. Though a staggered array gives higher heat transfer
coefcients, performance of the inline straight cylinders is best among the group and the llet cylinders in staggered formation are the
worst. In a different experimental work, Goldstein et al. studied the effect of stepped diameters on mass transfer coefcients25. The
diameter of the pin is axially varied. The base diameter is greater than the center diameter and no llet radius is provided. The array
conguration is staggered. Results show that the mass transfer increases or remains the same compared to a straight cylinder pin array
when the radius is varied, but the pressure drop reduces signicantly for the stepped diameter cylindrical pins.
Chyu et al. used cube and diamond shaped pins to enhance the heat transfer coefcient from a surface26. The cube-shaped pins
have the highest mass transfer coefcients among the shapes considered and round pins have the lowest mass transfer coefcients.
Corresponding pressure loss coefcients are higher for the cube and diamond shaped pins relative to the circular pins.

Effect of Flow Convergence and Turning

The ow channel in the trailing edge of an airfoil has a reducing cross-section, and therefore, the ow in the channel accelerates.
The results are row averaged and the accelerating ow shows an increase in the heat transfer coefcient27. Chyu et al. used mass transfer
technique to study the effect of perpendicular ow entry in two pin-n congurations28. They show that the turning inlet conguration
always results in lower average Sherwood numbers. The reduction is about 40-50% for the inline array and 20-30% for the staggered
array.

Pin-Fin Cooling With Ejection

The trailing edge pin-n channel normally has ejection holes through which the spent coolant exhausts to the main stream ow.
Kumran et al. investigated the effects of the length of coolant ejection holes on the heat transfer coefcient in pin-ns29. The length of the
ejection hole can signicantly alter the discharge rate of coolant. More coolant ejection reduces the Nusselt number signicantly from
no ejection. This decrease in the heat transfer coefcient can be explained by the fact that coolant mass is extracted from the coolant
channel before its cooling capacity is fully utilized. Results indicate that the correlation based on the local Reynolds number can predict
the heat transfer coefcient distribution for lower coolant ejection but does not adequately predict the heat transfer coefcients at higher
ejection rates. Hwang and Lu investigated a converging channel with ejection30. They also found that increasing the ejection degrades
the endwall heat transfer near the tall wall opposite of the ejection, and the heat transfer on the channel endwall surface near the ejection
holes is increased. They also concluded that square, diamond, and circular pin-n arrays enhance the heat transfer equally in channels
with large ejection ows.

Dimple Cooling

In recent years, dimples have been considered as an alternative to pin-n cooling. Dimpled cooling is a very desirable alternative
due to the relatively low pressure loss penalty (compared with pins) and moderate heat transfer enhancement. A typical test section for
dimple cooling studies is shown in gure 5; this gure also shows the dimple induced secondary ow. These concave dimples induce
ow separation and reattachment with pairs of vortices. The areas of high heat transfer include the areas of ow reattachment on the at
surface immediately downstream of the dimple. The heat transfer in the dimpled channel is typically 2 to 2.5 times greater than the heat
transfer in a smooth channel with a pressure loss penalty of 2 to 4 times that of a smooth channel. These values show little dependence
on Reynolds number and channel aspect ratio. However, the dimple size, dimple depth (depth-to-print diameter ratio = 0.1 to 0.3),
distribution, and shape (cylindrical, hemispheric, teardrop) each effect the heat transfer distribution in the channel. Recent studies have
investigated the inuence of these factors on the heat transfer in rectangular channels31. Dimples have also been investigated in a circular
channel and similar levels of heat transfer enhancement and frictional losses were measured32.
Syred et al. compared the heat transfer enhancement due a single dimple on both at and curved surfaces33. From this study it
was shown that the surface curvature signicantly inuences the heat transfer enhancement. The heat transfer is further enhanced on a
surface that is concavely shaped (compared to a at surface); however, a convexly curved surface with a dimple decreases the level of
heat transfer enhancement.

325
4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes

Fig. 5. A Typical Test Model for Dimple Cooling Studies with a Conceptual View of Dimple Induced Secondary Flow

Compound and New Cooling Techniques

Several internal heat transfer enhancement techniques are discussed in previous sections. Most common methods of heat transfer
augmentation in gas turbine airfoils are ribs, pins, and jet impingement. It is shown that these enhancement techniques increase heat
transfer coefcients, but can combining these techniques increase the heat transfer coefcient more? Several researchers have combined
these heat transfer enhancement techniques to improve the heat transfer coefcient. However, it is not always recommended to combine
more than one heat transfer augmentation technique. In addition to compounding more than one heat transfer enhancement technique,
there are attempts to incorporate new concepts (e.g., jet swirlers and heat pipes) in the turbomachinery cooling. An introduction of several
new cooling techniques with their applications is presented here.

Impingement on Ribbed, Pinned, and Dimpled Walls

Azad et al. studied the impingement effect on dimpled and pinned surfaces34. Because the dimples and pins are circular
depressions and protrusions, respectively, these two target surfaces offer an interesting comparison of the heat transfer enhancement. At
lower Reynolds number the pinned surface performs better than the dimpled surface. At higher Reynolds numbers, the dimpled surface
performs better than the pinned surface for a certain ow orientation. Taslim et al. reported a signicant increase in the heat transfer
enhancement on a curved target surface roughened with conical bumps35. This study was extended to include lm cooling holes, similar
to the showerhead-type lm cooling on the leading edge36. They concluded that the presence of leading edge extraction also signicantly
increases the heat transfer on the target surface. The heat transfer is further increased if the racetrack jet holes are used rather than
traditional round jet holes37

Combined Effect of Swirl and Impingement

A new jet impingement and swirl technique was investigated by Glezer et al.38. A preliminary test showed signicant improvement
in the heat transfer performance. Based on that study, a new airfoil has been designed with swirling impingement in the leading edge.
This new airfoil is tested in a hot cascade test section. Results indicate that screw shaped swirl cooling can signicantly improve the heat
transfer coefcient over a smooth channel and this improvement is not signicantly dependent on the temperature ratio and rotational
forces. Moreover, it was concluded that optimization of the internal passage geometry in relation to location and size of the tangential
slots is very important in achieving the best performance of the screw-shaped swirl in the leading edge cooling. Pamula et al. studied
the heat transfer enhancement by a combination of impingement and cross ow-induced swirl in a two-pass channel39. Results show that
the new impingement system, from the rst pass to the second pass, using cross ow injection holes produce signicantly higher heat
transfer on the second pass walls.

Combined Effect of Swirl Flow and Ribs

Kieda et al. experimentally investigated the single-phase water ow and heat transfer in a rectangular cross-sectioned twisted
channel40. Several aspect ratios and twist pitches were used. Results indicate that in a cooling application, this twisted channel performs
similar to a ribbed pipe. Zhang et al. used different types of inserts to study the combined rib and twisted tape inserts in square ducts41.
Four test congurations were used: twisted tape, twisted tape with interrupted ribs, hemi-circular wavy tape, and hemi-triangular wavy
tape. The twisted tape with interrupted ribs provides higher overall heat transfer performance over the twisted tape without ribs and 326
Je-Chin Han and Lesley M. Wright
hemi-circular wavy tape. The performance of the hemi-triangular wavy tape is comparable with the twisted tape plus interrupted ribs.
Hemi-circular wavy tapes show the lowest heat transfer performance in this group.

Combined Effect of a Ribbed Wall with Grooves or Pins

Zhang et al. studied the heat transfer and friction in rectangular channels with a rib-groove combination42. The Stanton numbers
for the ribbed-grooved walls are higher than that for the only ribbed walls at similar rib spacing values. Metzger et al. indicated that the
addition of ribs does not change the heat transfer coefcient from the pin-mounted surface43. However, the heat transfer coefcient on
the rib surface is signicantly higher than the pin-mounted surface.

New Cooling Concepts

Heat pipes have very high effective thermal performance44. Therefore, they can transfer heat from high temperature to the low
temperature regions. This concept may be used in the airfoil cooling. Heat is removed from the initial stage stator airfoils and the heat is
delivered at a later stage to heat up the main ow. This way the heat extracted can be recycled to the main ow. In a concept developed
by Yamawaki et al., the heat is conducted away from the hot airfoil to the n assembly45. This passive heat extraction reduces the
required cooling air. Most heat pipe applications are designed for the stator airfoils, where it is easier to mount the connecting pipes or
ns. Recently, Kerrebrock and Stickler proposed a design to incorporate heat pipe in the rotor46.
The concept of cooled cooling air systems, through a heat exchanger, for turbine thermal management was reported by Bruening
and Chang47. Results show that the use of a cooled cooling air system can make a positive impact on overall engine performance for
land-based turbines. Commonly a closed loop steam cooled nozzle with thermal barrier coatings (TBC) is used in order to reduce the hot
gas temperature drop through the rst stage nozzle (Corman and Paul48. A closed looped with mist/steam cooling was reported by Guo et
al.49. Results show that an average heat transfer enhancement of 100% can be achieved with 5% mist (ne water droplets) compared to
the steam cooling; similar results were reported by Li et al.50 .

4.2.2.2-3 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades


Figure 6 shows several techniques to cool a modern gas turbine blade. The blade consists of serpentine cooling passages lined
with rib turbulators. Jet impingement is used to cool the leading edge of the blade, and pin-n cooling with ejection is used near the
trailing edge. Although the techniques used to cool the blades are similar to those used to cool the vanes, the heat transfer trends in the
vanes and blades are very different. Because the blades are rotating, the ow of the coolant in the passages is altered. Therefore, the
effect of rotation on the internal heat transfer enhancement must be considered.

Fig. 6. Schematic of a Modern Gas Turbine Blade Fig. 7. A Typical Test Model for Turbulated Cooling Studies with
with Common Cooling Techniques Rib Induced Secondary Flow
327
4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes

Rib Turbulated Cooling

Rib turbulators are the most frequently used method to enhance the heat transfer in the internal serpentine cooling passages.
The rib turbulence promoters are typically cast on two opposite walls of the cooling passage. Heat that conducts from the pressure and
suction surfaces through the blade walls is transferred to the coolant passing internally through the blade. The heat transfer performance
of the ribbed channel depends on the channel aspect ratio, the rib congurations, and the Reynolds number of the coolant ow. Many
fundamental studies have been conducted to understand the coolant ow through a stationary ribbed channel51. The studies show as
the coolant passes over a rib oriented 90 to the mainstream ow, the ow near the channel wall separates. Reattachment follows
the separation, and the boundary layer reattaches to the channel wall; this thinner, reattached boundary layer results in increased heat
transfer coefcients in the ribbed channel. This rib induced secondary ow is shown in gure 7. If the rib turbulators are skewed
to the mainstream ow direction, counter-rotating vortices are created. Figure 7 shows in a channel with angled ribs, two counter-
rotating vortices are formed in the cross-section of the cooling passage. However, if V-shaped rib turbulators are used, four vortices are
generated. The additional set of counter-rotating vortices associated with the V-shaped ribs results in more heat transfer enhancement in
a channel with V-shaped ribs than angled ribs. The ribs also create turbulent mixing in the areas of ow separation. With this additional
mixing, the heat is more effectively dissipated from the wall, and thus additional heat transfer enhancement. Because only the ow near
the wall of the cooling channel is disturbed by the ribs, the pressure drop penalty by ribs affordable.
Han and Han and Park developed correlations for both the pressure penalty and heat transfer enhancement in ribbed channels52.
Given the Reynolds number of the coolant ow and the rib geometry (e/D, P/e, W/H, and ), the average friction factor in a channel
with two opposite ribbed walls, f , and the centerline average Stanton number on the ribbed walls, Str, can be determined from the
correlations. Figure 8 demonstrates the correlations developed for cooling passages with 90 ribs. The friction roughness function, R,
is only a function of rib spacing for the range of the roughness Reynolds number, e+, shown. Based on the rib spacing (P/e), R can be
calculated, and substituted into the following equation to determine f, the four ribbed wall friction factor.

Fig. 8. Friction Factor and Heat Transfer Coefcient Correlations for 90 Ribs

1
2 2
2e 2W
R = + 2.5 ln + 2.5 (1)
f D H +W

From f (the friction factor in a channel with ribs on all four walls) and the channel geometry (H/W), the average friction factor in a
channel with ribs on two walls, f , can be calculated using Eqn. 2. 328
Je-Chin Han and Lesley M. Wright

H
(
f = f + f fs ) (2)
W

The friction factor in a channel with smooth walls, fs, is known from the existing Blasius correlation for smooth channel ow.
Using the four ribbed wall friction factor, f, the rib height, e/D, and the Reynolds number of the coolant ow, Re, the roughness
Reynolds number, e+, can be calculated using the denition shown in gure 8. From e+ the top gure can be used to obtain G, the heat
transfer roughness function, and Eqn. 3 can be used to calculate the Stanton number on the ribbed walls, Str.

(3)

The correlation shown in gure 8 is for a Prandtl number of 0.703. Because G is inversely proportional to the Stanton number, a low
heat transfer roughness function implies high heat transfer from the cooling passage wall.
With the understanding that skewed ribs yield higher heat transfer enhancement than orthogonal ribs, these correlations were
extended to include the effect of the rib angle. Figure 9 shows the correlations taking into account the rib angle, . From the rib angle
(), rib spacing (P/e), and channel aspect ratio (W/H), the roughness function, R, can be determined. Eqn. 1 can used to calculate f, and
Eqn. 2 is used to determine the friction factor in a channel with two ribbed walls. Similar to channels with 90 ribs, R and e+ are then
used to determine the Stanton number on the ribbed walls. These correlations can be used over a wide range of channel aspect ratios and
rib congurations; however one should refer to the original papers for specic restrictions of the correlations.

Fig. 9. Friction Factor and Heat Transfer Correlations in Rectangular Ribbed Channels

Because ribs are the most common heat transfer enhancement technique for the serpentine cooling passages, many studies have
been conducted to study the effects of channel cross-section, rib conguration, and coolant ow Reynolds number. As shown in gure 6,
the aspect ratio of the channels changes from the leading to the trailing edge of the blade. Near the leading edge of the blade, the channel
may have an aspect ratio around , but near the trailing edge, much broader channels are present with aspect ratios around 4.
Multiple studies have shown that by skewing the ribs, so they are angled into the mainstream ow, the heat transfer coefcients
can be further enhanced. Placing the ribs with an attack angle between 30 and 60 results in increased heat transfer and reduces the
pressure penalty. Most studies focus on Reynolds numbers ranging from 10,000 to 80,000, but for todays advanced gas turbines the
coolant in the channel can have a Reynolds number up to 500,000. The height of the ribs is typically 5-10% of the channel hydraulic
diameter, and the rib spacing-to-height ratio varies from 5 to 15. In addition, a limited number of studies have focused on the more
closely spaced ribs with much larger blockage ratios.
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4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes

With angled ribs performing superior to orthogonal ribs, many researchers have extended their studies to include a wide variety
of rib congurations. Han et al. showed that V-shaped ribs (gure 10) outperform the angled ribs; for a given pressure drop, the V-
shaped ribs give more heat transfer enhancement53. Numerous other studies have shown the same conclusion that V-shaped ribs perform
better than the traditional angled ribs in a variety of channels and ow conditions54. In an effort to further increase the heat transfer
performance of the rib turbulators, discrete rib congurations were introduced. Figure 10 shows discrete (or broken) ribs are similar to
the traditional ribs, but they are broken in one or more locations, so the rib is not continuous. In the majority of cooling channels, discrete
ribs were shown to outperform the continuous angled or V-shaped ribs and Cho et al.55. Han and Zhang compared the performance of
many high performance rib congurations, and the comparison is shown in gure 1156. As shown in this gure, the broken 45 angled
ribs create more heat transfer enhancement than the continuous 45 angled ribs at a given friction factor ratio, and this conclusion can
be extended to other broken versus continuous rib congurations.

Fig. 10. High Performance Rib Turbulators for Turbine Fig. 11. Comparison of Heat Transfer Performance for Broken and
Blade Internal Cooling Non-Broken Rib Congurations

The majority of ribs used in experimental studies have a square cross-section; however, studies have investigated the heat
transfer enhancement of various proled ribs. Delta-shaped ribs were studied by Han et al. and these ribs were also shown to result in
higher heat transfer enhancement than the traditional angled ribs57. Bunker and Osgood investigated the performance of ribs leaning
into or away from the ow58. They concluded the traditional square ribs give greater heat transfer enhancement and less frictional losses
than the ribs leaning into or away from the ow.
When the blades are cast, the ribs are unlikely to have sharp edges as the previous studies have considered. The ribs are likely
to have rounded edges, and this was taken into account by Taslim and Spring59. From their experimental work, they concluded the effect
of rounding decreases the level of heat transfer enhancement in the cooling channel. Ribs with a higher aspect ratio (taller ribs) are
more sensitive to the rounding effect; whereas, square ribs are only slightly affected by the rounded edges. However, the pressure drop
is signicantly less in the channels with rounded ribs.
Studies have also focused on ribbed channels with more blockage. Bailey and Bunker and Taslim and Spring showed that
increasing in the effective blockage, the heat transfer coefcients can increase60. However, this increase comes at the cost of a signicant
increase in the pressure penalty. Therefore, if the heat loads are extremely high and the high frictional losses can be tolerated, the
additional heat transfer enhancement would be benecial.
An additional factor that should be considered when determining the heat transfer distribution in cooling channels is the
decreasing coolant ow rate due to extraction for lm cooling. Most modern turbine airfoils have ribs in the internal coolant channel and
lm cooling for the outside surface. Therefore, some of the cooling air is bled through the lm cooling holes. The presence of periodic
ribs and bleed holes creates strong axial and spanwise variations in the heat transfer distributions on the passage surface. Shen et al.,
Ekkad et al., and Thurman and Poinsette each studied the heat transfer enhancement by ribs in the presence of coolant extraction61. These
studies showed that the heat transfer coefcients in the near-hole regions increase, but no broader impact by these holes is noticeable in
these results. Ekkad et al. showed that the regional-averaged Nusselt number ratios for different rib orientations are almost identical with
and without bleed hole extraction, as shown in gure 1262. This indicates that 20 to 25% reduction of the main ow can be used for lm
cooling without signicantly affecting the ribbed channel cooling performance. It was also shown that the heat transfer near the holes
can be further enhanced if the ribs are placed near the bleed holes63.
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Je-Chin Han and Lesley M. Wright

Fig. 12. Heat Transfer Enhancement in Cooling Passages with and without Film Coolant Extraction Holes

Rotational Effect on Rib Turbulated Cooling

Heat transfer in rotating coolant passages is very different from that in stationary coolant passages. Both Coriolis and rotating
buoyancy forces alter the ow and temperature proles in the rotor coolant passages and affect their surface heat transfer coefcient
distributions64. It is very important to determine the local heat transfer distributions in the rotor coolant passages under typical engine
cooling ow, coolant-to-blade temperature difference (buoyancy effect), and rotating conditions. Effects of coolant passage cross-section
and orientation on rotating heat transfer are also important. As sketched in gure 13, the secondary ows in a two-pass channel are
different for radial outow and radial inow passes65. Since the direction of the Coriolis force is dependent on the direction of rotation
and ow, the Coriolis force acts in different directions in the two-passes. For radial outward ow, the Coriolis force shifts the core
ow towards the trailing wall. If both the trailing and leading walls are symmetrically heated, then the faster moving coolant near the
trailing wall would be cooler (therefore heat transfer would be enhanced) than the slower moving coolant near the leading wall (i.e.,
heat transfer would be decreased). Rotational buoyancy is caused by a strong centrifugal force that pushes cooler heavier uid away
from the center of rotation. In the rst channel rotational buoyancy affects the ow in a similar fashion as the Coriolis force and causes
a further increase in ow and heat transfer near the trailing wall of the rst channel; whereas, the Coriolis force favors the leading side
of the second channel. The rotational buoyancy in the second channel tries to make the ow distribution more uniform in the duct.
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4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes

Fig. 13. Conceptual View of Coolant Flow through a Two-Pass Rotating Channel

Wall Heating Condition Effect on Rotating Coolant Passage Heat Transfer

From the above analyses, the rotation effect on channel heat transfer comes from the Coriolis and centrifugal forces. The centrifugal
force is known as rotation buoyancy when there is a temperature difference between the coolant and the channel walls under rotating
conditions. Since the temperature difference between the coolant and the channel walls varies along the coolant passages, so does the
rotation buoyancy. Therefore, it is expected that the channel wall heating conditions would affect rotor coolant passage heat transfer. The
channel heating conditions imply that the channel walls may be at the same temperature (or heat ux) in both streamwise and circumferential
directions, or the trailing wall temperature may be higher than the leading wall temperature in real turbine blade cooling applications. Han et
al. studied the uneven wall temperature effect on rotating two-pass square channels with smooth walls66. They concluded that in the rst pass,
the local uneven wall temperature interacts with the Coriolis force-driven secondary ow and enhances the heat transfer coefcients in both
leading and trailing surfaces, with a noticeable increase in the leading side, as compared with the uniform wall temperature case. However,
the uneven wall temperature signicantly enhances heat transfer coefcients on both leading and trailing surfaces. Parsons et al. and Zhang
et al. studied the inuence of wall heating condition on the local heat transfer coefcient in rotating two-pass square channels with 90 ribs
and 60 ribs on the leading and trailing walls, respectively67. They concluded that the uneven wall temperature signicantly enhances heat
transfer coefcients on the rst-pass leading and second-pass trailing surfaces as compared with the uniform wall temperature condition.

Combined Effect of Rotation and Rib Shape on the Heat Transfer in Rotating Channels

The above studies investigating the effect of rotation on the heat transfer in cooling channels only consider the heat transfer in
channels with square ribs. However, the shape of the rib can signicantly alter the heat transfer trends, as demonstrated in stationary
channels. Acharya et al. investigated the heat/mass transfer in a square, two-pass rotating channel with various proled ribs placed on
the leading and trailing surfaces68. It was shown that certain proled ribs provide better heat transfer enhancement than the conventional
square ribs. The smooth sidewalls of the channel also see signicantly more enhancement than the smooth walls of channels with square
ribs.

Effect of Channel Cross-Section and Channel Orientation on Rotating Channel Heat Transfer

The rst studies of heat transfer in rotating channels were performed on square channels oriented normal to the direction of
rotation. Wagner et al. reported that the heat transfer coefcients on the trailing surface of the rst pass can be enhanced 2-3 times that
of a non-rotating channel, while the leading surface experiences a declination of up to 50%69. Opposite trends were present in the second
pass of this smooth channel. The cooling channel was lined with angled turbulators, and it was found there is less of an effect of rotation
in a ribbed channel than a smooth channel70. Because the heat transfer enhancement of the ribbed channel is already 3.5 times greater
than that of a smooth channel, rotation does not provide the same percentage of enhancement in the cooling channel with ribs. However,
the additional enhancement is signicant and should be considered. Similar to the non-rotating channel, 45 angled ribs provide more
enhancement than 90 ribs in a rotating channel. Park et al. conducted naphthalene sublimation experiments to examine the effects of
rotation on the local heat and mass transfer distribution in a two-pass ribbed square channel71. They also found that the overall heat and
mass transfer in a rotating channel with ribbed surfaces was not affected by the Coriolis force as much as that in a rotating channel with
smooth surfaces. 332
Je-Chin Han and Lesley M. Wright

When considering rotating channels, the orientation of the channels must be considered. One can see in gure 14 that the
orientation of the channel changes as on moves away from the middle of the blade. Johnson et al. studied the effects of rotation on the
heat transfer for smooth and 45 ribbed serpentine channels with channel orientations of 0 and 45 to the axis of rotation72. They found
that the effects of Coriolis and buoyancy forces on heat transfer in the rotating channel are decreased with the channel at 45 compared
to the results at 0. This implies that the difference in heat transfer coefcient between the leading and trailing surfaces due to rotation
will be reduced when the channel is angled to the axis of rotation. Parsons et al. investigated the effect of channel orientation on the
heat transfer in a rotating, square two-pass channel with 60 angled ribs73. The also concluded that difference between the heat transfer
coefcients on the leading and trailing surfaces decreases when the orientation of the channel changes from 90 to 45.
Dutta and Han conducted an experimental study of regionally averaged heat transfer coefcients in rotating smooth and ribbed
two-pass channels; this study also investigated the effect of channel orientation on the heat transfer distributions in this square channel74.
They found the effect of rotation is reduced for non-orthogonal alignment of the heat transfer surfaces with respect to the plane of
rotation. They also concluded that the discrete V-shaped ribs have better heat transfer performance than the 90 ribs and the 60 angled
ribs in the rotating channels. Al-Hadhrami and Han used parallel and crossed 45 angled ribs in rotating two-pass square channels to
study the effect of channel orientation on heat transfer75. They concluded that the parallel 45 angled ribs are better than the crossed 45
angled ribs. They also conrmed the difference between the leading and trailing wall heat transfer coefcients is reduced for the channel
with a 45 angle to the axis of rotation.
As shown in gure 14, the cross-section of the cooling channels can vary depending on where the cooling channel is located
within the blade. Studies showed the heat transfer distributions in square channels can vary signicantly from those in rectangular
channels. Therefore, it is necessary to study the effect of rotation on heat transfer in rectangular channels. As with the square channels,
the orientation of the channel varies depending on the location in the blade.

Fig. 14. Typical Cooling Passage Size and Orientation with Fig. 15. Advanced Rib Congurations
Conceptual Views of the Rotation Induced Secondary Flow Studied in Rotating Cooling Channels

Guidez reported the effect of rotation on heat transfer in a straight rotating rectangular channel (AR = 2:1) with smooth walls76.
Soong et al. conducted heat transfer experiments in rotating smooth straight duct with different aspect ratios ranging from 0.2 to 5.077.
They concluded that the aspect ratio of the duct was a critical parameter in the secondary ow patterns. Taslim et al. investigated the
varying effect of rotation in square (AR = 1:1) and rectangular (AR = 2:1) with 45 crossed ribs78. Azad et al. and Al-Hadhrami et al.
studied heat transfer in a two-pass rectangular rotating channel (AR = 2:1) with 45 angled ribs and 45 V-shaped ribs, respectively,
including the effect of channel orientation with respect to the axis of rotation79. The heat transfer trends in these rectangular channels
are similar to those of square channels: the heat transfer on trailing surface of the rst pass is enhanced with rotation while the heat
transfer on the leading surface decreases (and the opposite is true in the second pass). However, the difference between the leading and
trailing surfaces decreases in the 2:1 rectangular channels. As the orientation of the channels varies from 90 to 45, the effect of rotation
continues to decrease. Similar to non-rotating channels, these studies concluded that the 45 V-shaped ribs perform better than the 45
crossed V-shaped ribs, and subsequently better than 45 angled ribs (gure 15).
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4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes
Moving closer to the trailing edge, the aspect ratio of the cooling channels continues to increase, as the channel orientation is
also changing. Grifth et al. studied heat transfer in a single pass rectangular channel (AR = 4:1) with smooth and 45 angled ribbed
walls, including the effect of channel orientation with respect to the axis of rotation80. Results show that the narrow rectangular passage
exhibits much higher heat transfer enhancement for the ribbed surface than the square and 2:1 channels previously investigated. Also,
channel orientation signicantly affects the leading and side surfaces, yet does not have much affect on the trailing surfaces for both
smooth and ribbed surfaces. Therefore, this investigation has determined that spanwise variations in the heat transfer distribution of
rectangular cooling passages exist, and that the enhancement is a function of channel orientation with respect to the axis of rotation,
surface conguration (such as smooth or 45 angled ribbed walls), and channel aspect ratio. Lee et al. also studied the heat transfer
in a single pass rectangular channel (AR = 4:1)81; they compared the heat transfer performance of V-shaped and angled rib turbulators
with and without gaps (gure 15), in a channel oriented at 135 to the axis of rotation. The results show that V-shaped rib conguration
produces more heat transfer enhancement than the angled rib congurations for both the stationary and rotating cases. There is only
negligible difference in heat transfer enhancement between the parallel and staggered rib congurations for both the stationary and
rotating cases. The results also show that the V-shaped ribs with gaps produce overall less heat transfer enhancement than the V-shaped
ribs without gaps; whereas the angled ribs with gaps produce overall greater heat transfer enhancement than the angled ribs without gaps
for the stationary case, and clearly the same enhancement for the rotating case. Most importantly, for narrow rectangular rib-turbulated
channels oriented at 135 with respect to the plane of rotation, heat transfer enhancement on both the leading and trailing surfaces
increases with rotation. This is quite different from the square channel where rotation enhances the trailing surface heat transfer but
reduces the leading surface heat transfer for the radial outward ow case. This provides positive information for the cooling designers.
Wright et al. expanded the study of the 4:1 channel with ribs to examine not only the heat transfer performance, but the overall thermal
performance82. They investigated channels with six rib congurations: angled, V-shaped, W-shaped, discrete angled, discrete V-shaped,
and discrete W-shaped (gure 15). Figure 16 shows that similar to the stationary channels, the rotating channel with discrete V-shaped
ribs produced more heat transfer than the V-shaped and angled ribbed channels. However, the W-shaped and discrete W-shaped ribs
yielded more heat transfer enhancement than the discrete V-shaped ribs. However, the increased heat transfer enhancement in the
W-shaped and discrete W-shaped ribs came at the cost of an increased pressure penalty; these two congurations resulted in greatest
pressure drop of the six congurations considered. Therefore, the overall performance of the discrete V-shaped and W-shaped ribs is
comparable in the rotating channels. The traditional angled ribs exhibited the worst overall performance.

Fig. 16. Heat Transfer Enhancement, Frictional Losses, and Thermal Performance of Various Rib
Congurations in a 4:1 Rotating Cooling Passage

The cooling channels near the leading edge of the blade typically a smaller aspect ratio compared to those near the center of the
blade. Cho et al.studied the effect of rotation on heat transfer with a naphthalene sublimation technique in a two-pass rectangular
channel (AR = 1:2) with smooth and 70 ribbed walls83. They found that the effect of rotation diminishes in the second pass with inward
ow due to the strong inuence of the 180 turn. This is quite different from the heat transfer trends found in the two-pass rectangular
channels with aspect ratios greater than unity. Agarwal et al. reported the effect of rotation on heat transfer with naphthalene sublimation
technique in two-pass rectangular channels (aspect ratio = 1:1 and 1:4) with smooth and 90 ribbed walls84. They concluded that the
1:4 rectangular channel provides lower levels of heat transfer enhancement along the trailing wall and higher levels of heat transfer
degradation along the leading wall compared to the 1:1 square channel. Fu et al. also experimentally investigated the heat transfer trends
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Je-Chin Han and Lesley M. Wright

in cooling channels located near the leading edge of the blade85. The regionally averaged heat transfer coefcients in rotating cooling
channels with aspect ratios of 1:4 and 1:2 lined with 45 angled ribs were obtained. This study concluded the rotation effect increased
heat transfer on the trailing wall but decreased the heat transfer on the leading wall in the rst pass of both the 1:4 and 1:2 channels. In
the second pass, the difference of the heat transfer between the leading and trailing walls was reduced under the rotating condition when
compared to the rst pass. This study included the effect of channel orientation, and it was shown that the 45 channel orientation creates
less heat transfer difference between the leading and trailing walls than the 90 channel orientation for both aspect ratio ducts. Rotation
has a relatively small effect in the second pass of the 1:2 and 1:4 channels. It was suggested that the 180 turn induced vortices dominate
the rotation induced vortices for the low aspect ratio ducts. When the results from this study were compared to others with various aspect
ratios, it could be seen that the leading wall heat transfer has a strong dependence on the buoyancy parameter for 1:2 and 1:4 ducts in
the rst pass with radial outward ow, but it has a weak dependence on the buoyancy parameter for 2:1 and 4:1 ducts. Increasing the
buoyancy parameter reduced the heat transfer on the leading walls for the 1:2 and 1:4 ducts in the rst pass. The 1:4 duct has the largest
heat transfer difference between the leading and trailing walls in the rst pass.
Although the majority of rotating studies have focused on the heat transfer in square or rectangular cooling channels, a limited
number of studies have focused on the heat transfer in channels with other cross-sections. Channels with a triangular cross-section might
be used on some portion of the blade in order to provide compact channel structure and good cooling efciency. Clifford et al. studied
the mean heat transfer in a straight triangular-sectioned rotating duct with smooth walls86. Harasgama and Morris compared the effect
of rotation on heat transfer in straight circular, triangular, and square duct with smooth walls87. Dutta et al. studied the effect of rotation
on the heat transfer coefcients in two-pass triangular channels with smooth and ribbed walls88. For the locations in the rst pass, the
triangular-duct heat transfer coefcients are mostly contained within the upper and lower limits imposed by the square duct. This is
because in a triangular duct, there is less space for the coolant to form secondary ow by rotation. However, in the second pass, the
leading surface of the triangular duct shows much higher heat transfer coefcients than the square duct. This is due to more mixing and
favorable secondary ow in the 180 turn for the triangular duct geometry. Rathjen et al. investigated the heat/mass transfer in a two-
pass rotating channel with a near-engine cross-section; the rst pass of the channel (radial outward) was trapezoidal, and the second pass
(radial inward) had a larger trapezoidal cross-section89. They showed strong gradients after the 180 turn as the ow is forced to follow
the shape of the blade.

Fig. 17. Typical Experimental, Two-Pass Test Section with 45 Angled Ribs with a Conceptual View of the Rib and
335 Turn Induced Secondary Flow
4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes

With the internal cooling passages of the blade can take on a variety of shapes, sizes, and orientations, it is interesting to
investigate the effect of rotation in more detail. Results drawn from Fu et al. are presented to show the isolated affect of rotation on the
heat transfer enhancement in channels with aspect ratios ranging from 1:4 (near the leading edge) to 4:1 (in the trailing edge region)90.
Specically, they studied two-pass channels with aspect ratios of 1:4, 1:2, 1:1, and 2:1, and they included the work of Grifth et al. to
incorporate a 4:1 single pass cooling channel91. As shown by the sample test section in gure 17, each of the two-pass test sections
consists of twelve regions in the stream-wise direction; with region one at the inlet of the test section, and region twelve at the outlet.
Because the hydraulic diameter of each channel is different, comparisons are made at specic regions (1 through 12), rather than specic
x/D locations, and the regions are labeled in gure 17. Figures 18-21 show the Nusselt number ratios at various regions in rotating
channels with smooth walls, oriented at 90 to the direction of rotation, and gures 22-25 compare the heat transfer enhancement in
cooling channels with smooth walls with various channel orientations (incorporating the probable channel location and orientation in an
actual blade). This comparison is extended to rotating channels with 45 angled ribs in gures 26-33. The Nusselt number ratio shown
is the measured Nusselt number in the rotating channel (NuR) to the Nusselt number measured in the identical stationary channel
(NuS). With this altered denition of the Nusselt number ratio, the effect of rotation is isolated from other factors inuencing the heat
transfer enhancement. In addition, the Nusselt number ratio is presented as a function of the local buoyancy parameter.

Fig. 18. Nusselt Number Ratio Comparison at Region 4 (1st Pass, Fig. 19. Nusselt Number Ratio Comparison at Region 11 (2nd
Fully Developed) in Smooth Rotating Channels ( = 90) Pass, Fully Developed) in Smooth Rotating Channels ( = 90)

Figure 18 shows the Nusselt number ratios in region 4, on the leading and trailing surfaces (gure 18a), and the inner and outer
surfaces (gure 18b); region 4 should represent fully developed ow in the rst pass of each channel. The effect of rotation is most
clearly seen on the trailing surface of the various channels. As the buoyancy parameter increases, the Nusselt number ratio increases in
each channel, and the buoyancy parameter approaches zero, the Nusselt number approaches unity, as the effect of rotation diminishes.
As explained earlier (and depicted in gure 13), the Coriolis and buoyancy forces combine to enhance the heat transfer coefcients on
the trailing (destabilized) surface. Interestingly, the Nusselt number ratios on the trailing surfaces of the various channels all collapse
to the same trend. The increase of the heat transfer coefcients on the trailing surface comes at the expense of the degradation of the
heat transfer coefcients on the leading surface. In general, as the buoyancy parameter increases, the Nusselt number ratios decrease;
indicating the adverse effect of rotation. However, the Nusselt number ratios cover a larger range than the ratios on the trailing surface.
Positive information for turbine designers is shown in gure 18(b). As the buoyancy parameter increases, the Nusselt number ratios on
both the inner and outer surfaces at region 4 increase.
Figure 19 moves to region 11 in the second pass; this region is far away from the 180 turn, so it should represent fully developed
ow in the second pass. As shown in gure 19, the overall effect of rotation is reduced (when compared to the rst pass) in second
pass as the Coriolis and buoyancy forces act is opposite directions. Although the effect of rotation is expected to decrease, previous
studies have shown, it is not eliminated, and this is further conrmed in gure 19. The leading surfaces of each channel experience heat
transfer enhancement as the buoyancy parameter increases. However, the heat transfer enhancement due to rotation is much less on the
leading surface of the second pass, than the trailing surface of the rst pass. As shown in gure 18a, the enhancement due to rotation on
the trailing surfaces increases the Nusselt number ratio up to (and beyond in the 4:1 channel) two times that of the stationary channel.
However, on the leading surfaces in the second pass, the maximum heat transfer enhancement due to rotation does not exceed 1.5. As
expected the trailing surfaces are adversely affected by rotation, with the 1:1 and 2:1 channels experiencing the greatest declination. The
heat transfer coefcients on all of the inner and outer surfaces of region 11 are slightly enhanced with rotation, as shown in ugre 19(b).
However, the level of enhancement in this region is less than the enhancement in the rst pass at region 4.

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Je-Chin Han and Lesley M. Wright

Fig. 20. Nusselt Number Ratio Comparison at Region 6 (1st Pass Turn) in Smooth Rotating Channels ( = 90)

Fig. 21. A Nusselt Number Ratio Comparison at Region 7 (2nd Pass Turn) in Smooth Rotating Channels ( = 90)

In addition to considering the fully developed regions in the two-pass channel, the level of heat transfer enhancement in the
sharp turn should also be considered. Figure 20 shows the Nusselt number ratios at region 6 for the leading, trailing, inner, and outer
surfaces. Similar to region 4, the trailing surfaces at region 6 all experience heat transfer enhancement due to rotation. While the Nusselt
number ratios for the leading surfaces are generally below unity. The variation between the leading and trailing surfaces is less than the
difference in region 4, due to the onset of the sharp turn. As gure 20(b) shows, the heat transfer coefcients on both the outer and tip
surfaces of region 6 are enhanced with rotation.
Figure 21 shows the Nusselt number ratios in region 7 (the second half of the sharp turn). The Nusselt number ratios on the
leading surfaces in all the channels increase with the increasing buoyancy parameter, similar to region 11. With the exception of the 1:4
channel, the heat transfer coefcients on the all of the trailing surfaces decreases with rotation. The effect of rotation on the outer and tip
surfaces of region 7 is less than the effect of rotation in region 6. With the exception of the tip surface in the 2:1 channel, both the outer
and tip surfaces are slightly elevated above the Nusselt number ratio of unity, and increasing the buoyancy parameter does not result in a
signicant increase in the Nusselt number ratios. With the ow redirection created in the stationary channel, the heat transfer coefcients
are naturally elevated. Therefore, the additional secondary ow induced by rotation only slightly increases the already elevated Nusselt
337 numbers.
4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes

Fig. 22. Nusselt Number Ratio Comparison at Region 4 (1st Pass, Fully Developed) in Smooth Rotating Channels ( = 45 or 135)

Fig. 23. Nusselt Number Ratio Comparison at Region 11 (2nd Pass, Fully Developed) in Smooth Rotating Channels ( = 45 or 135)

The effect of channel orientation is combined with the channel aspect ratio and local buoyancy parameters in gures 22 25.
The 1:4 and 1:2 channels have orientations of 45, the 2:1 and 4:1 channel are oriented at 135, and the 1:1 channel maintains its previous
orientation of 90. As shown in gure 22, in the fully developed region of the rst pass (region 4), the level of heat transfer enhancement
on the trailing surfaces, due to rotation, is the same as in the channels with the 90 orientation. However, the degradation due to rotation
on the leading surfaces is less in these skewed channels. Unlike the inner and outer surfaces of the channels with the 90 orientation,
not all surfaces of every channel experience heat transfer enhancement with the increasing buoyancy parameter. The heat transfer
enhancement (or declination) is strongly dependent on the channel aspect ratio. As shown in gure 14, the channel orientation affects the
rotation induced vortices. In the 1:4 and 1:2 channels with the 45 channel orientation, the vortices are impinging on the inner surfaces
of the rst pass; thus increasing the heat transfer coefcients. However, the 135 of the 2:1 channel results in the vortices impinging on
the outer surface, further increasing the heat transfer coefcients on the outer surface, rather than the inner surface.
The Nusselt number ratios at region 11 in the smooth channels with skewed orientations are shown in gure 23. The heat
transfer enhancement on the leading surfaces of these skewed channels is similar to those with the normal orientation. However, the
Nusselt numbers on the trailing surfaces of the 1:4 and 1:2 channels are increased with rotation; this differs from the orthogonal rotating
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Je-Chin Han and Lesley M. Wright

channels. The Nusselt numbers on the trailing surface 2:1 channel with the 135 orientation decrease with the increasing buoyancy
parameter (similar the 2:1 channel with the 90 orientation). The level of heat transfer enhancement on the inner and outer walls in the
second pass of these channels with various orientation is similar to the orthogonally rotating channels, with the exception of the inner
wall of the 2:1 channel. The coolant is forced away from the corner between the inner and trailing walls to the corner between the
leading and outer wall of the second pass. As the heat transfer coefcients on the trailing surface of the 2:1 channel sharply decrease, so
do the heat transfer coefcients on the inner surface.
The additional complexity of ow through the sharp 180 turn is shown in gures 24 and 25. The level of heat transfer
enhancement is the same on the leading and trailing surfaces, as well as the outer and tip surfaces of region 6. The dominant ow
behavior through the turn is not strongly effected by the channel orientation; therefore, the Nusselt number ratios are not strongly
effected as the channel orientation shifts from 90, and these conclusions can be extended to region 7 of the channels, as well (gure
25).
The internal cooling passages of turbine blades generally do not have smooth surfaces. Therefore, it is important to consider
not only channels with smooth walls, but cooling channels with rib turbulators. As described in previous sections, angled rib turbulators
are commonly used in the blades. Fu et al. experimentally studied the effect of buoyancy on the heat transfer enhancement in channels
with rib turbulators as they did for smooth, rotating passages. Figures 26 29 show rotating to stationary Nusselt number ratios at
various regions in orthogonal cooling passages with angled ribs92.

Fig. 24. Nusselt Number Ratio Comparison at Region 6 (1st Pass Fig. 25. Nusselt Number Ratio Comparison at Region 7 (2nd Pass
Turn) in Smooth Rotating Channels ( = 45 or 135) Turn) in Smooth Rotating Channels ( = 45 or 135)

Fig. 26. Nusselt Number Ratio Comparison at Region 4 (1st Pass, Fig. 27. Nusselt Number Ratio Comparison at Region 11 (2nd
Fully Developed) in Rotating Channels ( = 90) with 45 Angled Pass, Fully Developed) in Rotating Channels ( = 90) with
Ribs 45Angled Ribs

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4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes

Figure 26 shows the effect of rotation on the heat transfer coefcients at region 4 in the cooling channels with 45 angled
ribs. The general trends for the trailing (enhancement) and leading (declination) surfaces is same as for the smooth channel, as gure
26(a) shows. However, the effect of rotation on the trailing surface is less in the ribbed channels than the smooth channels. The
Nusselt number ratios in the stationary channel are elevated to the presence of the ribs, and additional enhancement due to rotation is
less signicant in these ribbed channels. The declination of the heat transfer coefcients on the leading surface is more severe in these
ribbed channels than the smooth channels; this is markedly clear in the 1:4 and 1:2 channels. From the numerical predictions of Su et
al., the interaction of the rotation and rib induced secondary ow creates ow reversal, and a small cell of relatively hot air is trapped
near the leading surface93. Within this cell, less mixing occurs with the core of the coolant ow, and therefore, these leading surfaces are
adversely affected by rotation. Figure 26(b) shows that the Nusselt number ratios on both the inner and outer surfaces in region 4 are
enhanced with rotation.
Figure 27 shows the effect of rotation is reduced in the second pass at region 11 when compared to the rst pass at region 4.
In addition the effect of rotation on the leading and trailing surfaces is less in these ribbed channels than the smooth channels. The heat
transfer enhancement on the inner and outer surfaces at region 11 is strongly dependent on the channel cross-section. The 1:4 channel
is most strongly affected by rotation; both the inner and outer surfaces experience heat transfer enhancement. The Nusselt number
ratios of the remaining channels are not signicantly affected by rotation, as the Nusselt number ratios are approximately unity over the
range of buoyancy parameters. The inner surface of the 2:1 channels is the exception as a sharp decrease in the Nusselt number ratio is
observed.

Fig. 28. Nusselt Number Ratio Comparison at Region 6 (1st Pass Fig. 29. Nusselt Number Ratio Comparison at Region 7 (2nd Pass
Turn) in Rotating Channels ( = 90) with 45 Angled Ribs Turn) in Rotating Channels ( = 90) with 45 Angled Ribs

Figures 28 and 29 show the effect of rotation in the turn of the ribbed channels. Similar to region 4, gure 28(a) shows Nusselt
number ratios on the trailing surface are increasing with buoyancy parameter, while they decrease on the leading surface; the greatest
effect of rotation is seen in the 1:4 channel. Meanwhile, the outer and tip surfaces of each channel are increasing with the increasing
effect of rotation. Figure 29 shows in the second half of the turn (region 7), all of the surfaces experience heat transfer enhancement with
the increasing buoyancy parameter. The level of enhancement on the outer and tip surfaces is strongly dependent on the channel aspect
ratio.
With an understanding of the heat transfer enhancement in orthogonally rotating channels with rib turbulators, the additional
complexities in skewed channels with angled ribs can be discussed. Figures 30 33 show the Nusselt number ratios in cooling channels
with angled ribs with non-orthogonal rotating angles. As with the smooth channels, the 1:4 and 1:2 channels have orientation angles of
45, the 2:1 and 4:1 channels have orientation angles of 135, and the 1:1 channels maintains an orientation of 90. As shown in gure
30, the enhancement due to rotation is less in the skewed channels than the normal channels of region 4. The declination in the Nusselt
numbers is signicantly less in the channels with skewed orientations than the declination in the normal channels. The orientation of the
channel does not signicantly effect the heat transfer enhancement on the trailing, inner, or outer surfaces.
The effect of channel orientation on the heat transfer coefcients decreases in the second pass. Figure 31 shows that the trends
and level of enhancement on the leading and trailing surfaces of the skewed channels are the same as those of the normal channels. This
can be anticipated as the effect of rotation decreases in the second pass, and altering the orientation angle further lessens the effect of
rotation on the cooling channel heat transfer coefcients. The diminished effect of rotation is clearly seen on the inner walls of the 1:4
and 2:1 channels. Signicant enhancement is seen on the inner wall of the 1:4 channel while extreme declination is seen on the inner
wall of the 2:1 channel (gure 27); however, neither of these trends are seen the skewed channels (gure 31). 340
Je-Chin Han and Lesley M. Wright

Fig. 30. Nusselt Number Ratio Comparison at Region 4 (1st Fig. 31. Nusselt Number Ratio Comparison at Region 11 (2nd
Pass, Fully Developed) in Rotating Channels ( = 45 or 135) Pass, Fully Developed) in Rotating Channels ( = 45 or 135)
with 45 Angled Ribs with 45 Angled Ribs

Fig. 32. Nusselt Number Ratio Comparison at Region 6 (1st Fig.33. Nusselt Number Ratio Comparison at Region 7 (2nd
Pass Turn) in Rotating Channels ( = 45 or 135) with 45 Pass Turn) in Rotating Channels ( = 45 or 135) with 45
Angled Ribs Angled Ribs

Similar to the smooth channels, gures 32 and 33 show a minimal effect of channel orientation in the turn of the two pass
channels. The leading and trailing surfaces are affected less in the skewed channels than the normal channels in region 6; however in
region 7, there is only negligible difference between the Nusselt number ratios on the leading and trailing surfaces. The heat transfer
coefcients on the outer and tip surfaces of the 2:1 channel with the 135 orientation are positively inuenced by the skewed channel
orientation.
The effect of channel orientation is further discussed by considering the average heat transfer enhancement of the two pass
channels. Fu et al. presented the overall Nusselt number ratio (measured Nusselt number to the Nusselt number for turbulent ow
through a smooth tube, Dittus-Boelter correlation) in two pass smooth and ribbed channels94. The overall average Nusselt number ratio
was taken as the 12 region average of both the leading and trailing surfaces. Figure 34 shows the effect of rotation is greater in the 1:4
and 1:2 smooth channels than the 1:1 and 2:1 smooth channels. It should be noted that Fu et al. conducted their experiments at constant
rotational speed (550 rpm)95. Therefore, the rotation number varies inversely with the Reynolds number of the coolant ow. Therefore,
the rotation number is the highest at the lowest Reynolds number. Similar to the smooth channels, the effect of rotation is most apparent
in the 1:4 channel.

341
4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes

Fig. 34. Channel Averaged Nusselt Number Ratios for Non- Fig. 35. Overall Friction Factor Ratios for Non-Rotating and
Rotating and Rotating Channels Rotating Channels

To further evaluate the viability of the various cooling


channels, the frictional losses should be considered along with the
heat transfer enhancement. Figure 35 shows the friction factor
ratios measured by Fu et al. for the various aspect ratio channels96.
The friction factor ratios in the smooth channels are greater than
unity due to the large pressure loss incurred in the 180 turns.
The friction factor ratios in the ribbed channels vary signicantly
depending on the channel aspect ratio. The maximum friction factor
is 5.8 in the 1:4 channel, while the friction factor in the 2:1 channel
can be 11.5 times greater than the friction factor in a smooth tube
as given by the Blasius correlation. Physically the ribs in each of
the four channels are the same size. Therefore, the blockage due
to the ribs in the 2:1 channel is 5 times greater than the blockage in
the 1:4 channel, and at a Reynolds number of 25,000, the increased
blockage results in a friction factor ratio increase of 2.3 times. To
heat transfer enhancement and the pressure penalty are combined
in gure 36 to evaluate the overall thermal performance in each
channel. As expected the 1:4 channels have the greatest thermal
performance, as they have the lowest friction factor ratios.

Numerical Simulations of Cooling Channel Heat


Transfer Enhancement Fig. 36. Overall Thermal Performance for Non-Rotating and
Rotating Channels
Thus far a wide variety of experimental results have been discussed for the enhancement of cooling channel heat transfer.
However, numerical predictions have helped researchers better understand the complex ow phenomena in the cooling passages. The k-
, low Reynolds k-, the two-layer k-, and the low Reynolds number k- turbulence models have been used to predict the ow behavior
and heat transfer enhancement in rotating cooling channels. However, problems with each of these models can lead to inaccurate
predictions of the complex ow in rotating channels. Prakash and Zerkle showed the k- model is unable to predict the ow and heat
transfer behavior in two pass rotating channels with angled ribs due to the isotropic turbulence assumption and the near surface wall
function required by this model97. However, Lin et al. showed the low Reynolds k- model is an adequate model for rotating two pass
cooling channels with angled ribs98. This model replaces the wall function in the near wall region with turbulence dissipation specied
in terms of the turbulent kinetic energy.
342
Je-Chin Han and Lesley M. Wright

The advanced Reynolds stress model and the


second moment closure model have also been applied to
rotating cooling channels. The second moment closure
model requires more computing power than the previously
mentioned models as six additional transport equations
are solved in the three-dimensional turbulent ow eld.
Also, the eddy diffusivity in the momentum transport
equation is replaced with the source terms developed
from the turbulent Reynolds stress tensor. At the expense
of additional computational time, this model provides
accurate predictions for ow in two pass rotating channels
with angled rib turbulators.
The second moment closure model used by Chen
et al. has been applied to internal cooling channels with
a wide range of turbulator congurations and channel
aspect ratios99. The model was applied to a single pass
rotating channel with a square cross-section by Jang et
al.100. The predicted heat transfer coefcients in channels
with either 45 or 60 angled ribs compared favorably
with experimental data. Al-Qahtani et al.extended these
predictions to include 2:1 two pass channels and 4:1 single
pass channels with 45 angled ribs101. Su et al. used this
same second moment closure model to predict the heat
transfer coefcients in rotating 4:1 single pass channels
with V-shaped ribs102. Figure 37 shows the velocity vectors
and temperature contours in non-rotating, single pass 4:1
channels (with angled and V-shaped ribs) and a non-rotating,
2:1 two pass channel with angled ribs. The gures clearly
show near the wall, the coolant follows the rib turbulators.
The dimensionless temperature contours show the lowest
coolant temperatures occur at the most upstream point on
the ribs. In addition, the wall temperature is relatively high
just downstream of the ribs, due to the ow separation that
occurs as the coolant ows over the turbulators.
The secondary ow and temperature contours in
a two pass, rotating channel with an aspect ratio of 2:1 is
shown in gure 38103. In this channel, with smooth walls, Fig. 37. Velocity Vectors and Temperature Contours: (a) AR = 4:1
the shift of the coolant toward the trailing surface of the One-pass Channel with 45 Inclined Ribs, (b) AR = 4:1 One Pass
rst pass is clearly seen. With the core of the coolant Channel with V-shaped Ribs, (c) AR = 2:1 Two-Pass Channel with
forced to the trailing surface, a steep temperature gradient 45 Inclined Ribs (Re = 10,000)
near the trailing wall forms. The thinner boundary layer on
this destabilized trailing surface results in enhanced heat
transfer coefcients due to rotation. The opposite behavior
occurs in the second pass, as the core of the mainstream coolant is forced to the leading surface. However, the temperature contours
downstream in the second pass are inuenced by the ow through the 180 turn, so the ow is not symmetrical in the channel cross-
section.
Similar to the experimental studies which cover a wide range of channel aspect ratios, Su et al. performed a complementary
study to numerically predict the heat transfer coefcients in the cooling channels with aspect ratios varying from 1:4 to 4:1104. Figure
39 shows the secondary ow and dimensionless temperature contours in the rst pass of rotating cooling channels with 45 angled ribs.
This study includes parameter variations which are unachievable in most experimental facilities. They found that for the low Reynolds
number and low rotation number cases, the rotation effect on the Nusselt number and friction factor ratios is more signicant in the 1:2
channel than those observed in either the square or 1:4 channel due to the presence of strong turn-induced vortices. However, in the
under engine-like conditions with high rotation and high Reynolds numbers, the effect of rotation decreases as the channel aspect ratio
changes from 1:1 to 1:2 and nally to 1:4.
Although the previously mentioned studies are only a sampling of those utilizing the second moment turbulence model, they
have demonstrated the power of this advanced second-order Reynolds stress turbulence model. The models have been validated with
existing experimental data, and upon validation, they have been extended to high Reynolds number and high rotation number ows
which cannot be obtained in most experimental facilities. Over a wide range of ow conditions, these predictions provide detailed
velocity, pressure, and temperature proles which are essential to understanding the complex ow behavior in these rotating channels.
343
4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes

Fig. 38. Secondary Flow and Temperature Contours in Rotating AR = 2:1 Smooth Duct (Re = 10,000, Ro = 0.22)

Fig. 39. A Secondary Flow in the First Passage (before the 180 turn) of Rotating Ribbed Channels with Different Aspect Ratios
(Re = 10,000, Ro = 0.14) 344
Je-Chin Han and Lesley M. Wright

Flow Field Measurements in Rotating Cooling Channels

Heat transfer is a side effect of the ow eld. Flow in a rotating channel is signicantly different from ow in a non-rotating
channel. The secondary ow in rotation redistributes velocity and also alters the random velocity uctuation patterns in turbulent ows.
Lezius and Johnston examined ow instability in a straight rectangular channel with smooth walls caused by rotation105. They reported
that rotation increases ow velocity and turbulence near the unstable trailing wall and reduces the turbulent uctuations signicantly
near the stable leading wall. Elfert measured velocity and turbulence distributions in a rotating circular pipe106. Rotation shifts the bulk
ow toward the trailing side, and the turbulence prole shows a different distribution due to rotation. Tse and Mcgrath used laser-
Doppler velocimetry to measure rotating ow in a two-pass channel with smooth and ribbed walls107. Tse and Steuber investigated the
mean ow characteristics in the rst and second passages of a rotating four-pass coolant passage with 45 ribs of semi-circular cross
section using LDA108. Cheah et al. used the LDA to measure the velocity and turbulence quantities in a rotating two-pass channel109.
Bons and Kerrebrock measured the internal ow in a straight smooth-wall channel with particle image velocimetry (PIV) for both heated
and non-heated cases110. Schabacker et al. and Chanteloup et al. also used PIV to measure the ows in stationary two-pass square ducts
with 45 turbulators111. Son et al. measured the ows in two-pass channels with smooth and 90 ribbed walls using PIV112. Liou and
Chen measured the developing ow in a two-pass channel with LDA113. Liou et al. studied uid ow in a rotating two-pass duct with
in-line 90 ribs using LDA114. Liou et al. also performed LDV and pressure measurements for in-line detached 90 ribs115. Liou and Dai
measured pressure and ow characteristics in a rotating two-pass square duct with 45 angled ribs of square cross section by using the
LDA116. Liou et al. measured ow and pressure elds in a rotating two-pass duct with staggered 45 ribs of rounded cross section117. Both
Liou and Dai and Liou et al. reported that the absence of periodic fully developed ow condition in their tests118. The above-mentioned
ow measurements help to understand the ow physics and serve to explain the heat transfer results obtained in two-pass rotating
channels with smooth and ribbed walls.

Rotational Effect on Jet Impingement Cooling

Several studies were mentioned above that investigate jet impingement cooling. Although a number of impingement studies
have been completed, only a few studies consider the effect of rotation on impingement cooling. Epstein et al. studied the effect of
rotation on impingement cooling in the leading edge of a blade119. They reported that the rotation decreases the impingement heat transfer,
but the effective heat transfer is better than a smooth rotating channel. The zero staggered cooling jets (i.e., jet direction is perpendicular
to rotation direction) show lower heat transfer coefcients compared to that with a staggered angle. Mattern and Hennecke reported
the effect of rotation on the leading edge impingement cooling by using the naphthalene sublimation technique120. Their experiment
did not include the rotating buoyancy effect. The jet direction has an offset angle with respect to the rotation direction. They found that
the rotation decreases the impingement heat transfer for all staggered angles. The effect of rotation is least when jet direction has an
angle of 45 to rotation direction. However, a maximum of 40% reduction in heat transfer is noted when jet direction is perpendicular
to rotation direction. This may be because the Coriolis force creates a swirl action on the spent ow and also deects the jet when jet
direction is parallel to rotation direction. Glezer et al. studied the effect of rotation on swirling impingement cooling in the leading edge
of a blade121. They found that screw-shaped swirl cooling can signicantly improve the heat-transfer coefcient over a smooth channel
and the improvement is not signicantly dependent on the temperature ratio and rotational forces.
Parsons et al. studied the effect of rotation on impingement cooling in the mid-chord region of the blade122. A central chamber
serves as the pressure chamber, and jets are released in either direction to impinge on two heated surfaces. The jet impinging directions
have different orientations with respect to the direction of rotation. They reported that the rotation decreases the impingement heat
transfer on both leading and trailing surfaces with more effect on the trailing side (up to 20% heat transfer reduction). Akella and Han
studied the effect of rotation on impingement cooling for a two-pass impingement channel conguration with smooth walls123. The
difference from the earlier experiment by Parsons et al. is that spent jets from the trailing channel are used as cooling jets for the leading
channel124. Therefore, the cross-ow in the trailing side is radial outward; for the leading side, it is radial inward. They reported that
irrespective of the direction of rotation, the heat transfer coefcient on the rst-pass and second-pass impinging wall decreases up to
20% in the presence of rotation. Akella and Han included 45 angled ribs in the target surfaces of their two-pass impingement channel
with rotation125. They reported that jet impingement on the ribbed wall can provide 10-50% more heat transfer compared to that on the
smooth wall for jet Reynolds number increasing from 4,000 to 10,000. This is because the angled rib- induced secondary ow gets
stronger with higher cross-ow at higher jet Reynolds number. They also found that the rotation decreases impingement heat transfer
on the rst-pass and second-pass ribbed wall. Parsons et al. extended their earlier work to include heat transfer on a smooth target wall
with lm coolant extraction from a channel with four heated walls126.

Rotational Effect on Pin-Fin Cooling

Pin-n cooling has been investigated for many years, but only recently has the effect of rotation been considered in channels
with pin-ns. Recently, Willett and Bergles studied the effect of rotation on heat transfer in narrow rectangular channels (AR = 10:1)
with smooth and with typical pin-n array, respectively, including channel orientation effect with respect to the plane of rotation127. They
found that the heat transfer enhancement in the pin-n channel due to rotation and buoyancy was less than the enhancement in the smooth
channel. They showed that heat transfer enhancement mainly is due to pin-n ow disturbance; pin-ns signicantly reduce the effect of
345
4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes

rotation, but they do not eliminate the effect. Wright et al. studied the effect of rotation on heat transfer in narrow rectangular channels
(AR = 4:1 and 8:1) with typical pin-n array used in turbine blade trailing edge design and oriented at 150 with respect to the plane
of rotation128. Results show that turbulent heat transfer in a stationary pin-n channel can be enhanced up to 3.8 times that of a smooth
channel; rotation enhances the heat transferred from the pin-n channels up to 1.5 times that of the stationary pin-n channels. Most
importantly, for narrow rectangular pin-n channels oriented at 150 with respect to the plane of rotation, heat transfer enhancement on
both the leading and trailing surfaces increases with rotation. This provides positive information for the cooling designers.

Rotational Effect on Dimple Cooling

Because dimple cooling has only recently been considered as an internal cooling technique, the number of studies available in
open literature is limited. The majority of dimple studies were described above, and they are only applicable for stator cooling designs.
Only a few studies focus on rotor blade dimple cooling. Zhou et al. studied heat/mass transfer in a rotating square channel with typical
dimple array129. They found that heat transfer enhancement for the stationary dimple channel is around two times that of the smooth wall
value; however, rotation enhances heat transfer on the trailing dimple surface and reduces heat transfer on the leading dimple surface in
a similar manner as the rotational effect on the trailing and leading surfaces of the square channel with ribs. Grifth et al. studied heat
transfer in rotating rectangular channels (AR = 4:1) with typical dimple array on both leading and trailing walls, including the effect
of channel orientation with respect to the plane of rotation130. The results show that rotation enhances heat transfer on both trailing and
leading surfaces of the narrow dimpled channel in a similar trend as the rotational effect on the trailing and leading surfaces of the
narrow rectangular channel with ribs or pins; however, the heat transfer enhancement of the ribbed or pinned channel exceeds that of the
dimpled channel. Also, the dimpled channel oriented at 135 with respect to the plane of rotation provides greater overall heat transfer
enhancement than the orthogonal dimpled channel.

4.2.2.2-4 Concluding Remarks


With modern gas turbines operating at extremely high temperatures, it is necessary to implement various cooling methods,
so the turbine blades and vanes survive in the path of the hot gases. Simply passing coolant air through the airfoils does not provide
adequate cooling; therefore, it is necessary to implement techniques that will further enhance the heat transfer from the airfoil walls.
The internal heat transfer can be enhanced with jet impingement, pin-n cooling (used in the trailing edge), and internal passages lined
with turbulence promoters. The most commonly used turbulators are ribs. The heat transfer distribution in cooling channels with ribs
has been studied for many years because a number of factors combine to affect the heat transfer. Because the ow through non-rotating
and rotating channels is very different, many studies have focused on the effect of rotation in ribbed channels. Although the majority of
studies concentrate on channels with a square cross-section, a limited number of investigations are now available for rectangular cooling
channels with ribs. A relatively new alternative to rib turbulators are dimples. A limited number of studies are available to address
the heat transfer in stationary channels with dimples, and even fewer studies are available that address the effect of rotation in cooling
channels with dimples. It is also important to investigate the effect of rotation on jet impingement and pin-n cooling, and in the recent
years, such studies have become available.
More studies are needed for the blade-shaped coolant passages with high performance turbulators and with or without lm
cooling holes under realistic coolant ow, thermal, and rotating conditions. Also, more studies are needed for rotating impingement
cooling with or without lm coolant extraction as well as rotating pin-n cooling with or without trailing edge ejection in order to guide
the efcient rotor blade internal cooling designs. Highly accurate and highly detailed local heat transfer data is needed to aid engineers
in their design of blades for advanced gas turbines.

346
Je-Chin Han and Lesley M. Wright

4.2.2.2-5 Notes
________________________________________

1. J.C. Han, S. Dutta, and S.V. Ekkad, Gas Turbine Heat Transfer and Cooling Technology, Taylor & Francis, Inc., New
York, New York, December 2000, ISBN # 1-56032-841-X, 646 pages.
2. B. Lakshminryana, Turbine Cooling and Heat Transfer, Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer of Turbomachinery, John
Wiley, New York, 1996, pp. 597-721; M.G. Dunn, Convection Heat Transfer and Aerodynamics in Axial Flow
Turbines, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery. 123 no.4 (2001):.637-686.
3. R.J. Goldstein, Heat Transfer in Gas Turbine Systems, Annuals of The New York Academy of Sciences, New York,
New York, Vol. 934, 2001, 2001, 520 pages.
4. D.E. Metzger, L.W. Florschuetz, D.I. Takeuchi, R.D. Behee, and R.A. Berry, Heat Transfer Characteristics for Inline
and Staggered Arrays of Circular Jets with Crossow of Spent Air, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer, 101 (1979): 526-531.
5. L.W. Florschuetz, R.A. Berry, and D.E. Metzger, Periodic Streamwise Variations of Heat Transfer Coefcients for
Inline and Staggered Arrays of Circular Jets with Crossow of Spent Air, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 102
(1980): 132-137; R.N. Koopman and E.M. Sparrow, Local and Average Transfer Coefcients Due to an Impinging
Row of Jets, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 92 (1976): 73-82.
6. L.W. Florschuetz and C.C. Su, Effects of Crossow Temperature on Heat Transfer Within an Array of Impinging Jets,
ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 109 (1987): 74-82.
7. Ibid.
8. D.M. Kercher and W. Tabakoff, Heat Transfer by a Square Array of Round Air Jets Impinging Perpendicular to a
Flat Surface Including the Effect of Spent Air, ASME Journal of Engineering for Power, Vol. 92 (1970): 73-82; L.W.
Florschuetz, C.R. Truman, and D.E. Metzger, Streamwise Flow and Heat Transfer Distributions for Jet Array
Impingement with Crossow, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 103 (1981): 337-342.
9. See note 8 (Florschuetz, et al.).
10. J.C. Bailey and R.S. Bunker, Local Heat Transfer and Flow Distributions for Impinging Jet Arrays of Dense and
Sparse Extent, ASME Paper No. GT-2002-30473 (2002); also see note 8 (Florschuetz, et al.).
11. Y. Huang, S.V. Ekkad, and J.C. Han, Detailed Heat Transfer Distributions Under an Array of Orthogonal Impinging
Jets, AIAA Journal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer 12 (1998): pp. 73-79.
12. S.V. Ekkad, Y. Huang, and J.C. Han, Impingement Heat Transfer on a Target Plate with Film Holes, AIAA Journal of
Thermophysics and Heat Transfer 13 (1999): 522-528.
13. T. Wang, M. Lin, and R.S. Bunker, Flow and Heat Transfer of Conned Impingement Jets Cooling, ASME Paper No.
2000-GT-223 (2000).
14. L. Gao, S.V. Ekkad, and R.S. Bunker, Impingement Heat Transfer Under Linearly Stretched Arrays of Holes, ASME
Paper No. GT2003-38178 (2003).
15. L.W. Florschuetz, D.E. Metzger, and C.C. Su, Heat Transfer Characteristics for Jet Array Impingement with Initial
Crossow, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 106 (1984): pp. 34-41.
16. R.E. Chupp, H.E. Helms, P.W. McFadden, and T.R. Brown, Evaluation of Internal Heat Transfer Coefcients for
Impingement Cooled Turbine Airfoils, AIAA Journal of Aircraft. 6 (1969): 203-208.
17. R.S Bunker and D.E. Metzger, Local Heat Transfer in Internally Cooled Turbine Airfoil Leading Edge Regions. Part I:
Impingement Cooling Without Film Coolant Extraction, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 112 (1990): 451-458.
18. D.E. Metzger and R.S. Bunker, Local Heat Transfer in Internally Cooled Turbine Airfoil Leading Edge Regions. Part II:
Impingement Cooling with Film Coolant Extraction, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery. 112 (1990): 459-466.
19. D.E. Metzger, R.A. Berry, and J.P. Bronson, Developing Heat Transfer in Rectangular Ducts With Staggered Arrays of
Short Pin Fins, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 104 (1982): 700-706.
20. M.K. Chyu, Y.C. Hsing, T.I.P. Shih, and V. Natarajan, Heat Transfer Contributions of Pins and Endwall in Pin-Fin
Arrays: Effects of Thermal Boundary Condition Modeling, ASME Paper No. 98-GT-175 (1998).
21. VanFossen, G.J., 1982, Heat-Transfer Coefcients for Staggered Arrays of Short Pin Fins, ASME Journal of
Engineering for Power, Vol. 104, pp. 268-274; also see note 19.
22. S.C. Arora and W. Abdel-Messeh, Characteristics of Partial Length Circular Pin Fins as Heat Transfer Augmentors for
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23. D.E. Metzger, S.C. Fan, and S.W. Haley, Effects of Pin Shape and Array Orientation on Heat Transfer and Pressure Loss
in Pin Fin Arrays, ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 106 (1984): 252-257.
24. M.K. Chyu,, Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop for Short Pin-Fin Arrays With Pin-Endwall Fillet, ASME Journal of Heat
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25. R.J. Goldstein, M.Y. Jabbari, and S.B. Chen, Convective Mass Transfer and Pressure Loss Characteristics of Staggered
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347
4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes

27. D.E. Metzger, W.B. Shephard, and S.W. Haley, Row Resolved Heat Transfer Variations in Pin-Fin Arrays Including
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30. Hwang, J.J. and Lu, C.C., 2000, Lateral-Flow Effect of Endwall Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop in a Pin-Fin
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31. M.K. Chyu, Y. Yu, H. Ding, J.P. Downs, and O. Soechting, Concavity Enhanced Heat Transfer in an Internal Cooling
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on Heat Transfer and Friction in a Dimpled Passage, ASME Paper No. 99-GT-163 (1999); G.I. Mahmood, M.L. Hill,
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Surface in a Channel, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 123 (2001): 115-123; S.W. Moon, and S.C. Lau, Turbulent
Heat Transfer Measurements on a Wall with Concave and Cylindrical Dimples in a Square Channel, ASME Paper
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32. R.S. Bunker and K.F. Donnellan, Heat Transfer and Friction Factors for Flows Inside Circular Tubes with Concavity
Surfaces, ASME Paper No. GT-2003-38053 (2003).
33. N. Syred, A. Khalatov, A. Kozlov, A. Shchukin, and R. Agachev, Effect of Surface Curvature on Heat Transfer and
Hydrodynamics within a Single Hemispherical Dimple, ASME Paper No. 2000-GT-236 (2000).
34. G.M.S. Azad,Y. Huang, and J.C. Han, Jet Impingement Heat Transfer on Dimpled Surfaces Using a Transient Liquid
Crystal Technique, AIAA Journal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer 14 no. 2 (2000): 186-193; G.M.S. Azad, Y.
Huang, and J.C. Han, Impingement Heat Transfer on Pinned Surfaces Using a Transient Liquid Crystal Technique,
Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Transport Phenomena and Dynamics of Rotating Machinery 2 (2000):
731-738.
35. M.E. Taslim, L. Setayeshgar, and S.D. Spring, An Experimental Evaluation of Advanced Leading Edge Impingement
Cooling Concepts, ASME Paper No. 2000-GT-222 (2000).
36. M.E. Taslim, Y. Pan, and S.D. Spring, An Experimental Study of Impingement on Roughened Airfoil Leading-Edge
Wall with Film Holes, ASME Paper No. 2001-GT-0152 (2001).
37. M.E. Taslim and L. Setayeshgar, Experimental Leading-Edge Impingement Cooling Through Racetrack Crossover
Holes, ASME Paper No. 2001-GT-153 (2001); M.E. Taslim,Y. Pan, and K. Bakhtari, Experimental Racetrack Shaped
Jet Impingement on a Roughened Leading-Edge Wall with Film Holes, ASME Paper No. GT-2002-30477(2002).
38. B. Glezer, H.K. Moon, J. Kerrebrock, J. Bons, and G. Guenette, Heat Transfer in a Rotating Radial Channel With
Swirling Internal Flow, presented at the International Gas Turbine & Aeroengine Congress and Exhibition, Stockholm,
Sweden, June 2-5, ASME Paper No. 98-GT-214 (1998).
39. G. Pamula, S.V. Ekkad, and S. Acharya, Inuence of Cross-Flow Induced Swirl and Impingement on Heat Transfer in a
Two-Pass Channel Connected by Two Rows of Holes, ASME Paper No. 2000-GT-235 (2000).
40. S. Kieda, T. Torii, and K. Fujie, Heat Transfer Enhancement in a Twisted Tube Having a Rectangular Cross Section With
or Without Internal Ribs, ASME Paper No. 84-HT-75 (1984).
41. Y.M. Zhang, G.M.S. Azad, J.C. Han, and C.P. Lee, Heat Transfer and Friction Characteristics of Turbulent Flow in
Square Ducts with Wavy, and Twisted Tape Inserts and Axial Interrupted Ribs, Journal of Enhanced Heat Transfer 7
(2000): 35-49.
42. Y.M. Zhang, W.Z. Gu, and J.C. Han, Heat Transfer and Friction in Rectangular Channels With Ribbed or Ribbed-
Grooved Walls, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 116 no. 1 (1994): 58-65.
43. D.E. Metzger and C.S. Fan, Heat Transfer in Pin-Fin Arrays With Jet Supply and Large Alternating Wall Roughness
Ribs, HTD-Vol. 226 (1992) Fundamental and Applied Heat Transfer Research for Gas Turbine Engines, pp. 23-30.
44. Z.J. Zuo, A. Faghri, and L. Langston, A Parametric Study of Heat Pipe Turbine Vane Cooling, presented at the
International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exhibition, Orlando, Florida, June 2-5, ASME Paper No. 97-GT-
443 (1997).
45. S. Yamawaki, T. Yoshida, M. Taki, and F. Mimura, Fundamental Heat Transfer Experiments of Heat Pipes for Turbine
Cooling, ASME Paper No. 97-GT-438 (1997).
46. J.L. Kerrebrock and D.B. Stickler, Vaporization Cooling for Gas Turbines, the Return-Flow Cascade, ASME Paper No.
98-GT-177 (1998).
47. G.B. Bruening and W.C. Chang, Cooled Cooling Air Systems for Turbine Thermal Management, ASME Paper No. 99-
GT-14 (1999).
48. J.C. Corman and T.C. Paul, Power Systems for the 21st Century H Gas Turbine Combined Cycles, GE Power
Systems, Schenectady, New York, GER-3935 (1995): 1-12.
49. T. Guo,T. Wang, and J.L. Gaddis, Mist/Steam Cooling in a Heated Horizontal Tube, Part 2: Results and Modeling,
ASME Paper No. 99-GT-145 (1999).
50. X. Li, J.L. Gaddis, and T. Wang, Mist/Steam Heat Transfer in Conned Slot Jet Impingement, ASME Paper No. 2000-
348
Je-Chin Han and Lesley M. Wright

GT-0221(2000); X. Li, J.L. Gaddis, and T. Wang, Mist/Steam Cooling by a Row of Impinging Jets, ASME Paper No.
2001-GT-0151(2001); X. Li, J.L. Gaddis, and T. Wang, Mist/Steam Heat Transfer with Jet Impingement onto a Concave
Surface, ASME Paper No. GT-2002-30475(2002).
51. J.C. Han, L.R. Glicksman, and W.M. Rohsenow, An Investigation of Heat Transfer and Friction for Rib-Roughened
Surfaces, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 21 (1978): 1143-1156; J.C. Han, J.S. Park, and C.K. Lei,
Heat Transfer Enhancement in Channels with Turbulence Promoters, ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines
and Power 107 (1985): 628-635; J.C. Han, Heat Transfer and Friction Characteristics in Rectangular Channels with Rib
Turbulators, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 110 (1988): 321-328; J.C. Han and J.S. Park, Developing Heat Transfer in
Rectangular Channels with Rib Turbulators, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 31(1988): 183-195.
52. See note 51 (Han [1988]) and (Han & Park [1988]).
53. J.C. Han, Y.M. Zhang, and C.P. Lee, Augmented Heat Transfer in Square Channels with Parallel, Crossed, and V-shaped
Angled Ribs, Journal of Heat Transfer, Transactions ASME 113 (1991): 590-596; J.C. Han and Y.M. Zhang, High
Performance Heat Transfer Ducts with Parallel and V-Shaped Broken Ribs, International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer 35 (1992): 513-523; S.V. Ekkad and J.C. Han, Detailed Heat Transfer Distributions in Two-Pass Square
Channels with Rib Turbulators, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 40 (1997): 2525-2537; S.V. Ekkad,Y.
Yuang, and J.C. Han, Detailed Heat Transfer Distributions in Two-Pass Smooth and Turbulated Square Channels with
Bleed Holes, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 41 (1998):, 3781-3791.
54. S.C. Lau, R.T. Kukreja, and R.D. McMillin, Effects of V-shaped Rib Arrays on Turbulent Heat Transfer and Friction of
Fully Developed Flow in a Square Channel, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 34 (1991): 1605-1616.;
M.E. Taslim, T. Li, and D.M. Kercher, Experimental Heat Transfer and Friction in Channels Roughened with Angled, V-
Shaped, and Discrete Ribs on Two Opposite Walls, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, 118 (1996): 20-28; X. Gao and
B. Suden, Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Measurements in Rib-roughened Rectangular Ducts, Experimental
Thermal and Fluid Science 24 (2001): 25-34; D.H. Rhee, D.H. Lee, H.H. Cho, and H.K. Moon, Effects of Duct Aspect
Ratios on Heat /Mass Transfer with Discrete V-Shaped Ribs, ASME Paper No. GT2003-38622(2003).
55. H.H. Cho, S.J. Wu, and H.J. Kwon, Local Heat/Mass Transfer Measurements in a Rectangular Duct with Discrete
Ribs, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 122 (2000): 579-586; also see note 54 (Rhee, et al.).
56. See note 53 (Han & Zhang).
57. J.C. Han, J.J. Huang, and C.P. Lee, Augmented Heat Transfer in Square Channels with Wedge-Shaped and Delta-Shaped
Turbulence Promoters, Journal of Enhanced Heat Transfer 1 no.1 (1993): 37-52.
58. R.S Bunker and S.J. Osgood, The Effect of Turbulator Lean on Heat Transfer and Friction in a Square Channel, ASME
Paper No. GT-2003-38137 (2003).
59. M.E. Taslim and S.D. Spring, Effects of Turbulator Prole and Spacing on Heat Transfer and Friction in a Channel,
AIAA Journal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer 8 no. 3 (1994): 555-562.
60. J.C. Bailey and R.S. Bunker, Heat Transfer and Friction in Channels with Very High Blockage 45 Staggered
Turbulators, ASME Paper No. GT-2003-38611(2003); M.E. Taslim and S.D. Spring, Experimental Heat Transfer and
Friction Factors in Turbulated Cooling Passages of Different Aspect Ratios where Turbulators are Staggered, AIAA
Paper No. 88-3014, 24th Joint Propulsion Conference (1988).
61. J.R. Shen, Z. Wang, P.T. Ireland, T.V. Jones, and A.R. Byerley, Heat Transfer Enhancement Within a Turbine Blade
Cooling Passage Using Ribs and Combinations of Ribs With Film Cooling Holes, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery
188 (1996): 428-433; D. Thurman and P. Poinsette, Experimental Heat Transfer and Bulk Air Temperature
Measurements for a Multipass Internal Cooling Model with Ribs and Bleed, ASME Paper No. 2000-GT-233 (2000); also
see note 53 (Ekkad, Huang, and Han).
62. See note 53 (Ekkad, Huang, and Han).
63. See note 61 (Shen, et al.).
64. J.H. Wagner, B.V. Johnson, and F.C. Kopper, Heat Transfer in Rotating Serpentine Passages With Smooth Walls, ASME
Journal of Turbomachinery 113 (1991): 321-330; S. Dutta and J.C. Han, Rotational Effects on the Turbine Blade
Coolant Passage Heat Transfer, Annual Review of Heat Transfer 9 (1997): 269-314.
65. J.C. Han, Y.M. Zhang, and K. Kalkuehler, Uneven Wall Temperature Effect on Local Heat Transfer in a Rotating Two-
Pass Square Channel with Smooth Walls, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 114 (1993): 850-858.
66. Ibid.
67. J.A. Parsons, J.C. Han, and Y.M. Zhang, Wall Heating Effect on Local Heat Transfer in a Rotating Two-Pass Square
Channel with 90-Degree Rib Turbulators, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 37 no. 9 (1994): 1411-1420;
Y.M. Zhang, J.C. Han, J.A. Parsons, and C.P. Lee, Surface Heating Effect on Local Heat Transfer in a Rotating Two-Pass
Square Channel with 60-Degree Angled Rib Turbulators, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 117 (1995): 272-278.
68. S. Acharya, V. Eliades, and D.E. Nikitopoulos, Heat Transfer Enhancements in Rotating Two-Pass Coolant Channels
with Proled Ribs: Part 1 Average Results, ASME Paper No. 2000-GT-0227 (2000).
69. J.H. Wagner, B.V. Johnson, R.A. Graziani, and F.C. Yeh, Heat Transfer in Rotating Serpentine Passages With Trips
Normal to the Flow, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 114 (1992): 847-857.
70. B.V. Johnson, J.H. Wagner, G.D. Steuber, and F.C. Yeh, Heat Transfer in Rotating Serpentine Passages with Trips
Skewed to the Flow, ASME Paper No. 92-GT-191, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery. 116 (1992): 113-123.
349
4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes

71. C.W. Park, S.C. Lau, R.T. Kukreja, Heat/Mass Transfer in a Rotating Two-Pass Square Channel with Transverse Ribs.
AIAA Journal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer 12 (1998): 80-86; C.W. Park, C. Yoon, S.C. Lau, Heat (Mass)
Transfer in a Diagonally Oriented Rotating Two-Pass Channels with Rib-Roughened Walls, ASME Journal of Heat
Transfer 122 (2000): 208-211.
72. B.V. Johnson, J.H. Wagner,G.D. Steuber, and F.C. Yeh, Heat Transfer in Rotating Serpentine Passages with Selected
Model Orientations for Smooth or Skewed Trip Walls, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 116 (1994): 738-744.
73. J.A. Parsons, J.C. Han, and Y.M. Zhang, Wall Heating Effect on Local Heat Transfer in a Rotating Two-Pass Square
Channel with 90-Degree Rib Turbulators, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 37 (1994): 1411-1420.
74. S. Dutta and J.C. Han, Local Heat Transfer in Rotating Smooth and Ribbed Two-Pass Square Channels With Three
Channel Orientations, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 118 (1996): 578-584.
75. L. Al-Hadhrami and J.C. Han, Effect of Rotation in Two-Pass Square Channels with Parallel and Crossed 45 angled Rib
Turbulators, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 46 (2003): 653-669.
76. J. Guidez, Study of the Convective Heat Transfer in a Rotating Coolant Channel, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery
111(1989): 43-50.
77. C.Y. Soong,, S.T. Lin, and G.J. Hwang, An Experimental Study of Convective Heat Transfer in Radially Rotating
Rectangular Ducts, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 113 (1991): 604-611.
78. M.E. Taslim, L.A. Bondi, and D.M. Kercher, D.M., An Experimental Investigation of Heat Transfer in an Orthogonally
Rotating Channel Roughened with 45 Deg Criss-Cross Ribs on Two Opposite Walls, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery
113 (1991): 346-353.
79. G.M.S. Azad, J.M. Uddin, J.C. Han, H.K. Moon, and B. Glezer, Heat Transfer in a Two-Pass Rectangular Rotating
Channel with 45-Degree Angled Rib Turbulators, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 124 (2001): 251-259; L. Al-
Hadhrami, T.S. Grifth, and J.C. Han, Heat Transfer in Two-Pass Rotating Rectangular Channels (AR=2) with Parallel
and Crossed 45 V-shaped Rib Turbulators, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 125 (2002): 232-242.
80. T.S. Grifth, L. Al-Hadhrami, and J.C. Han, Heat Transfer in Rotating Rectangular Cooling Channels (AR=4) with
Angled Ribs, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 124 (2001): 617-625.
81. E. Lee, L.M. Wright, and J.C. Han, Heat Transfer in Rotating Rectangular Channels (AR = 4:1) with V-Shaped and
Angled Rib Turbulators with and without Gaps, ASME Paper No. GT-2003-38900 (2003).
82. L.M. Wright,W.L. Fu, and J.C. Han, Thermal Performance of Angled, V-Shaped, and W-Shaped Rib Turbulators in
Rotating Rectangular Cooling Channels (AR=4:1), ASME Paper No. GT 2004-54073 (2004).
83. H.H. Cho,Y.Y. Kim, K.M. Kim, and D.H. Rhee, Effects of Rib Arrangements and Rotation Speed on Heat Transfer in a
Two-Pass Duct, ASME Paper No. GT 2003-38609 (2003).
84. P. Agarwal, S. Acharya, and D.E. Nikitopoulos, Heat/Mass Transfer in 1:4 Rectangular Passages with Rotation, ASME
Paper No. GT 2003-38615 (2003).
85. W.L. Fu, L.M. Wright, and J.C. Han, Heat Transfer in Two-Pass Rotating Rectangular Channels (A=1:2 and AR=1:4)
with Smooth Walls, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 127 (2005): 209-356; W.L. Fu, L.M. Wright, and J.C. Han, Heat
Transfer in Two-Pass Rotating Rectangular Channels (AR=1:2 and AR=1:4) with 45 Angled Rib Turbulators, ASME
Paper No. GT 2004-53261 (2004); W.L. Fu, L.M. Wright, and J.C. Han, Buoyancy Effects on Heat Transfer in Five
Different Aspect-Ratio Rectangular Channels with Smooth Walls and 45-Degree Ribbed Walls, ASME Paper No. GT
2005-68493 (2005).
86. R.J. Clifford, W.D. Morris, and S.P. Harasgama, An Experimental Study of Local and Mean Heat Transfer in a
Triangular-Sectioned Duct Rotating in the Orthogonal Mode, ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and
Power 106 (1984): 661-667.
87. S.P. Harasgama and W.D. Morris, The Inuence of Rotation on the Heat Transfer Characteristics of Circular, Triangular,
and Square-Sectioned Coolant Passages of Gas Turbine Rotor Blades, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 110 (1988):
44-50.
88. S. Dutta, J.C. Han, Y.M. Zhang, and C.P. Lee, Local Heat Transfer in a Rotating Two-Pass Triangular Duct with Smooth
Walls, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 118 (1996): 435-443; S. Dutta, J.C. Han, and C.P. Lee, Local Heat Transfer
in a Rotating Two-Pass Ribbed Triangular Duct with Two Model Orientations, International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer 39 (1996): 707-715.
89. L. Rathjen, D.K. Hennecke, S. Bock, S., and R. Kleinstuck, Detailed Heat/Mass Transfer Distributions in a Rotating
Two Pass Coolant Channel with Engine-Near Cross section and Smooth Walls, in Heat Transfer in Gas Turbine Systems,
edited by Richard J. Goldstein, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 934 (2001): 432-439.
90. See note 95.
91. See note 81.
92. See note 85 (ASME Paper No. GT 2005-68493).
93. G. Su, H.C. Chen, J.C. Han, and D. Heidmann, Computation of Flow and Heat Transfer in Two-Pass Rotating
Rectangular Channels (AR=1:1, AR=1:2, AR=1:4) with 45-Deg Angled Ribs by a Reynolds Stress Turbulence Model,
ASME Paper No. GT2004-53662 (2004).
94. See note 85.
95. Ibid.
350
Je-Chin Han and Lesley M. Wright

96. Ibid.
97. C. Prakash and R. Zerkle, Prediction of Turbulent Flow and Heat Transfer in a Radially Rotating Square Duct, ASME
Journal of Turbomachinery 117 (1992): 255-261.
98. Y.L. Lin, T.I-P Shih, M.A. Stephens, and M.K. Chyu, A Numerical Study of Flow and Heat Transfer in a Smooth and
Ribbed U-Duct With and Without Rotation, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 123 no. 2 (2001): 219-232.
99. H.C. Chen, Y.J. Jang, and J.C. Han, Computation of Flow and Heat Transfer in Rotating Two-Pass Square Channels by
a Reynolds Stress Model, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 43 no. 9 (2000): 1603-1616; H.C. Chen, Y.J.
Jang, and J.C. Han, Near-Wall Second-Moment Closure for Rotating Multiple-Pass Cooling Channels, AIAA Journal of
Thermophysics and Heat Transfer 14 no. 2 (2000): 201-209.
100. Y.J. Jang, H.C. Chen, and J.C. Han, Flow and Heat Transfer in a Rotating Square Channel with 45-Degree Angled Ribs
by Reynolds Stress Turbulence Model, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 123 no. 1 (2001): 124-132.
101. M. Al-Qahtani,Y.J. Jang, H.C. Chen, and J.C. Han, Prediction of Flow and Heat Transfer in Rotating Two-Pass
Rectangular Channels with 45-Degree Rib turbulators, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 124 ( April, 2002): 242-250.
102. G. Su, S. Tang, H.C. Chen, and J.C. Han, Flow and Heat Transfer Computations in Rotating Rectangular Channels with
V-Shaped Ribs, AIAA Journal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer 18 no. 4 (2004): 534-547.
103. See note 101.
104. See note 93.
105. D.K. Lezius and J.P. Johnston, Roll-Cell Instabilities in Rotating Laminar and Turbulent Channel Flows, Journal of
Fluid Mechanics 77 (1976): 153-175.
106. M. Elfert, The Effect of Rotation and Buoyancy on Flow Development in a Rotating Circular Coolant Channel, 2nd
International Symposium on Engineering Turbulence Modeling and Measurements, May 31-June 2, 1993, Florence,
Italy.
107. D.G.N. Tse and D.B. McGrath, A Combined Experimental/Computational Study of Flow in Turbine Blade Cooling
Passage. Part I: Experimental Study, ASME Paper No. 95-GT-355 (1995).
108. D.G.N. Tse and G.D. Steuber, Flow in a Rotating Square Serpentine Coolant Passage with Skewed Trips, ASME
Paper No. 97-GT-529 (1997).
109. S.C. Cheah, H. Iacovides, D.C. Jackson, H. Ji,,and B.E. Launder, LDA Investigation of the Flow Development through
Rotating U-Ducts, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 118 (1996): 590-595.
110. J.P. Bons and J.L. Kerrebrock,, Complementary Velocity and Heat Transfer Measurements in a Rotating Cooling
Passage with Smooth Walls, ASME Paper No. 98-GT-464 (1998).
111. J. Schabacker, A. Bolcs, and B.V. Johnson, PIV Investigation of the Flow Characteristics in an Internal Coolant
Passage with 45 Rib Arrangement, ASME Paper No. GT 99-120 (1999); D. Chanteloup, Y. Yuaneda, and A. Bolcs,
Combined 3D Flow and Heat Transfer Measurements in a 2-pass Internal Coolant Passage of Gas Turbine Airfoil,
ASME Paper No. GT 2002-30214 (2002).
112. S.Y. Son, K.D. Kihm, and J.C. Han, PIV Flow Measurements for Heat Transfer Characterization in Two-Pass Square
Channels with Smooth and 90-degree Ribbed Walls, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 45 no. 24 (2002):
4809-4822.
113. T.M. Liou and C.C. Chen, LDV Study of Developing Flows through a Smooth Duct with a 180 Deg Straight-Corner
Turn, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 121 (1999): 167-174.
114. T.M. Liou, M.Y. Chen, and M.H. Tsai, Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer in a Rotating Two-Pass Square Duct with In-Line
90 Ribs, ASME Paper No. GT 2001-0185 (2001).
115. T.M. Liou, M.Y. Chen, and Y.M. Wang, Heat Transfer, Fluid Flow, and Pressure Measurements inside a Rotating Duct
with Detached 90 Ribs, ASME Paper No. GT 2002-30201(2002).
116. Liou, T. M., and Dai, G. Y., 2003, Pressure and Flow Characteristics in a Rotating Two-Pass Square Duct with 45 Deg
Angled Ribs, ASME Paper No. GT 2003-38346.
117. T.M. Liou, Y.S. Hwang, and Y.C. Li, Floweld and Pressure Measurements in a Rotating Two-Pass Duct with
Staggered Rounded Ribs Skewed 45 to the Flow, ASME Paper No. GT 2004-53173 (2004).
118. See notes 116 and 117.
119. A.H. Epstein, J.L. Kerrebrock, J.J. Koo, and U.Z. Preiser, Rotational Effects on Impingement Cooling, GTL Report
No. 184 (1985).
120. C.H. Mattern and D.K. Hennecke, The Inuence of Rotation on Impingement Cooling, ASME Paper No. 96-GT-161
(1996).
121. B. Glezer, H.K. Moon, J. Kerrebrock, J.Bons, and G. Guenette, Heat Transfer in a Rotating Radial Channel with
Swirling Internal Flow, ASME Paper No. 98-GT-214 (1998).
122. J.A. Parsons, J.C. Han, and C.P. Lee, Rotation Effect on Jet Impingement Heat Transfer in Smooth Rectangular
Channels with Four Heated Walls and Radially Outward Crossow, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 120 (1998): 79-
85.
123. K.V. Akella and J.C. Han, Impingement Cooling in Rotating Two-Pass Rectangular Channels, AIAA Journal of
Thermophysics and Heat Transfer 12 no. 4 (1998): 582-588.

351
4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes

124. J.A. Parsons and J.C. Han, Rotation Effect on Jet Impingement Heat Transfer in Smooth Rectangular Channels with
Heated Target Walls and Film Coolant Extraction, ASME Paper No. 96-WA/HT-9 (1996).
125. K.V. Akella and J.C. Han, Impingement Cooling in Rotating Two-Pass Rectangular Channels with Ribbed Walls,
AIAA Journal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer 13 no. 3 (1999): 364-371.
126. J.A. Parsons, J.C. Han, and C.P. Lee, Rotation Effect on Jet Impingement Heat Transfer in Smooth Rectangular
Channels with Four Heated Walls and Film Coolant Extraction, ASME Paper No. GT-2003-28905 (2003).
127. F.T. Willett and A.E. Bergles, Heat Transfer in Rotating Narrow Rectangular Ducts with Heated Sides Oriented at 60-
Degree to the R-Z Plane, ASME Paper No. 2000-GT-224 (2000); F.T. Willett and A.E. Bergles, Heat Transfer in
Rotating Narrow Rectangular Pin-Fin Ducts, Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 25 (2002): 573-582.
128. L.M. Wright, E. Lee, and J.C. Han,, Effect of Rotation on Heat Transfer in Narrow Rectangular Cooling Channels
(AR = 8:1 and 4:1) with Pin-Fins, ASME Paper No. GT 2003-38340 (2003).
129. F. Zhou and S. Acharya,, Mass/Heat Transfer in Dimpled Two-Pass Coolant Passages with Rotation, Heat Transfer in
Gas Turbine Systems, ed., R. J. Goldstein, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 934 (2001): 424-431.
130. T.S. Grifth, L. Al-Hadhrami, and J.C. Han, Heat Transfer in Rotating Rectangular Cooling Channels (AR = 4) with
Dimples, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 125 (2003): 555-563.

352
BIOGRAPHY
4.2.2.2 Enhanced Internal Cooling of Turbine Blades and Vanes

Je-Chin Han

Turbine Heat Transfer Laboratory


Department of Mechanical Engineering
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas 77843-3123

phone: (979) 845-3738


email: jc-han@tamu.edu

Dr. Han is presently the Marcus Easterling Endowed Chair Professor at Texas A & M University.
He has been working on many turbine blade cooling projects since 1980, including innovative
cooling concepts, rotor coolant passage heat transfer, unsteady high turbulance effects on blade
lm cooling and turbine edge cooling (leading edge, trailing edge, blade tip, and end-wall regions).
This research has been on both aircraft engines and industrial gas turbine applications funded by
NASA- Glenn, GE - aircraft engines, DOE - AGTSR + UTSR, and Siemens Westinghouse. He is
the co-author of more than 150 referreed journal papers and one book in gas turbine heat transfer
and cooling technology. He has been doing research on gas turbine blade cooling for more than
25 years.
Lesley M. Wright
Turbine Heat Transfer Laboratory
Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas 77843-3123

phone: (979) 845-1767


email: lesleywright@neo.tamu.edu

Lesley Wright is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Texas A&M
University. She joined the Turbine Heat Transfer Laboratory in September of 2001 after obtaining
her B.S. in Engineering from Arkansas State University. While experimentally investigating the
effect of rotation on internal gas turbine blade heat transfer, she earned her M.S. in Mechanical
Engineering from Texas A&M in May of 2003. Lesley continues to study both internal and
external turbine blade heat transfer; in addition, she is considering new experimental methods and
their application to better understand gas turbine heat transfer and cooling techniques.
4.2.3 4.2.3-1 Introduction
Airfoil Endwall Heat Transfer
The ow in a gas turbine inuenced by the inner hub and outer casings of the
airfoils is dened as secondary or endwall ows. These ows often contain vortices
that give rise to velocity components that are orthogonal to the primary ow direction
as depicted in gure 1 by the ribbon arrows, which is specic to vane endwalls. These
ows constitute one of the most commonplace and widespread three-dimensional
ows arising in axial ow turbomachinery. In typical modern day turbine designs,
endwall ows for rst stage vanes are responsible for over 30% of the total pressure
loss through a turbine stage leading to a reduction in turbine efciencies on the order
of 3%. While overall airfoil losses have been reduced through the use of three-
dimensional geometries that make use of bowed or leaned airfoils, for example, the
endwalls have remained fairly conventional and the source of much of the remaining
pressure losses. The heat transfer consequences are immense because of the increased
convective coefcients and mixing out of lm-coolant near the surface. It is clear
from a thermodynamic analysis of a turbine engine, that to improve performance,
there is a need to increase the aspect ratio for turbine airfoils and to increase turbine
inlet temperatures. To improve a turbines performance, these trends require that
endwall ows be carefully considered in turbine designs.
The endwall ow through an airfoil cascade under isothermal conditions
with an approaching two-dimensional boundary layer agrees well with that depicted
in gure 1. The ow model shows that the inlet boundary layer separates from
the approaching endwall to form what is known as a horseshoe vortex. One leg of
the horseshoe vortex, present on the pressure side of the airfoil (concave side), is
convected into the passage and is promoted by the inherent pressure gradient between
the two airfoil surfaces. This pressure side leg of the horseshoe vortex develops into
what is known as the passage vortex. The other leg of the horseshoe vortex, present
on the suction side of the airfoil (convex side), has an opposite sense of rotation to
the larger passage vortex and develops into what is known as a counter vortex. The
counter vortex can be thought of as a planet rotating about the axis of the passage
vortex (sun). The actual rotation of the vortices depicted in gure 1 were drawn
to exaggerate the vortex motion and for the passage vortex is generally about two
rotations before exiting the airfoil passage. While this picture represents a time-
averaged representation, measured data indicates that the vortex is not steady. While
the development of the vortical structures originates in the endwall regions, the growth
can be such that the passage vortex occupies a large portion of the airfoil exit. This

Karen Thole
Mechanical Eng. Dept, Penn State Univ.
University Park, PA 16802-1412 Fig. 1. Classic secondary ow pattern Fig. 2. Illustration of the near wall
for a turbine airfoil passage.(reproduced ows as taken through oil and dye
phone: (814) 865-2519 with permission from American Society of surface ow visualization (reproduced
email: kthole@psu.edu Mechanical Engineers [ASME]). with permission of the publisher from
ASME).
Source: Langston, L. S. Crossows in a
Turbine Cascade Passage, ASME J of Source: Friedrichs, S., Hodson, H.
Engineering for Power 102 (1980): 866 P. and Dawes, W. N., Distribution
- 874. of Film-Cooling Effectiveness on a
Turbine Endwall Measured Using the
Ammonia and Diazo Technique, J of
Turbomachinery 118 (1996): 613-621.
353
vortical structure growth extends up to 30-40% of the total span for older vane designs and has been reduced to approximately 10-15%
of the total span in the last 15 years.
The ow patterns previously described make it difcult to cool the endwall, particularly when considering the near endwall
ow, as illustrated in gure 2. The surface ow visualization in gure 2, achieved through an oil and surface dye technique, illustrates
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
the strong cross ows that occur. The cross ows are driven by the inherent pressure gradients from the pressure0to the
-0.2 -0.4 -0.6
suction side of
adjacent airfoils. For example, these cross ows inuence how the lm-cooling jets exit from the holes as well as inuence the endwall
heat transfer coefcients.
This section briey describes a simplied theoretical approach to understanding vane endwall ows. Following this brief
discussion the following will be provided: heat transfer coefcients experienced along a turbine vane endwall with varying effects, lm-
cooling designs, and geometrical means for reducing endwall heat transfer. Outer casing ows of vanes are similar to inner hub ows;
however, for blades the outer casing ows encompass yet another difcult region which is the blade tip region. Generally, there is a gap
between the blade tip and outer casing that provides for a leakage ow that is inherently driven by the pressure difference between the
pressure and suction sides of the blades. A brief section about tip ows will be provided at the end of this section.

4.2.3-2 Theoretical Development of Endwall U/U


(U2+W2)1/2/Uh = 1 h
1.0
Flows 0.15
0.8
As the endwall boundary layer approaches a turbine airfoil, the
0.6
ow stagnates, whereby the total pressure becomes the static pressure 0.10
along the span of the vane. Given that the uid nearer to the endwall has 0.4
a lower velocity, a stronger deceleration in the boundary layer occurs Z/S
for the higher speed uid than for the lower speed uid. As a result of
0.2
these differences in the deceleration, a transverse static pressure gradient 0.05 Horseshoe
0.0
Vortex
occurs along the vane span causing the higher speed uid to turn toward
Damage -0.2
the endwall plate. Subsequently, the formation of a horseshoe vortex
occurs just upstream of the turbine vane. One of the legs of the horseshoe 0.00 -0.4
vortex wraps around the pressure side of the vane and the other leg wraps -0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00
around the suction side of the vane. Figure 3a shows measurements of X/C -0.6
the horseshoe vortex upstream of the turbine vane and gure 3b shows 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6
extreme damage from the effects of this vortex on actual hardware. These
measurements were made for a simple case with an isothermal ow and
Fig. 3a. Measurements of the horseshoe vortex just
an approaching boundary layer that was 9 % of the vane span (Z/S = upstream of the vane at the vane-endwall juncture
0.09). From the combined contour/vector plot in gure 3a, one can see (reproduced with permission from ASME).
where the ow separates from the upstream endwall and how the ow is
Horseshoe
then rolled into a vortex. It is also clear to see that, if a lm-cooling jet Source: M. Kang, A. Kohli, and K.A. Thole, Heat
Vortex
were injected into this region, it would be difcult to maintain the coolant Transfer and Floweld Measurements
Damagein the Leading
along the endwall. Edge Region of a Stator Vane Endwall, J of
The ow elds discussed thus far have described the condition Turbomachinery 121 (1999): 558-568.
for a uniform, isothermal ow eld with an approaching two-dimensional
boundary layer along the endwall. In practice, this idealized ow situation
rarely happens since an upstream combustor is present whereby there can
be large variations in the exiting ow. Non-uniformity of inlet proles in
addition to the viscous boundary layers along the endwall are caused by
temperature gradients at the combustor exit. The development of cross-
ow and vortical motions in a curved passage, such as an airfoil passage,
can be understood by considering ow along two streamlines, as shown
in gure 4. Two idealized cases are considered: a) a gradient of velocity
due to a turbulent inlet boundary layer with an isothermal ow, b) a linear
temperature gradient typical at the exit of a combustor with a uniform
velocity eld.
Assuming steady, incompressible, inviscid ow with negligible Fig. 3b. Actual hardware showing
variation of velocity in the n-direction, the centripetal acceleration for effects of the horseshoe vortex on a rst
the streamlines A and B must be balanced by the pressure gradient vane
across the pitch:

(1)

354
Karen Thole

From boundary layer theory, for both streamlines from the developing boundary
layer on the sidewalls should be equal. Therefore

(2)
.
Due to the viscous turbulent boundary layer at the endwall, it is evident that VsB < VsA.
So for the boundary layer assumption to hold, the radius of curvature of the streamline
at B must be reduced. This creates a crossow in the boundary layer from the pressure
surface towards the suction surface of the blade, and thus generates secondary ow
(ow that is not aligned with the streamwise direction) as depicted in gure 4a.
Now consider gure 4b, a constant velocity prole with linear temperature
prole. The same physics hold for this case; however, the resulting vortex is reversed
in direction. In this instance the temperature at A is greater than at B, therefore A <
B. Now RB must be greater than RA for the normal pressure gradient to balance and the
cross ow is generated towards the pressure side of the adjacent vane row. The change
in streamline curvature would be less severe in this case compared to gure 4a since the
velocity term is squared in the relationship of Equation 1.
As one can see from these simple, idealized ow situations, there can be large
variation in the expected secondary ow pattern that can be derived in a turbine vane
passage. The important driver for how the ow develops in a turbine vane passage is
the total pressure prole entering the passage. As this total pressure prole becomes the
static pressure along the vane stagnation, the ow will be driven from a high pressure Fig. 4. Illustration of different vortical
region to a low pressure region. In most turbine designs there is a ow leakage slot patterns that are possible for two ideal-
between the combustor and the turbine whereby cooler uid is injected into the main ized ow conditions: a) isothermal with
hot gas path. This leakage can also have an effect on the secondary ow patterns that an inlet boundary layer and b) inviscid
develop. The bottom line when considering endwall ows is that the prole exiting the ow with a temperature prole.
combustor, which is often referred to as the combustor pattern factor that ultimately
enters the turbine, should be known to fully predict the secondary ows that will develop Source: B. Lakshminarayana, Fluid Dy-
in the turbine passage. In practice, the combustor pattern factor is one of the parameters namics and Heat Transfer of Turboma-
chinery (NY: Wiley Interscience, 1996).
used in designing cooling schemes for the airfoils and their associated platforms.

h
4.2.3-3 Endwall Heat Transfer St =
C p U ex
[ x103 ]

1.00
The heat transfer coefcients given in gure 5 are represented in terms of
a non-dimensional Stanton number based on exit velocity. In the region upstream of 0.75 20
the vanes, there is a high heat transfer region that occurs between the stagnation point
and the reattachment of the ow on the suction side of the airfoil. This is the area 18
0.50
which experiences very high acceleration. As the ow moves through the passage, it 16
is apparent that the location of the peak Stanton numbers (peak heat transfer) is being 0.25
14
swept from the outer pressure surface towards the suction side of the central vane.
Figure 6 presents the Stanton numbers for two freestream turbulence levels Y/C 0.00 12
(Tu = 0.6% and 19.5%) approaching the stagnation location along a line parallel to the 10
-0.25
incoming velocity vector. Figure 6 illustrates that at a location of approximately 15%
of the chord (X/C = 0.15) upstream of the vane, the Stanton numbers begin to increase 8
-0.50
dramatically. This increase can be related to the position where the ow separates from 6
the endwall, as shown by Figure 3a, which occurs at approximately X/C = 0.12. The -0.75
4
heat transfer continues to increase as the ow approaches the vane.
Depending upon the particular combustor design, the turbulence levels exiting a -1.00
combustor that enter into the turbine can be relatively high. In general, high levels -0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75
of turbulence lead to higher levels of heat transfer. Figure 6 illustrates this increase X/C
through both the Stanton numbers (left axis) and the augmentation of Stanton numbers Fig. 5. Contours of non-dimensional
(right axis) whereby augmentation refers to the Stanton number (convective heat transfer heat transfer coefcients (reproduced
coefcients) at high turbulence divided by the Stanton number at low turbulence levels. with permission from the publisher of
Figure 6 illustrates that there is an approximate 20% increase in heat transfer resulting ASME).
from a turbulence level of 19.5%.
Source: See g. 3a above.
355
4.2.3 Airfoil Endwall Heat Transfer

10
14 2 1.8 14 2
Tu =19.5%
Tu = 19.5% Tu = 19.5%
12 Tu =1% 12
8 Tu = 0.6%
Augmentation, St/St 1.81.6 Tu = 0.6% 1.8
o
Augmentation, St/St Augmentation, St/St
o o
10 10
St 6 1.61.4 St 1.6
St
(x 10e-03) (x 10e-03)
3 8
(x10 ) St/StSt/Sto 8 St/St
o o

1.41.2 1.4
4 6
6

1.0 1.2
1.2
4 4
2

2 0.3 0.8 2
1 1
-0.1 00.2 0.1 0.1
0.2 0.08 0.3 0.06 0.4 0.04 0.5 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
x/C
| X| / C x/C

Fig. 6. Non-dimensional heat transfer coefcients (left axis) along Fig. 7. Pitchwise averaged non-dimensional heat transfer
the endwall approaching the vane leading edge for low (Sto) and coefcients (left axis) for low and high freestream
high freestream turbulence (St); and augmentation factors (right turbulence; and augmentation factors (right axis) for heat
axis) for heat transfer coefcients (reproduced with permission from transfer coefcients (reproduced with permission from
the publisher of ASME). the publisher of ASME).
14 2
Source: R. Radomsky and K. Thole, High Freestream Turbulence
Tu = 19.5% Source: See g. 6 above.
Effects
12 in theTuEndwall
= 0.6% Leading Edge Region, ASME J. of
1.8
Turbomachinery 122 (2000): 699-708.
Augmentation, St/St
o
10
St
Figure 7 compares the heat transfer coefcients averaged over the pitch (vane-to-vane) for a range of axial positions. As the
1.6
ow accelerates through the passage, the heat transfer coefcients also increase, which is to be expected. For most of the axial distance,
(x 10e-03)
the8 augmentation due to freestream turbulence is relativelySt/St
constant
o at 25% above the low freestream turbulence case. Only near the end
of the vane where the passage vortex dominates, beyond 1.4 X/C of 0.38, is there a decrease in the augmentation.
6
Note that the heat transfer data shown in this paper were taken with a two-dimensional inlet boundary layer under low speed
conditions, to allow for highly-resolved data, with matched Reynolds number conditions. There is evidence in the literature that the
1.2
4
secondary ow patterns remain the same at both low and high Mach number conditions. Rather, these secondary ows are a stronger
function of the airfoil geometry and inlet prole conditions that of Mach number. There is no data in the literature that discusses how the
heat
2 transfer on the endwall is altered depending upon an1inlet ow condition that is relevant to that exiting a combustor. As was stated
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
previously, it is important tox/C
consider that the prole exiting the combustor can vary greatly
from that of a two-dimensional boundary layer assumption.

4.2.3-4 Endwall Film-Cooling


One method of combating the high heat transfer coefcients along the endwall
is through the use of lm-cooling holes whereby cooler air is injected through discrete
holes in the endwall. Film-cooling hole placement, particularly in the endwall region, has
traditionally been based upon designer experience whereby a number of design variables are
considered. For example, one should take into account leakage from a slot at the combustor-
turbine interface whereby cooler gases leak into the main gas path (combustor lm-cooling
carryover). Most turbines are designed such that pressures outside the main gas path are
higher than those found in the main gas path to insure that the hot combustion gases are not
ingested below the platform. If designed properly, this leakage ow could be relied upon as
a source of coolant. It is also important to remember that the secondary ows that develop
are affected by the leakage ows at the vane inlet, as indicated by the previous discussion
in this section. Other design variables include roughness effects, lm-cooling migration Fig 8. Measured adiabatic wall
(as will be discussed), lm-cooling limitations resulting from internal cooling schemes, and temperatures for coolant exiting
cooling hole manufacturing. Manufacturing of cooling is generally done through the use a combustor/vane leakage slot
of electro-discharge machining (EDM) or laser drilling with both being subjected to access (reproduced with permission from the
limitations. Generally, EDM is more expensive than laser drilling and conversely laser publisher of ASME).
drilling can tend to be more limited in terms of hole geometries that can be manufactured.
Source: D.G. Knost and K.
Consider a leakage slot ow between the combustor and turbine whereby the Thole, Adiabatic Effectiveness
coolant is 0.75% of the core ow. The cooling to the endwall that can be provided is Measurements of Endwall Film-
shown in gure 8. Coolant exits across much of the width of the slot albeit in a very non- Cooling for a First Stage Vane, J.
uniform manner. This non-uniform slot ow arises from the static pressure distribution and of Turbomachinery 127 (2005): 297-
secondary ow development along the endwall. Although there is a large uncooled region, 305.
356
Karen Thole

often referred to as a bow wake, around much of the vane at the leading edge and along the pressure side of the airfoil, there is also a
well-cooled region in the center of the passage. As the slot ow increases, the cooling potential also increases to a point after which the
benet is small.
As was previously mentioned, endwall lm-cooling has largely been based on designer experience. One difculty in designing the
lm-cooling hole pattern is knowing beforehand the local static pressure along the endwall, which varies greatly along the endwall as
the ow accelerates through the passage. If one considers that a single supply feeds all the lm-cooling holes and inviscid ow through
the holes, it can be shown that a global, ideal (loss-free) blowing ratio for all the lm-cooling holes is given by the following equation,

(3)

where Po,in and ps,in are dened at the inlet to the turbine. If one then wants to compute the local, ideal blowing ratio for each cooling
hole (now taking into consideration that the local velocity varies), the following equation can be used

(4)

where ps, is the local static pressure dened at the exit of the cooling hole. Equation 4 indicates that the same blowing ratio will occur
for each hole placed along a constant static pressure line. Designing an endwall cooling pattern to achieve a uniform blowing ratio is
one methodology that some companies have used.

T Taw
=
T Tc

9a 9b 9c

Fig. 9. Contours of adiabatic effectiveness for two lm-cooling hole patterns (left and center) with a mid-passage gutter
for the cooling hole pattern in the center (right) (reproduced with permission from the publisher of ASME).

Source: See gure 8 above.

Figure 9a shows a cooling hole pattern whereby the holes in the passage were placed along a constant static pressure line.
Figure 9b shows an endwall cooling hole pattern with holes that were placed on lines parallel to the incoming ow direction. The
endwall in Figure 9b also provides the space for including a mid-passage gap that occurs between vanes as the vanes are mated on the
turbine disk. Vanes are generally cast in either doublets or singlets and then placed in a turbine disk with some type of seal between the
vane platforms. Generally, relatively low levels of coolant leak from this mid-passage gap (less that 0.3%). Figure 9c shows the same
lm-cooling hole pattern as that in gure 9b with the exception being the mid-passage gap is present in gure 9c.
The coolant ow conditions for all three vanes shown in gure 9 are the same with 0.75% of the core ow exiting in the form
of coolant from the upstream slot, 0.5% coolant exiting the lm-cooling holes and no net coolant ow through the mid-passage gap for
gure 9c. The contours plotted in gure 9 represent the non-dimensional adiabatic wall temperatures. As discussed in the previous
section, adiabatic surface temperatures represent the local uid temperature. From all three contour plots in gure 9, it is clear that the
357 upstream slot can denitely be an important part of cooling mid portion of the endwall. In comparing gure 9c to the rest, however, it
4.2.3 Airfoil Endwall Heat Transfer

is also seen that the mid-passage gap limits the area of the cooling present. The mid-
passage gap provides a convective coolant trough through which coolant from the
upstream slot enters and passes through the gap along the mid-passage before exiting
the gap near the trailing edge of the airfoil.
The streamlines superimposed upon the experimental measurements of the
adiabatic wall temperatures presented in gure 9, were computed using computational
uid dynamics (CFD). These streamlines were extracted from the CFD simulations
at a location very near to the endwall (less than 2% of the span). The streamlines,
for the most part, can be used to predict the trajectory of the coolant ow exiting the
cooling holes. There are some regions, however, where the streamlines differ from
the jet trajectories, such as at the entrance to the passage closer to the pressure side.
In comparing all of the cooling hole patterns in gure 9, it is clear that Fig.10. Example of contoured endwall for a
more uniform cooling can be achieved by placing cooling holes along constant static rst vane design
pressure lines as in gure 9a. All three patterns illustrate the difculty of cooling
the endwall along the pressure side of the vane and along the leading edge-endwall Source: W. Colban, K. Thole, and M.
Haendler, Heat Transfer and Film-Cooling
juncture. In general these are very difcult areas to cool because of the secondary
Measurements on a Stator Vane with Fan-
ows that were described previously. The horseshoe vortex in the stagnation region Shaped Cooling Holes, International Gas
can lead to coolant being swept upstream of the holes at low blowing ratios, whereas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and
at high blowing ratios the coolant separates from the endwall and impacts the vane Exposition, Reno, GT2005-68258.
surface rather than the endwall surface. Despite the cooling holes injecting coolant
towards pressure side of the vane, the sweeping motion of the passage vortex prevents
cooling at the juncture between the pressure side of the vane and the endwall.

4.2.3-5 Leading Edge Modications

Because industry is concerned with problems at the vane leading edge-


endwall juncture, a number of more recent studies have begun to evaluate geometric
modications to airfoils in this region. Both overall vane endwall contouring, as
shown in gure 10, as well as more specic geometric features particular to the
leading edge region have been considered. At this point there have been three
different geometric concepts tested for an asymmetric airfoil geometry that include
the following classications: fences, llets, and bulbs. Methods using ow control
such as suction combined with injection have also been reported but are generally not
feasible for gas turbines where gas temperatures exceed airfoil melting temperatures.
Chung and Simon rst presented their concept for secondary ow control in 1993 Filleted Vane
that encompassed using a fence placed in mid-passage between two turbine airfoils1. (Measured)
While their tests indicated a reduction in strength of the passage vortex, industrys
concern was in cooling the fence and that it acted as a n conducting heat to the Filleted Vane
platform as it was exposed to the hotter main gas path uid. (Measured)
While the llet and bulb appear to be similar, as shown in gure 11a, the
0.25
physical concepts behind why there are these two different modications are quite
different. Sauer et al. and Becz et al. studied the effects of various sized leading 0.20
edge endwall bulbs as shown in gure 11a.2 The objective of this modication was to
0.15
intensify the suction side branch of the horseshoe vortex and, through an interaction 0.25
z/S
of the stronger suction side branch with the passage vortex, weaken the passage 0.10
0.20
vortex. Becz et al. found that when compared with a llet geometry, such as that
shown in gure 11b, there were slightly lower aerodynamic losses for a llet rather 0.05
0.15
than a bulb3. z/S 0
0.10
The philosophy behind the Zess and Thole modication, which was a llet -0.25 -0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0

as shown in gure 11b, was to eliminate the leading edge vortex thereby delaying the x/C
0.05
development of the passage vortex4. They presented a direct comparison between Fig.11. Various leading edge geometries:
measured and predicted ow elds for an airfoil with no llet and an airfoil with a) llet and0 bulb designs as shown by Becz
et al. and -0.25 -0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0
b) CFD predictions and oweld
a llet design. Their results indicated no presence of a leading edge vortex for a measurements for a lletedx/C vane by Zess and
lleted airfoil and a delayed passage vortex. Moreover, their experimental results Thole (reproduced with permission from the
indicated a large reduction (by more than an order of magnitude in some locations) publisher of ASME).
of turbulence levels for a lleted airfoil.
The only papers to have considered the endwall heat transfer effects has Sources: See notes 2 and 4.
been that of Shih and Lin, Lethander and Thole, and Han and Goldstein (who
both performed computational studies to evaluate different llet designs)5. Shih
358
Karen Thole

and Lin, investigated not only the use of a leading edge modication but also of inlet swirl to control secondary ows in an airfoil
passage. Two different modications along with no modication were considered for three different inlet swirl congurations: no
swirl and swirls of opposite rotation with linearly varying swirl angle from endwall to endwall. The two modications differed
in how they blended into the vane geometry with one fading into the vane surface and the other fading into the endwall. While
no single case provided maximum reduction for every metric, a case with inlet swirl and no llet came very close to doing so. In
comparison, the aerodynamic and heat transfer benets realized for cases with llets and no inlet swirl were not as great. The
computational work by Lethander and Thole combined a three-dimensional computational uid dynamics (CFD) package along with
an optimization package to design an optimal llet with a rather limited number of independent parameters. Given their specied
constraints, the results from their optimization study indicated a successful llet design was one that was relatively large. While
their aerodynamic losses were predicted to slightly increase with their optimal llet, the thermal environment for the airfoil platform
was signicantly reduced. Han and Goldstein used the llet design of Zess and Thole and found that there was a reduction in heat
transfer but only near the leading edge-endwall juncture6. In the downstream portion of the passage there was little reduction.
Three-dimensional endwall contouring, which includes a more comprehensive geometric modication than simply a
modication to the endwall-airfoil leading edge juncture, has also been investigated computationally by Harvey, et al. and experimentally
veried by Hartland, et al.7. To design the endwall contour, they used a linear sensitivity matrix in conjunction with superposition
methods prior to applying an inverse design algorithm. The results of the experimental verication conrmed a predicted reduction
in exit ow angle deviations. Moreover, the experiments indicated a 30% reduction in loss, which was higher than predicted. In
a later study, Brennan, et al. and Rose, et al. applied similar computational and experimental (respectively) methodologies as
Harvey et al. and Hartland, et al.8. They applied these methods to a high pressure turbine for a single stage in both the vane and
blade passages. They reported stage efciency improvements of 0.59%, which exceeded their predicted improvement of 0.4%.
Using endwall contouring and leading edge modications show promise in reducing secondary ows; however, there are
numerous effects that need to be considered. Because this modication must be practically feasible, required manufacturing, space
limitations, and cooling are all practical issues that must be addressed. Moreover, some of these designs may be sensitive to the inlet
ow conditions which need to be considered.

4.2.3-6 Other Relevant Vane Endwall Studies


As discussed in the previous section, a number of studies have been completed with regards to vane endwalls. To form a more
complete list of studies presented in the literature on this topic, this section describes additional studies of interest.
Blair measured adiabatic effectiveness levels and heat transfer coefcients for a range of blowing ratios through a ush
slot placed just upstream of the leading edges of a single passage channel9. One of the key ndings was that the endwall adiabatic
effectiveness distributions showed extreme variations across the vane gap with much of the coolant being swept across the endwall
toward the suction side corner. Granser and Schulenberg reported similar adiabatic effectiveness results in that higher values occurred
near the suction side of the vane10.
One of the more detailed endwall lm cooling studies have been conducted by Friedrichs et al.11. The results of their studies
indicated that the endwall cross-ow was altered so that the cross-ow was turned toward the inviscid streamlines as a result of lm-
cooling injection. There have been a few studies that have measured endwall heat transfer as a result of injection from a two-dimensional,
ush slot just upstream of the vane.
A series of experiments have been reported for various injection schemes upstream of a nozzle guide vane with a contoured
endwall by Burd and Simon, Burd et al., and Oke et al.12. In the studies presented by Burd and Simon, Burd et al. and Oke et al., coolant
was injected from an interrupted, ush slot that was inclined at 45 just upstream of their vane13. Similar to others, they found that most
of the slot coolant was directed toward the suction side at low slot ow conditions. As they increased the percentage of slot ow to 3.2%
of the exit ow, their measurements indicated better coverage occurred between the airfoils.
Colban et al. reported ow eld and endwall effectiveness contours for a backward-facing slot with several different coolant
exit conditions14. Their results indicated the presence of a tertiary vortex that developed in the vane passage due to a peaked total pressure
prole in the near-wall region. For all of the conditions simulated, the effectiveness contours indicated the coolant from the slot was
swept towards the suction surface. While this study was completed for the same vane geometry as that reported in our paper, the slot
geometry had been altered to be ush with the endwall surface.
In addition to the previously mentioned studies, the only other studies to have combined an upstream slot with lm-cooling
holes in the passage of the vane were those of Kost and Nicklas and Nicklas15. One of the most interesting results from the Kost and
Nicklas, and Nicklas studies was that they found for the upstream leakage slot ow alone, which was 1.3% of the passage mass ow,
the horseshoe vortex became more intense. This increase in intensity resulted in the slot coolant being moved off of the endwall surface
and heat transfer coefcients that were over three times that measured for no slot ow injection. They attributed the strengthening of
the horseshoe vortex to the fact that for the no slot injection the boundary layer was already separated with uid being turned away
from the endwall at the injection location. Given that the slot had a normal component of velocity, injection at this location promoted
the separation and enhanced the vortex. Their adiabatic effectiveness measurements indicated higher values near the suction side of the
vane due to the slot coolant migration.
CFD studies have also been presented to characterize the endwall lm-cooling. Results presented by Knost and Thole indicated,
similar to the experiments, the presence of a warm ring on the endwall (bow wave) around the vane where no coolant was present despite
359 the combined slot cooling and lm-cooling16.
4.2.3 Airfoil Endwall Heat Transfer

4.2.3-7 Blade Tip Heat Transfer


The performance of a turbine engine is a strong function of the maximum gas temperature at the rotor inlet. Turbine blade designers
concentrate on nding adequate cooling schemes for high pressure turbine blades, particularly the tip region where heat transfer is quite
high. The clearance between a blade tip and its associated outer casing, also known as the blade outer air seal, provides a ow path
across the tip that leads to aerodynamic losses and high heat transfer rates along the blade tip. The ow within this clearance gap is
driven by a pressure differential between the pressure and suction side of the blade,
and is also affected by the viscous forces as the uid comes into contact with the
walls of the gap. A complete description of blade tips and the associated problems
is given by Bunker and is well described by gure 1217. Gap size, rotational effects,
blade geometries and Reynolds numbers were all highly inuence the heat transfer
coefcients.
One method for improving the thermal environment along the blade tip is to
inject coolant into the tip region. In a review paper on tip heat transfer, Bunker
states that for blade tips there have been very few lm-cooling studies reported in
the literature even though lm-cooling is widely used18. The discussion given in this
section is relevant to tip lm-cooling since that is what is typically used in industry.
Many tip heat transfer and lm-cooling studies have been completed without
rotational effects. In general, there is evidence in the literature that supports a widely
variable effect of rotation, which warrants further studies. One of the rst pioneers
in this region is D. Metzger whereby Kim et al.presents a summary of his work19. In
Fig. 12. CFD prediction of streamlines across a
addition to concluding that there is only a weak effect of the relative motion between
blade tip (reproduced with permission from the
a simulated blade and shroud on tip heat transfer coefcient, they stated that there publisher of ASME).
is a strong dependency of cooling effectiveness for a tip on the shape of the hole
and injection locations. Four hole congurations were discussed by Kim et al. that Source: E.M. Hohlfeld, J.R. Christophel, E.
included the following: discrete slots located along the blade tip, round holes located L. Couch, and K.A. Thole, Predictions of
along the blade tip, angled slots positioned along the pressure side and round holes Cooling from Dirt Purge Holes Along the Tip of
located within the cavity of a squealer tip. The studies reported by Kim et al. were a Turbine Blade, GT2003-38251.
performed in a channel that simulated a tip gap, whereby no blade with its associated
ow eld was simulated. In comparing the discrete slots to the holes, their data
indicated a substantial increase in cooling effectiveness using the discrete slots for
all blowing ratios tested. Injection from the pressure side holes provided cooling levels of similar magnitude to the holes placed on the
tip with better spreading occurring in the case of the pressure side injection. Kim et al. also reported that an increase in coolant mass
ow generally yielded improved cooling with tip surface holes, but for pressure side holes, increased coolant ow yielded decreased
cooling effectiveness.
Kwak and Han reported measurements for varying tip gaps with cooling holes placed along the pressure surface at a 30 breakout
angle and on the tip surface at a 90 angle for both at and squealer tip geometries20. They found a substantial improvement in
effectiveness with the addition of a squealer tip. The coolant circulated within the squealer tip providing a better distribution of the
coolant along much of the tip compared with no squealer cases. Only along parts of the suction side was the cooling effectiveness poor.
They found that for the at tip, good cooling was provided to the trailing edge due to the accumulation of coolant that exited in this area.
Their results also indicated that more coolant resulted in improved effectiveness.
Results by Christophel et al. compared adiabatic effectiveness levels measured along a blade tip with injection along the pressure
side of the blade21. Their results indicated better cooling can be achieved for a small tip gap compared with a large tip gap with
different ow phenomena occurring for each tip gap setting. They also found that increased blowing leads to increased augmentations
in tip convective heat transfer coefcients, particularly at the entrance region to the gap. When combined with adiabatic effectiveness
measurements it was found that the coolant provided an overall net heat ux reduction to the blade tip when using lm-cooling and was
nearly independent of coolant ow levels.

360
Karen Thole

4.2.3-8 Notes

_________________________

1. J. T. Chung and T. W. Simon, Effectiveness of the Gas Turbine Endwall Fences in Secondary Flow Control at Elevated
Freestream Turbulence Levels, ASME 93-GT-51(1993).
2. H. Sauer, R. Mller, and K. Vogeler, Reduction of Secondary Flow Losses in Turbine Cascades by Leading Edge
Modications at the Endwall, ASME 2000-GT-0473 (2000);S. Becz, M. S. Majewski, and L. S. Langston, Leading Edge
Modications Effects on Turbine Cascade Endwall Loss, GT2003-38898 (2003).
3. See note 2 above.
4. G. A. Zess and K. A. Thole, Computational Design and Experimental Evaluation of Using a Leading Edge Fillet on a Gas
Turbine Vane, J of Turbomachinery 124 (2002): 167-175.
5. Shih, T. I-P. and Lin, Y.-L., 2002, Controlling Secondary-Flow Structure by Leading-Edge Airfoil Fillet and Inlet Swirl
to Reduce Aerodynamic Loss and Surface Heat Transfer, ASME GT-2002-30529;Lethander, A. and Thole, K. A., 2003,
Optimizing the Vane-Endwall Junction to Reduce Adiabatic Wall Temperatures in a Turbine Vane Passage, ASME Paper GT-
2003-38940;Han, S. and Goldstein, R., 2005, Inuence of Blade Leading Edge Geometry on Turbine Endwall Heat (Mass)
Transfer, GT2005-68590.
6. See notes 4 and 5 above.
7. J. C. Hartland, P. G. Gregory-Smith, N. W. Harvey, and M. G. Rose, Nonaxisymmetric Turbine End Wall Design: Part II
Experimental Validation, J of Turbomachinery 122 (2000): 286-293;Neil W. Harvey, Martin G. Rose, Mark D. Taylor,
Jonathan Shahrokh and David G. Groegory-Smith, Nonaxisymmetric Turbine End Wall Design: Part I Three-Dimensional
Linear Design System, J of Turbomachinery 122 (2000): 278-285.
8. G. Brennan, N. W. Harvey, M. G. Rose, N. Fomison, and M. Taylor, Improving the Efciency of the Trent 500 HP Turbine
Using Non-Axisymmetric End Walls: Part 1: Turbine Design, ASME 2001-GT-0444 (2001); M. G. Rose, N. W. Harvey, P.
Seaman, D. A. Newman, and D. McManus, Improving the Efciency of the TRENT 500 HP Turbine Using Non-Axisymmetric
End Walls: Part 2: Experimental Validation, ASME 2001-GT-0505(2001); also see note 7 above.
9. M. F. Blair, An Experimental Study of Heat Transfer and Film Cooling on Large-Scale Turbine Endwalls, J of Heat Transfer
(November 1974): 524-529.
10. D. Granser and T. Schulenberg, Prediction and Measurement of Film Cooling Effectiveness for a First-Stage Turbine Vane
Shroud, ASME Paper Number 90-GT-95 (1990).
11. S. Friedrichs, H. P. Hodson, and W. N. Dawes, Aerodynamic Aspects of Endwall Film-Cooling, J of Turbomachinery 119
(1997): 786-793;.S. Friedrichs, H. P. Hodson, and W. N. Dawes, The Design of an Improved Endwall Film-Cooling
Conguration, J of Turbomachinery 121 (1999):772-780.
12. S. W. Burd, and T. W. Simon, Effects of Slot Bleed Ijection over a Contoured Endwall on Nozzle Guide Vane Cooling
Performance: Part I: Flow Field Measurements, ASME Paper No. 2000-GT-199; S. W. Burd, C. J. Satterness, and T. W.
Simon, Effects of Slot Bleed Ijection over a Contoured Endwall on Nozzle Guide Vane Cooling Performance: Part II Thermal
Measurements, ASME Paper No. 2000-GT-200; R. Oke, T. Simon, S. W. Burd, and R. Vahlberg, Measurements in a Turbine
Cascade Over a Contoured Endwall: Discrete Hole Injection of Bleed Flow, ASME Paper Number 2000-GT-214; R. Oke,
T. Simon, T. Shih, B. Zhu, Y.L. Lin, and M. Chyu, Measurements Over a Film-Cooled, Contoured Endwall with Various
Coolant Injection Rates, ASME Paper Number 2001-GT-140.
13. Ibid.
14. W. F. Colban, K. A. Thole, and G. Zess, Combustor-Turbine Interface Studies: Part 1: Endwall Measurements, J
of Turbomachinery 125 (2002):.193-202; W. F. Colban, A. T. Lethander, K. A. Thole, and G. Zess, Combustor-Turbine
Interface Studies: Part 2: Flow and Thermal Field Measurements, J of Turbomachinery 125 (2002):.203-209.
15. F. Kost and M. Nicklas, Film-Cooled Turbine Endwall in a Transonic Flow Field: Part I Aerodynamic Measurements,
ASME Paper Number 2001-GT-0145 (2001);M. Nicklas, Film-Cooled Turbine Endwall in a Transonic Flow Field: Part II
Heat Transfer and Film-Cooling Effectiveness Measurements, ASME Paper Number 2001-GT-0146 (2001).
16. D. K. Knost, and K. A. Thole, Computational Predictions of Endwall Film-Cooling for a First Stage Vane, GT-2003-38252.
17. R. Bunker, Turbine Blade Tip Design and Tip Clearance Treatment, von Karman Lecture Series 2004-02 (2003).
18. R. S. Bunker, A Review of Turbine Blade Tip Heat Transfer, Turbine 2000 Symposium on Heat Transfer in Gas Turbine
Systems, Cesme, Turkey, 2000.
19. Y. W. Kim and D. E. Metzger, Heat Transfer and Effectiveness on Film Cooled Turbine Blade Tip Models, J of
Turbomachinery 117 (1995);Y. W. Kim, J. P. Downs, F. O. Soechting, W. Abdel-Messeh, G. Steuber, and S. Tanrikut, A
Summary of the Cooled Turbine Blade Tip Heat Transfer and Film Effectiveness Investigations Performed by Dr. D. E.
Metzger, J of Turbomachinery 117(1995): 1-11.
20. J. S. Kwak and J. C. Han, Heat Transfer Coefcient and Film-Cooling Effectiveness on a Gas Turbine Blade Tip, GT2002-
30194;J. S. Kwak and J. C. Han, Heat Transfer Coefcient and Film-Cooling Effectiveness on the Squealer Tip of a Gas
Turbine Blade, GT2002-30555.
361
4.2.3 Airfoil Endwall Heat Transfer

21. J. R. Christophel, K. A. Thole, and F. Cunha, Cooling the Tip of a Turbine Blade Using Pressure Side HolesPart 1: Film
Effectiveness Measurements, J of Turbomachinery 127 (2005): 270-277; J. R. Christophel, K. Thole, and F. Cunha,
Cooling the Tip of a Turbine Blade Using Pressure Side HolesPart 2: Heat Transfer Measurements, J of
Turbomachinery 127 (2005): 278-286.

362
BIOGRAPHY 4.1 Introduction
4.2.3 Airfoil Endwall Heat Transfer

Karen Thole
William S. Cross Professor
Mechanical Eng. Dept, Penn State Univ.
University Park, PA 16802-1412

phone: (814) 865-2519


email: kthole@psu.edu

Dr. Karen Thole holds a Professorship in Mechanical Engineering at Penn State University.
Her B.S. and M.S. degrees are in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Illinois,
and her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering is from the University of Texas at Austin. After receiving
her Ph.D. in 1992, she spent two years as a post-doctoral researcher at the University of Karslruhe
in Karslruhe Germany. After her post-doctoral position, she accepted an assistant professor
position at the University of Wisconsin-Madison where she taught and performed research in
the Mechanical Engineering Department. In 1999 she accepted a position in the Mechanical
Engineering Department at Virginia Tech where she was promoted to full professor in 2003. Dr.
Tholes areas of expertise are heat transfer and uid mechanics specializing in understanding high
freestream turbulance effects. Over the past few years she has developed a number of unique
testing facilities directed towards gas turbine heat transfer issues including a combustor simulator
that simulates the ow eld effects relevant to those entering the turbine section of an engine. Dr.
Thole has been responsible for attracting research funding amounting to over $4 million from such
agencies at the Department of Energy, US Air Force, Pratt & Whitney, Modine Manufacturing,
Siemens-Westinghouse and the National Science Foundation. She has published over 100 peer
reviewed papers with a number of these presentations given to international audiences.
4.3 4.3-1 Introduction
Turbine Blade
Aerodynamics The aerodynamics of the ow in a turbine stage (stator/rotor)
is rather complex and is still the subject of many ongoing research
activities in the gas turbine community. The ow is inherently
three dimensional due to the vane/blade passage geometry
with features such as twisting of the vane/blade along the span,
clearance between the blade tip and the shroud, lm cooling holes,
and end wall contouring1. The passage ow is characterized
by boundary layer effects, secondary ows generated by the
passage pressure gradients, and vortical ow structures such as
the leading edge horse-shoe vortices, tip-leakage ow vortices,
and corner vortices2. The effects of centrifugal-buoyancy, shock-
boundary layer interaction, and ow interactions between the
stator and rotor rows complicate the passage ow eld even
further. Along the end walls, the ow structure is strongly three-
dimensional with the passage vortex and coolant injection on the
hub side and the tip-leakage vortex on the tip side. In the mid-
span regions located away from the passage walls and outside
the viscous shear layer, the radial ow is almost negligible and
Sumanta Acharya the ow is effectively two dimensional. The uid dynamics in
this region can then be based on two dimensional planar cascade
ow studies without any signicant loss of information. The
three dimensional complex ow structures near the hub endwall
region and in the blade tip-shroud clearance have been simulated
in annular vane/blade passages with and without rotating blade
row3. Studies of the complex end-wall ows have also been
performed in stationary cascades with three dimensional airfoil
shapes4. The qualitative features of the passage ows, which
comprise mainly of the passage crossow (ow from the pressure
side of vane/blade to suction side of adjacent vane/blade) and
vortical ows induced by the leading edge, the corners, and the
injected coolant ows have been studied in detail in stationary
cascades and are considered to be similar in both stationary and
rotating blade rows. The primary difference in the secondary ow
structure between the blade passage and vane passage is that the
Gazi Mahmood vortical ows and cross ows in the blade passage are stronger
because of higher turning of the ows along the blade passage.
Secondary ows are the major source of aerodynamic losses,
which account for 35%-40% of all losses5 and thermal loading
in the turbine passage, and thus require special considerations by
the turbine designers.
The primary objectives of this chapter are to present and
analyze the features of the ow eld in the turbine vane/blade
passage near the hub endwall and mid-span locations of the blade.
Toward this effort, reported measurements and computations of
Louisiana State University pressure, velocity distributions, ow turning angles, turbulence
CEBA 1419B, Mechanical intensity, and vorticity distributions in the cascade test section
Engineering Department are presented. Recent efforts to reduce the secondary ows by
Baton Rouge, LA 70803 structural modications in the passage are discussed. In this
chapter, basic uid dynamic principles and mathematical models
phone: (225) 578-5809 of the ow in the passage are not discussed, and the reader is
email: acharya@me.lsu.edu referred to notes 1, 2, and 6 for additional details6. Also details
on the aerodynamic design methodology for the vane/blade
passage are not presented.

363
4.3-2 Flow Field in the Mid-span Region

Fig. 1. Streamlines and static pressure distribution in the mid-span plane Fig. 2. Flow yaw angle (deg) contours in mid-span plane
along blade passage. along blade passage.

Source: See Note 56 (Acharya). Source: See Note 56 (Acharya).

Figure 1 shows the streamlines and static pressure distribution along the mid-span plane of the blade passage. Flow along the
blade passage at the mid-span locations turns with the passage contour and essentially follows the ideal ow behavior except very close
to the blade walls. At zero degree angle of incidence, the streamline splits at the stagnation point corresponding to the blade leading
edge with one leg moving along the pressure side and the other leg moving along the suction side of the blade. The pressure gradient
from the pressure side to the suction side leads to the development of secondary ows. These secondary ows and the endwall boundary
layer produce deviations to the nearly-inviscid mid-span streamlines shown in gure 2. The ow turning angle, known as the yaw
angle relative to the axial +X direction, at the mid-span plane through the blade passage is shown in gure 2. The yaw angle is nearly
uniform along a constant pitch line from the pressure side to the suction side, and also changes uniformly along the axial length of the
passage. The high yaw angle near the leading edge occurs because of the stagnation region where the streamlines sharply turn around
the blade suction side. Figure 3 shows the distribution of the static pressure coefcient, Cp, which is determined from the difference of
blade surface pressure and reference pressure at the passage inlet normalized by the passage inlet dynamic pressure. The lowest Cp on
the suction surface corresponds to the location at the passage throat area where the ow velocity is the highest. The highest Cp is the
stagnation point location on the blade section at the mid-span height. The pressure distribution does not change along most of the blade
span or height except near the hub or tip region. The blade loading or lift that provides work on the turbine shaft is determined based on
the area circumscribed by such pressure curves as shown in gure 3. The pressure side velocity increases steadily as the Cp decreases on
the pressure side from the leading edge to the trailing edge. Along the suction surface, the velocity initially increases toward the throat,
but starts to decline when it encounters the adverse pressure gradients downstream of the throat in a subsonic ow. The peak velocity in
gure 3 corresponds to the location of the minimum Cp on the suction surface.
Due to the adverse pressure gradient on the suction surface downstream of the minimum Cp, there is the potential of boundary
layer separation from the suction-side blade surface near the trailing edge and this represents a major source of prole losses in the blade
passage. Boundary layer separation at the blade trailing edge can also occur due to a nite trailing-edge thickness and can lead to a
distinct wake region. For blade proles with high loading, ow separation is a major issue. With increased loading on the blade surface,
suction surface pressures are reduced, and the velocity and Mach number over the suction surface increases with the local Mach number
reaching supersonic values. This leads to local shocks as schematically depicted in gure 3, and creates additional aerodynamic losses
such as shock losses or wave drag7. Downstream of the shock, suction surface pressure rises in the adverse pressure gradient region and
364
Sumanta Acharya

boundary layer separation can occur earlier leading to increased


prole losses for the highly loaded blade. Refer to notes 5 and 8
for discussion on the limiting pressure and velocity distributions
on the blade surfaces and provide guidelines to limit the wake
region over a very small region at the trailing edge in the blade
design8.

4.3-3 Flow Field in the Endwall Region


The ow eld near the hub endwall region of the blade
passage is dominated by the boundary layer, strong pressure
gradients, and cross ow in the pitchwise direction from the
pressure side to the suction side. The resulting near-wall ow
eld is complex and consists of strong secondary ows and vortex
roll-up9. When the endwall boundary layer approaches the blade
row, a vortex is formed near the junction of the blade leading edge
and the endwall. This vortex is termed as the leading edge horse-
shoe vortex. The horse-shoe vortex splits at the leading edge, and
propagates downstream into the passage on both the pressure side
and the suction side of the blade passage forming two legs of the
early passage vortex ows. Corner vortices are also induced in
the corner formed by the blade and the hub endwall.
Fig. 3. Pressure and velocity distribution on blade surface at The streamlines slightly above the endwall in gure 4 show
different spanwise locations. some distinct features of the endwall boundary layer ow. These
features are identied by the separation lines in the gure. The
Source: See Note 56 (Acharya). streamlines along the blade leading edge bifurcate as they approach
the saddle point. The saddle point is the location on the endwall
where the zero degree incidence line meets the separation line and
corresponds to the lowest friction velocity. The incoming endwall
boundary layer detaches along the separation line, and secondary
vortical ows are formed in the regions immediately downstream
and adjacent to the separation line. This is indicated by the
high concentration of the streamlines adjacent to the separation
line. The strong reverse ow in the vortex regions counter the
boundary layer streamlines causing them to be concentrated more
densely near the separation line. The leading edge horse-shoe
vortex immediately downstream of the saddle point is clearly
evident in gure 4. The region between the separation line and
the blade suction side in gure 4 represents the suction-side leg
of the horse shoe vortex10. The region along the separation line
directed from the pressure side to the suction side represents
the pressure-side leg of the horse-shoe vortex11, and is driven
by the passage pressure gradients. The suction side leg vortex
and pressure side leg vortex meet together in the mid-passage
region where the two separation lines in the passage merge. This
location occurs close to the suction surface, and the merger of the
two vortices forms a stronger vortex known as the passage vortex.
The passage vortex then travels along the blade suction surface
toward the passage exit. The axial development and structures
of these vortex ows will be analyzed further in Section 4.3-4.
Downstream of the pressure side separation line, the endwall
boundary layer region is very thin and skewed toward the suction
side. This is evidenced by the streamline concentration being
sparse in this region as they turn from the pressure side to the
suction side. The strong vortical motions of the pressure side leg
vortex entrain most of the uid from the incoming boundary layer
Fig. 4. Streamlines showing separation lines in a near endwall and a new boundary layer forms downstream. Comparing the
plane of a linear blade passage. streamlines in gure 4 with those in the mid-span regions in gure
1, it is clear that the turning of the streamlines inside the blade
365 Source: See Note 56 (Acharya). passage and around the leading edge is much greater near the
4.3 Turbine Blade Aerodynamics

endwall region which causes the cross ow here to be stronger.


The ow yaw angle contours along the passage in gure 5 show
the higher magnitudes of the ow turning near the endwall
compared to the ow turning in the mid-span regions away from
the endwall.
The endwall pressure gradients are shown in gure 6.
The suction side pressure magnitudes along the endwall are
higher compared to the suction side pressure values in the free-
stream region (see gure 1). This results in smaller pressure
gradients in the endwall from the pressure side to the suction
side as shown in the line plot of gure 6. The magnitude of
P in the gure is the pitchwise pressure difference between
two points at the same axial chord location, one located on the
pressure side and the other on the suction side. As mentioned
earlier, the turning of the boundary layer uid in the endwall
region is much higher compared to the turning of the free-stream
in the passage, which seems to contradict the results in gure 6.
According to Niehuis, et al., in the free-stream ows away from
the endwall, equilibrium exists between the pitchwise pressure
gradient and centrifugal force on the uid elements at the curved
streamlines12. This equilibrium breaks down in the endwall
region because the centrifugal force on the uid elements in
the low velocity boundary layer reduces. As such, the weak
endwall region streamlines easily turn to a greater degree with
relatively smaller pressure gradients as those in gure 6.

Fig. 5. Flow yaw angle (deg) contours in a plane near endwall


along a linear blade passage.

Source: See Note 56 (Acharya).

Fig. 6. Surface pressure distribution at endwall of a blade passage in linear cascade.

Source: See Note 56 (Acharya).


366
Sumanta Acharya

The axial pressure distributions along the blade


surface (gure 3) change with the span location. The
region below 14% span can be considered to be the
boundary layer region in the gure. The difference
between the free stream static pressure coefcient and
endwall region static pressure coefcient Cp on the
pressure surface is small and almost uniform. This
suggests that pressure gradient on the pressure surface
occurs mostly in the axial direction rather than in the
spanwise direction. The differences in the suction
surface Cp between the 50% span and below 14% span
in gure 3 are signicant and occur because of the strong
cross ow from the pressure side to the suction side in
the endwall boundary layer and the vortex leg along the
suction surface13. The locations of the lowest Cp within
the boundary layer occurs further downstream of the
lowest Cp location in the mid-span free-stream region.
The endwall cross ow drives the low momentum
boundary layer uid toward the suction surface-endwall
junction and causes these observed differences in the
Cp distributions. This is also the reason why the axial
location of the lowest Cp in the boundary layer and the
lowest Ps on the endwall are different. Also note that Cp
magnitude decreases signicantly from the endwall (i.e.
4.4% span) to the boundary layer edge (i.e. 13.5% span)
all along the axial direction. Such spanwise pressure
gradient drives the boundary layer uid and the endwall
region secondary ows toward the mid-span direction
near the suction surface. The implications of such
migrations are realized in the Heat Transfer Analysis
section.
The velocity distribution on the blade surface
near the endwall is also shown in gure 3. The suction
surface velocity in the endwall region is lower compared
to the free-stream velocity in mid-span because of the
inuence of strong secondary ows and higher Cp
around the suction side edge (i.e. at 4.4% span). As
Fig. 7. Surface oil-ow visualization on a linear blade surface and end-wall
with the lowest Cp location, the associated peak suction in a linear cascade. LE= leading edge, TE= trailing edge, and BL= boundry
surface velocity in the endwall region also moves down layer
the axial direction relative to the peak velocity location
at the mid-span. The difference in velocity distribution Source: See Note 14.
on the pressures side is opposite to what is observed on
the suction surface between the mid-span location and
endwall region. This can be attributed to the smaller
pressure surface Cp near endwall as well as the thin
boundary layer, which is also skewed and thicker
toward the suction surface, downstream of the endwall
separation line.
With the knowledge of velocity and pressure distribution on the blade surface at the mid-span and near endwall, it is now appropriate
to discuss the three dimensional ow on the blade surface as a whole. It is apparent by now that the blade suction surface ow near
the endwall wall region becomes skewed and three dimensional due to the interaction of the boundary layer and ow separation on the
suction surface and endwall. The ow visualization on the suction surface of a two dimensional linear blade in gure 7, as observed in
Hodson and Dominy, clearly shows the near surface ow behavior14. The ow on the pressure surface is two dimensional for most part
of the span as the oil streaklines indicating the surface streamlines are parallel to the endwall in the upper ow visualization of gure
7. The uniform pressure distribution along the pressure surface span (see gure 3) and very weak interaction of the boundary layers
between the pressure surface and endwall are responsible for such ow behavior. However, the laminar boundary layer near the pressure
surface leading edge may diffuse with a rise in surface pressure when the incoming ow is at high speed. In this case, the boundary
layer separates along the line S6 and re-attaches along the line R6 creating a closed separation bubble along most of the span near the
leading edge. The laminar boundary layer accelerates following the re-attachment and continues to grow along the pressure surface
367 toward the trailing edge. The two-dimensional separation bubble has no apparent inuence on the secondary ows on the endwall.
4.3 Turbine Blade Aerodynamics

Near the leading edge at the endwall, the pressure surface streamlines are inclined toward the endwall indicating the ow is driven by
the horse-shoe vortex.
The separation lines created by the oil streaklines on the suction surface of gure 7 reveals some interesting features of the boundary
layer behavior. The separation lines divide the ow on the suction surface into three regimes: (i) two dimensional laminar boundary
layer regime, (ii) turbulent boundary layer regime, and (iii) three dimensional ow regime. (i) Two dimensional laminar regime: This
regime extends from the leading edge to the lowest suction pressure on the suction surface and between the S2s separation lines near
the two endwalls in gure 7. The surface streamlines are seen to be nearly parallel to the endwall in this regime. The laminar boundary
layer starting at the leading edge undergoes a high acceleration on the suction surface. According to Hodson and Dominy, the over-
acceleration in the boundary layer causes a two dimensional separation bubble near the blend point of the circular leading edge and the
suction surface15. This separation bubble extends across most of the span, but it is not apparent in the bottom surface ow visualization
of gure 7. The suction surface leading edge separation bubble is shown by the ow visualization in Gregory-Smith et al.16. Following
the re-attachment behind the separation bubble, the laminar boundary layer accelerates along the suction surface and continues to grow
until the separation line S3s. (ii) Turbulent regime: This regime is limited by the re-attachment line following the separation at S3s and
trailing edge and between the S2s lines. The laminar boundary layer separates at the lowest suction pressure located at axial distance at
S3s because of the adverse pressure gradient (see gure 3) and forms another closed separation bubble. The boundary layer undergoes
transition and becomes turbulent as it re-attaches behind the separation bubble on the suction surface. The turbulent boundary layer
grows along the suction surface and may separate again due to the adverse pressure gradient near the trailing edge to form the trailing
edge wake. (iii) Three dimensional ow regime: This regime is indicated by the region between the separation line S2s and endwall.
The regime begins at the location where the suction side leg of the leading edge horse-shoe vortex and pressure side leg vortex from
the adjacent blade meet on the suction surface. The pair then emerges as the passage vortex which then moves toward the mid-span as
it follows the suction surface toward the passage exit. The suction surface boundary layer separates along the S1s and S2s lines near
endwalls in gure 7 as the passage vortex and suction side leg vortex climbs up the suction surface. The distinct appearance of the
separation line S2s indicates that the suction side leg vortex maintains its existence in the axial development of the passage vortex which
will also be shown in further detail in the next section. The inclination of the surface streamlines toward the mid-span in this regime is
caused by the entrainment of the boundary layer uids (both at the endwall and the suction surface) by the passage vortex. Note that
the surface streamlines are symmetric about the mid-span of the blade surface in gure 7. The patterns become asymmetric in three-
dimensional cascade by the inuence of radial forces as will be shown in further sections.
The locations of the separation bubbles and separation lines on the blade surface are strongly inuenced by the inlet ow angle
and Reynolds number or Mach number of the incoming ow. For the high speed compressible ow (with the Mach number>0.70), the
ow expands and accelerates along the passage creating local supersonic region at the passage throat17. As a result, a series of weak
compression fans are developed at the suction surface near the throat. Detemple-Laake also shows that at transonic and supersonic ow,
shocks are formed across the span at the trailing edge of the blade surface18. The shock at the suction surface trailing edge is deected
by the wake from the adjacent blade trailing edge. The shock at the pressure side trailing edge is reected at the adjacent blade suction
surface as a sequence of compression-expansion-compression waves. At all Mach numbers tested (exit Mach number ranges between
0.70 and 1.3), schlieren photographs show that ow separates locally from the blade pressure surface and suction surface forming
separation bubbles similar to the subsonic ow pattern19. The separation lines for the suction side leg vortex and the passage vortex on
the suction surface move nearer to the mid-span as the Mach number is increased. The suction side leg vortex is deected by the shock
from the adjacent blade pressure side trailing edge and moves closer to the passage vortex at supersonic ow. The endwall pressure
distributions for high speed compressible ows show the same behavior as that at the low speed ows. Static pressure on the endwall
increases slightly at the trailing edge due to the expansion at the trailing edge.

4.3-4 Development and Structure of Secondary Flows in the Passage


We have shown in the earlier section that the secondary ows in the turbine vane/blade passage are dominated by the vortex
ows located in the hub endwall region. So far, these vortex ows have been deduced from pressure distributions, near-wall streamlines
and saddle points or surface oil-ow visualizations. The vortex ows have been identied as the suction side leg and the pressure side
leg originating from the leading edge horse-shoe vortex that eventually merge in a complex way to form the passage vortex. The three
vortex structures (horse-shoe, pressure side leg, suction side leg) are the primary sources of the vortex ows in the passage. In addition,
smaller corner vortices are induced at the corner of blade edge at the endwall. Vortices are also induced on the suction side near the
meeting point of the pressure side leg vortex and suction side leg vortex ows and are advected with these legs along the suction surface
toward the passage exit. This section will discuss the structure and development of the three primary vortex ows along the passage at
different axial locations by presenting the ow visualization images, streamlines, pressure losses, vorticity, turbulence intensity, and ow
turning angles. The induced vortex ows will be identied later in the section.

Leading edge horse-shoe vortex:

The leading edge horse-shoe vortex is formed at the junction of an endwall and the blunt leading edge of the blade. As the ow
approaches the leading edge stagnation line, static pressure rises across the ow from the endwall. The static pressure increases more
in the free-stream region above the boundary layer since the free-stream velocity is higher compared to the velocity in the boundary
layer20. This spanwise pressure gradient in the vicinity of the leading edge causes a vortex roll-up, known as the leading edge horse-shoe 368
Sumanta Acharya

vortex. The vortex is conned in a region which is smaller than


one boundary layer thickness from the endwall21. The endwall
location where the reverse ow in the horse-shoe vortex meets
the incoming boundary layer ow is termed as the saddle point
which is generally located along the line corresponding to the zero
degree incidence-angle as shown in gure 4. The center of the
horse-shoe vortex is located in between the saddle point and the
blade leading edge. The exact locations of the saddle point and
horse-shoe vortex center depends on the radius of curvature of the
blade leading edge and the oncoming boundary layer thickness.
The ow visualization in gure 8 shows the typical formation of
an instantaneous horse-shoe vortex at the blade leading edge in a
linear cascade22. In the gure, the roll-up of the vortex is in the
counter-clockwise direction. Periodically, a pair of horse-shoe
vortices form that have the same relative size and the same sense
of rotation. The time-averaged structure of the horse-shoe vortex
obtained from a numerical simulation at the same blade leading
edge is also shown in gure 8. The vortex structure is similar to
the leading edge horse-shoe vortex in front of a cylinder23. The
vortex center in gure 8 is located at the point of the maximum
kinetic energy. At the corner of the leading edge, a small counter
rotating vortex is induced by the large horse-shoe vortex. This
clockwise rotating vortex is known as the leading edge corner
vortex.
Fig. 8. Typical horse-shoe vortex and corner vortex at a blade lead-
Pressure side leg and suction side leg vortices:
ing edge. HS=horse-shoe, LE=leading edge, and Tke=turbulent
kinetic energy.
The path of the leading edge horse-shoe vortex is along
the separation line shown in gure 4, and is driven by the endwall Source: See Notes 22, 56 (Acharya).
region pressure gradient and cross ow. The horse-shoe vortex
essentially splits near the leading edge with one leg moving along
the pressure side and the other leg moving along the suction side.
These two primary legs of the horse-shoe vortex represent the
origin of the major secondary ow system that develops in the
blade passage. The two legs rotate opposite to each other. The
pressure side leg of the horse-shoe vortex is driven along the
separation line across the passage from the leading edge to the
adjacent blade suction side. The suction side vortex leg wraps
around the suction side from the leading edge along the separation
line in gure 4. The vortices are termed as the right side clockwise
and left side counter-clockwise vortices, respectively, in the ow
visualization images in gure 924. The vortices in the gure are
being viewed in the ow direction in pitchwise planes at different
axial locations. The pressure side and suction side of the blade
passage in the study are located on the right and left hand side,
respectively, in the images. At location A, which represents the
pitchwise plane going through the leading edge, a pair of vortex
structures appears along both the pressure side leg and suction
side leg of the vortex system. As with the leading edge horse-
shoe vortex pair, these pairs form periodically from a single
pressure side and suction side leg vortex. The vortices are very
close to the passage pressure side and suction side at plane A. As
the vortex legs advect to farther downstream locations at planes
B, C, and D in the passage in gure 9, the endwall cross ow
and pressure gradient from the pressure side to the suction side
sweeps the pressure side leg of the vortex toward the suction side
of the passage. As a result, the pressure side vortex approaches Fig. 9. Flow visualization of pressure side leg and suction
closer to the suction side leg vortex from the adjacent blade at side leg vortices from. Vph= pressure side leg vortex and
the downstream locations. Nearly half way down the passage at Vsh=suction side leg vortex.
location D, the two vortex legs merge to form a single structure
369 Source: See Note 9.
4.3 Turbine Blade Aerodynamics

of counter-rotating vortices. At the merging point, the clockwise


pressure side leg vortex is larger and stronger compared to the
smaller suction side leg vortex. Note that the vortices remain
close to the endwall from the leading edge location to their
merger location half way through the passage.
The time-averaged vortex structures, as shown in gure
10, are obtained at a pitchwise plane near the leading edge for
a much higher Reynolds number than that used for the ow
visualization25. Even though the blade geometries are different
for the data in gures 9 and 10, the basic structure of the vortices
such as the sense of rotation and relative locations are similar.
The positive axial vorticity in gure 10 signies a clockwise
rotation of the pressure side leg vortex, while the negative axial
vorticity indicates a counter-clockwise rotation of the suction side
leg vortex. The small vortex located at the edge of the pressure
side and rotating counter-clockwise is termed as the pressure
side leading edge corner vortex in Wang, et al. 26. This vortex is
induced by the leading edge horse-shoe vortex and driven along
the pressure side leg vortex.

Passage vortex and induced vortices:

The passage vortex is comprised of the pressure side leg


vortex and suction side leg vortex as these vortex legs approach
and merge with each other nearly half-way into the passage and
along the suction side of the blade. This is shown as a counter-
rotating vortex pair at location D in Fig. 9. As the pressure side
leg vortex is much larger and stronger compared to the suction
side leg vortex when they meet, the sense of rotation of the Fig. 10. Velocity vectors and axial vorticity representing pressure side
leg vortex and suction side leg vortex near LE. VpLc=pressure side
passage is considered be the same as the rotation of the pressure
LE corner vortex and x=axial vorticity.
side leg vortex. The passage vortex remain close the suction
surface of the blade as it is driven toward the passage exit by the Source: See Note 25.
cross ow and pressure gradient along the passage. Figure 11
shows the passage vortex formation in the same passage as in
gure. 9 at locations downstream of plane D. The suction side
is located on the left hand side in the ow visualization images27
in gure 11. At locations E and F, the passage vortex Vp is
rotating counter-clockwise while the suction side leg vortex Vsh
is rotating clockwise as they are viewed opposite from the main
ow direction. As both the vortices funnel boundary layer uid
and main ow toward their centers, the passage vortex gradually
grows larger in size and lifts above the endwall as it travels along
the suction surface toward the passage exit. The passage vortex
movement toward the mid-span is caused primarily by the
spanwise pressure gradient in the boundary layer on the suction
surface. Because of this movement of the passage vortex and as
the endwall boundary layer uid is wrapped around the passage
vortex, the endwall boundary layer becomes skewed and thicker
toward the suction side. The suction side leg vortex wraps
around the passage vortex as it travels along with it. This is
evidenced in the ow visualization in gure 11. At location E,
the suction side leg vortex Vsh is located at the top right hand
corner of the Vp. At the downstream F location, Vsh moves to
the left side of the Vp. At the passage exit, a study in Wang, et
al. shows that Vsh moves around further and is located at the
passage vortex bottom part near the suction surface28.
In the plane F of gure 11, the small clockwise rotating
vortex Vwip located adjacent to the suction surface and above Fig. 11. Flow visualization of passage vortex and induced vortices.
the passage vortex is termed as the wall vortex. This vortex
is formed by the strong induction of the passage vortex and Source: See Note 9.
370
Sumanta Acharya

originates at the same location where the passage vortex


starts to form (merging point of the counter-rotating vortex
legs). The wall vortex stays above the passage vortex and
is driven along with the passage vortex.
The small corner vortex induced at the junction
of blade leading edge and endwall (see gure 8) by the
horse-shoe vortex is driven along the pressure side and
suction side edge with the two main vortex legs. In Wang,
et al., they are identied as the pressure side leading edge
vortex and suction side leading edge vortex, respectively29.
They remain small as they travel inside the passage and
their sense of rotation are opposite to the rotation of the
main vortex legs they are associated with. The pressure
side leading edge corner vortex sticks along the pressure
surface corner near the leading edge as shown in gure 10.
When it enters the passage farther downstream, it is also
driven toward the suction side of the adjacent blade along
with the pressure side leg vortex by the endwall cross-ow
and pressure gradient. The suction side leading edge corner
vortex on the other hand remains adjacent to the suction
side edge until it meets with pressure side leg vortex from
the neighboring blade. The corner vortices are not visible in
the smoke ow visualization as the large vortex legs entrain
most of the smoke in the ow and enough smoke is not
available to generate their small patterns clearly. The three-
dimensional structures of different vortex ows in a blade
passage sketched in gure 11 are adopted directly from
Wang, et al.30. The sketch shows two additional small vortex
ows located along the pressure surface corner and suction Fig. 12. Velocity vectors and axial vorticity representing passage vortex
surface corner. They originate about half way downstream at suction side. SS=suction side, Z=pitchwise distance from pressure
side, and x=axial vorticity.
in the passage. The existence of such corner vortices is
indicated by the high local mass transfer results at the blade
surface-endwall corner in Goldstein et al.31. These corner
vortices rotate in the same direction as the rotation of the
suction side leg vortex.
The time-averaged structures of the passage vortex
in the same ow as in gure 10 are shown at two axial
locations in gure 12. The data presented is measured
with a ve-hole pressure probe32. The velocity vectors are
determined based on the resolved components33. The plane
H in gure 12 is located about half way down the passage
and the plane I is located near the exit of the passage. Unlike
gure 11, the ow is being viewed in the axial direction and
therefore, the suction surface is on the left hand side in the
plots of gure 12. Thus, the rotation of the passage vortex
is in the clockwise direction in the velocity vector plots.
The existence of the suction side leg vortex is not apparent
in the vector plots as it becomes weak in the downstream
locations. In a small region just above the passage vortex
and adjacent to suction surface at plane I, the vectors seem
to turn counter-clockwise indicating the presence of the
wall vortex or suction side leg vortex. However, the vortex
is clearly apparent in the vorticity plots in gure 12. The
positive axial vorticity indicates the passage vortex while
the negative axial vorticity located above the positive region
indicates the suction side leg vortex or the wall vortex. The
same arrangement of the vortex systems in the downstream Fig. 13. Axial vorticity downstream of passage exit in a linear blade cas-
locations have been observed in the ow visualization. cade. VP= passage vortex, Vsh=suction side leg vortex, and Vwip= wall
The vortex center is located at the location of the maximum vortex.
vorticity in congruence with the forced vortex motion.
371 Source: See Note 56 (Acharya).
4.3 Turbine Blade Aerodynamics

Note that the passage vortex center in both the vector and
vorticity plots moves farther away from the endwall (Y/S=0.0
location) as the passage vortex travels from location H to I in
gure 12. This is also consistent with the ow visualization
in gure 11. The axial vorticity magnitudes of the passage
vortex in plane I are somewhat smaller than those in plane H.
The ow turns further away from the axial direction in plane
I resulting in smaller component of vorticity in the axial
direction. However, the axial vorticity of the wall vortex
increases in plane I as the intensity of this vortex grows as it
is driven along with the passage vortex. The high negative
axial vorticity at the bottom left corner in plane I in gure 12
indicates the suction side corner vortex34. The corner vortices
are less likely to develop if the blade surface-endwall corner
is lleted.
The induced wall vortex, corner vortices, and additional
vortices due to the trailing edge wake can be clearly identied
in the ow downstream of a blade passage as in gure 13. The
data are obtained from the same passage ow as in gure 12,
but the location of the data is in a pitchwise plane, K, slightly
downstream of the passage exit. The projection of the trailing
edge at this plane is located at Z/P=0.0 and the axial direction
is into the plane of the data. The positive axial vorticity and
the negative axial vorticity just above the positive region in
gure 13 also indicate the passage vortex and wall vortex,
respectively. The locations of these vortices are even higher
above the endwall compared to those in gure 12. In gure
13, the negative trailing edge wake vorticities on the left of the
passage vortex form due to the wake in the adverse pressure
gradient region at the trailing edge (see gure. 3). The corner
Fig. 14. Flow turning angles in a plane near exit of a blade passage.
vortices indicated by the negative vorticities about Z/P=0.0
and just above the endwall are enhanced by the trailing wake
ows at this location.
Figure 14 shows the inuences of the various vortex
structures on the ow orientation near the exit plane of a
blade passage35. The uniformity of the ow angles near the
suction side is severely affected by the vortex ow. Both
the pitch and yaw angles in gure 14 are referenced to the
axial +X direction. The blade turning angle at this location
is about 65 degree. The positive pitch angles in the gure
indicate that the ow is directed away from the endwall
while the negative pitch angles indicate that the ow is
directed toward the endwall. The under-turning of the ow
yaw angles, which is less than 59 deg near Y/S=0.20, is very
high near the passage vortex center. The high over-turning
of the ow yaw angles, which is greater than 69 degree near
Y/S=0.25, in the vicinity of the suction side occur because of
the wall vortex or suction side leg vortex. The over-turning
of the yaw angles also occur in the endwall boundary layer
region at Y/S<0.12 where the cross-ow is very strong (see
gure.4). Such under- and over-turning of the exit ows
affect the blade loading and aerodynamic losses in the next
row of blades in the turbine stage.

4.3-5 Pressure Loss


The vortex structures are a signicant source of Fig. 15. Turbulent kinetic energy (Tke) and total pressure loss coefcient
pressure or aerodynamic losses across the blade passage. Cpt along a blade passage. SS=suction side, PS=pressure side, and
They entrain uid from the free stream ow and enhance Pt=Pt-Pref.
convective turbulent transport in the endwall region as well
Source: See Note 25 (Saha). 372
Sumanta Acharya
as on the blade surface. This also results in high local
thermal loading on the turbine passage walls. Figure 15
shows the turbulent kinetic energy and total pressure loss
generated by the secondary vortices at two axial locations
of the blade passage of gure 12. The total pressure loss
is determined from the difference of local total pressure
and the reference total pressure at the passage inlet. The
axial locations of gure 15 correspond to the pitchwise
planes H and I in gure 12. At Z/P<-0.30, in plane H, the
magnitudes of Tke/V2 larger than 0.020 and Cpt larger than
0.30 can be considered to be located within the secondary
vortex ow region. In plane I, the secondary vortex ow
region is represented by the contours of Tke/V2 and Cpt for
Z/P<-0.50. Turbulent kinetic energy decreases from the
axial location H to the location I in the secondary vortex
ow region because the ow accelerates as it travels
downstream. Because of its size and the magnitude of
the vorticity, the passage vortex is primarily responsible
for the turbulent kinetic energy and the total pressure
losses in the secondary ow region near the suction
side. Note that in both the axial locations of gure 15 the
high turbulent kinetic energy just above the endwall and
outside the secondary ow region occurs because of the
boundary layer ow. Also it is important to realize that in
the axial location I near the exit plane, the total pressure
losses in the passage vortex core region are more than ve
times the total pressure losses in the free stream region
with Cpt<0.20.

4.3-6 Aerodynamics of 2-D Vane


Cascade
The results presented so far on the ow structure
in a blade passage are very typical of other linear blade Fig. 16. Secondary velocity vectors and streamwise velocity contours show-
ing vortex ow formations in a linear vane cascade. SS= suction surface
cascade studies reported36. The magnitudes of the ow
and PS= pressure surface.
quantities are different from one study to the other, but
the pattern and arrangement of the secondary ows are Source: See Note 33.
similar. The secondary ow patterns in a two-dimensional
vane cascade are also expected to be similar to that in a
linear blade cascade. This is because the formation of the
leading edge horse-shoe vortex is inevitable for the vane
passage as well. The horse-shoe vortex is then driven
by the endwall cross ow and pressure gradient in the
passage forming the suction side leg and pressure side leg
vortices. The secondary ows are weaker and smaller in a
linear vane passage than in a linear blade passage because
of the smaller ow turning and weaker endwall cross ow
in the vane passage37. However, the same components
of the secondary ows are present in both the vane and
blade passages. Due to the weaker secondary ows in
the vane passage, the pressure losses are smaller relative
to those across a blade passage. Figure 16 presents the
data measured in a linear vane cascade38. The pressure
Fig. 17. Static pressure and secondary velocity vectors across a plane in a
side leg vortex (clockwise rotating) and the suction side vane passage of annular cascade. PS=pressure side and SS=suction side.
leg vortex (counter-clockwise rotating) at plane SS-1 in
gure 16 are located near the pressure side and adjacent Source: See Note 3. (Sieverding)
to the suction side of the vane, respectively. At a farther
downstream location SS-3, the pressure side leg vortex is
driven close to the suction side and pair up with counter-
rotating suction side leg vortex to form the passage
373 vortex. Like the blade passage ow, the suction side leg
4.3 Turbine Blade Aerodynamics

vortex clearly appears much weaker and smaller than the passage
vortex at this location in the vane passage. However, the relative
arrangement of the passage vortex and suction side leg vortex
at SS-3 in gure 16 is different than that observed at plane H in
gure 12. The evolution of the passage vortex structure along
a linear vane cascade and downstream of a linear vane passage
show qualitative similarity with those found in gures 12, 13,
and 1639.

4.3-7 Aerodynamics of 3-D Cascade


A three-dimensional cascade is usually formed when the
linear or twisted blade or vane proles are stacked in an annular
passage. Thus, the ow area in the cascade passage increases
from the hub side to the tip side of the adjacent blades. Because
of this passage structure, a radial pressure gradient is added to the
ow everywhere in the annular passage40. This radial pressure
gradient directing towards the hub neutralize the radially outward
centrifugal force experienced by the free-stream uid which is
in equilibrium across the annular passage. The radial pressure
gradient increases from the pressure side to suction side41. The
data in gure 17, adopted from Sieverding et al., show the static
pressure coefcients and secondary velocity vectors across an
axial plane slightly upstream of the passage exit of an annular
vane cascade. In the gure, the difference in static pressure
coefcient between the hub and casing is higher on the suction
side than on the pressure side. The effects of such pressure
gradients are greater at the passage exit than within the passage.
The vectors show the formation of the passage vortex near the
hub and casing side. The radial displacement of the vortex
centers are mostly the consequence of the pitchwise cross ow
rather than the radial pressures as observed in a linear cascade.
Fig. 18. Total pressure loss coefcients at exit plane of a linear and
The total pressure losses near the hub and casing walls due to the
an annular cascade.
two passage vortex structures are also nearly identical. However,
in the same study, the total pressure losses at the passage exit are Source: See Note 13.* (Moustapha)
found to be asymmetric with respect to the spanwise meridian
unlike that observed across a linear cascade. The total pressure
losses downstream of the cascade are considerably higher near
the hub wall than those near the casing42. This is attributed to the
inuence of the radial pressure gradient. Near the endwall in the
passage, the streamwise velocity decreases in the boundary layer
and the secondary ow region. As a consequence the centrifugal
force generated from the circumferential component of the
streamwise velocity decreases near the endwalls. But, the radial
pressure gradient remains unchanged. Thus, the non-equilibrium
behavior near the casing results in the reduced total pressure loss
there.

*The original version of this material was published by the Advisory Fig. 19. Spanwise distribution of pitchwise averaged total pressure
Group for Aerospace Research and Development, North Atlantic Treaty loss coefcient for linear and annular cascades in Fig. 18.
Organization (AGARD/NATO) in AGARD Conference Proceedings CP-
469 Secondary Flows in Turbomachines in 1990. Source: See Note 13.* (Moustapha)
374
Sumanta Acharya

A comparative study of a linear cascade and an


annular cascade with the same two dimensional blade geometry
employed is presented in gure 1843. The total pressure losses
in gure 18 are obtained at the same exit location relative
to the blade trailing edge in the two passages. It is clearly
evident from the plots that the radial pressure gradient in the
annular cascade plays a signicant role and alters the pressure
loss distribution when compared to the linear passage which
experiences no such pressure gradient. The pressure losses in
the linear cascade have two distinct high loss regions, located
symmetrically about 50% blade span, near the suction surface.
These are the signatures of passage vortices from the top and
bottom endwalls. In contrast, the annular cascade has one high
total pressure loss region between 48% and 77% span. In this
loss region, the peak losses are 0.70 and 0.80 at 53% and 70%
span, respectively, indicating that the cores of the hub side and
casing side passage vortices are very close to each other.
The plots in gure 19 determined from the local data
in gure 18 compares the pitchwise averaged total pressure
loss magnitudes between the linear cascade and the annular
cascade. The two peaks in gure 19 for the planar cascade are
a consequence of the distinct passage vortex pair observed in
the local data. For the annular cascade, one peak in the average
pressure loss distribution occurs because of a single high
pressure loss region in the local data. In general, the average
total pressure losses are much higher for the annular cascade
than for the linear cascade along most of the span. Between
20% and 40% span at the inner endwall side the average losses
are higher for the linear rig as the passage vortex from this
endwall is located in this region.
The static pressure distributions on the annular endwalls Fig. 20. Static pressure coefcients on endwalls in a blade passage
in an annular cascade.
as shown in gure 20 indicate different distributions for the
casing wall and hub wall. The pitchwise pressure gradient Source: See Note 13.* (Moustapha)
extends all the way down to the trailing edge for the casing
wall. While the cross pitch pressure gradient for the hub wall
is high in the rst half of the passage, the gradient decreases
signicantly in the latter half of the passage compared to that
for the casing. Such pressure distributions provide the radial
pressure gradients between the two endwalls in the annular
cascade which is responsible for the radial movement of the
secondary ows as explained previously. The magnitudes of
the static pressure coefcient near the suction side in gure
20 are higher for the hub wall than for the casing in the rst
half of the passage. In the second half of the passage, these
magnitudes near the suction surface are higher for the casing
wall. Thus, the endwall cross ow covers most of the casing
2
wall, while it covers only the rst 3 rd of the hub wall. Note the
qualitative similarity of the contour distributions between the
linear passage endwall (gure. 6) and annular passage casing
wall (gure 20).

Fig. 21. Surface ow visualization on a vane suction surface in an


annular cascade.

Source: See Note 45.


*The original version of this material was published by the Advisory
Group for Aerospace Research and Development, North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (AGARD/NATO) in AGARD Conference Proceedings CP-
469 Secondary Flows in Turbomachines in 1990.

375
4.3 Turbine Blade Aerodynamics

Blade surface pressure distributions on the pressure


surface are about the same for the annular cascade and linear
cascade44. The radial pressure gradient on the pressure surface
(annular cascade) is present only near at the hub side. On
the contrary, the radial pressure gradient is present along the
entire span on the blade surface and is larger in the rst one-
third of the surface in axial direction compared to the rest of
the surface. When compared at the same corresponding radial
location, the magnitudes of static pressure coefcient on
the suction surface are always higher in the annular cascade
than in the linear cascade due to the radial pressure gradient.
However, the suction surface pressure coefcient distributions
in the axial direction follow similar patterns in both types
of cascade employing same blade geometry. Thus, the two
dimensional local separation bubbles also appear on the blade
suction surface in an annular passage.
The vane suction surface ow pattern in an annular
cascade is presented in gure 2145. The visualization reveals
the asymmetric surface streamlines relative to the spanwise
meridian unlike the streamline patterns on the suction surface
in a linear cascade. In gure 21 also, the separation lines divide Fig. 22. Measured secondary velocity vectors at rotor exit in an an-
the near surface ow behavior into three regions as has been nular passage.
observed in case of a linear passage. The rst region is the two
dimensional laminar region extending from the leading edge Source: See Note 3. (Gallus)
to the inclined separation line (spanwise) between passage
vortex separation lines. In the radial/spanwise direction this
region is limited between the separation lines for passage
vortex. Near surface ow simply follows the suction surface
in the rst region. The second region is the turbulent ow
region that extends behind the inclined re-attachment line to
the trailing edge in gure 21. Unlike that in the linear cascade
(gure 7), the suction surface separation bubble formed here
(gure 21) by these inclined separation and re-attachment
lines is asymmetric. The third ow region, which is the three
dimensional boundary layer region in gure 21 limited by the
passage vortex separation line and endwall, is larger on the
casing side than on the hub side. The separation lines extend
all the way to the trailing edge. The separation line for the
passage vortex at the casing is farther away from the casing
than the separation line for the hub-end passage vortex line
is from the hub wall. This is in accordance with the passage
vortex movement observed in gure 18 for the annular cascade
and as described, is caused by the radial imbalance of the radial
forces. The inclination of the surface streamlines in the third
region caused by the passage vortex funneling and entrapping
uid is an indication of the vortex strength.

The three dimensional vortex ows near the hub and


casing walls are enhanced in an annular rotor passage where
the blades rotate relative to a stator passage. In the blade
stage, there is a gap between the blade tip and casing to allow
for rotation. Due to the pressure gradient from the blade
pressure side to the suction side there is a leakage ow from
the pressure side to the suction side in the tip gap. The tip-
gap ows generate an additional vortex ows near the casing
wall which develop and grow along with the casing side
passage vortex in the rotor passage. The tip vortex inuences Fig. 23. Relative total pressure contours in an annular rotor passage
the passage vortex from the casing wall. Figure 22 shows showing vortex ows. PS= pressure side and SS= suction side.
the tip-clearance vortex and passage vortex structures near
Source: See Note 47.

376
Sumanta Acharya
the casing wall and hub wall at the exit plane of a rotating
rotor passage. As indicated in the gure, the counter-rotating
secondary ows in the passage vortex near the casing wall are
caused by the inuence of the tip vortex. According to Gallus
et al., the ow interactions between the rotor-stator rows
change the static pressure distributions on the rotor surface
periodically46. The isobar contour lines in gure 23 show
that the tip-clearance vortex strengthens the radial inward
movement of the casing passage vortex in a rotor passage47.
This occurs as the tip vortex grows and intensies along the
passage and pushes the passage vortex in the radial direction.
The size and strength of the passage vortices formed in the
rotor passage uctuate depending on the position of the trailing
edge wake and passage vortices from the stator row. When the
stator wake and passage vortices hit the rotor blade leading
edge, the passage vortices in the rotor passage grow larger and
stronger. At the rotor exit, the locations of the passage vortices
and trailing edge wake also uctuate depending on the wake
and vortices from the upstream stator row48. The tip-clearance
vortex increases the suction side static pressure and decreases
the pressure side static pressure at the tip region of the rotor
blade. This reduces the blade loading at the tip region in the
rotor stage.

4.3-8 Aerodynamics With Passage


Modications
Recently there have been a number of studies directed Fig. 24. Different leading edge llet proles employed in aerodynamic
at structural modications of the blade passage with the aim of loss reduction studies
reducing the secondary ows in the passage. The secondary
Source: See Notes 22, 25, 49.
ows are the signicant sources of aerodynamic losses and
increased thermal loading in the passage walls. The large
passage vortex structure also makes the exit ow turning
non-uniform across the entire passage exit plane. This
subsequently increases the noise level, secondary losses, and
uctuations of the blade loading on the following blade row.
Cold air is injected through tiny holes in the endwall to provide
a protective lm on the endwall from the hot gas in the passage
main ow. The effectiveness of lm cooling is adversely
affected by the secondary ows in the endwall. The coolant
air injected from the holes located upstream of and adjacent
to the separation line (gure 4) is lifted up from the endwall
by the passage/pressure side leg vortex and suction side leg
vortex. This exposes a large part of the endwall immediately
downstream of the separation line to the hot gas. The wake
and exit passage vortices also affect the coolant ow injected
from the holes located in the platform between the two stages.
The non-uniformity in the exit ow angles alters the expected
trajectories of these coolant paths. The structural modications
of the passage are undertaken at or near the endwall that only
affects the ow in the boundary layer and, benecially alters
the secondary ow behavior. Therefore the blade prole
remains unchanged for most of the blade span, and only the
minimum change occurs in the blade loading. The geometrical
modications are still the subject of ongoing investigations and
include leading edge llet additions and endwall proling. In Fig. 25. Leading edge horse-shoe vortex in a linear blade passage
the discussion below, attention will be focused on these two. with leading edge llet. Tke= turbulent kinetic energy.

Leading Edge Fillet: This modication is also termed as the Source: See Notes 22, 25.
leading edge contouring near the endwall. Fillets are placed at
377 the junction of the leading edge and endwall. Several forms
4.3 Turbine Blade Aerodynamics
of the llet proles have been tested and are shown in gure 24.
As can be seen in the gure, two types of basic construction of
llet proles can be identied: (i) prole with varying height
from the blade surface to the endwall and (ii) prole of bulb with
surface thickness at the outer periphery49. The thickness of the
type (i) llet proles reduces to zero as they extend out from the
blade surface to the endwall. These llets may blend with either
the endwall or blade wall or with both the endwall and blade
surface as they wrap around the leading edge extending inside
the passage. The llet proles of the type (ii) blend with the
blade surface as they wrap around the leading edge, but meet the
endwall with a nite thickness. Type (ii) llets simply thicken
the blade prole near the leading edge at the endwall. All types
of llets studied until now have asymmetric prole with respect
to the leading edge and have their highest point located at the
leading edge. The height of this highest point from the endwall
i.e. the maximum height of the llets is typically one boundary
layer thickness of the incoming ow.
The studies mentioned above show that type (i) llets
are the most effective in reducing the secondary ows in the
blade passage. These llets reduce the size and strength of the
leading edge horse-shoe vortex. Consequently, the strength of
the passage vortex is reduced. The high total pressure losses due
the passage vortex then also decrease across the blade passage.
Figure 25 shows the horse-shoe vortex structure at the leading
edge with a llet prole of type (i) employed at the leading edge.
The prole height varies linearly to zero from the blade surface Fig. 26. Passage vortex and total pressure loss at 92% axial
to the endwall and blends with the endwall and blade wall inside chord with and without llet.
the passage on the pressure side and suction side (Fillet 150). The
Source: See Note 25.
blade passage is the same as that in gure 8. The wedge shaped
object on the left of the ow visualization image of gure 25 is
the llet prole. The size of the horse-shoe vortex is about half
in the ow visualization and about one-fth in velocity vector
plot with the llet compared to the case without any llet. Note
that the ow visualization is observed at a low speed to avoid
any smearing and diffusion of smoke. The ow area at the
leading edge is reduced in the passage with the llet. For the
incompressible ow, this will cause the boundary layer uid to be
displaced from the leading edge plane. Also, the adverse pressure
gradient along the leading edge plane (due to the stagnation) is
reduced by the llet slope. All these factors are responsible in
reducing the size of the horse-shoe vortex with the llet. The
turbulent kinetic energy is also reduced signicantly in gure 25
compared to what is observed without the llet. This indicates
that the strength of the horse-shoe vortex is also reduced by the
llet. There is also no apparent structure of the leading edge
corner vortex in the secondary velocity vectors with the llet.
As the horse-shoe vortex is reduced, the Fillet 1 is expected
to reduce the passage vortex size and strength downstream in the
blade passage. Figure 26 shows the passage vortex at a plane
92% axial chord (near the exit) with and without llet in the
same blade passage. Comparing the velocity vectors in gure
12 (Plane I) and gure 26, it can be seen that the location of the
passage vortex center with the Fillet 1 moves little higher above
the endwall than without the llet. In an upstream location near
the suction side in the blade passage, the suction side leg vortex
is reduced in size and weakens with the Fillet 1 compared to that
Fig. 27. Secondary velocity vectors and turbulent kinetic energy
without the llet51. The signicant differences are observed in the (k) at pressure side (Plane PS1) of a linear vane cascade with and
total pressure loss contours of gure 26. The high total pressure without llet. PS= pressure side.
loss region (Cpt>0.45) can be considered as the signature of the
passage vortex. The Cpt contours presented here are measured Source: See Note 49. (Zess) 378
Sumanta Acharya

with a ve-hole pneumatic probe unlike the magnitudes in gure 15


which are obtained from computations in the same passage with an
incoming boundary layer of smaller thickness. The total pressure
losses in gure 26 are much lower at the bottom part of the passage
vortex with the llet than without the llet. This indicates that the
Fillet 1 has reduced the passage vortex both in size and strength.
Also revealed, the under-turning (yaw angle) of the exit ow with
the Fillet 1 occurs over a larger region in the passage vortex core52.
Similar results about the passage vortex and associated total pressure
losses are observed with other llet proles of type (i)53. Figure 27
shows the effectiveness of another llet prole of type (i) in reducing
the passage vortex in a linear vane cascade. The quantities in gure
27 are measured in a plane normal to the vane pressure surface54.
The velocity vectors in the gure show the structure of the pressure
side vortex near the pressure surface. As can be clearly seen, the
pressure side leg vortex is not complete for the lleted vane unlike
the vortex for the unlleted case. The spiral of the vortex is not
complete in the same location for the lleted case as the passage
vortex is weakened. This will eventually make the passage vortex
weaker down the passage for the lleted vane. Also, the location
of the passage vortex center appears to shift farther away from the
pressure side for the lleted case compared to that for the unlleted
case. The turbulent kinetic energy magnitudes in gure 27 are much
smaller for the lleted vane than those for the unlleted vane. The
k-contours indicate a well-dened vortex core for the unlleted case
while the k-contours for the lleted case are much uniform in the
y/P direction. The llet causes the passage vortex in this plane to
uctuate along y/P as the velocity component in this direction has
the largest uctuations with the llet. On the contrast, the large Fig. 28. Axisymmetric axial proling of endwall: (a) endwall
uctuations in the w-velocity component cause the passage vortex to prole through blade passage, (b) endwall prole upstream of
uctuate in the z/S direction for the unlleted vane. blade passage.

Endwall Proling: Endwall proling is achieved in two ways-


axial proling along the passage with no pitchwise variation and non-
axisymmetric proling along the passage with prole variations in
both the axial and pitchwise directions. The proling is aimed either
to accelerate the boundary layer uid at the endwall or to reduce the
pitchwise pressure gradient at the endwall.

(i) Axial Proling of the Endwall: Since there is no variation of the


prole in the pitch direction, this proling is also termed as the two
dimensional axisymmetric contouring. The proling is employed on
either of the endwalls in the passage, but not on the both endwalls.
The height of the prole increases over a smooth curve from the
leading edge to the trailing edge such that aspect ratio of the exit
plane or the throat area is unaffected as shown in gure 28. This
type of endwall prole was studied in linear vane passages55. The
axisymmetric proles of the endwall upstream of the blade/vane
passage such as the prole (b) of gure 28 are also studied56. Upstream
proles in the rst stage nozzle guide vane are used for the gas path
transition from the combustor chamber to the turbine inlet. In any
prole shown in gure 28, the inlet velocity to the blade/vane passage
decreases (due to increased passage area) and the ow acceleration
through the passage increases (due to decreased passage area). This
leads to a reduction in the boundary layer thickness and suppresses
the growth of secondary ows on the endwalls. Also, the exit ow
angle is expected to undergo less under-turning and over-turning due Fig. 29. Streamwise velocity and secondary velocity vectors at
0.90Cax in a linear vane passage with endwall proling through
to the higher ow acceleration downstream with the endwall proling
passage aft.
extending through the passage.
Source: See Note 55. (Burd)
379
4.3 Turbine Blade Aerodynamics
Figure 29 shows the effects of the endwall proling through the
passage aft of a vane cascade on the secondary ows57. The data are
presented in a plane near the passage exit where the endwall prole has
become almost at. The low streamwise velocity magnitudes adjacent
to the pressure side in gure 29 are located within the boundary layer on
this side. The high velocities near the contour endwall are the results of
ow accelerations along the endwall. The two concentrated low velocity
regions (U/U2<0.90) adjacent to the suction side near the at and contour
endwalls are located in the passage vortex at this plane. The passage
vortex region near the contour endwall is about half the size of that near
the at endwall. The velocity vector plot in gure 29 reveals that uids
are being displaced from the contour endwall region toward the mid-span
(y/S=0.50) as all the vectors in this region are pointing toward the mid-
span. The vectors pointing toward the suction side near y/S=1.0 indicate
that the cross-pitch ow is much stronger at the at endwall than at the
contour endwall. As this component of the ow is one of the major
contributors for the growth of the passage vortex, the passage vortex is
smaller near the contour endwall. The passage vortices can be identied
by the small turning vectors creating an apparent clockwise and counter-
clockwise motion near the contour endwall and at endwall, respectively.
The static pressure distributions near the endwalls along the passage in
gure 30 illustrate further the effects of the proled endwall on the cross-
pitch and secondary ows. The contoured prole for the data in gure
30 is similar to that in gure 29 except the prole now extends across the
entire passage length. The other endwall of the passage is at without
any contouring. In gure 30, the pressure distribution at the at wall is
similar to what is observed on the non-proled endwalls in a linear vane
passage. At the contoured endwall side, the contour lines of constant
pressure near the leading edge are aligned more in the pitch direction
than in the axial direction. In contrast, the constant pressure lines at the
at wall side near the leading edge are aligned more in the axial direction.
The pressures at the contoured endwall are higher than those at the at Fig. 30. Static pressure distributions near endwalls in a
endwall for the rst 40% axial chord. The pressures then are lower at the linear vane passage with endwall proling extending from
contoured endwall than at the at endwall for the latter 60% axial chord. leading edge to trailing.
Thus, the pressure gradient at the contoured endwall is more parallel to
the vane surface than to the pitch direction. The pressure gradient at the Source: See Note 55. (Shih)
at endwall is more parallel to the pitch direction than to the vane surface.
As a consequence, the cross ow in the pitch direction is stronger on the
at endwall than on the contoured endwall. The reduced strength of the
endwall cross ow then suppresses the growth of the passage vortex as
mentioned earlier.
The total pressure loss at the passage exit is reduced when the
passage vortex near the contoured endwall is weakened and reduced in
size. This is illustrated in the total pressure measurements in gure 3158.
The planar vane cascade in the gure employs at endwalls at both the
hub and tip while the tip wall is axially contoured and the hub wall is
at for the contoured vane cascade. The contouring here extends across
the entire passage length. The data in gure 31 are presented in a plane
located 10% axial chord downstream of the passage exit. Hence, the
endwall prole is at at this location and the total passage height (z/S)
is same for both the planar cascade and contoured cascade. The passage
vortex regions in the gure can be identied by the highly concentrated
circular contour lines near the endwalls. The parallel contour lines about
y/P=0.50 indicate the wake region. The loss distributions are almost
symmetric about the mid-span location z/S=0.50 for the planar cascade
and the passage vortices are located away from the endwall regions as
expected. While the loss distributions are asymmetric in the contoured
cascade, the passage vortex loss region about z/S=0.10 from the at wall Fig. 31. Total pressure loss, Cpt distributions at 1.10Cax for
side is similar to the passage vortex loss region in the planar cascade. a linear vane cascade with and without endwall proling.
However, the core loss region of this passage vortex has shifted closer
to the at wall side and further away from the suction side trailing edge. Source: See Note 55. (Dossena) 380
Sumanta Acharya

The loss contours due to the passage vortex from the contoured
endwall side in the contoured cascade are located just adjacent Blade LE
to the contoured wall side at z/S=0.95. Thus, the spanwise (z/ Pres
s
S) extent of the passage vortex at the contoured endwall side side ure on
is smaller compared to those in the planar cascade. Another cti
Su e
important difference between the two cascades is identied sid
by comparing the wake regions. The pitchwise width of the Endwall
wake region for the contoured cascade is smaller than that
for the planar cascade. This can be attributed to the velocity
and pressure distributions on the vane suction surface in the
Pitchwise distance
contoured cascade. The lowest pressure and consequently the
peak velocity on the vane suction surface shifts toward the
trailing edge in the presence of the contoured endwall. Thus,
the diffusion rate of velocity is lower over the suction surface Endwall
in the contoured cascade59. As a result the extent of the adverse profile
pressure gradient region near the suction surface trailing edge height
decreases reducing the extent of the trailing edge wake. Thus, (m)
the prole loss in the contoured cascade also decreases.
The effect of axial proling of endwall in an annular vane
passage was measured60. The endwall contouring is employed
at the tip wall in the last half of the passage. The contouring
affects the pressure distributions signicantly on the vane
suction surface at the tip region. The suction surface pressure at
the tip region rises in the rst 50% of axial chord. In the latter
50% of axial chord, the pressure decreases on the suction surface
and the maximum suction side velocity shifts toward the trailing
edge at the tip region. As a result, the adverse pressure gradient
on the blade suction surface is reduced at the vane tip region. In Fig. 32. Non-axisymmetric prole of endwall employed in a linear
the annular ow area, the static pressure and total pressure loss blade cascade.
distributions are affected in the latter part of the passage where
the tip contouring is located. In the aft part of the passage, the Source: See Note 62.
radial pressure gradient directed toward the hub endwall in an
annular passage with no tip wall contouring is inverted in the
upper half span near the suction side when the tip contouring is
employed. Unlike the annular passage without tip contouring,
the radial ow angle at the exit plane is negative across most
of the plane with the tip wall contouring. Downstream of the
passage exit the total pressure loss region due to wake reduces in
the pitch/circumferential direction signicantly for the contoured
annular passage (tip wall proling) compared to that for the plain
annular passage. This occurs as the adverse pressure gradient
at the vane surface trailing edge reduces for the contoured
tip/casing endwall. The same relative behavior for the wake
region has been observed for the linear vane cascade with and
without tip wall contouring61. At the same downstream location
as above, Boletis (1985) shows that the high total pressure loss
region near the contoured casing wall (annular) is also reduced
compared to that near the plain annular casing wall. However,
the magnitudes of the total pressure loss in this region are about
the same for both type of casing walls.
(ii) Non-axisymmetric Proling of Endwall: In this case, the
endwall prole variations can be achieved by varying the height
of the prole over a smooth curve in the axial direction and over
another smooth curve in the pitch direction. The objective is to
increase the endwall height near the passage pressure side and
decrease the endwall height near the suction side with respect
to a baseline at endwall. The endwall region static pressure
on such prole is expected to decrease near the pressure side Fig. 33. Measured static pressure and computed surface stream-
and increase near the suction side, thus reducing the pitchwise lines at a at endwall and at a non-axisymmetric contoured end-
pressure gradient and the strength of the cross-pitch ows at wall in a linear blade passage. Ps= wall static pressure.
381
4.3 Turbine Blade Aerodynamics

the endwall. Figure 32 shows the prole of such an endwall that is


employed62. The gure also includes the prole height variations
across the passage. Harvey et al and Hartland et al. provide guidelines
for designing the non-axisymmetric contour proles for the linear
cascade63.
The measured static pressure distributions and computed
surface streamlines at a at endwall and at the contoured endwall
of gure 32 are presented in gure 33 for a linear blade passage.
The other endwall prole of the passage is always at in this case.
The surface static pressure Ps on the contoured endwall in gure 33
increases near both the pressure side and suction side compared to
the Ps at the same locations on the at endwall. But, the pitchwise
pressure gradient, that drives the cross-pitch ow, in the rst 40%
axial chord decreases for the contoured endwall compared to that
for the at endwall. This clearly affects the cross-pitch ow on the
endwall as shown in gure 33. The turning of the streamlines near
the leading edge is much lower on the contoured endwall than on the
at endwall. The distance of the saddle point from the leading edge
is also smaller for the contoured endwall than for the at endwall.
This indicates that the leading edge horse-shoe vortex is smaller in
size above the contoured endwall. Inside the passage, the streamlines
are also turning less toward the suction surface and appear to be more
parallel to the blade surface on the contoured endwall. This occurs
as the strength of the cross-pitch ow near the contoured endwall is
decreased. The consequences of the results in gure 33 are weaker
passage vortex and lower total pressure loss across the blade passage
with the non-axisymmetric contoured endwall. These will be shown
next. Fig. 34. Streamlines and total pressure loss coefcients with
and without non-axisymmetric contoured endwall showing
Figure 34 shows the streamlines in a pitchwise plane located
pressure side leg vortex and passage vortex.
9% axial chord down the passage. The blade prole and contoured
endwall prole are identied as solid objects in the gure. The Source: See Note 62.
structure of the pressure side leg vortex at this location is very clear
near the pressure side of the at endwall case. On the other hand,
the streamlines near the pressure side for the contoured endwall case
have not completed the full revolution to create a vortex structure.
This happens as the pressure side leg vortex is weakened and reduced
in size by the contoured endwall. As the pressure side leg vortex is
driven from the horse-shoe vortex, this also validates the assertion
that the horse-shoe vortex reduces with the contoured endwall. The
passage vortex can be identied in gure 34 at the suction side where
the total pressure loss coefcients, Cpt are very high. The extent of
the passage vortex can be considered for Cpt>0.40 in this case. Then,
clearly the passage vortex size for the contoured endwall passage is
about half of that for the at endwall linear cascade. The magnitudes
of Cpt also indicate that the passage vortex is much weaker for the
contoured endwall as the Cpt are lower for the contoured endwall
at the passage vortex location than for the at endwall. As such,
the mass-averaged total pressure loss across the passage reduces
signicantly with the contoured endwall. Several other proles of the
non-axisymmetric contoured endwall have been tested successfully
in blade and vane passages64. The results are similar to what we have
discussed so far. These endwall proles reduce the total pressure loss
across the blade passage by weakening the endwall cross ows and
passage vortex.

Endwall Film Injection: Coolant air injected through tiny


holes in the endwall covers the endwall with a layer of lm of cold Fig. 35. Coolant injection through holes in endwall for lm cool-
air and protects the endwall from the hot gas streak in the blade ing. L= hole length and D= characteristic scale of hole shape.
passage (gure 35). Wall static pressure changes in the vicinity of
the coolant injection holes as the coolant jet blocks the boundary
382
Sumanta Acharya

layer and interacts with the boundary layer uid downstream


of the hole. Thus, the coolant jets signicantly inuence the
endwall pressure eld and the cross-pitch ow in the blade
passage. As the coolant jets also interact with the vortex ows,
especially with the pressure side leg vortex and suction side leg
vortex along the separation line, the secondary ow dynamics
changes along with the total pressure losses across the passage.
As mentioned in the beginning of Section 4.3-7 that the coolant
lm is lifted away from the endwall by these vortices, the
separation lines in the passage is sometimes termed as the lift-
off line. The physics of mixing and diffusion of the jets in the
boundary layer and interactions between a coolant jet and the
boundary layer or the vortices are frequently complicated by
the action of neighboring coolant jets. Such physics are studied
under the subject of Jets in Cross Flow and hence, will not
be discussed here. The primary objective of this section is to
discuss the effects of the lm injection on the secondary ow
eld and not the dynamics of the jets.
The arrangement of the coolant holes in gure 35 is
expected to provide coverage for the entire passage endwall and
hence, sometimes is termed as the full-coverage lm cooling.
The effective coverage of the endwall by the coolant depends
on various factors like injection angle, coolant hole orientation,
coolant hole shape, hole size, L/D ratio, relative locations of
the holes, and mass ux or local blowing ratio from individual
hole. These are also the fundamental characteristics of the
coolant holes and must all play the role together when the
coolant holes are employed. The local blowing ratio is dened
as the ratio of the mass ux of the coolant to the mass ux of
the passage ow. It is not always easy to measure the mass ux
of individual holes with accuracy. Thus, an inlet blowing ratio,
Minlet is dened based on coolant ow through an idealized,
loss free hole at the passage inlet condition65.
Po , plenum Po ,inlet
M inlet =
P0,inlet Pinlet

Here, Po,plenum is the stagnation pressure of the coolant supply


plenum, Po,inlet is the stagnation pressure at the passage inlet, and
Pinlet is the static pressure at the passage inlet. The boundary
layer is energized and strengthened with the properly ejected Fig. 36. Coolant jet locations downstream of injection holes in a linear
coolant jets. This enables the boundary layer uid to withstand vane passage.
the pitchwise pressure gradient in the passage and cross-pitch
ow is weakened as a consequence. Thus, with proper design Source: See Note 66.
and conguration the endwall lm injection can also provide
an effective structural modication that reduces the secondary
ows and aerodynamic losses. It is difcult to generalize the
ow eld at the endwall when the coolant jets are ejected.
Each geometric conguration and ow parameter associated
with the coolant holes just mentioned can alter the endwall
boundary layer uniquely. On the other hand, the secondary
and cross ows affect the coolant jets. The illustrations that are
going to be presented next do not represent a typical behavior of
the near wall ow. The readers will have some understanding
about the relative importance of the coolant jet conguration
and secondary ows.
Figure 36 shows the measured locations of the coolant
jets as they travel downstream from their ejection points in a
linear vane passage66. The conguration of the coolant holes
is also shown in the gure. The holes are ejecting at 35 degree
383 with respect to the endwall surface. Data are presented near
4.3 Turbine Blade Aerodynamics

the endwall where the quantities are affected the most. Location P1 is
located along a pitchwise plane just downstream of the rst row of holes
and location P2 is located along a pitch plane just downstream of the 3rd
and last row of holes. The coolant concentration is dened as the ratio of
coolant density to the free-stream density67. The coolant concentration
is the highest at the core of jet. Also, the coolant jets have forced vortex
motions at the core68. Thus, the locations of the coolant jets in gure
36 can be readily identied at the locations of high turbulence intensity
and coolant concentration. At location P1, ten distinct jets with high
magnitudes from the ten holes upstream are clearly identiable. The four
jets near the suction side are attached to the endwall while the jets nearest
the pressure side appear to be slightly lifted up from the endwall. Local
blowing ratio is high near the suction side because the wall static pressure
is low there and local blowing ratio is low near the pressure side because
the wall static pressure is high there. Thus, the jets have higher momentum
near the suction side than the jets near the pressure side. High momentum
reduces mixing of the jets with the surrounding ow. Also, the suction
side main ow has higher kinetic energy than the pressure side main ow.
The high kinetic energy bends the suction side jets toward the endwall and
high momentum aids the process. On the other hand, the low momentum
jets near the pressure side easily penetrate the low energy main ow and
lifts up from the endwall.
At location P2 of gure 36, turbulence intensity Tu>11% near the
endwall across the pitch is caused by the combined effects of all coolant
jets as Tu is maximum 11% at this location without any coolant injection.
Besides the signatures of three jets (Tu19%) from the last row of holes
near the pressure side, no other jets are distinct at this location. The
higher coolant concentration near the pressure side is the result of large
Fig. 37. Visualization of surface ow and coolant jet
number of jets near the pressure side compared to the number of jets near trajectories along endwall in a linear blade passage at
the suction side. In addition, some jets in the rst and second rows are Minlet=1.0.
directly lifted away from the endwall by the up-wash ows of the pressure
side leg vortex and suction side leg vortex. This action mixes the jets Source: See Note 70.
easily with the main stream and the coolant concentration from these jets
reduces signicantly. Some jets on the pressure side may also have been
swept toward the middle of the passage by the cross ow and pressure
side leg vortex. Thus, the coolant concentration is the highest near y/P=-
0.45 at location P2. Similar results about the locations of the coolant jets
are reported in a linear vane passage69.
The effectiveness of individual coolant jet is largely dependent upon
its ability to stick persistently to the endwall to provide the maximum
coverage. The location chosen for a coolant hole is therefore very
important in this respect. Figure 37 provides evidence by how strongly
the secondary ows deect and block some coolant jets simply because
of their location70. The coolant holes shown in gure 37 are arranged
in four pitchwise rows at upstream of leading edge, 30% axial chord,
60% axial chord, and 90% axial chord. Four individual holes are also
located at the pressure side of the blade passage. All the holes have same
shape and geometry. The dark traces on the endwall are produced by the
ejected coolant jets as they travel along the endwall. The length, level of
darkness, and lateral spreading of the traces indicate the distance traveled
by the jets, level of consistency of coolant, and lateral coverage by the
jets, respectively, before they are mixed with the main uid. Ammonia
gas mixed with the coolant air stream reacts with the Diazo coating on
the endwall and produces such traces71. Surface ow visualization as the
coolant jets ejecting indicates the separation or lift-off lines of the pressure
side leg/passage vortex and suction side leg vortex in gure 37. The
ve holes from the pressure side at 30% axial chord and the holes at the Fig. 38. Passage vortex and total pressure losses at exit
last two rows are located downstream of the lift-off line for the pressure ow with (Minlet=2.0) and without coolant injection in a
side leg vortex. Friedrichs et al. (1996) shows that this line has moved linear blade passage.
downstream compared to that without coolant injection. The 4th and 5th
Source: See Note 65. 384
Sumanta Acharya

coolant jets from the pressure side at 30% axial chord seem to dislocate the lift-off line slightly downstream from their positions.
The jet traces from the holes located upstream of the passage in gure 37 shows virtually very little or no traces near the pressure
side and all jets near the suction side are deected around the lift-off line. The strong leading edge horse-vortex is either lifting the jets
or deecting the jets even if they are shooting directly toward the leading edge. The jets from the middle holes in the upstream row
have low momentum and are aimed toward the pressure side while the cross ow here is directed in the axial direction have low kinetic
energy. Thus, these jets have small trajectories and are easily swept in the main ow as soon as they are ejected. The traces of the
jets from the holes inside the passage, except those near the pressure side, are swept toward the suction side by the cross ow. Similar
behavior of the jets inside a blade passage is also observed72. The 3rd to 5th jet from the pressure side at 30% axial chord and 2nd to 4th jet
from the suction side at 60% axial chord are additionally pulled in by the passage vortex (see the lift-off line) and in cases, are entrained
into the passage vortex at the hole location itself. The traces nearest the pressure side are almost parallel to the pressure side as the
boundary layer is very thin here and ow behaves as inviscid. A single jet from one of the four holes at the pressure side corner interacts
with and strengthens the jet downstream and the combined jet trajectory is very long at this location. The jets at 90% axial chord and
nearest the suction side in the previous two rows eject with high momentum due to the low wall static pressure. The main ow kinetic
energy is also high at these locations because of its high speed. These keep these jet traces narrow and stick to the endwall for a longer
distance. Also note that the last row of jets are covering a large area on the endwall as they are swept toward the suction side by the cross
ow. These jets affect the cross ow as seen in the surface ow visualization of gure 37 (the top image). The streamlines downstream
of the holes at 90% axial chord are parallel to the passage rather than being turned toward the suction side as compared to the streamlines
upstream of these holes. Thus, these jets have weakened the cross ow near the passage exit.
The effects of the same cooling holes as in gure 37 on the passage vortex structure and total pressure losses at the exit ow are
shown in gure 3873. But, the inlet blowing ratio for the data with the endwall coolant injection is now 2.0. The plots with no coolant
injection are included in gure 38 for comparison. The dashed lines in the gure indicate the spanwise locations of the passage vortex
cores. The passage vortex is identied in the vector plot at the location of the clockwise rotation and in the total pressure loss contour at
the location of circular region with high loss magnitudes. As noted in both the vector and contour plots, the passage vortex with coolant
ow is located much nearer the endwall than with no coolant ow. The momentum of the ejected coolant adds energy to the boundary
layer uid. Therefore, when the passage vortex entrains these boundary layer uids, the total pressure losses near the bottom part of the
passage vortex are reduced. Coolant jets can be injected from continuous slots located in the upstream endwall/platform of the blade
passage inlet. This type of coolant ow is often termed as the slot-bleed injection. The readers are referred to note 74 for information
on the secondary ow eld behavior with the slot-bleed74.

4.3-9 Notes
______________________________

1. B. Lakshminarayana, Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer of Turbomachinery (New York:John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1996).
2. S. L. Dixon, Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., 1995).
3. H. E. Gallus, J. Zeschky, and C. Hah, Endwall and Unsteady Flow Phenomena in an Axial Turbine Stage, ASME Tran.
J. Turbomachinery 117 (1995): 562-570; E. Boletis, Effects of Tip Endwall Contouring on the Three-Dimensional Flow
Field in an Annular Turbine Nozzle Guide Vane: Part 1- Experimental Investigation, ASME Tran. J. Engr for Gas
Turbines and Power 107 (1985): 983-990; C. H. Sieverding, W. Van-Hove, and E. Boletis, Experimental Study of the
Three-Dimensional Flow Field in an Annular Turbine Nozzle Guidevane, ASME Tran. J. Engr for Gas Turbines and
Power 106 (1984): 437-444.
4. A. Duden, I. Raab, and L. Fottner, Controlling the Secondary Flow in a Turbine Cascade by Three-Dimensional Airfoil
Design and Endwall Contouring, ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery 121(1999): 191-199; S. P. Harasgama and C. D.
Burton, Film Cooling Research on the Endwall of a Turbine Nozzle Guide Vane in a Short Duration Annular Cascade:
Part 1- Experimental Technique and Results, ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery, Vol. 114 (1992): 734-740.
5. R. P. Dring and W. H. Heiser, Turbine Aerodynamics, Chap.4 in Aerothermodynamics of Aircraft Engine Components,
AIAA education series (New York: AIAA Inc., 1985).
6. L. Fielding, Turbine Design- The Effect of an Axial Flow Turbine Performance of Parameter Variation, (New York: ASME
Press, 2000); J.P. Gostelow, Cascade Aerodynamics, (OxfordPergamon Press Ltd., Oxford, U.K., 1984).
385
4.3 Turbine Blade Aerodynamics

7. J. L. Kerrebrock, Aircraft Engines and Gas Turbines, 2nd ed. (Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1992).
8. H. Cohen, G. F. C. Rogers, G.F.C., and H.I.H.Saravanamuttoo, Gas Turbine Theory, 4th ed. (Essex, U.K.: Longman Group
Ltd., 1996); also see note 5 above.
9. H. P. Wang, S. J. Olson, R. J. Goldstein, and E.R.G. Eckert, Flow Visualization in a Linear Turbine Cascade of High
Performance Turbine Blades, ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery 119 (1997): 1-8.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12 R. Niehuis, P. Lcking, and B. Stubert, Experimental and Numerical Study on Basic Phenomena of Secondary Flows in
Turbines, AGARD Conf. Proc. No. 469, Secondary Flows in Turbomachines (1990): 5.1-5.17. The original version of
this material was published by the Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development, North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (AGARD/NATO) in AGARD Conference Proceedings CP-469 Secondary Flows in
Turbomachines in 1990.
13. L.S. Langston, Research on Cascade Secondary and Tip-Leakage Flows- Periodicity and Surface Flow Visualization,
AGARD Conf. Proc. No. 469, Secondary Flows in Turbomachines (1990): 19.1-19.15; S.H. Moustapha, G.J.Paron,
and J.H.T. Wade, Secondary Flows in Cascades of Highly Loaded Turbine Blades, ASME Tran. J. Engr. Gas Turbines
and Power 107 (1985): 1031-1038. The original version of this material was published by the Advisory Group for
Aerospace Research and Development, North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (AGARD/NATO) in AGARD Conference Proceedings CP-469 Secondary Flows in
Turbomachines in 1990.
14. H.P. Hodson and R. G. Dominy, Three-Dimensional ow in a Low-Pressure Turbine Cascade at Its Design Condition,
ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery 109 (1987): 177-185.
15. Ibid.
16. D.G. Gregory-Smith, C.P. Graves, and J.A. Walsh , Growth of Secondary Losses and Vorticity in an Axial Turbine
Cascade, ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery 110 (1988): 1-8.
17. E. Detemple-Laake, Measurement of the Flow Field in the Blade Passage and Side-wall Region of a Plane Turbine
Cascade, AGARD Conf. Proc. No. 469, Secondary Flows in Turbomachines (1990): 10.1-10.13. The original version of
this material was published by the Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development, North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (AGARD/NATO) in AGARD Conference Proceedings CP-469 Secondary Flows in
Turbomachines in 1990.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid.
20. W.A. Eckerle and L.S. Langston, Horseshoe Vortex Formation Around a Cylinder, ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery
109 (1987): 278-285.
21. See notes 13 and 20 above.
22. G.I. Mahmood, R. Gustafson, and S. Acharya, Experimental Investigation of Flow Structure and Nusselt Number in a
Low Speed Linear Blade Passage With and Without Leading Edge Fillets, ASME Tran. J. Heat Transfer 127 (2005):
499-512.
23. See note 20 above.
24. See note 9 above.
25. G.I. Mahmood and S. Acharya, Experimental Investigation of Secondary Flow Structure in a Blade Passage With and
Without Leading Edge Fillets, in review, ASME Trans. J. Fluids Engineering (2005);A.K. Saha, G.I. Mahmood, R.
Gustafson, and S. Acharya, Predicted and Measured Flow Field and Heat Transfer in a Linear Blade Cascade
Employing Fillets, in preparation for the ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery.
26. See note 9 above.
27. See note 9 above.
28. See note 9 above.
29. See note 9 above.
30. See note 9 above.
31. R. J. Goldstein, H.P. Wang, and M.Y. Jabbari, The Inuence of Secondary Flows Near the Endwall and Boundary Layer
Disturbance on Convective Transport From a Turbine Blade, ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery 117(1995): 657-665.
32. See note 25 above.
33. M.B. Kang and K.A. Thole, Floweld Measurements in the Endwall region of a Stator Vane, ASME Tran. J.
Turbomachinery 122 (2000): 458-466.
34. See note 14 above.
35. See note 25 above.
36. D. G. Gregory-Smith and J.G.E. Cleak, Secondary Flow Measurements in a Turbine Cascade With High Inlet
Turbulence, ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery 114 (1992): 173-183; C. Hah, A Navier-Stokes Analysis of Three-
Dimensional Turbulent Flows Inside Turbine Blade Rows at Design and Off-Design Conditions, ASME Tran. J. Engr.
Gas Turbines and Power 106 (1984): 421-429; L.S. Langston, Crossows in a Turbine Cascade Passage,
ASME Tran. J. Engr. for Power 102 (1980): 866-874.
386
Sumanta Acharya

37. K. Hermanson, S. Kern, G. Picker, and S. Parneix, Predictions of External Heat Transfer For Turbine Vanes and Blades
With Secondary Flowelds, ASME Proc. Turbo Expo, GT-2002-30206, 2002.
38. See note 33 above.
39. A. Yamamoto, Production and Development of Secondary Flows and Losses in Two Types of Straight Turbine
Cascades: Part 1- A Stator Case, ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery 109 (1987): 186-193;R.P. Roy, K.D. Squires, M.
Gerendas, S. Song, W.J. Howe and A. Ansari, Flow and Heat Transfer at the Hub Endwall of Inlet Vane Passages-
Experiments and Simulations, ASME Proc. Turbo Expo, 2000-GT-198, 2000.
40. See note 3 above.
41. See note 3 above.
42. See note 3 above.
43. See note 13 above.
44. See note 13 above.
45. R.G. Dominy and S.C. Harding, An Investigation of Secondary Flows in Nozzle Guide Vanes, AGARD Conf. Proc. No.
469, Secondary Flows in Turbomachines (1990): 7.1-7.15.
46. See note 3 above (Gallus).
47. M.V. Hoyningen-Huene, W. Frank, and A.R. Jung, Three-Dimensional Time-Resolved Flow Field in the First and Last
Turbine Stage of a Heavy Duty Gas Turbine, Part I: Secondary Flow Field, ASME Proc. Turbo Expo, 2000-GT-0438,
2000.
48. J. Zeschky and H.E. Gallus, Effects of Stator Wakes and Spanwise Nonuniform Inlet Conditions on the Rotor Flow of
an Axial Turbine Stage, ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery 115 (1993): 128-136.
49. H. Sauer, R. Mller, and K. Vogeler, Reduction of Secondary Flow Losses in Turbine Cascades by Leading Edge
Modications at the Endwall, ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery 123 (2001): 207-213; G. A. Zess and K.A. Thole,
Computational Design and Experimental Evaluation of Using a Leading Edge Fillet on a Gas Turbine Vane, ASME
Proc. Turbo Expo, GT-2001-0404, 2001; A.T. Lethander, K.A. Thole, G. Zess, and J. Wagner, Ortimizing the Vane-
Endwall Junction to Reduce Adiabatic Wall Temperatures in a Turbine Vane Passage, ASME Proc. Turbo Expo,
GT2003-38939, 2003; S. Becz, M.S. Majewski, and L.S. Langston, Leading Edge Modication Effects on Turbine
Cascade Endwall Loss, ASME Proc. Turbo Expo, GT-2003-38898, 2003;S. Becz, M.S. Majewski, and L.S. Langston,
An Experimental Investigation of Contoured Leading Edges for Secondary Flow Loss Reduction, ASME Proc. Turbo
Expo, GT-2004-53964, 2004; also see notes 22 and 25 above.
50. See notes 22 and 25 above.
51. See note 21 above.
52. See note 25 above.
53. See note 49 above.
54. See note 49 above (Zess).
55. S.W. Burd and T.W. Simon, Flow Measurements in a Nozzle Guide Vane Passage With a Low Aspect Ratio and
Endwall Contouring, ASME Proc. Turbo Expo, 2000-GT-0213, 2000; T.I-P Shih, Y.-L Lin, and T.W. Simon, Control
of Secondary Flows in a Turbine Nozzle Guide Vane by Endwall Contouring, ASME Proc. Turbo Expo, 2000-GT-0556,
2000; V. Dossena, A. Perdichizzi, and M. Savini, The Inuence of Endwall Contouring on the Performance of a Turbine
Nozzle Guide Vane, ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery 121(1999): 200-208; F.C. Kopper, R. Milano, and M. Vanco,
Experimental Investigation of Endwall Proling in a Turbine Vane Cascade, AIAA Journal, AIAA 80-1089R 19, No. 8 (
August 1981).
56. S. Acharya, Eendwall Cooling With Endwall Contouring and Leading Edge Fillet, Smi-annual Report Submiited to
UTSR, South Carolina, Project No. 02-01-SR098, June 2003-December 2003; D.E. Bohn, K. Kusterer, N. Srken, and F.
Kreitmeler, Inuence of Endwall Contouring in Axial Gaps on the Flow Field in a Four-Stage Turbine, ASME Proc.
Turbo Expo, 2000-GT-472, 2000; L.P. Timko, Energy Efcient Engine High Pressure Turbine Component Test
Performance Report, Contract Report for NASA, Report No. NASA CR-168289; also see note 55 above (Shih).
57. See note 55 above (Burd).
58. See note 55 above (Dossena).
59. Ibid.
60. See note 3 above (Boletis).
61. See note 55 above (Dossena).
62. R. Gustafson, G.I. Mahmood, and S. Acharya, Control of Secondary Flows in a Low Speed Blade Cascade with a Non-
axisymmetric 3-D Endwall, in preparation for the ASME Trans J. Turbomachinery.
63. N. W. Harvey, M.G. Rose, M.D. Taylor, S. Shahpar, J. Hartland, and D.G. Gregory-Smith, Nonaxisymmetric Turbine
End Wall Design: Part I- Three-Dimensional Linear Design System, ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery 122 (2000):
278-285; J.C. Hartland, D.G. Gregory-Smith, and M.G. Rose, Non-axisymmetric Endwall Proling in a Turbine Rotor
Blade, ASME Proc. Turbo Expo, 98-GT-525, 1998.
64. G. Ingram, D.G. Gregory-Smith, M. Rose, N. Harvey, and G. Brennan, The Effect of End-wall Proling on Secondary
Flow and Loss Development in a Turbine Cascade, ASME Proc. Turbo Expo, GT-2002-30339, 2002; J.C. Hartland, D.G.
Gregory-Smith, N.W. Harvey, and M.G. Rose, Nonaxisymmetric Turbine End Wall Design: Part II- Experimental
387
4.3 Turbine Blade Aerodynamics

Validation, ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery 122 (2000): 286-293; J. Yan, D.G. Gregory-Smith, and P.J. Walker,
Secondary Flow Reduction in a Nozzle Guide Vane Cascade by Non-axisymmetric End-wall Proling, ASME Proc.
Turbo Expo, 99-GT-339, 1999.
65. S. Friedrichs, H.P. Hodson, and W.N. Dawes, Aerodynamic Aspects of Endwall Film-Cooling, ASME Tran. J.
Turbomachinery 119 (1997): 786-793.
66. F. Kost, and F. Nicklas, Film-Cooled Turbine Endwall in a Transonic Flow Field: Part I- Aerodynamic Measurements,
ASME Proc. Turbo Expo, 2001-GT-0145, 2001.
67. Ibid.
68. F. Bario, F. Leboeuf, A. Onvani, and A. Seddini, Aerodynamics of Cooling Jets Introduced in the Secondary Flow of a
Low-Speed Turbine Cascade, ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery 112 (1990): 539-546.
69. Ibid.
70. S. Friedrichs, H.P. Hodson, and W.N. Dawes, Distribution of Film-Cooling Effectiveness on a Turbine Endwall
Measured Using the Ammonia and Diazo Technique, ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery 118 (1996): 613-621.
71. M.Y. Jabbari, K.C. Marston, E.R.G. Eckert, and R.J. Goldstein, Film Cooling of the Gas Turbine Endwall by Discrete-
Hole Injection, ASME Tran. J. Turbomachinery .118 (1996):. 278-284; also see note 70 above.
72. Ibid.
73. See note 65 above.
74. H.D. Pasinato, Z. Liu, R.P. Roy, W.J. Howe, and K.D. Squires, Prediction and Measurement of the Flow and Heat
Transfer Along the Endwall and Within an Inlet vane Passage, ASME Proc. Turbo Expo, GT-2002-30189, 2002;
S.W. Burd and T.W. Simon, Effects of Slot Bleed Injection Over a Contoured Endwall on Nozzle Guide Vane Cooling
Performance: Part I- Flow Field Measurements, ASME Proc. Turbo Expo, 2000-GT-0199, 2000; R. Oke, T.W. Simon,
T. Shih, B. Zhu, Y.L. Lin, and M. Chyu, Measurements Over a Film-Cooled, Contoured Endwall with Various Coolant
Injection Rates, ASME Proc. Turbo Expo, 2001-GT-0140, 2001.

388
BIOGRAPHY 4.3 Turbine Blade Aerodynamics

Sumanta Acharya
Louisiana State University
CEBA 1419B, Mechanical
Engineering Department
Baton Rouge, LA 70803

phone: (225) 578-5809


email: acharya@me.lsu.edu

Sumanta Acharya is currently the L. R. Daniel Professor in Mechanical Engineering, and the
Director of the Turbine Innovation and Energy Research (TIER) Center at Louisiana State
University (LSU), Baton Rouge . He received his B.S. in Mechanical Engineering from IIT-
Kharagpur, India, in 1978, his Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Minnesota
in 1982, and has been on the faculty at LSU since 1982. He has worked in several areas pertaining
to turbine blade cooling and aerodynamics including internal cooling, lm cooling, blade tip
leakage ows, and 3D endwall ows (hub). In the gas turbine area he has received funding from
Pratt & Whitney, General Electric, the University Turbine Systems Research Program (UTSR) of
the Department of Energy, the U. S Navy, the Air Force Ofce of Scientic Research, the National
Science Foundation, and the State of Louisiana. He has published 130 journal articles and book
chapters, and presented over 160 conference papers.
Gazi Mahmood

Louisiana State University


CEBA 1419B, Mechanical
Engineering Department
Baton Rouge, LA 70803

Dr. Gazi Mahmood is currently working as a postdoctoral research associate at the Turbine
Innovation and Energy Research (TIER) Center of the Louisiana State University. He received
his B.Tech. in Mechanical Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology in Bombay in
1995 and his Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Utah in 2001. The research
interests of Dr. Gazi Mahmood include turbulent channel ows, uid dynamics and convective
heat transfer on special surface structures, aerodynamics, gas turbine cooling, pumps, infrared
imaging techniques, ow control on wing-shaped bodies, uidic actuators, and miniature contact
probes for ow measurements. Presently, he has been working in a research project investigating
the aerodynamic performances and endwall cooling in the gas turbine passages with endwall
contouring and leading edge llets. His work experiences also include research on dimples,
pin-ns, and vortex passage employed in heat exchangers, wing bodies, bearing cooling, and
turbine blade cooling. He was a lecturer at the Mechanical Engineering Department in Columbia
University (New York) in 2001.
4.4.1 4.4.1-1 Introduction
Buckets and Nozzles
Gas turbine engines, both aircraft and industrial power generation,
represent one of the most aggressive applications for structural materials. With
ever growing demands for increasing performance and efciencies, all classes of
materials are being pushed to higher temperature capabilities. These materials
must also satisfy stringent durability and reliability criteria. As materials are
developed to meet these demanding requirements, the processing of these
materials often becomes very complicated and expensive. As a result, the cost
of materials and processes has become a much larger consideration in the design
and application of high performance materials. Both the aircraft engine and
power generation industries are highly cost competitive, and market advantage
today relies on reducing cost as well as increasing performance and efciency.
The ring temperatures of all gas turbines, both industrial power
generation and aircraft engines, have increased over the past ~30 years. More
recently, the rate of temperature increase has slowed for aircraft engines but not
for industrial gas turbines (IGT). As a result, the materials temperature capability
requirements for these two classes of gas turbines are converging. For many
years, the high performance requirements of military and commercial aircraft
engines fueled the development of advanced materials and processes. Many of
these high temperature materials are now being used in industrial gas turbines as
output, efciency, and reliability requirements continue to grow. Directionally
solidied and single-crystal nickel-base superalloys have been developed for
investment casting of hot gas path components and have been scaled up to the
part sizes required for IGT components but not without signicant challenges
in producibility, defect allowances, and repair. The application of nickel-
base superalloys in industrial gas turbines has required particular emphasis on
technology development for the production of buckets and nozzles in large IGT
sizes. Processing scale-up from aircraft engine-sized parts to large IGT-sized
parts has presented unique materials development and processing challenges.
There has been much synergy in the development of these materials for both
aircraft engines and industrial power generation turbines, and this synergy is
likely to continue to grow as we strive to push materials capability to the limit
while providing robust designs for reliable, long-life service.

4.4.1-2 Background
Higher operating temperatures are historically the primary means of
improving aircraft engine thrust or industrial power generation gas turbine output.
Higher operating temperatures require higher temperature capability materials
and associated technologies such as improved oxidation and environmental
coatings. For industrial power generation gas turbines, the ring temperature (as
dened by the gas temperature that enters the rst rotating stage of buckets or
Stephen J. Balsone blades) has a profound effect on the performance of the turbine.
Since the early 1970s there has been a continuous increase in the
GE Gas Turbines LLC output and efciency of large industrial gas turbines (IGT) for electrical
P.O. Box 648; GTTC 174D power generation. This increase is due in large part to the introduction of high
Greenville, SC 29602 temperature structural materials. The use of these advanced materials has resulted
in an increase in gas turbine ring temperature from 982C (1800F) to greater
Phone: 864 254-5294 than 1427C (2600F) over the past 30 years. For every 10C (50F) increase in
Email: stephen.balsone@ps.ge.com the ring temperature, the gas turbine combined-cycle efciency improves by
approximately 1%. A 1% improvement in efciency means millions of dollars
in savings to an electrical power producer looking to deliver electricity at the
lowest cost to its customers.
Nickel-base (Ni-base) superalloys are the alloys of choice for high
temperature, high strength structural applications, and they have become
the standard for IGT hot gas path components such as buckets, nozzles, and
shrouds. Many of these investment cast Ni-base superalloys were derived
from aircraft engine alloys developed for use in both commercial and military
aircraft gas turbines. In addition to investment cast Ni-base superalloys, other
411
high temperature materials are in production or being developed for IGT applications. High temperature coatings such as metallic
coatings for oxidation and corrosion resistance and ceramic coatings for thermal protection are becoming standard for hot gas path and
combustion hardware. Ceramic-matrix composites are also being developed for high temperature applications such as turbine shrouds,
combustion liners, and turbine nozzles.
In order to reduce the amount of cooling air required to keep materials within their high temperature capability, several options
have been pursued. The obvious is the use of higher temperature capability materials. The second is the use of thermal barrier
coatings (TBCs). The third is the incorporation of more efcient cooling schemes. These approaches are complementary, and system
approaches have been developed that take advantage of all three. Advanced industrial gas turbines ring at temperatures of 1425C
(2600F) and above require advanced cooling schemes to keep the metal temperatures within design limits. While aircraft engines have
used advanced air cooling techniques including extensive use of convection and lm cooling to maintain part temperatures at required
levels, they are limited to these techniques because these are the only approaches that are available for turbines that must be own on
aircraft. However, industrial gas turbines do not have these weight limitations and therefore can use other cooling techniques such as
steam cooling for buckets and nozzles. The rst benet of steam cooling is that it allows higher ring temperatures for a given set of
parts lives or reliability goals. The higher thermal transport properties of steam enable designers to maintain metal temperatures within
acceptable limits in higher gas temperature environments. Secondly, lm cooling requires that relatively cool air be mixed with the high
temperature gas as it passes through the rst stage nozzles. This lm lowers the temperature of the gas thus increasing the difference
between combustor discharge temperature and the ring temperature for a set combustor discharge temperature. Therefore for a given
NOx production rate, steam cooling permits higher ring temperatures and hence maximizes output and efciency. Thus the use of
steam cooling allows NOx emissions and efciency goals to be met simultaneously.

4.4.1-3 Process Development Investment Casting of


DS and SX Alloys
The investment cast Ni-base superalloys currently in IGT use have been principally derived from aircraft engine alloys developed
to meet stringent high performance requirements of both commercial and military aircraft gas turbines. However, the introduction of
these aircraft engine alloys in IGT hot gas path components has posed signicant development challenges1. Figure 1 shows a General
Electric F-class gas turbine rst stage bucket in relation to a typical aircraft engine turbine blade2. This rst stage bucket is a directionally
solidied (DS) Ni-base superalloy made from GTD-111TM, an alloy derived from Rene 80 and developed specically to meet property
requirements for long-life operation in IGTs. This rst stage bucket demonstrates a greater than 10X increase in part size and a greater
than 20X increase in part weight as compared with the aircraft engine blade. These DS Ni-base superalloy buckets are up to 76 cm (30
in) in length and weigh up to 18 kg (40 lbs). In the most advanced IGTs, they are designed and manufactured with complex internal
serpentine cooling passages. They are manufactured to very tight dimensional tolerances, and inspection and acceptance standards are
today approaching aircraft engine requirements.
The earliest industrial gas turbines used forged turbine buckets
with cast nozzles. This changed in the late 60s when castings began to
be used in bucket applications. Many nozzle and bucket castings used
in industrial gas turbines are made by using the conventional equiaxed
investment casting process. Vacuum is used in most cases, except for
some of the cobalt alloys, to prevent the highly reactive elements in the
superalloys from reacting with the oxygen and nitrogen in the air. With
proper control of metal and mold thermal conditions, the molten metal
solidies from the surface toward the center of the mold, creating an
equiaxed structure. To prevent shrinkage porosity, care is taken to allow
proper feeding of molten metal to the casting while it solidies.
Directional solidication (DS) was rst introduced into
industrial gas turbines in the late 1980s. Although it has been in aircraft
engines for more than 25 years, considerable process development was
necessary to scale it up to the sizes of buckets used in industrial gas
turbines. By exercising careful control over temperature gradients, a
planar solidication front can be developed in these large buckets. The
result is a bucket with an oriented grain structure that runs parallel to the
major axis of the part and contains no transverse grain boundaries. The
elimination of these transverse grain boundaries confers additional creep Fig. 1. Size comparison of an IGT rst
and rupture strength on the alloy, and the orientation of the grain structure stage bucket with a typical aircraft en-
provides a favorable modulus of elasticity in the longitudinal direction to gine turbine blade. (Courtesy of General
enhance fatigue life. By directionally solidifying the alloy GTD-111 , TM Electric Company).
an increase of approximately 23C (40F) in creep strength and an increase
Source: See Note 2.
of approximately 10X in fatigue life can be realized3.

412
Stephen J. Balsone

Figure 2 shows General Electrics H SystemTM gas turbine third


stage and fourth stage buckets made of DS GTD-444TM Ni-base superalloy4.
The alloy development of DS GTD-444TM serves as a good example of
the alloy modication conducted to adapt an aircraft engine alloy for IGT
application. DS GTD-444TM is a directionally solidied version of the rst
generation SX Ni-base superalloy Rene N4. When design requirements
exceeded the material capability of DS GTD-111TM, the SX Rene N4 alloy
was selected because of the alloys very good high temperature strength.
Grain boundary element modications were made to the alloy to produce a
SX Rene N4 derivative as a DS alloy with improved large-part castability
for IGT application. The result was a castable, high temperature DS Ni-base
superalloy with improved creep and fatigue properties as compared with DS
GTD-111TM. DS GTD-444TM was rst introduced in production in 1999.
More recently, industrial gas turbine OEMs have worked with
suppliers and universities to develop large, single-crystal (SX) castings that
offer additional creep and fatigue benets through the elimination of grain
boundaries. While directionally solidifying GTD-111TM as a single crystal
offers some improvements in creep and fatigue, much more signicant
improvements can be achieved by adopting alloys developed as single-crystal
compositions for aircraft engine applications. The use of one such alloy, Fig. 2. Third and fourth stage IGT buck-
Rene N5, can produce an increase of more than 35C (~60F) in creep strength ets made from DS GTD-444TM. (Courte-
and 2X to 3X increase in fatigue life compared to DS GTD-111TM. However, sy of General Electric Company).
to successfully produce large single crystals weighing more than 11 kg. (~25
Source: See Note 2.
lbs) and measuring more than 450mm (~18 inches) in length, modications
had to be made to the alloy. These modications were necessary to reduce
the reaction between the metal and mold materials to enable reasonable yields
to be obtained when these buckets and nozzles are solidied for long times at
high temperatures5.
Figure 3 shows General Electrics H SystemTM gas turbine rst stage
bucket made of SX Rene N56. This Ni-base superalloy was adopted directly
from aircraft engine application and is currently used in production for rst
stage buckets, as well as rst stage nozzles and shrouds, in General Electrics
H SystemTM and FB-class gas turbine product lines. These applications are
among the rst use of SX Ni-base superalloys in IGTs. Signicant material
and processes development was required for the introduction of SX Ni-base
superalloys in IGT applications, including SX investment casting equipment
and technology, ceramic mold and core development, and post-cast joining,
machining, coating, and inspection technology to fabricate these very
complex, high performance airfoils.
Critical processing technology developments were required to scale
up the investment casting of Ni-base superalloys for IGT applications. DS
and SX investment casting furnaces were scaled up to handle the size and
weight of IGT buckets. Advances in mold materials and construction were Fig. 3. First stage IGT bucket made from
required to hold the large volumes of molten metal during the DS and SX SX ReneN5. (Courtesy of General Electric
casting withdrawal process. Ceramic cores were improved to increase high Company).
temperature strength in order to minimize core deformation and hold critical
dimensional tolerances. Processing considerations were also important to Source: See Note 2.
alloy selection and chemistry modications, as Ni-base superalloys were
adapted from aircraft engines to IGT applications. Alloy chemistries were
modied to prevent formation of melt-related defects such as freckles,
porosity, and hot tearing in the large IGT parts. In addition, minor alloying
elements were adjusted to control grain boundary strength. These alloy
chemistry changes to improve the castability of alloys in large sizes and to
increase casting yields had to be balanced with the alloy mechanical property
and environmental resistance requirements for IGT hardware for robust,
long-life service. These materials and processes technology developments
are often conducted in joint partnership between the gas turbine OEM and
the investment casting suppliers.

413
4.4.1 Buckets and Nozzles
The main drivers for yield in large DS and SX airfoil castings are dimensional and grain defects. Dimensions and associated
tolerances result from the aerodynamic, mechanical, and heat transfer design of the part that must meet the gas turbine cycle requirements.
Grain defects are metallurgical in nature and are controlled by local solidication, chemistry, heat treatment, and geometry. Typical
grain defects encountered by developers of DS and SX IGT airfoils are shown in gure 47. Grain defects are typically dealt with by
adjusting processing conditions, mold congurations, local geometry, and alloy chemistry8.

4.4.1-4 Process Development High Gradient Casting


High gradient is a term used to describe any one of a number of investment casting techniques used to solidify castings under
well-controlled, large thermal gradients. This results in cast material have a much-rened microstructure with improved chemical
homogeneity. In the conventional DS or SX investment casting process, heat from the mold is removed by conduction to a chill plate
and by radiation to the surroundings, including heat loss from the open bafe in the bottom of the furnace during the mold withdrawal
process. In a high gradient casting process, heat from the mold is removed by immersing the mold into a cooling media directly from
the mold withdrawal from the furnace. The high gradient cooling media is often a bath of liquid metal such as aluminum or tin9.
High gradient casting technology promises to increase casting yields and throughput by eliminating melt-related defects such
as freckle formation in complex airfoil geometries. In addition, high gradient casting produces a signicant renement of the cast
alloy microstructure, as often measured by the primary dendrite arm spacing. This microstructural renement is also accompanied by
a reduction in casting microporosity, a reduction in the volume fraction of eutectic phase, and an improvement in the morphology and
distribution of carbides. The chemical homogeneity of the cast alloy is improved, and this allows Ni-base superalloys to be more fully
solutioned during heat treatment, resulting in a signicant increase in high temperature creep and fatigue properties10. This microstructural
renement and improved chemical homogeneity achievable by a high gradient casting process can provide both incremental gains and
big leaps in investment casting technology. The improved materials capability provided by high gradient casting provides important
design benets such as component upgrades without redesign, the exibility to balance higher component performance with extended
component life, and the ability to cast more exotic, high performance, hard-to-cast Ni-base superalloys. In addition, a direct material
substitution may provide cost reduction by replacing a more costly DS or SX Ni-base superalloy with a less expensive alloy at equivalent
performance by improving the capability of the less costly alloy via a high gradient casting process.

4.4.1-5 Alloy Development Buckets


Over the past several decades, advanced airfoil alloy development for industrial gas turbines has progressed from poly-crystalline
Ni-base superalloys such as U500, U700, and Alloy 738, to poly-crystalline and then directionally solidied superalloys such as (DS)
GTD-111TM. GEs most advanced DS Ni-base superalloy in production use is GTD-444TM, a DS version of the single-crystal (SX)
Rene N4 alloy used in aircraft engine applications. Figure 5 shows a schematic of IGT airfoil alloy development, plotting application
temperature as a function of rst introduction. Note that gure 5 shows two paths for advanced IGT airfoil alloy development. One
path has been followed for the evolution of cast Ni-base superalloys for latter stage bucket applications that require simple or no internal
cooling. The second path shows the introduction of SX Rene N5, a second generation (containing rhenium) single-crystal Ni-base
superalloy developed for aircraft engine applications. SX Rene N5 has been adopted for IGT use in rst stage buckets having complex
internal cooling schemes as well as rst stage nozzle and shroud applications in General Electrics most advanced IGTs. Table I lists
the alloy compositions of some important IGT investment cast Ni-base superalloys.

Early Stages
Complex Cooling
Temperature

Rene N5
(SX)
Latter Stages
GTD-111TM Simple or No Cooling
(DS)

GTD-444TM
GTD-111TM (DS)
Rene 77 738 GTD-111TM (DS)
U500

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Fig. 4. Typical grain defects in SX and DS airfoil alloys Fig. 5. IGT bucket alloy evolution showing increase in temperature
that negatively impact casting yields. (Courtesy of Gen- capability.
eral Electric Company).
Source: See Note 2.
Source: See Note 7.
414
Stephen J. Balsone
The higher ring temperatures of advanced industrial gas turbines place increased demands on protective coatings for hot gas
path components. Coatings are required to protect the components from corrosion, oxidation, and mechanical property degradation.
As nickel-base superalloys have become more complex, it has been increasingly difcult to obtain both the higher strength levels that
are required and a satisfactory level of corrosion and oxidation resistance without the use of coatings. The function of all coatings is
to provide a surface reservoir of elements that will form very protective and adherent oxide layers, thus protecting the underlying base
material from oxidation and corrosion attack and degradation. Since the mid-1980s, an increase in the oxidation resistance of IGT airfoil
alloys has been required to meet the higher ring temperatures of advanced industrial gas turbines. This demand was met with a series
of M-CrAlY overlay coatings with increasing oxidation resistance. In addition to these simple overlay coatings, duplex coatings that
consisted of an overlay M-CrAlY with a diffusion aluminide were also developed. The enhanced oxidation protection was achieved by
an increased aluminum content in the outer region of the coating. As the internal temperatures of these hot section parts increased, it also
became necessary to coat the internal surfaces and cooling holes to provide protection against oxidation and embrittlement that would
otherwise occur.
Air plasma sprayed yttria-stabilized zirconia thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) have been successfully used to extend life of
superalloy components in aircraft engines and industrial gas turbines. A TBC is a multilayer thermal and environmental protection system
consisting of an insulating layer of ceramic over a metallic bond coat for substrate oxidation protection and improved metal-ceramic
interfacial properties. A typical air plasma sprayed (APS) TBC consists of a low thermal conductivity yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ)
ceramic top coat layer over a metallic bond coat layer. The top ceramic layer may be from 250 to 1250 microns (0.010 to 0.050 inch)
thick while the metallic bond coat is typically from 200 to 300 microns (0.008 to 0.012 inch) thick. The bond coat is usually an M-CrAlY
chosen to provide oxidation protection to the substrate metal and a rough surface for mechanical adhesion of the ceramic top coat. In
conventional APS TBCs, the internal microcracks are random or non-directional. Advanced APS TBCs have been developed that
mimic the oriented microstructure of vapor phase deposited TBCs. This advanced APS TBC can accommodate the mismatch in thermal
strains between the ceramic top layer and the metallic bond coat and substrate. This allows the superior properties of this coating to be
achieved by a coating process that can be used to apply TBCs to large industrial gas turbine parts.

4.4.1-6 Alloy Development Nozzles


Nozzles, also called vanes, are the stationary airfoils that direct the hot gas path ow for proper impingement on the rotating
buckets. They must be able to withstand high temperatures. For example, the stage 1 nozzles are subjected to the highest gas path
temperatures in the turbine but to lower mechanical stresses than rotating buckets. Much of the stress experience by the nozzles is a result
of high thermal stresses and to a lesser degree, mechanical stresses such as the aerodynamic loading. As a result, the nozzles must have
excellent resistance to thermal fatigue, as well as high temperature oxidation and corrosion resistance. Good creep resistance is also an
important design consideration, especially for large, multi-airfoil latter stage nozzles whose size and weight will lead to creep deformation
at temperature as the nozzles support their own weight (and the attached diaphragm structure) from the turbine case.
Since the 1960s, the cobalt-base alloy, FSX-414, has been the stage 1 nozzle alloy in General Electrics E-class and F-class
gas turbines11. FSX-414 has been the alloy of choice for nozzle applications for many years because of the superior highest temperature
strength of cobalt alloys as compared with nickel-base alloys. In addition, cobalt-base alloys exhibit excellent corrosion resistance due to
the level of Cr in the alloys. The oxidation resistance of FSX-414 is such that it is currently used without a protective oxidation coating.
For the larger latter stage nozzles, GTD-222, a nickel-base superalloy, was developed to satisfy the requirement for higher creep resistance
at relatively lower temperatures12. GTD-222 offered a creep strength improvement of approximately 60C (~150F) over FSX-414 at the
typical operating temperatures for stage 2 and stage 3 nozzle applications. GTD-222 is often coated by an aluminiding process to enhance
the oxidation resistance of the alloy. Both FSX-414 and GTD-222 possess good weldability, an important alloy characteristic for new-
make nozzle salvage to remove casting defects, nozzle hardware fabrication, and nozzle repair after eld service.
As the ring temperature of advanced industrial gas turbines increases, nickel-base superalloys with improved high temperature
strength and high temperature oxidation resistance are being introduced for nozzle applications. For example, the bucket alloy GTD-111TM
has been used for the stage 1 nozzle on General Electrics FB-class gas turbines. Also, SX Rene N5 has been used for the stage 1 nozzle
on General Electrics H SystemTM gas turbine. In these applications, both GTD-111TM and SX Rene N5 are coated with a TBC to allow for
higher hot gas path temperatures. As hot gas path temperatures increase for more turbine output and cooling ows decrease to improve
turbine efciencies, alloy development will continue for nozzle applications. Development of new alloy compositions that possess high
temperature creep strength, i.e. high gamma prime content and excellent microstructural stability, along with good weldability (difcult
with high gamma prime alloys) will be critical for long-life nozzle applications. Excellent oxidation and corrosion resistance are always
important, especially for fuel exibility and future syn-gas or other alternative fuel usage.

4.4.1-7 Materials Performance


As has been mentioned previously, nickel-base superalloys are the highest temperature class of metallic materials currently
used in aircraft engines and industrial gas turbines. Among these, the highest temperature subset are the turbine airfoil alloys. The
drive to increase output and efciency in industrial gas turbines results in the need for increased capability materials for both creep and
fatigue. It also puts increased demand on thermal and environmental coatings to provide protection for long times in higher temperature
environments. Hot section buckets and nozzles must not only have sufcient strength to withstand the mechanical and thermal loading,
but must also have coatings that protect the substrate material from damaging effects of exposure to the hot gases. These effects include
415 oxidation, hot corrosion, and embrittlement. Thus these components must be treated as a substrate / coating materials system.
4.4.1 Buckets and Nozzles
Industrial gas turbine materials must withstand much longer time at operating temperatures but many fewer loading and unloading
cycles than aircraft engine materials. Also, industrial gas turbine materials are not subject to the rapid start-up requirements that aircraft
engines must tolerate. However, industrial gas turbines must operate for most of their life at maximum power output at a constant 3,600
or 3,000 RPM (depending on whether the power frequency is 60 or 50 Hz) as opposed to aircraft engines that see short times at maximum
take-off power levels, drop back to cruise conditions, and have varying RPM shaft speeds. Industrial gas turbines must be capable
of burning both clean fuels (e.g. natural gas) and distillate fuels with higher alkali metal levels. They are also exposed to much more air
borne contaminates.
Industrial gas turbine customers have come to expect long-term durability for airfoils and 30 year lifetimes for major structures
(casings, rotors, etc.). Typically, this translates into hot section turbine overhaul intervals of no less/no earlier than 24,000 hours and
expected parts lives of greater than 48,000 hours with repair. Reliability of modern combined-cycle power plants is expected to be >98%
with an availability of about 90%. These values can easily be achieved with the proper maintenance plan and operation practices. New,
more efcient industrial gas turbines will be expected to meet similar standards, despite higher operating temperatures. Improved materials
and coatings have allowed signicant gains in the durability of critical gas turbine components, even under todays conditions of higher
operating temperatures. The current direction in the industrial gas turbine industry is to provide still greater customer value through the
availability of improved component repair techniques that permit refurbishment rather than replacement of expensive components such
as turbine buckets and nozzles. Given the drive to reduce life-cycle costs of gas turbine operation, increased use of component repair and
refurbishment will become a key for future activity in the industry.

Creep
Turbine airfoil alloys are limited in service temperature primarily by creep strength. The improvements in creep strength originate
from changes both in alloy composition and in processing history13. Increasing the concentration of refractory metals such as W, Nb, Ta,
and Mo (all of which diffuse slowly because of their high atomic weight) increases the creep strength of nickel-base alloys. The limits to
which these additions can be successfully added are determined largely by their solubility and by the tendency of more concentrated alloys
to form detrimental second phases. At the service temperatures of turbine airfoils (> two-thirds of the melting temperature), the principal
creep deformation mode is grain boundary sliding. Advanced solidication processing techniques have been developed to alter the grain
structure of these alloys during casting. These processes either create columnar grains with long axes parallel to the turbine blade axis
(directional solidication or DS) or result in castings that have no grain boundaries at all (single crystals or SX). These structures lead to
considerable increases in creep strength. Both of these solidication processing technologies have taken a long time to reduce to practice.
Today, however, DS and SX buckets and nozzles are being used in advanced industrial gas turbines14.
The service life requirements for industrial gas turbines are signicantly longer than for aircraft engines. This places more
emphasis on time dependent phenomenon such as creep and creep-fatigue interactions. Creep-fatigue interactions become more
pronounced when materials are thermally cycled while operating at higher temperatures for long times. The effect of creep-fatigue
interactions can signicantly reduce the fatigue strength of the material. This phenomenon places an additional demand for fatigue data
with hold times to simulate the effect of this interaction.

Fatigue
A consequence of the increased ring temperatures of industrial gas turbines is the increased severity in the thermal cyclic
loading of the hot gas path buckets and nozzles15. Increased cooling effectiveness achieved with advanced air cooling and steam cooling
schemes produces higher thermal gradients in these parts. While the designer can achieve the same or even lower bulk metal temperatures
compared to lower ring temperature machines, the thermal gradient increases in more advanced gas turbines. This increases the thermal
strain associated with these parts. The increased severity of these thermal cycles is being addressed by moving toward more thermal
strain-tolerant materials such as DS and SX hot gas path components. Additionally, thermal barrier coatings are effective in reducing the
thermal load into the cooled component and thus reducing the thermal gradient and thermal strains.

Environmental
Environmental degradation involves oxidation or corrosion of the alloy in the hot gas path. Oxidation involves the reaction
between oxygen and the metal alloy to form various oxides. These chemical reactions remove material or deplete the material of strength.
At high temperatures, these reactions can occur rapidly and create the potential for failure if an excessive amount of the alloy is consumed.
The oxidation behavior of an alloy depends on its chemistry, casting segregation, and exposure conditions. At high temperatures, rapid
oxidation attack can occur unless there is a barrier to oxygen diffusion and reaction on the exposed alloy surfaces. Ni-base superalloys
containing a sufcient amount of Al will form a protective, adherent, and slow growing alumina (Al2O3) scale to prevent extensive
oxidation damage16. Alloy chemistries can be furthered modied to improve oxidation behavior by adding Y or reducing S.
Hot corrosion is another environmental damage mode. It is a rapid form of attack that is generally associated with alkali metal
contaminants, such as sodium and potassium, which react with sulfur in the fuel to form molten sulfates. Sodium at levels of only 2ppm
(parts per million) or less in the fuel or in the air can lead to hot corrosion damage17. In general, uncoated, cooler areas of a hot gas path
component are susceptible when fuel is contaminated, synthetic fuel is used, or there is a lot of debris taken into the turbine from the
environment. Basically, molten deposits on the component break down the protective oxide scale, and rapid, unpredictable degradation
proceeds. The temperature range where this phenomenon occurs is between 650-925oC (~1200-1700oF). At these temperatures,
substrate alloys that form faster growing chromia scales show better resistance in corrosion tests. Generally these systems have over 10%
Cr.
416
Stephen J. Balsone
As Ni-base superalloy development has evolved, the ability to obtain high temperature strength and creep resistance along
with satisfactory oxidation and corrosion resistance has become increasingly difcult without the introduction of protective coatings.
Many high strength Ni-base superalloys are not capable of forming a sufciently protective oxide scale because the chemistry of the
alloy is dictated by other requirements such as high strength, creep resistance, and microstructural stability. Thus, the alloy chemistry
can not be optimized for oxidation or corrosion resistance. In todays advanced industrial gas turbines, coatings are required to provide
protection from oxidation, corrosion, and mechanical property degradation with service. The function of these coatings is to provide
a surface reservoir of elements such as Al and Cr that will form stable, adherent oxide layers that will protect the substrate alloy from
environmental attack.
Table I. Nominal Composition of IGT Cast Ni-Base Superalloys

wt % Ni Cr Co Fe Mo W Al Ti Nb Ta Mn V C B other
Buckets
U500 bal 18.50 18.50 4.00 3.00 3.00 0.07 0.006
U700 (Rene 77) bal 15.00 17.00 5.30 4.25 3.35 0.07 0.020
Alloy 738 bal 16.00 8.30 0.20 1.75 2.60 3.40 3.40 0.90 1.75 0.10 0.001
MAR M247 bal 8.25 10.00 0.80 10.00 5.50 1.00 2.80 0.015 Hf 0.15
GTD-111TM bal 14.00 9.50 1.50 3.80 3.00 4.90 2.80 0.10 0.010
GTD-444TM bal 9.80 7.50 1.50 6.00 4.20 3.50 0.50 4.80 0.08 0.009 Hf 0.15
PWA 1483 bal 12.80 9.00 1.90 3.80 3.60 4.00 4.00
Rene N5 bal 7.00 7.50 1.50 5.00 6.20 6.50 0.05 0.004 Re 3.0, Hf 0.15, Y 0.01
CMSX-4 bal 6.50 9.00 0.60 6.00 5.60 1.00 6.50 Re 3.0, Hf 0.10
PWA 1484 bal 5.00 10.00 2.00 6.00 5.60 9.00 Re 3.0, Hf 0.10

Nozzles
FSX414 10.00 28.00 bal 1.00 7.00 0.25 0.010
GTD-222TM bal 22.50 19.00 2.30 2.00 0.80 1.20 1.00 0.10 0.008
GTD-111TM bal 14.00 9.50 1.50 3.80 3.00 4.90 2.80 0.10 0.010
Rene N5 bal 7.00 7.50 1.50 5.00 6.20 6.50 0.05 0.004 Re 3.0, Hf 0.15, Y 0.01

4.4.1-8 Conclusions
To increase the output and efciency of IGTs, the ring temperature continues to increase, placing higher demands on the
temperature capability of gas turbine materials. Over the past ten years, ring temperature has increased by approximately 93C
(200F), and combined-cycle efciency has increased by approximately 4%. Materials and processes improvements have enabled
these performance increases along with improving the durability and reliability of advanced IGTs. Continued growth in IGT ring
temperature and efciency will require continued materials and processes technology development. Ni-base superalloys have been
key to past progress and are key to future IGT growth. Cast Ni-base superalloys for hot gas path applications will require higher
temperature strength with improved oxidation/corrosion resistance. Larger component sizes and complex geometries with sophisticated
internal cooling schemes will require new investment casting technology to produce defect-free, high performance DS and SX Ni-base
superalloys. Materials and processes technology development for Ni-base superalloys continues today and into the future to assure that
when new design requirements demand the worlds best materials, Ni-base superalloys will be ready to meet the most challenging high
temperature applications.

4.4.1-9 Notes

________________________

1. B.B. Seth, Superalloys - The Utility Gas Turbine Perspective, Superalloys 2000, ed. T.M. Pollock, R.D. Kissinger, R.R.
Bowman, K.A. Green, M. McLean, S.L. Olson, and J.J. Schirra,Warrendale, PA: TMS, 2000, 3-16; M.B. Henderson, J.
Hannis, G. Mccolvin, and G. Ogle, Materials Issues for the Design of Industrial Gas Turbines, Advanced Materials and
Processes for Gas Turbines, ed. G. Fuchs, A. James, T. Gabb, M. McLean, and H. Harada,Warrendale, PA: TMS,
2003, 3-13.
2. S.J. Balsone, Nickel-Base Superalloy Materials Technology for Advanced IGT Applications, Niobium for High
Temperature Applications, ed. Y-W. Kim and T. Carneiro,Warrendale PA: TMS, 2004, 3-9.
3. P.W. Schilke, Advanced Gas Turbine Materials and Coatings, GER-3569G, General Electric Company, 2004.
4. See Note 2 above.
5. See Note 1 above.
6. See Note 2 above.
7. J.C. Schaeffer, Single Crystal Materials Technology for Advanced Gas Turbine Applications, presentation at Power-Gen
Europe 2005, Milan, Italy, June 28-30, 2005.
8. M. Konter and M. Thumann, Materials and Manufacturing of Advanced Industrial Gas Turbine Components, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 117 (3), 2001, 386-390.
417 9. R.F. Singer, Advanced Materials and Processes for Land-Based Gas Turbines, Materials for Advanced Power
4.4.1 Buckets and Nozzles

Engineering, ed. D. Coutsouradis, J.H. Davidson, J. Ewald, P. Greeneld, T. Khan, M. Malik, D.B. Meadowcroft,
V. Regis, R.B. Scarlin, F. Schubert, and D.V. Thornton (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers Group,
1994, 1707-1729; A.J. Elliott, S. Tin, W.T. King, S.-C. Huang, M.F.X. Gigliotti, and T.M. Pollock, Directional
Solidication of Large Superalloy Castings with Radiation and Liquid-Metal Cooling: A Comparative Assessment,
Metall. Trans. A, 35A (10), 2004, 3221-3231.
10. S. Balsone, G. Feng, L. Peterson, and J. Schaeffer, Microstructure and Mechanical Behavior of Liquid Metal Cooled
Directionally Solidied GTD-444TM, Solidication Processes and Microstructures: A Symposium in Honor of Wilfried
Kurz, ed. M. Rappaz, C. Beckermann, and R. Trivedi, Warrendale, PA: TMS, 2004, 77-83.
11. See Note 3.
12. Ibid.
13. See Note 7.
14. R. Viswanathan and S.T. Scheirer, Materials Technology for Advanced Land Based Gas Turbines, Turbomachinery
International, 42 (1), 2001.
15. See Note 7.
16. See Note 3.
17. Ibid.

418
BIOGRAPHY 4.4.1 Buckets and Nozzles

Stephen J. Balsone

GE Gas Turbines LLC


P.O. Box 648; GTTC 174D
Greenville, SC 29602

phone: (864) 254-5294


email: stephen.balsone@ps.ge.com

Mr. Stephen J. Balsone is the Manager for High Temperature Materials Development in the Materials
& Processes Engineering organization at GE Energy, Greenville SC. The group is responsible for
high temperature materials and processes development for industrial power generation gas turbines,
principally hot gas path and combustor components. Before joining GE Energy in 2000, Mr. Balsone
was Program Manager for Structural Materials Development & Reliability at GEs Global Research and
Development Center, Schenectady NY, responsible for the development of high temperature structural
metallic materials, principally supporting GEs aircraft engine and industrial gas turbine businesses. Prior
to joining GE in 1996, Mr. Balsone worked for 14 years at the Materials & Manufacturing Directorate, Air
Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton OH. His work included structural
materials development for military aircraft engines and hypersonic vehicles. Mr. Balsone received his
MS degree in Aeronautical Engineering from the Air Force Institute of Technology and his BS degree in
Metallurgical Engineering & Materials Science from Carnegie Mellon University. He is currently a PhD
candidate at the University of Michigan.
4.4.2
Protective Coatings for
4.4.2-1 Introduction
Gas Turbines Economical and environmental concerns, i.e. improving efciency and
reducing emissions, are the main driving force behind the ever increasing demand
for higher gas turbine engine inlet temperatures. Technology improvements in
cooling, materials and coatings are required to achieve higher inlet temperatures1.
Advances in the development of airfoil cooling designs have been achieved by
combining high convective cooling efciencies with lm cooling.
Material improvements have been dramatic during the past several decades. The
improvement in alloy composition and the development of directional and single
crystal casting technologies have allowed increased alloy operation temperatures,
and hence increased turbine inlet temperatures2. Improved high temperature
mechanical properties of alloys, however, have been made typically at the
expense of environmental resistance. This trend, combined with higher operating
temperatures, has resulted in environmental degradation of materials, deteriorating
the mechanical properties and shortening the service life of components3. The need
to protect alloys from environmental degradation motivated the development of
protective coatings. The idea to apply a layer with protective properties on the
surface of Ni-based superalloys was rst practiced in the 1960s4. Two types of
protective coatings have been most widely used: diffusion aluminide coatings
based on -NiAl phase and MCrAlY (M = Ni, Co, or NiCo) overlay coatings based
on a mixture of -NiAl and -Ni3Al or phases5.
As the temperature capability of Ni-based superalloys approaches their
intrinsic limit, further improvements in their temperature capability have become
increasingly difcult6. Therefore, during the past two decades, the emphasis in
gas turbine materials developments has shifted to thermal barrier coatings (TBC),
which are ceramic coatings with a very low thermal conductivity that reduce the
alloy surface temperature by insulating it from the hot gas. Current state-of-the-art
thermal barrier coatings comprise two layers: a diffusion aluminide or MCrAlY
bond coat and a low thermal conductivity partially stabilized zirconia (YSZ: 7 to 8
wt% Y2O3-ZrO2) top coat. Thermal barrier coatings were rst successfully tested in
a research turbine engine in mid 70s. By the early 80s they entered revenue service
on the vane platforms of aircraft engines, and today they are ying in revenue
service on vane and blade surfaces7. Thermal barrier coatings are expected to play
an increasingly signicant role in advanced gas turbine engines both in aero and
industrial applications in the future.
Major improvements in turbine inlet temperatures can be achieved by
replacing Ni-based superalloy hot section components with silicon-based ceramic
Kang N Lee matrix composite (CMC) and silicon nitride (Si3N4) ceramics8. These materials
have superior high temperature mechanical properties, such as strength and creep
resistance, compared to Ni-based superalloys. They are also light and possess
Cleveland State University
excellent high temperature oxidation resistance in clean, dry air, due to the
NASA Glenn Research Center
formation of slow-growing, protective silica scale9. One major disadvantage of
Cleveland, OH 44135
these materials is the lack of environmental durability in combustion environments.
Water vapor, a combustion reaction product, reacts with the protective silica scale,
Current Address:
forming gaseous reaction products, such as Si(OH)4 10. In high pressure, high gas
Rolls-Royce Corpation
velocity combustion environments, this reaction results in rapid recession of these
P.O. Box 420, Speed Code W-08
materials. These materials also suffer from severe hot corrosion in environments
Indianapolis, IN 46206
contaminated by molten salt11.
A new class of coatings, environmental barrier coating (EBC), has been
phone: 317-230-4469
developed in the 90s to protect Si-based ceramics and ceramic composites from
email: kang.n.lee@rolls-royce.com the degradation by water vapor12. The current state-of-the-art environmental barrier
coating comprises three layers: a silicon bond coat, a mullite-based intermediate
coat, and a barium-strontium-aluminosilicate (1-xBaOxSrOAl2O32SiO2, 0 x
1) top coat13. CMC combustor liners coated with the current state of the art EBC
were retrotted in a Solar Turbines industrial gas turbine engine and successfully
completed a 14,000 h eld test in the late 90s14.
This paper will discuss the status of current thermal barrier coatings and
environmental barrier coatings, with the focus on key factors affecting their
419 performance.
4.4.2-2a Coatings for Superalloy Components

Current thermal barrier coatings consist of two layers: a metallic bond coat and a ceramic top coat15. The bond coat has two key
functions: It provides the bonding between the ceramic top coat and the superalloy substrate and protects the superalloy from the
environmental degradation. The key function of the ceramic top coat is to reduce the alloy surface temperature by insulating it from the
hot gas.
Current bond coats are diffusion aluminide coatings based on -NiAl phase and MCrAlY (M = Ni, Co, or NiCo) coatings based
on a mixture of -NiAl and -Ni3Al or phases16. Bond coats oxidize upon thermal exposure, even in the presence of a ceramic top
coat, forming an oxide scale, known as TGO (thermally grown oxide). Current top coat is yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ: ZrO2 doped
with 7~8 wt% Y2O3). YSZ has several important characteristics for a successful top coat17. It has a high melting point, a low thermal
conductivity and a high thermal expansion coefcient and is thermodynamically stable in contact with alumina that grows on bond
coat. The ZrO2-7~8 wt% Y2O3 composition also has good erosion resistance compared with other ceramics and good phase stability at
temperatures <1200oC.
The durability of thermal barrier coatings is governed by a sequence of crack nucleation, propagation and coalescence events along
the bond coat/TGO or top coat/TGO interfaces that accumulate prior to nal failure by large scale buckling or edge lifting18. Stresses in
TBC play an important role in crack nucleation. TBC stresses arise from two sources: stresses due to TGO growth and stresses due to
the coefcient of thermal expansion (CTE) mismatch between the various layers. Therefore, the bond coat must form the most protective
oxide scale possible which, in practice, means an alumina scale that is slow-growing, and adherent19. The nature of stresses in TBC
is closely related to the surface roughness of bond coat. Both growth and CTE mismatch stresses are compressive on at bond coat
surfaces20. The thermal mismatch stress (t) is given by,

t = (c - substrate) T Ec/(1c) (1)

where c and substrate are coefcients of thermal expansion for the coating and the substrate, respectively, Ec is the Youngs modulus of
the coating, and c is the Possions ratio of the coating. Therefore, YSZ having a lower CTE than the bond coat and superalloy substrate
is expected to be in compression on cooling, assuming stresses are relaxed at high temperatures. However, the surface of an initially
at bond coat gradually roughens with thermal exposures, forming TGO with a convoluted morphology and major imperfections21.
Rough bond coat surfaces produce out-of-plane stresses along the bond coat/TGO or top coat/TGO interfaces22. These local out-of-plane
stresses are responsible for the nucleation of cracks which ultimately lead to the failure of TBC.
There are two degradation mechanisms for YSZ that have signicant effects on TBC stresses: Phase transformation23 and sintering
of YSZ24. These changes result in higher thermal stresses and a decrease in thermal fatigue life. Sintering also causes an increase in
thermal conductivity. Two approaches have been investigated to alleviate the high-temperature durability problems of YSZ25: the rst
approach is alternative stabilizers for ZrO2 and the second approach is alternative materials to ZrO2.
Key factors affecting TBC performance to be discussed in subsequent sections are bond coat surface nish, bond coat oxidation,
bond coat surface imperfections, thermal conductivity of YSZ, sintering of YSZ, and phase transformation of YSZ.

4.4.2-2b Bond Coat

Processing

Pack cementation and chemical vapor deposition are widely used methods to form diffusion aluminide coatings on turbine blades.
Pack cementation is a chemical vapor deposition process in which component surface is saturated with aluminum in a powder mixture
containing aluminum, aluminum oxide (as an inert ller) and a halide activator (usually NH4Cl)26. When the reactor containing the
components to be coated and the powder mixture is heated, aluminum halides (AlCl3, AlCl2, AlCl) form which diffuse through the
powder mixture and react with the components, resulting in the formation of an aluminide coating. In practice, platinum is added in
-NiAl bond coat to form platinum modied diffusion aluminide coating, (Ni,Pt)Al, which signicantly improves the alumina scale
adherence27. In this process, components are electroplated with a thin Pt layer prior to the aluminization.
The aluminizing process can be divided into a high, medium, and low activity process28. The main phases of the outer zone of the
coatings in high, medium, and low activity process are NiAl3+Ni2Al3 (>40 wt.% Al), NiAl (32-38 wt.% Al) and NiAl or NiAl+Ni3Al
(<31 wt.% Al), respectively29. Lower activity process produces coatings with higher ductility. A typical as-aluminized (Ni,Pt)Al bond
coat surface exhibits large grains of Pt-modied -NiAl with a cellular network of grain-boundary ridges, whose geometry is very
similar to that of underlying bond coat grain boundary structure30.
Low Pressure Plasma Spaying (LPPS) and Electron Beam Physical Vapor Deposition (EB-PVD) are widely used methods to deposit
overlay MCrAlY bond coat on turbine components31. NiCrAlY bond coat consists of the following main phases: -Ni-based solid
solution, -Ni3Al phase, -NiAl phase, and -Cr-based solid solution32. Alloying NiCrAlY with Co reduces the thermal stability of
-phase, decreases its quantity, and converts NiCoCrAlY into +33. It is this phase condition that makes NiCoCrAlY bond coat highly
ductile. For Example, EB-PVD-processed Ni-20Co-20Cr-8Al-0.5Y (wt%) has Al-rich phase and Ni-solid solution phase34.

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Kang N Lee

Surface Finish

Bond coat surface nish depends on the type of process employed for ceramic top coat. Air plasma sprayed (APS) YSZ top coat
employs a MCrAlY bond coat processed typically by low pressure plasma spraying (LPPS). Rough surface of as-processed MCrAlY
bond coat facilitates good mechanical bonding to plasma-sprayed YSZ by providing anchoring points. EB-PVD YSZ top coat employs
either a diffusion aluminide or a MCrAlY bond coat. In contrast to APS YSZ, the bond coat surface is treated to make it at prior to the
deposition of EB-PVD YSZ. This is to eliminate as-processed surface roughness which generates out-of-plane stresses. It may be that
EB-PVD YSZ due to the nature of the process, i.e. vapor phase deposition in high temperature and vacuum, possesses good chemical
bonding, eliminating the need for a rough surface for mechanical bonding. Typical surface treatment includes grit blasting, grinding, and
shot peening.
Benecial effects of grit blasting the bond coat surface with Al2O3 on TBC performance are discussed in Haynes, et al.35. The
intensity of -Al2O3 was much lower on grit-blasted specimens compared to the as-processed bond coat surfaces. Grit blasting also
eliminated the detrimental process of interfacial void growth during EB-PVD processing. It was suggested that grit blasting either
suppressed -Al2O3 nucleation or triggered more rapid transformation to or nucleation of -Al2O3 during EB-PVD process at ~1000oC.
The elimination of void growth in the grit-blasted specimens was attributed to the removal of sulfur-contaminated zone at the surface
of the bond coat. Lightly polishing the surface of as-deposited (Ni,Pt)Al bond coats prior to YSZ deposition also dramatically increased
EB-PVD TBC life36, presumably by the same mechanism by which grit blasting improved the TBC life.

Oxidation

The approach to achieving an ideal -alumina scale


includes the addition of reactive element (RE), such as Y,
Zr or Hf, the addition of precious metals such as Pt, and the
desulfurization of the coating and superalloy substrate37.
The addition of Pt to -NiAl is known to improve
alumina scale adhesion38. The Pt addition has the additional
benet of reducing the critical Al concentration necessary
to form a protective -Al2O3 scale in -NiAl, suggesting
that Pt improves selective oxidation to from alumina39. The
addition of a reactive element, such as Zr, Hf, or Zr+Hf, to
-NiAl is more effective in improving the scale adhesion
than the addition of Pt, and has the additional benet of
reducing the growth rate of -Al2O3 scale40. Figure 1 shows
that, at 1200oC, the addition of Hf reduces the scale growth
rate by a factor of 40. Comparison of YSZ-coated Y-doped
Rene N5 having a (Ni,Pt)Al bond coat and YSZ-coated
-NiAl+Zr showed that the change to a more oxidation-
resistant bond coat composition increased the TBC lifetime
by more than a factor of ve at both 1150 and 1200oC41. The Fig. 1. Isothermal weight gains at 1200C plotted versus the
improvement was attributed to the formation of an adherent square root of time to show the parabolic reaction kinetics
(Reprinted with permission of Elsevian, Copyright 1998)
TGO on -NiAl+Zr which was superior to that formed on
(Ni,Pt)Al-coated Rene N5.
Source: See Note 19. (Pint, et al.)
Sulfur is known to segregate to metal/scale interface,
causing the deterioration of the scale adhesion by forming voids at the metal/scale interface42. Interfacial voids degrade the scale adhesion
by limiting the contact between the metal and the scale and also by acting as a stress concentrator or crack initiator43. Consequently,
lowering the level of S below ~1 ppm signicantly improves the scale adhesion44. The benecial effect of reactive elements (RE) in
improving the scale adhesion has been attributed to the segregation of RE at the metal/scale interface which inhibits the interfacial
segregation of sulfur impurity45. They also segregate to the oxide grain boundaries where they signicantly reduce the outward transport
of Al, thereby reducing the rate of oxide growth which is now mostly by oxygen transport46. The change in predominant growth
mechanism also drastically reduces interfacial void formation since the ux of cation vacancies is reduced47. In practice, Hf is most
effective in improving the oxidation resistance of -NiAl and yet it does not have the same strong effect in superalloys or MCrAlY, in
which Y is more effective48. Pt appears to improve the resistance to scale spallation through the inhibition of interfacial void formation49.
It has been suggested that Pt either inhibits S segregation or changes diffusivities in the substrate which, in turn, inhibits the interfacial
void formation50.
The composition of the substrate also appears to affect the performance of the TBC even when covered by a bond coat. Cyclic
oxidation of (Ni,Pt)Al/YSZ TBC on Rene N5 at 1150oC showed that both desulfurizing (to 0.7 ppma S) of Rene N5 and the addition of
Y in Rene N5 increased the TBC life time51. S and Y, presumably, diffuse through the bond coat and affect the scale adhesion. Haynes
et al. reported a similar trend of slightly longer TBC life on a desulfurized Re N5 (to 0.9 ppma S), however, Y in Re N5 did not improve
the TBC life52.
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4.4.2 Protective Coatings for Gas Turbines

There are two sources for the loss Al from the bond coat: the formation of alumina scale and the interdiffusion between the bond
coat and the substrate. In terms of bond coat life, the concern is that the Al content in bond coat will prematurely fall below the minimum
level required to avoid spinel formation. Equally important, however, is the effect of the inux of Al to the superalloy substrate on the
solubility of refractory elements used for strengthening, resulting in precipitation of embrittling phases53. Phase transformations due to
the Al loss from -NiAl bond coat on Ni and Ni-16Cr-11Al-Y bond coat on a superalloy substrate at 950oC are illustrated in Figures 2a
and 2b, respectively54.

Fig. 2. Phase transformations in (a) -NiAl bond coat on Ni and (b) Ni-16Cr-11Al-Y bond coat on a superalloy
substrate at 950C (Reprinted with permission of ASM International. All rights reserved. www.asminternational.org)

Source: See Note 3.


Surface Imperfections

The surface of an initially at, single phase -NiAl and (Ni,Pt)Al bond coat on a single crystal superalloy is shown to progressively
roughen with thermal exposures55. Roughening has also been observed during thermal cycling of MCrAlY coatings on Ni-based
superalloys56. The most prominent roughening comprises the undulations of the original TBC/bond coat interface57. Adherent TGO
follows the roughness contour of the bond coat. The surface roughening is far more severe in cyclic exposures compared to isothermal
exposures58.
Phase transformations in bond coat have been suggested as a source for the formation of surface roughening known as rumpling59.
Two types of phase transformations occur in -NiAl and (Ni,Pt)Al bond coat during thermal exposures: to phase and martensite
transformation of phase. The to phase transformation is due to the depletion of Al from the phase60, while the martensite
transformation is non-diffusional and shear-dominated transformation61. Similar phase transformations are expected to occur in MCrAlY
bond coat.
The martensite transformation was observed in bond coats thermally cycled at 1150oC to 5 and 100% of TBC life, suggesting that the
transformation accompanied the thermal cycling for most of the TBC life62. The volume change for the to martensite transformation
is approximately -2%63. Alloys with martensite + structure at room temperature undergo a reversible transformation to single phase
when heated to 1100oC 64. Bond coat surface rumpling was attributed to the plastic deformation of bond coat caused by the repeated
volume changes accompanying the reversible - martensite phase transformation during thermal cycling65.
Surface rumpling was also attributed to the volume reduction accompanying the to phase transformation66. The volume reduction
can be accommodated by the development of surface recession or by the formation of internal cavities. In the outer part of the bond coat
both Ni and Al diffuse toward the surface, therefore there should be a compensating vacancy ux in the opposite direction. The result
is expected to be either the formation of Kirkendall porosity or, if the pores collapse, a decrease of the coating volume. It is suggested
that the pores tend to collapse during cycling because of thermal stresses in the bond coat, whereas they coalesce into large cavities in
isothermal exposures.
Darzens et al. suggest that both the to martensite and the to phase
transformations contribute to the bond coat and TGO roughness (instability).
Figure 3 is a trace of the bond coat/TGO interface at f = 0.76 (fraction of
life)67. About 70% of the instabilities have the -phase located at the base.
Moreover, there is a greater likelihood that exists at the base of the most
prominent (deepest) instabilities. is present on at least one side of instability
with 75% probability, implying that this phase tends to locally impede the TGO
displacement. Based on these observations the following mechanism has been
suggested67. The amplitude of the instability of the TGO has an isothermal
and cyclic components, but the latter is appreciably larger. The isothermal
component is believed to be associated with the stress caused by the to Fig. 3. A trace of the bond coat/TGO interface at f =
transformation. The inuence of the transformation on the larger displacements 0.76 (fraction of life). The arrows designate the base
upon cycling appears to involve two effects: (a) the martensite transformation of all large TGO instabilities (Reprinted with permis-
in the phase results in a volume reduction on cooling larger than in either the sion of TMS. All rights reserved.)
or the substrate; (b) has greater strength than the surrounding at high
Source: See Note 21. (Darzens, et al.)
temperature, impeding the TGO displacement. 422
Kang N Lee

Other mechanisms suggested for bond coat imperfections include a thermal ratcheting phenomenon associated with the elastic/
plastic mismatch between the bond coat and the growing oxide68, pre-existing ridge on bond coat grain boundaries and preferential
intergranualr oxidation and cracking69, and Y2O3/YAG precipitate phases in MCrAlY bond coat with a columnar morphology acting as
preferred channels for rapid inward diffusion of oxygen, causing locally thick regions of TGO70.
Bond coat imperfections have important implications for TBC performance and failure. Bond coat imperfections cause TGO to
displace into the bond coat with each thermal cycle, forming concave regions71. The stiffness of the ceramic top coat should constrain the
displacement of TGO into the ceramic top cot, preventing the formation of convex regions on the metal surface72. The local separations
will gradually accumulate on thermal cycling, link together and eventually form the critical sized aw required for TBC buckling73.

4.4.2-2c Top Coat


ZrO2-Based Ceramics

Processing

APS and EB-PVD are the most widely used methods to deposit YSZ top coat on turbine components. Figures 4a and 4b show as-
deposited APS and EB-PVD YSZ, respectively. In plasma spraying process, powders of coating material are melted and propelled to
the substrate. Upon impingement on the substrate the molten drops are quenched and solidied. A coating is produced by the successive
impingement of the drops, referred to as splats, on the substrate. In EB-PVD process, coatings are produced by condensation of vapor
on the substrate. A focused electron beam is used to evaporate the coating material. Multiple beams are employed to produce coatings
containing components with differing vapor pressures.

a) b) 50 m
Fig. 4. As-deposited YSZ (7 wt.% Y2O3): (a) APS; (b) EB-PVD

Source: J.I. Eldridge, NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH.

APS YSZ has splat structure with inter-splat porosity. Figure 5 is thermal spray coating microstructure showing common features74.
Two prominent crack morphologies found within as-plasma-sprayed YSZ are75: (1) Elongated crack-like separations between attened
splats that melted during the spray deposition. These are oriented nominally parallel to the interface. They form because of thermal
contraction as the splats cool; (2) Large, more equi-axed, voids contiguous with equi-axed zirconia particles. These are presumably the
particles that did not fully melt during the deposition. The separations between splats are efcient in lowering thermal conductivity, but
this is at the expense of surface nish, strain tolerance and erosion resistance76.
EB-PVD YSZ has a columnar microstructure, which imparts excellent strain tolerance77, and thus longer cyclic life than APS YSZ.
Figure 6 illustrates the dependence of the coating microstructure on the substrate temperature and the rotation speed78. Other advantages
of EB-PVD YSZ include aerodynamically favorable smooth surface nish and good erosion resistance79. But the columnar structure
with open porosity parallel to the direction of heat conduction results in a higher thermal conductivity compared to APS YSZ80.

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4.4.2 Protective Coatings for Gas Turbines

Fig. 5. Thermal spray coating microstructure showing common Fig. 6. A schematic illustrating the dependence of the
features (Reprinted with permission of ASM International. All coating microstructure on substrate temperature and
rights reserved. www.asminternational.org) rotation speed (Reprinted with permission of Trans
Tech Publications. All rights reserved)
Source: See Note 74.
Source: See Note 78.

Thermal Conductivity

In thermal barrier coatings, heat is conducted by lattice waves (phonons) as well as by electromagnetic radiation (photons). Lattice
waves are elastic or ultrasonic waves, but their spectrum extends to the very high frequencies, where their waves, is of atomic
dimensions81. There are two radiation sources in gas turbine engines: far-eld radiation and near-eld radiation82. Far-eld radiation
is the radiation from the combustion gas, which is at high temperatures of around 2000oC. Near-eld radiation is the radiation from
the layer of cooler gas, at around 1200oC, adjacent to the TBC. Radiation can pass through the partially transparent ceramic to the
metallic bond coat and substrate. The radiative component of the heat conduction can become a signicant portion of the overall thermal
conductivity at elevated temperatures. The thermal conductivity by mobile carriers, whether waves or particles, can be expressed in
general in the form83,

= 1/3 Cvl (2)

where C is the specic heat per unit volume, v is their speed and l is their mean free path. The thermal conductivity is limited by various
interaction processes, which transfer energy between the waves84. Based on models for thermal conductivity, a low intrinsic thermal
conductivity requires weak binding, a large mean atomic weight, a complex crystal structure, non-directional binding and a large number
of different atoms per molecule85.
Lattice imperfections reduce the thermal conductivity by scattering phonons and thereby reducing the mean free path86. Point
defects, such as solute cations and oxygen vacancies, reduce the lattice thermal conductivity by scattering high-frequency lattice waves,
while grain boundaries scatter lattice waves at the low-frequency part of the spectrum. Signicant theoretical reductions in the thermal
conductivity of YSZ are expected due to grain boundary scattering when the grain sizes are reduced below 100 10 nm87. These
reductions by point defects and grain boundaries are almost independent of each other, since they scatter lattice waves in different
frequency ranges.
The effect of yttria dopant level on the thermal conductivity of YSZ was investigated88. Thermal conductivity decreased with
increasing yttria contents up to 4.5 - 8 mol%. The decrease in thermal conductivity was attributed to a reduced mean free path in zirconia
by an increasing phonon scattering, which was likely due to the combined effect of local elastic strain elds generated by incorporating a
larger dopant atoms and the introduction of oxygen vacancies into the lattice. The little improvement in the thermal conductivity beyond
4.5 8 mol% yttria level was attributed to vacancy clustering89.
The imperfections which scatter lattice waves have little inuence on the radiative component. To reduce this component, one needs
larger imperfections, such as porosity and inclusions with almost a micron size90. Pores may be preferable, since they present a larger
contrast in the index of refraction. Calculations show that the optimum pore diameter is about 0.5 m for YSZ91. An ideal structure for
low thermal conductivity has a very ne grain size of nanometer scale, while the matrix contains relatively large inclusions, of the order
of 0.5 m in diameter92.
Besides photon scattering, porosity decreases the thermal conductivity of a solid by reducing the net-section area through which
heat can be transported by phonons and so the reduction in thermal conductivity depends on not only the volume fraction of pores but
also their aspect ratio and their spatial distribution93. Ideally, at-pancake shaped pores perpendicular to the temperature gradient, as are
formed at splat-boundaries in plasma-sprayed coatings, are most efcient in decreasing the thermal conductivity94 . The intra-columnar
ne porosity in EB-PVD YSZ accounts for the reduced thermal conductivity95. This is generally perceived to be much less effective as
its distribution generally aligns perpendicular to the coating surface, i.e. parallel to the direction of the primary heat ux96.
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Kang N Lee

Approaches to Reducing Thermal Conductivity

Alternative Dopants: Doping with ions heavier than yttrium can theoretically decrease the thermal conductivity by increasing the mean
atomic weight. Five dopant additions, Er, NiO, Nd, Gd and Yb, were examined with the aim of maximizing lattice strains and lattice
anharmonicity97. The most effective additions by EB-PVD were Gd, Nd and Yb which resulted in a thermal conductivity of 0.88, 1.00 and
1.02 W/m-K, respectively, calculated for a 4 mol% addition at a coating thickness of 150 m at 500oC. The thermal conductivity of EB-
PVD reference YSZ was ~1.6 W/m-K. Multi-component dopants, ZrO2-Y2O3-Nd2O3(Gd2O3, Sm2O3)-Yb2O3(Sc2O3), were investigated
using a laser rig at 1316oC surface temperature and 950 1100oC ceramic/metal interface temperature98. The thermal conductivity of
APS YSZ (8 wt% or 4.55 mol% Y2O3) was about 1 W/m-K, which gradually increased to about 1.4 W/m-K after a 20-h test. In contrast,
some ZrO2-Y2O3-Nd2O3-Yb2O3 or ZrO2-Y2O3-Gd2O3-Yb2O3 showed thermal conductivity as low as ~0.6 W/m-K, which did not change
much after a 20-h test. The thermal conductivity and the rate of thermal conductivity increase were lowest at the total dopant level of
6-13 mol%. The thermal conductivity of EB-PVD ZrO2-(4-6 mol%)Y2O3-Nd2O3-Yb2O3 was as low as 0.85 W/m-K, while the thermal
conductivity of EB-PVD YSZ (8 wt% Y2O3) was 1.85-1.9 W/m-K, after a 20-h test. It was proposed that the differing ionic sizes in the
solid solution produced distortion, which facilitated the creation of thermodynamically stable, defect clusters that reduced the thermal
conductivity and improved sintering resistance99.

Varying the coating nano-structure: For EB-PVD thermal barrier


coatings, the thermal conductivity has been observed to vary with
coating thickness100. For the early stages of deposition (< 100 m)
a value of 0.8 1 W/m-K was reported; however, by the time the
coating was 250 m thick, the mean thermal conductivity was
between 1.5 1.9 W/m-K at room temperature. Figure 7 shows
a two-layer coating approximation consisting of an inner (100
m) ne-structured zone, overcoated with a layer with thermal
conductivity close to bulk YSZ (2.2 W/m-K)101. Measurements
of the inner, ne-structured grain size gave a value of 3-4 m,
and within each grain was an ultrane structure of nanometer
dimensions. Therefore, renucleation of the EB-PVD coating
growth at periodicities less than 100 m would lower the thermal
conductivity102.

Reduction by layering: Layering offers a promising route to lower


the thermal conductivity of an EB-PVD YSZ, which involves the
introduction of interfaces/density changes parallel to the YSZ/
bond coat interface103. A glow discharge plasma was employed
to vary the density of YSZ during deposition. The layers were
produced by switching the d.c. bias applied to the substrate
Fig. 7. Schematic of a two-layer coating model, consisting
between high and low levels during deposition. This has the effect
of low conductivity inner layer and a high conductivity outer
of periodically changing the degree of ion bombardment and thus layer (Reprinted with permission of Trans Tech Publications.
altering the density of the layers produced. Thermal conductivity All rights reserved)
reduction of the order of 37 45% compared to state-of-the-art
EB-PVD YSZ has been measured for these layered structures, Source: See Note 101.
approaching the values of APS YSZ. The combination of layering
at micron dimensions and the introduction of density change
from layer to layer work in combination to reduce the thermal
conductivity. The layering periodicity is selected to signicantly
reduce photon transport, while local changes in layer density act
to scatter phonons.

Sintering

Sintering leads to an increase in thermal conductivity and thermal stresses. The thermal conductivity of APS YSZ (8 wt.% Y2O3)
was investigated as a function of time and temperature using a laser rig104. The thermal conductivity increased from 1.0 W/m-K to
1.15, 1.19, and 1.5 W/m-K after 30 h at the surface temperature of 990, 1100, and 1320oC, respectively. The increase was attributed to
sintering as was evidenced by the decrease in the microporosity. Sintering also increased the hardness and modulus, which increases
thermal stresses. The Knoop hardness on the coating surface increased from 4 GPa to 7.5 GPa and the surface modulus increased from
70 GPa to 125 GPa after 120 h at 1100oC.
EB-PVD coatings are more resistant to an increase in thermal conductivity compared to APS coatings. The effect of bond coat
surface imperfections on the sintering of EB-PVD YSZ/(Ni,Pt)Al-coated Rene N5 was investigated105. On thermal exposure, necks
425
4.4.2 Protective Coatings for Gas Turbines
form and clusters of individual columns sintered together to from large-scale dense regions with large gaps in between, resulting in a
mud-cracking pattern. The pattern of the gaps appeared to reproduce the roughness of the underlying bond-coat alloy. The origin of
the mud-cracking pattern was attributed to the local undulations in the substrate surface, causing individual columns to converge and
narrowing the gap between them. It is thus expected that sintering will be more pronounced on the high-pressure side of blade and on
the leading edges than on the low-pressure sides because the surface curvature will tend to cant columns together on the high-pressure
side106. In practice, the high-pressure side of a blade also tends to be hotter, further likely to promote the sintering.
The inuence of the concentration (4-20 mol%) of an alternative dopant Gd2O3 on the sintering and grain growth of ZrO2 solid
solutions was investigated107. The onset of measurable shrinkage for the ZrO2-4 mol% Y2O3 and ZrO2-4 mol% Gd2O3 occurred at ~1100
and ~1175oC, respectively. The shrinkage at a given temperature increased as the Gd2O3 content increased to 8 mol% but then decreased
for higher Gd2O3 concentration. The grain size data showed a trend similar to the sintering data: the average grain size showed a
maximum at a Gd2O3 concentration of 8 mol%. The slower thermal conductivity increase on thermal aging for ZrO2 alloyed with multi-
component dopants Y2O3-Nd2O3(Gd2O3, Sm2O3)-Yb2O3(Sc2O3)108 was presumably due to reduced sintering. It appears that heavy rare
earth oxide dopants are effective in reducing the sintering of ZrO2 solid solutions.

Phase Transformation

The excellent phase stability of YSZ is due to the formation


of the metastable, nontransformable t phase which is very stable
at temperatures below ~1200oC109. The phase stability of plasma-
sprayed YSZ (8.6 mol% Y2O3) was examined by XRD110. The as-
sprayed YSZ was primarily a nontransformable tetragonal phase
(t), having about the same composition as the starting powder. The
formation of the nontransformable tetragonal phase (t) is due to
the rapid quench in the process. Figure 8 shows the mole fraction of
phases versus temperature after 100-h aging111. Aging at 1200 and
1400oC progressively increased the amounts of equilibrium cubic
(c) and transformable tetragonal (t) phases at the high temperature
and this resulted in cubic (c) and monoclinic (m) phases at room
temperature. The yttria content of the remaining t phase was lowered
to ~ 5 mol% after 100 h at 1400oC. The t to m phase transformation
on cooling with its accompanying volume expansion can lead to
disintegration of the coating112. In laboratory torch tests, regions of
optimal TBC lives were found to correlate with regions having high
amounts of the t phase, small but nonzero amounts of the m phase,
and little or no c phase113.
EB-PVD YSZ (7 wt.% Y2O3) was investigated in regard to
phase transformation after annealing114. Free-standing YSZ was
heat-treated in air, for up to 200 h, in the temperature range 1200
1400oC. For 6-8 wt.% EB-PVD YSZ, the equilibrium phase
diagram115 predicts a two-phase mixture, consisting of t phase
containing 4 wt.% Y2O3 and c phase containing 16 wt.% Y2O3,
at the deposition temperature of ~1000oC. The t phase, however,
forms due to the rapid quench in the process. Annealing for short
times (10 h at 1400oC and 30 h at 1300oC) and longer times at Fig. 8. Plot of the mole fraction of phases versus temperature
1200oC produced signicant amount of m phase, reaching ~ 20 for a 100-h aging (Reprinted with permission of The American
mol% after 100 h at 1400oC. The proportion of c phase increased Ceramic Society, copyright 1981, www.ceramics.org)
rapidly for all annealing conditions (1200 1400oC); at 1400oC,
the content of c phase increased to ~55 mol% as soon as the Source: See Note 23.
temperature was reached and remained at that level up to 100 h. In
general, the transformation to the c phase was more rapid than the
transformation to m phase.
Schultz et al. report that EB-PVD TBCs were stable up to 100
h at 1150oC, but transformed to a mixture of t+c+m phases after
annealing for 100 h at 1400oC116. A slower cooling rate increased the
amount of m phase at room temperature117. For instance, after 100 h
at 1371oC, the amount of m phase increased from < 10 mol% to > 30
mol% when slow furnace cooling was used instead of quenching.
Overall, the amount of m phase was in the same range for EB-PVD
and APS coatings when aged in a similar condition118.
426
Kang N Lee

Alternative Coating Materials

Zirconates

Rare earth zirconates are being explored as alternate TBC materials. Rare earth zirconates, M2Zr2O7 (M = rare earth element),
crystallize in the ordered pyrochlore structure over a composition range119. At elevated temperatures and outside the composition range,
the disordered uorite structure is the stable phase120. Maloney proposed the use of M2D2O7 (M = Gd, La, Y; D = Hf, Ti, Zr) as TBCs,
while Suresh et al. independently proposed the use of a much broader family of compounds, where M represents all elements from the
lanthanide series (La to Yb)121.
The thermal conductivity of hot-pressed Gd2Zr2O7, Nd2Zr2O7, and Sm2Zr2O7 was investigated at 25-700oC122. The thermal
conductivity of Gd2Zr2O7, Nd2Zr2O7 and Sm2Zr2O7 at 700oC was 1.6, 1.6 and 1.5 W/m-K, respectively, which was about 30% lower than
the thermal conductivity of the reference YSZ (2.3 W/m-K). The decrease was attributed to phonon scattering by point defects. The two
types of point defects expected in these materials are substitutional rare-earth solute cations (Gd, Nd, and Sm) replacing zirconium and
the corresponding oxygen vacancies created by the substitution of tetravalent zirconium by trivalent rare-earth element123. The scattering
strength of oxygen vacancies is larger than that of substitutional solutes, because of the missing anion mass and the missing interatomic
linkages associated with the vacancies. The lower thermal conductivity compared to YSZ was attributed to two factors124: (i) higher
concentration of oxygen vacancies present, and (ii) more effective phonon scattering by solute cations as a result of the signicant atomic
weight difference between the cations and zirconium.
Two perovskites (SrZrO3 and BaZrO3) and one pyrochlore (La2Zr2O7) were investigated as TBC candidates125. Sintered SrZrO3
cracked ~600oC which was attributed to the volume change due to a phase transformation, making it unsuitable for a TBC. At 1000oC,
the thermal conductivity of sintered BaZrO3 and La2Zr2O7 was 3.4 and 1.6 W/m-K, respectively, while the thermal conductivity of
sintered YSZ was ~2.2 W/m-K. The Youngs modulus and hardness of sintered BaZrO3 and La2Zr2O7 were ~15% lower than those
of sintered YSZ, while the CTEs were slightly lower than that of YSZ up to 1400oC. Low Youngs modulus is benecial to thermal
stresses, while low CTE is detrimental to thermal stresses. Plasma-sprayed La2Zr2O7 performed better than BaZrO3 in thermal cycling126.
However, the La2Zr2O7 coating had a signicantly shorter life than the YSZ coating, by roughly an order of magnitude in thermal cycling
at 1240-1360oC127 . Layered or graded coatings with YSZ as the rst ceramic coating of the TBC system and La2Zr2O7 as the nal topcoat
showed much improved performance, showing lives similar to YSZ128.

Yttria-Stabilized HfO2

Replacing the Zr in YSZ with Hf can theoretically decrease the thermal conductivity by increasing the mean atomic weight. Plasma-
sprayed hafnia-yttria coatings (HfO2-8.4 wt.% Y2O3, HfO2-11.4 wt.% Y2O3, HfO2-15.0 wt.% Y2O3, HfO2- 27.2 wt.% Y2O3) were evaluated
with respect to plasma-sprayed YSZ (6-9 wt.% Y2O3) in a burner rig129. The hafnia-yttria coatings were very sensitive to plasma-spray
parameters and high-quality coatings were obtained only when specic parameters were used. In contrast, YSZ coatings were in general
relatively insensitive to spray parameter variations. In contrast to zirconia-yttria compositions, the hafnia-yttria compositions with the
fully stabilized cubic phase (HfO2- 27.2 wt.% Y2O3) outperformed the partially stabilized compositions. The fully stabilized hafnia-yttria
performed about as well as the YSZ coating when sprayed with certain parameter sets. It is possible that the fully stabilized hafnia-
yttria may be more stable at higher temperatures (>1200oC) than the partially stabilized YSZ. The HfO2-27.2 wt.% Y2O3 also showed
signicantly superior resistance to sintering compared to YSZ (8 wt.% Y2O3) after 15 h at 1400oC.

YAG

The thermal conductivity of dense, polycrystalline yttrium-based garnets in the temperature range 23 1000oC was investigated130.
The high-temperature thermal conductivity of these garnets was in the range 2.4 3.2 W/m-K, which is somewhat higher than the
thermal conductivity of dense YSZ (~2.4 W/m-K). It was demonstrated that the thermal conductivity of these garnets could be tailored
by forming substitutional solid solution alloys. The oxygen diffusivity of YAG is about 10 orders of magnitude lower than that in
zirconia, suggesting its potential as an alternative to zirconia in future TBCs for improved durability.

4.4.2-2d Failure Mechanisms of TBC

While there are several different ways in which TBCs can fail, the mechanisms of greatest concern are those that intimately involve
the growth of the TGO131. The failure is governed by a sequence of crack nucleation, propagation and coalescence events along the bond
coat/TGO or top coat/TGO interfaces132. Figure 9 schematically illustrates the cracking sequence by growth mist, followed by cooling
to ambient133. Eventual failure occurs by either buckle, or edge-driven delamination134, with a failure plane located at (or near) the
interface between the TBC and the bond coat. The life of specic system appears to correlate with the average thickness of the TGO135.

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4.4.2 Protective Coatings for Gas Turbines

Fig. 9. Schematic illustration of the cracking sequence by growth mist, followed by


cooling to ambient (Reprinted with permission of Elsevier, copyright 2000.)

Source: See Note 34.


APS

The separation that nucleates the failure sequence appears to be associated with imperfections at (or near) the interface between
the TBC and bond coat136. The most prominent are undulations in the original bond coat surface. The trajectory of the delamination
that causes nal failure resides primarily within the TBC itself and connects the peaks of the undulations. Rabiei & Evans suggest the
following failure mechanism137. The sources of stress are those formed upon TGO growth, followed by the changes that happen because
of thermal expansion mist on cooling to ambient. The zones that experience out-of-plane tensile stress are most important, since these
are the stresses responsible for nucleating and propagating cracks along delamination planes in the system. See Figure 9 for the cracking
sequence. Radial cracks form in the TBC as the TGO thickens because of the out-of-plane stress in the TBC normal to the interface. The
TBC cracks do not penetrate to TGO because the interface between the TGO and bond coat is in compression. On cooling to ambient,
the CTE mist causes appreciable tension to develop normal to the interface between the TGO and bond coat and this interface separates.
The coalescence of this separation with the radial cracks in the TBC, by rupturing the intervening TGO, is a key event. Once coalescence
happens, the energy density available in the TGO attached to the upper portion of the crack becomes available for outward growth of the
crack in the TBC.
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Kang N Lee

EB-PVD

The most crucial constituents for the failure of EB-PVD TBC are138: (i) Imperfections in the TGO affect the TBC life; (ii) The
failure occurs by large scale buckling (LSB), subject to the development of large separated domains at the interface. Life is governed
by the evolution of these separations up to the critical size needed for LSB; (iii) The adhesion of the TGO/bond coat interface degrades
upon thermal exposure, both because of embrittlement by segregants and the growth of separations around the imperfections in the
TGO. Mumm and Evans suggest the following mechanism139. As the TGO thickens with extended elevated temperature exposure,
imperfections develop and enlarge. Accordingly, the ambient temperature energy release rate around the imperfections becomes larger
the longer the exposure. There may be simultaneous, time-dependent embrittlement of the TGO/bond coat interface, perhaps by S
segregation. When the imperfections become large enough, interface separations nucleate in their vicinity. An appreciable energy release
rate develops only on cooling, caused by the CTE mist between the TGO and the superalloy. Separations should from only on cooling.
After longer exposures, when the imperfections further enlarge, it is surmised that some of the separations coalesce. The trajectory of
the delamination primarily occurs at the TGO/bond coat interface.

4.4.2-3a Coatings for Ceramic Components

Key requirements for a successful EBC include140: i) environmental stability, especially in water vapor; ii) coefcient of thermal
expansion (CTE) match; iii) chemical compatibility; and iv) phase stability. It is also desirable to have a low thermal conductivity for
maximum thermal insulation capability. Table I compares the CTE of SiC, Si3N4, and current EBC materials141. Note the good CTE
match between Si-based ceramics and EBC materials .

Table I. CTE of Si-based ceramics and current EBC materials


Material SiC Si3N4 Si Mullite* BSAS** Y2SiO5 Sc2SiO5 Er2SiO5 Yb2SiO5
CTE (10- 3.5 ~
4.5 ~ 5.5 3~4 5~6 4~5 5~6 5~6 7~8 7~8
6
/C) 4.5
* 3Al2O32SiO2
** 1-xBaOxSrOAl2O32SiO2, 0 x 1

Source: See Note 141.

Table II lists the thermal conductivity of hot-pressed EBC materials determined by a high heat ux laser rig at 200oC - 1400oC142. Mullite
(3Al2O32SiO2) and BSAS (1-xBaOxSrOAl2O32SiO2, 0 x 1) have thermal conductivities similar to that of YSZ (8 wt.% Y2O3),
while rare earth monosilicates, except for Sc2SiO5, have lower thermal conductivities than YSZ.

Table II. Thermal conductivity of hot-pressed current EBC materials at 200oC - 1400oC determined by a high heat ux laser rig
Mullite
Material YSZ Mullite BSAS Y2SiO5 Sc2SiO5 Yb2SiO5 Er2SiO5
+BSAS
Thermal
conductivity 2.2 ~ 2.9 2.2 ~ 2.8 2.5 ~ 3.0 2.0 ~ 2.3 1.6 ~ 1.9 2.3 ~ 3.5 1.3 ~ 1.4 1.4 ~ 1.5
(W/m-k)
Source: See Note 142.

Current EBCs have multi layers designed in such a way that the system satises all the key requirements for a successful EBC. They
consist of a silicon bond coat and a ceramic top coat. The ceramic top coat typically comprises at least two ceramic layers. The bond
coat facilitates the adherence of the ceramic top coat to the substrate and the ceramic top coat provides protection from water vapor and
thermal insulation.

4.4.2-3b Processing

APS is the most successful and widely used process to apply EBCs142. With EB-PVD process, the low vapor pressure of silica
compared to alumina and rare earth oxides makes it difcult to produce coatings with the desired stoichiometry. Other coating processes
being explored include chemical vapor deposition (CVD)143, sol-gel, and slurry coatings144, which have the benet of being none-line-
of-sight processes.

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4.4.2 Protective Coatings for Gas Turbines

4.4.2-3c Testing
The key component in EBC testing is water vapor. Laboratory scale high steam rigs145 are used to simulate the high water vapor
pressure, while high pressure/high velocity burner rigs146 are used to simulate both the high water vapor pressure and high gas velocity.
A low gas velocity (a few cm/sec) is typically employed in laboratory scale high steam rigs due to the simplicity. Since water vapor is
the most critical factor that affects the performance of EBCs, this test is suitable for the initial screening of EBC candidates and for the
evaluation of long-term EBC performance. The high pressure/high velocity burner rig test is suitable for proof tests of mature EBCs and
for subcomponent tests since it closely simulates actual gas turbine environments. Burner rigs can be set up to generate a temperature
gradient through the EBC, simulating the temperature prole of cooled components. Laser rigs are used for thermal conductivity
measurements as well as for the evaluation of EBC performance under a temperature gradient147.

4.4.2-3d Bond Coat

Silicon is the current bond coat. It provides excellent durability to EBC by facilitating adherence to the ceramic top coat and the
oxidation resistance148. The excellent performance of Si bond coat is attributed to its close CTE match with Si-based ceramics, oxidation
resistance due to the formation of slow-growing silica scale and chemical compatibility with the substrate and the ceramic top coat. The
use of silicon bond coat is limited by its melting point (~1416oC). For higher temperature applications where Si bond coat melts, the next
ceramic layer, such as a mullite-based coating, becomes the bond coat. The life of EBC is signicantly reduced without Si bond coat.

4.4.2-3e Top Coat


Current top coat can be divided into two groups, i.e. top coat with a mullite-based layer and top coat without a mullite-based layer.
Table III lists the current top coats.

Table III. List of current top coats


With a mullite-based layer Without a mullite-based layer
mullite
BSAS
mullite + BSAS
RE2SiO5*
mullite or mullite + BSAS / YSZ
RE2Si2O7*
mullite or mullite + BSAS / BSAS
Ta2O5
mullite or mullite + BSAS / RE2SiO5 or RE2Si2O7*
* RE: rare earth element

Top Coat with a Mullite-Based Layer

Mullite has attracted the most interest as a protective coating for Si-based ceramics because of its good CTE match and chemical
compatibility with SiC and Si3N4 ceramics149. With the emergence of Si bond coat, mullite and mullite-based coatings became an
intermediate layer bridging the Si bond coat and the water vapor-resistant top layer150. Key functions of mullite-based coatings when
used as an intermediate coat in current EBCs include chemical compatibility, strain tolerance, and barrier to water vapor transport.

Mullite and Mullite+BSAS

Conventionally plasma-sprayed mullite coatings contain a signicant amount of metastable amorphous phase due to the rapid
cooling of molten mullite during the solidication on a cold substrate151. A subsequent exposure of the mullite coating to a temperature
above ~1000oC causes the crystallization of the amorphous phase. Shrinkage accompanies the crystallization, leading to cracking
and delamination of the mullite coating. A modied plasma-spraying process enables the deposition of crystalline mullite coating,
dramatically improving the crack resistance and adherence152. Plasma-sprayed mullite coating on SiC remained virtually intact at the
mullite/SiC interface as well as on the mullite surface after a 50-h exposure in a high pressure (6 atm) hot corrosion rig containing
Na2SO4153. CVD mullite also displayed little evidence of damage in Na2SO4 environments154. Further improvement in the crack
resistance of plasma-sprayed mullite coatings is achieved by adding a second phase (BSAS)155. The improved crack resistance of the
mullite+BSAS composite coating is attributed to the reduced coating tensile stress due to the low modulus BSAS phase156.

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Glass
Kang N Lee

Mullite/YSZ
The relatively high silica activity of mullite (0.3 ~ 0.4) causes the selective volatilization of silica and the recession of mullite in
high velocity combustion environments157. Therefore, a water-vapor resistant overlay coating is needed on top of the mullite coating,
to provide the stability in water vapor. YSZ is a logical candidate for a top coat because it has been successfully used as a TBC for
superalloy components in gas turbine engines, signifying its stability in water vapor. The mullite/YSZ system is an effective EBC for
SiC/SiC
short term exposures. One critical disadvantage of YSZ is the high CTE and
sintering. The stresses due to the CTE mismatch and sintering cause severe
cracking. These cracks provide easy paths for water vapor penetration, resulting 100 m
in rapid oxidation and premature coating delamination . 158

Mullite/BSAS and Mullite+BSAS/BSAS


BSAS

BSAS is a top coat material developed in the NASAs High Speed Research-
Enabling Propulsions Materials (HSR-EPM) program in joint research by
Mullite + BSAS
NASA, General Electric, and Pratt and Whitney159. It has the key attributes for
a successful EBC, such as a low silica activity, a low CTE, and a low modulus
(~100 GPa for dense BSAS). The low silica activity provides stability in water
vapor, while the low CTE and low modulus provide low thermal stresses. The
EPM EBCs exhibit dramatically improved durability compared to the mullite/
YSZ EBC. Figure 10 shows plasma-sprayed Si/mullite+20 wt.% BSAS/
BSAS on SiC/SiC composite after 1000 h at 1316oC (1-h cycles) in 90% H2O- Fig. 10. Plasma-sprayed Si/mullite+20 wt.% BSAS/
balance O2160. The EBC maintained excellent adherence and crack resistance. BSAS on a SiC/SiC composite coupon after 1000 h
Pockets of glasses developed within the BSAS top coat. The EPM EBC was at 1316C (1-h cycles) in 90% H2O-balance O2 (Re-
applied on SiC/SiC composite combustor liners in Solar Turbines (San Diego, printed with permission of Elsevier, copyright 2005)
CA) Centaur 50s gas turbine engines under DOE Ceramic Stationary Gas
Source: See Note 141.
Turbines (CSGT) Program161. One engine used by Texaco in Bakerseld, CA,
successfully completed a 14,000-h eld test (~1,250oC maximum combustor
liner temperature). The higher operating temperature resulted in emissions
consistently below 15 ppmv nitrogen oxides (NOx) and below 10 ppmv carbon
monoxide (CO) throughout, roughly reducing the NOx and CO loads on the Yb2SiO5
environment by factors of about 2 and 5, respectively.
The EPM EBCs have some durability issues that limit their upper use Mullite
temperature and life162. One key issue is the volatilization of the BSAS top
Si
coat in high velocity combustion environments. A projection based on a silica
volatility model in conjunction with BSAS volatility data indicates a BSAS
recession of ~70 m after 1000 h at 1400oC, 6 atm total pressure and 24 m/s SiC/SiC
gas velocity. Actual gas turbines operate at signicantly higher pressures and
gas velocities, which increases the projected recession to much higher levels.
The EBC in Solar Turbines engines suffered signicant BSAS recession in 100 m
some areas after the 14,000-h test163. Another key issue is the chemical reaction
between BSAS and the thermally grown silica on Si bond coat. The BSAS-silica Fig. 11. Plasma-sprayed Si/mullite/Yb2SiO5 on SiC/
SiC composite after 1000 h at 1380C (1-h cycles) in
reaction produces a low-melting (~1300oC) glass that causes EBC degradation
90% H2O-balance O2. (Reprinted with permission of
and a premature failure at temperatures above ~1300oC. The pockets of glasses ASM International, All rights reserved, www.asminter-
in Figure 10 are due to the BSAS-silica reaction. Therefore, it is desirable to national.org)
avoid the BSAS second phase in the mullite layer for applications requiring
long-term exposures at temperatures above 1300C ~ 1350C. Source: See Note 142.

Mullite/RE2SiO5 (or RE2Si2O7) and Mullite+BSAS/RE2SiO5 (or RE2Si2O7)


Some rare earth silicates have a low CTE, phase stability, and a low silica activity, making them excellent EBC top coat materials164.
Volatility data165 and thermodynamic calculations166 indicate that rare earth monosilicates (RE2SiO5; RE = rare earth element) are
signicantly less volatile than BSAS in water vapor, at least by an order of magnitude, while the volatilities of rare earth disilicates
(RE2Si2O7) are similar to that of BSAS. Disilicates of Y, Yb, and Lu exposed to a high velocity and high steam environment at 1450oC ~
1500oC gradually decomposed to Y2SiO5, Yb2SiO5, and Lu2SiO5, respectively, indicating the selective volatilization of silica167.
Figures 11 and 12 show plasma-sprayed Si/mullite/Yb2SiO5 on SiC/SiC composite (1000 h) and on Si3N4 (400 h) at 1380oC (1-h
cycles) in 90% H2O-balance O2168. The EBC maintained superb adherence and crack resistance on both substrates. In contrast, plasma-
sprayed Si/mullite/YSZ on Si3N4 suffered severe cracking and delamination after 280 h at 1380oC (1-h cycles) in 90% H2O-balance O2
(Figure 13)169. This demonstrates the detrimental effect of a large CTE mismatch between EBC and substrate. Figure 14 shows plasma-
sprayed Si/mullite/Yb2SiO5 on SiC/SiC composite after 100 h in a high pressure/high velocity burner rig (1400oC, 100 h, 6 atm, gas
velocity = 24 m/s)169. Note the excellent adherence, crack resistance, and oxidation resistance of the rare earth silicate EBC in a simulated
431 gas turbine environment.
4.4.2 Protective Coatings for Gas Turbines

Top Coat without a Mullite-Based Layer

BSAS and RE2SiO5 possess key properties desirable for a successful EBC, such
as low CTE, low silica volatility, and phase stability170. Ta2O5 has a low CTE, but
relatively high volatility in water vapor, higher than the volatility of BSAS by an order Mullite
of magnitude171, and a phase transformation at ~ 1370oC. The performance of these Si
materials without a mullite-based intermediate layer was investigated.

BSAS Si3N4

BSAS is reactive with silica, thermally grown on SiC or Si3N4, forming a low
melting eutectic (mp ~ 1300oC). The chemical reaction causes the build-up of a Fig. 12. Plasma-sprayed Si/mullite/Yb2SiO5
thick reaction zone and porosity at the BSAS/substrate interface. Plasma-sprayed on Si3N4 after 400 h at 1380C (1-h cycles) in
BSAS-coated SiC/SiC composite after 100 h (2-h cycles) at 1300oC in 90% H2O 90% H2O-balance O2. (Reprinted with permis-
- balance O2 developed a thick (~20 m) reaction zone and large pores at the BSAS/ sion of Elsevier, YSZ
copyright 2005.)
substrate interface172. Pores are attributed to the bubbling of gaseous species through Mullite
the low viscosity eutectic glass. In long-term exposures, the pores continue to grow Source: See Note 141.
Si
and coalesce, leading to complete coating spallation. The low viscosity reaction zone
can lead to the EBC spallation under a high shear stress. Similar behavior is observed
in the presence of Si bond coat.

RE2SiO5, RE2Si2O7, and Ta2O5


100 m
Plasma-sprayed RE2SiO 5
and Ta2O5-based EBCs showed good adherence
173 174

on Si-based ceramics under thermal exposures in air. However, these coatings on Si3N4
SiC/SiC composite did not maintain the adherence in water vapor environments175.
Consequently, the substrate suffered rapid oxidation, forming thick and porous scale.
A premature EBC spallation occurred along the scale since the thick scale constituted
a weak mechanical link. Possible explanations for the rapid oxidation include lack
Fig. 13. Plasma-sprayed Si/mullite/YSZ on
of chemical bonding and EBC cracking under thermal cycling. Both can provide Si3N4 after 280 h at 1380C (1-h cycles) in
an easy access for water vapor into the interface. The fact that the Si/mullite EBC 90% H2O-balance O2.
shows far superior oxidation resistance and longer life, although mullite develops
similar cracks, suggests that inadequate chemical bonding may be responsible for Source: See Note 169.
the lack of oxidation resistance. Other low CTE rare earth monosilicates, such as
Y2SiO5, Er2SiO5, Sc2SiO5, and Lu2SiO5, exhibited similar poor oxidation resistance176.
CVD Ta2O5 was unstable in an environment containing Na2SO4, rapidly reacting to
Yb2SiO5
form NaTaO3 which subsequently interacted destructively with the underlying Si3N4
substrate to form a molten phase177. Rare earth disilicates (RE2Si2O7) were applied
Mullite
on Si3N4 ceramics by a slurry process followed by sintering178. Short-term exposures
Si
at relatively low temperatures showed promising results, indicating their merits for
further research. SiC/SiC

4.4.2-4 Conclusions
100 m
Thermal barrier coatings for superalloys and environmental barrier coatings for
ceramic matrix composites are important technologies to achieve higher gas turbine Fig. 14. Plasma-sprayed Si/mullite/Yb2SiO5 on
inlet temperatures. a SiC/SiC composite after 100 h in a high pres-
In thermal barrier coatings, stresses play the major role in coating failure, which sure/high velocity burner rig (1400C, 100 h, 6
are inuenced by various factors such as bond coat oxidation, bond coat surface atm, gas velocity = 24 m/s).
roughening, YSZ phase transformation, and YSZ sintering. Current approaches for
improvements include adding reactive element (RE) or precious metals in the bond Source: See Note 169.
coat for enhanced oxidation resistance, and alternative oxide stabilizers for ZrO2 and alternative materials to ZrO2 for enhanced phase
stability and sinter resistance. Thermal conductivity is another key element for the TBC performance. A lower thermal conductivity TBC
lowers the substrate temperature and/or reduces the TBC thickness, which improves the performance and life of gas turbine components.
Key future research areas include the development of new bond coat alloy compositions resistant to surface imperfections and the
development of low thermal conductivity TBC, without compromising the quality of TGO and TBC life.
In environmental barrier coatings, chemical reactions, rather than stresses, appear to play the major role in the coating degradation.
Key life-limiting reactions are water vapor volatility of the surface layer, chemical reactions between various EBC layers, including
silica TGO, and the oxidation of silicon bond coat. Therefore, it is important to design EBC in such a way to minimize these chemical 432
Kang N Lee
reactions. The selection of an EBC for a particular system depends on application requirements, such as the EBC surface temperature,
the substrate temperature, and the life goal. Alternative top layer materials to BSAS are being investigated for applications at T>1300oC.
Rare earth silicates have shown promising results, while ZrO2- and HfO2-based materials require further research to alleviate the thermal
expansion mismatch stress.
As advanced gas turbines rely on these coatings for environmental/thermal protection, life models to predict the remaining coating
life and non-destructive technologies to monitor the coatings health are important future research areas.

4.4.2-5 Notes

_________________________

1. F.O. Soechting, Thermal Barrier Coating Workshop, NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, OH, NASA Conference
Publication 3312, (1995): 1-15.
2. M. J. Donachie and S. J. Donachie, Superalloys Second Edition, ASM International, Materials Park, Ohio (2000).
3. Y. Tamarin, Protective Coatings for Turbine Blades, ASM International, Materials Park, OH (2002).
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. See note 1 above.
7. R. A. Miller, Thermal Barrier Coating Workshop, NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, OH, NASA Conference
Publication 3312 (1995): 17-34.
8. D. Anson and D. W. Richerson, Progress in Ceramic Gas Turbine Development, Vol. 2. Edited by M. van Roode, M.
Ferber, and D. W. Richerson, ASME PRESS, New York, NY, 1-10 (2003).
9. N. S. Jacobson, J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 76[1] (1993): 3-28.
10. E. J. Opila and R. Hann, J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 80[1], 197-205 (1997);
J. L. Smialek, R. C. Robinson, E. J. Opila, D. S. Fox, and N. S. Jacobson, Adv. Composite Mater., 8[1] (1999): 33-45.
11. N. S. Jacobson, J. L. Smialek, and D. S. Fox, Handbook of Ceramics and Composites, Vol. 1. Edited by N. S.
Cheremisinoff, Marcel Dekker, New York, NY, USA, 99-135 (1990).
12. K. N. Lee, H. Fritze, and Y. Ogura, Progress in Ceramic Gas Turbine Development, Vol. 2. Edited by M. van Roode, M.
Ferber, and D. W. Richerson, ASME PRESS, New York, NY, 641-664 (2003).
13. K. N. Lee, D. S. Fox, J. I. Eldridge, D. Zhu, R. C. Robinson, N. P. Bansal, and R. A. Miller, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 86 [8]
(2003): 1299-1306.
14. H. E. Eaton, G. D. Linsey, K. L. More, J. B. Kimmel, J. R. Price, and N. Miriyala, ASME paper 2000-GT-0631,
International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exposition, Munich, Germany, May 8-11, 2000.
15. See note 7 above.
16. See note 3 above.
17. D. R. Clarke, Surface and Coatings Technology, 163-164, (2003): 67-74.
18. A.G. Evans, D. R. Mumm, J. W. Hutchinson, G. H. Meier and F. S. Pettit, Progress in Materials Science 46 (2001): 505-
553.
19. M. K. Ferber, J. P. Singh, J. A. Haynes, M. Lance, I. G. Wright, H. Wang, and G. Romanoski, Advanced Turbine Systems
Program 1998 Annual Report, Department of Energy (1998); B. A. Pint, I. G. Wright, W. Y. Lee, Y. Zhang, K. Pruner,
and K. B. Alexander, Mater. Sci. Eng., A145, 201-211 (1998); I. G. Wright and B. A. Pint, 1st Int. Conf. on Industrial
Gas Turbine Technology (CAME-GT), Brussels, Belgium, July 10-11, 2003.
20. J. Cheng, E. H. Jordan, B. Barber, and M. Gell, Acta Mater., 46 [16] (1998): 5839-5850; also see note 18 above.
21. Y. Zhang, J. A. Haynes, B. A. Pint, I. G. Wright, and W. Y. Lee, Surface and Coatings Technology, 163-164, 19-24 (2003);
M. W. Chen, R. T. Ott, T. C. Hufnagel, P. K. Wright, and K. J. Hemker, Surface and Coatings Technology, 163-164, 25-
30 (2003);V. K. Tolpygo and D. R. Clarke, Acta Mater. 48, 3283-3293 (2000); S. Darzens, D. R. Munn, D. R. Clarke,
and A. G. Evans, Met. and Mater. Trans. A, 34A, 511-522 (2003);D. R. Mumm, A. G. Evans, and I. T. Spitsberg,
Acta. Mater. 49, 2329-2340 (2001);M. Gell, K. Vaidyanathan, B. Barber, J. Cheng, and E. Jordan, Met. and Mater.
Trans. A, 30A, 427-435 (1999);Y. H. Sohn, J. H. Kim, E. H. Jordan, and M Gell, Surface and Coatings Technology,
146-147, 70-78 (2001).
22. A. G. Evans, G. B. Crumley, and R. E. Demaray, Oxid. Met., 20 [5] (1983): 193;G. C. Chang and W. Phucharoen, Surface
and Coatings Technology 30 (1987): 13-28; A. M. Freborg, B. L. Ferguson, W. J. Brindley, and G. J. Petrus, Mat. Sci.
and Eng., A245 (1998): 182-190;E. P. Busso, J. Lin, S. Sakura, and M. Nakayama, Acta. Mater 49 (2001): 1515-1528;
E. P. Busso, J. Lin, and S. Sakura, Acta. Mater 49 (2001): 1529-1536; see also notes 18 and 20.
23. R. A. Miller, J. L. Smialek, and R. G. Garlick, Advances in Ceramics, Vol. 3, Science and Technology of Zirconia. Edited
by A. H. Heuer and L. W. Hobbs, American Ceramic Society, Columbus, OH, 241-251 (1981).
24. D. Zhu and R. Miller, Journal of Thermal Spray Technology, 9[2] (2000): 175-180.
25. J. R. Gross, M. N. Rahaman, and R. E. Dutton, Ceram. Trans 154 (2003): 311-320.
26. See note 3.
433 27. See note 19.
4.4.2 Protective Coatings for Gas Turbines
28. See note 3.
29. Ibid.
30. See note 21 (Tolpygo) and (Gell).
31. See note 3.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid.
34. A. Rabiei and A. G. Evans, Acta. Mater., 48, (2000): 3963-3976.
35. J. A. Haynes, M. J. Lance, B. A. Pint, and I. G. Wright, Surface and Coatings Technology 146-147 (2001): 140-146.
36. M. Gell, E. Jordan, and K. Vaidyanathan, Surface and Coatings Technology, 120-121, (1999): 53.
37. See note 19.
38. E. J. Felten, Oxid. Metals 10 (1976) 23-28; E. J. Felten and F. S. Pettit, Oxid. Metals, 10, 189-223 (1976); J. G. Fountain,
F. A. Golightly, F. H. Stott, and G. C. Wood, Oxid. Metals 10 (1976): 341-345.
39. See note 19 (Wright & Pint).
40. See note 19 (Pint, et al.).
41. Ibid.
42. P. Y. Hou and J. Stringer, Oxid. Metals 38 (1992): 323-345; H. J. Grabke, G. Kurbatov, and H. J. Schmutzler, Oxid.
Metals 43 (1995): 97-114.
43. See note 19 (Pint, et al.).
44. W. P. Allen and N. S. Bornstein, High Temperature Coatings I. Edited by N. Dahotre, J. M. Hampikian, and J. Stiglich,
TMS, Warrendale, PA, 193-202 (1995); G. H. Meier, F. S. Pettit, and J. L. Smialek, Mater. Corros. 46 (1995): 232-240;
M. A. Smith, W. E. Frazier and B. A. Pregger, Mater. Sci. Eng., A203, 388-398 (1995); J. C. Schaeffer, W. H.
Murphy, and J. L. Smialek, Oxid. Metals 43 (1995): 1-23.
45. B. A. Pint, Oxid. Metals 45 (1996): 1-37.
46. Ibid.
47. See note 19 (Pint, et al.).
48. See note 19 (Pint, et al.) and (Wright & Pint).
49. See note 19 (Wright & Pint).
50. See note 19 (Pint, et al.).
51. Ibid.
52. See note 35.
53. See notes 3 and 19 (Wright & Pint).
54. See note 3.
55. See note 21 (Zhang, et al.), (Chen, et al.), and (Tolpygo & Clarke).
56. See notes 21 (Sohn, et al.) and 34.
57. See note 34.
58. See note 21 (Tolpygo & Clarke).
59. See note 21 (Zhang, et al.), (Chen, et al.), (Tolpygo & Clarke), and (Darzens, et al.).
60. Ibid.
61. See note 21(Chen et al.).
62. Ibid.
63. See note 21 (Zhang, et al.) and (Chen, et al.).
64. See note 21 (Zhang, et al.).
65. See note 21 (Zhang, et al.) and (Chen, et al.).
66. See note 21 (Tolpygo & Clarke).
67. See note 21 (Darzens et al.).
68. See note 21 (Mumm et al.).
69. See note 21 (Gell et al.).
70. D. R. Mumm and A. G. Evans, Acta Mater. 48, (2000): 1815.
71. See note 21 (Tolpygo & Clarke) and (Mumm et al.).
72. See note 21 (Mumm et al.).
73. See note 21 (Tolpygo & Clarke) and (Mumm et al.).
74. Handbook of Thermal Spray Technology. Edited by J. R. Davis, ASM International, Metals Park, OH, 2004.
75. A. H. Bartlett and R. Dal Maschino, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 78 (1995): 1018.
76. J. R. Nicholls, K. J. Lawson, A. Johnstone, and D. S. Rickerby, Surface and Coatings Technology 151-152 (2002): 383-
391.
77. D. S. Duvall and D. L. Ruckler, ASME Paper 82-GT-327 (1982).
78. U. Schulz, K. Fritscher, H.-J. Ratzer-Scheibe, et al., High Temperature Corrosion 4, Edited by R. Streiff, J. Stringer, R.
Krutenat, M. Caillet, and R. Rapp, Trans Tech Publication, 957-964 (1997).
79. J. R. Nicholls, Y. Jaslier, and D. S. Rickerby, 4th Int. Symp. On High Temperature Corrosion, Les Embiez, France, May,
1996.
80. See note 78. 434
Kang N Lee
81. P. G. Klemens and M. Gell, Mater. Sci. Eng, A245 (1998): 143-149.
82. Ibid.
83. Ibid.
84. Ibid.
85. See notes 17 and 81.
86. See notes 76 and 81.
87. See note 81.
88. S. Raghavan, H. Wang, R. B. Dinwiddie, W. D. Porter, and M. J. Mayo, Scripta Materialia, 39[8] (1998): 1119-1125;
J. F. Bisson, D. Fournier, M. Poulain, O. Lavigne, and R. Mevrel, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 83, (2000): 1993.
89. See note 17.
90. See note 81.
91. Ibid.
92. Ibid.
93. See note 17.
94. See notes 17 and 76.
95. See note 76.
96. Ibid.
97. D. S. Rickerby, European Patent EP 0 825 271 A1.
98. D. Zhu and R. A. Miller, Ceram. Eng. Sci. Proc. 23[4] (2002): 457-468.
99. Ibid.
100. J. R. Nicholls, K. J. Lawson, A. Johnston, and D. S. Rickerby, High temperature corrosion 5. Edited by R. Streiff, I. J.
Wright, R. Krutenat, M. Caillet, and A. Cailerie, Trans Tech Publication, 595-606 (2001).
101. Ibid.
102. See note 76.
103. Ibid.
104. See note 24.
105. V. Lughi, V. K. Tolpygo, and D. R. Clarke, Mater. Sci. Eng. A368 (2004): 212-221.
106. Ibid.
107. See note 25.
108. See note 98.
109. See note 23.
110. Ibid.
111.Ibid..
112. Ibid.
113. S. Stecura, NASA TM 78976 (1978).
114. U. Schulz, , J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 83 (2000): 904-910.
115. H. G. Scott, J. Mater. Sci. 10 (1975): 1527-1535.
116. U. Schulz, K. Fritscher, and M. Peters, J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power 119 (1997): 817-21.
117. J. R. Van Valzah and H. E. Eaton, Surf. Coat. Technol. 46 (1991): 289-300.
118. See note 114.
119. D. J. M. Bevan and E. Summerville, Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths: Non-Metallic Compounds
I. Edited by K. A. Gschneider and L. R. Eyring, North-Holland Physics Publishing. New York, 412-515 (1979); M. A.
Subramanian and A. W. Sleight, Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths: Non-Metallic Compounds I.
Edited by K. A. Gschneider and L. R. Eyring, Elsevier Science Publishers, Oxford, UK, 225-248 (1993).
120. Ibid.
121. M. J. Maloney, U.S. Patent No. 6 117 560, 2000; M. J. Maloney, U.S. Patent No. 6 284 323, 2001; G. Suresh, G.
Seenivasan, M. V. Krishnaiah, and P. S. Murti. J. Nucl. Mater., 249, 259-61 (1997); G. Suresh, G. Seenivasan, M. V.
Krishnaiah, and P. S. Murti. J. Alloys Compd., 269, L9-L12 (1998).
122. J. Wu, X. Wei, N. P. Padture, P. G. Klemens, M. Gell, E. Garcia, P. Miranzo, and M. I. Osendi, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 85
(2002): 3031-3035.
123. Ibid.
124. Ibid.
125. R. Vassen, X. Cao, F. Tietz, D. Basu, and D. Stover, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 83 (2000): 2023-2028.
126. Ibid.
127. R. Vassen, X. Cao, F. Tietz, and D. Stover, Ceram. Eng. Sci. Proc. 22 [4] (2001): 435-442.
128. Ibid.
129. R. A. Miller and G. W. Leissler, NASA TP 3296 (1993).
130. N. P. Padture and P. G. Klemens, J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 80, (1997): 1018-1020.
131. P. K. Wright, Mater. Sci. Eng. A245 (1998): 191; P. K. Wright and A. G. Evans, Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci. 4
(1999): 255.
435 132. See note 18.
4.4.2 Protective Coatings for Gas Turbines

133. See note 34.


134. S. R. Choi, J. W Hutchinson, and A. G. Evans, Mech. Mater. 31 (1999): 431; also see note 18.
135. See note 131 (Wright, 1998).
136. See note 34.
137. Ibid.
138. D. R. Mumm and A. G. Evans, Acta Mater 48 (2000): 1815-1827.
139. Ibid.
140. K. N. Lee, Surface and Coatings Technology, 133-134, 1-7 (2000); also see note 12.
141. K. N. Lee, D. S. Fox, and N. P. Bansal, J. Euro. Ceram. Soc. 25 (2005): 1705-1715.
142. N.S. Jacobson, D.S. Fox, J.L. Smialek, E.J. Opila C. Dellacorte, and K.N. Lee, ASM Handbook, Vol. 13B. Edited by
S.D. Cramer and B.S. Covino, Jr., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 565-578 (2005).
143. M. L. Auger and V. K. Sarin, Surface and Coatings Technology 94-95 (1997): 46-52 ; S. N. Basu, P. Hou, and V. K.
Sarin, International Journal of Refractory Metals & Hard Materials 16 (1998): 343-52; J. A. Haynes, K. M. Cooly, D. P.
Stinton, R. A. Lowden, and W. Y. Lee, Ceram. Eng. and Sci. Proceedings, 20 [4] (1999): 355-362 ; J. A. Haynes, M. J.
Lance, K. M. Cooley, M. K. Ferber, R. A. Lowden, and D. P. Stinton, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 83 [3] (2000): 657-659;
Y. W. Bae, W. Y. Lee, and D. Stinton, J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 78 [5] (1995): 1297-300; W. Y. Lee, Y. W. Bae, and D. P.
Stinton, J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 78 [7] (1995): 1927-30.
144. See note 12.
145. See note 13.
146. R. C. Robinson and J. L. Smialek, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 82 [7] (1999): 1817-25 .
147. D. Zhu, K. N. Lee, and R. A. Miller, Ceram. Eng. Sci. Proc., 22 [4] (2001): 443-452.
148. See note 140.
149. J. I. Federer, J. Mater. Eng. 12 (1990): 141-149; D. W. Richerson and J. L. Schienle, Proceedings of the Twenty-Second
Automotive Technology Development Contractors Coordination Meeting (October 29-November 2, 1984), SAE P-155,
453-461, March 1985; J. R. Price, M. van Roode, and C. Stala, Key Engineering Materials 72-74 (1992): 71-84; K. N.
Lee, R. A. Miller, and N. S. Jacobson, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 78 [3] (1995): 705-710.
150. See note 140.
151. See note 149 (Lee et al.).
152. Ibid.
153. K. N. Lee, Transactions of the ASME 122 (2000): 632-636.
154. W. Y. Lee, K. L. More and Y. W. Bae, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 79 [9] (1996): 2489-92.
155. See notes 13 and 140.
156. K. N. Lee, J. I. Eldridge, and R. C. Robinson, J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 88 [12] (2005): 3483-3488.
157. See note 153.
158. See note 156.
159. See notes 13 and 140.
160. See note 141.
161. H. E. Eaton, G. D. Linsey, E. Y. Sun, K. L. More, J. B. Kimmel, J. R. Price, and N. Miriyala, ASME paper 2001-GT-
0513 ASME TURBOEXPO 2001, New Orleans, Louisiana, June 4-7, 2001; K. L. More, P. F. Tortorelli, L. R. Walker,
J. B. Kimmel, N. Miriyala, J. R. Price, H. E. Eaton, E. Y. Sun, and G. D. Lindsey, ASME paper 2002-GT-30630,
Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2002, Amsterdam, Netherlands, June 3-6, 2002,
162. See note 13.
163. See note 161 (More et al.).
164. K.N. Lee, US patent 6,759,151 (2004); also see note 141.
165. See note 141.
166. P. Meschter, GE Global Research Center, private communication.
167. T. Ohji, The 28th Int. Conf. & Exp. On Adv. Ceram. & Composites, Cocoa Beach, FL (2004); H. Klemm, M. Fritsch,
and B. Schenk, The 28th Int. Conf. & Exp. On Adv. Ceram. & Composites, Cocoa Beach, FL (2004); S. Ueno, D. D.
Jayaseelan, N. Kondo, T. Ohji, and S. Kanzaki, The 28th Int. Conf. & Exp. On Adv. Ceram. & Composites, Cocoa
Beach, FL (2004).
168. See notes 141 and 142.
169. K. N. Lee, unpublished research, NASA Glenn Research Center.
170. See notes 13 and 141.
171. See note 169.
172. See note 13.
173. See note 169.
174. C. M. Weyant, K. T. Faber, J. D. Almer, and J. V. Guibeen, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 88 [8] (2005): 2169-76.
175. See note 141.
176. Ibid.
177. See note 144 (Lee et al.).
178. See note 167 (Ohji) and (Ueno, et al.). 436
BIOGRAPHY 4.4.2 Protective Coatings for Gas Turbines

Kang N Lee
Cleveland State University
NASA Glenn Research Center
Cleveland, OH 44135

Current Address:
Rolls-Royce Corporation
P.O. Box 420, Speed Code W-08
Indianapolis, IN 46206

phone: (317) 230-4469


email: kang.n.lee@rolls-royce.com

Kang Lee is a pioneer in environmental barrier coatings (EBC) for silicon-based ceramics. He played a
key role in the development of the current state-of-the-art EBC. He has also investigated thermal barrier
coatings (TBC) based on silicates and developed an emission spectroscopic non-destructive evaluation
(NDE) technique for high temperature coatings. His current research focuses on development of
advanced EBC for silicon carbide ceramic matrix composite (CMC) turbine hot section components
and applying emission spectroscopic NDE to TBC. He has 13 U.S patents and has written two invited
book chapters and over 50 technical publications.
4.4
Heat Transfer Analysis 4.4-1 Introduction

The thermal efciency and specic output of a gas turbine are primarily
dependent on two major cycle parameters: the pressure ratio and the turbine
inlet temperature1. In an ideal Brayton cycle, thermal efciency increases up
to stoichiometric temperatures and high-pressure ratios, without considering
losses, particularly, those associated with turbine cooling. Since turbine airfoil
materials melt at temperatures much lower than the stoichiometric temperatures,
hot gas-path components, such as turbine airfoils, must be cooled and attention
must be given to cycle parasitic losses.
The recognition of material temperature limitations has led to the
continuous turbine development programs for cooling technologies, material
development, and related multi-disciplinary disciplines of uid dynamics, heat
transfer, aerodynamic performance, and structures, all aimed at the durability
of turbine hot-gas-path components. The pursuit of improved turbine materials
began long ago when the initial temperature limitations were found to be at
about 1500F (800C)2. Following this initial period, an intensive development
period took place when nickel-based alloys were developed and characterized
as having high creep resistance characteristics. Material improvements relaxed
temperature limitations by about 300F (167C)3. Further development of turbine
airfoil manufacturing techniques, such directionally-solidication castings
and single-crystal castings led to higher metal temperature capability. More
recently, numerous testing evaluations have been conducted to characterize new
hot-gas path material superalloys in terms of tensile, rupture, fatigue, creep,
toughness, corrosion and oxidation resistances, producibility, processing, and
other thermophysical properties4. Following extensive laboratory testing, actual
operating experience is gained with engine testing subject to real operational
environments culminating in mature levels of technology readiness levels for
production.
Today, many modern turbine airfoils use single crystal superalloys.
These are two-phase alloys with a large volume fraction of precipitates,
based on the intermetallic compound, Ni3 Al, interspersed in a coherent face-
centered cubic matrix comprised of nickel, Ni, with smaller weight percent
of various other elements in solid solution5. These elements include: cobalt,
Co, aluminum, Al, chromium, Cr, tungsten, W, molybdenum, Mo, tantalum,
Ta, hafnium, Hf, rhenium, Re, and ruthenium, Ru. The elements Re and Ru are
introduced in the latest generation of single crystal alloys. All these elements
have different attributes which can be summarized as follows: Cr, Al, and
Hf are used as surface protection elements, Mo, W, and Ta are used in solid
solution strengthening, and Re and Ru are used for high creep strength6.
The strength of these single crystal alloys is mainly a function of the
size and the percentage of precipitates. Experimentally, it has been determined
Frank J. Cunha, Ph.D., P.E. that the peak creep strength is achieved with a volume fraction of of 60%-
65%7. Much of the behavior of these alloys can be explained on the basis
Pratt & Whitney that high volume fraction alloys deformation occurring by shearing of the
United Technologies Corporation precipitates. The high volume fraction of precipitates precludes dislocation
5 Bruce Lane bypass at low and intermediate temperatures forcing precipitate shearing.
Avon, CT 06001 However, the energies resisting dislocation shearing of the precipitates are
those required to form a local reversal of Al-Ni order or antiphase boundary
Phone: (860) 565-8909 in stacking fault of the Ni3 Al superlattice. The energies associated with the
Email: frank.cunha@pw.utc.com anti-phase boundary in the superlattice stacking faults determine the strength,
fatigue, and fracture characteristics of these alloys8. This is also evident by the
increase in yield strength at moderate to high temperatures before a monotonic
decrease in yield strength. As a result, the excellent high-temperature creep and
fatigue resistance of the superalloys is a result of a combination of solid-solution
strengthening, absence of deleterious grain boundaries, and high volume fraction
of precipitates that act as barriers to dislocation motion. It should be pointed-
out, however, that fatigue crack initiation also depends on the microscopic

389
defects, which can be categorized as intrinsic defects and deviant material defects. Intrinsic defects include carbides, undissolved
eutectic pools, and associated micro-porosity, concentrated in interdendritic regions of the casting. Even though the intrinsic defects
are normal features of the alloy microstructure, deviant defects, such as crystallographic defects related to low and high angle grain
boundaries, freckles and silver grains, and porosity, are considered rejectable defects in the material quality that exceeds specied
limits. Modern single crystal superalloys are face-centered single crystal superalloys with cubic symmetry. As a result, there are
three independent mechanical properties that characterize the material behavior: the modulus of elasticity, E, the shear modulus, G,
and the Poisson ratio, v9. The mechanical and thermal-physical properties are also a function of temperature and change with crystal
orientation leading to anisotropic behavior of the material. After the casting process, a series of standard heat treatments, such as,
solution annealing, coating heat treatment, and precipitation heat treatment, are used to optimize microstructures of the material10.
In parallel to base material development, coatings were also developed to protect the base material from corrosion and
oxidation attack11. These coatings were designated as metallic bond coatings characterized as diffusion and overlay type coatings.
The substantive difference between the overlay and diffusion type coatings relies on the how the coating constituents are supplied.
For diffusion type coatings, the major constituents are supplied by the base metal; whereas, for overlay coatings, the constituents
are supplied by external coating sources. The advantage of overlay coatings is that more varied corrosion and oxidation resistant
compositions can be applied with increased bonding thickness. The surface roughness of bond coatings allow for the deposition
of ceramic type thermal barrier coatings. The addition of these coating systems onto single crystal superalloy substrate has further
relaxed the temperature limitations associated with the turbine inlet conditions. As the material development of coatings and base
material reach a culminating point, further increases in turbine inlet temperatures can only come from advanced airfoil cooling. Thus,
cooling and material technologies have permitted designs with turbine inlet conditions in excess of 3100F (1700C) with interface
bond-to-metal temperatures topping at 2050F (1121C) for durability requirements of oxidation, creep life, and fatigue cycles12.
Two of the most relevant parameters for measuring and assessing cooling performance of turbine airfoils are the cooling
effectiveness parameter and heat load parameter. By denition, this parameter is a dimensionless temperature ratio of gas-to-metal
temperature difference over the gas-to-coolant temperature difference13:

(1)

Clearly, if the cooling effectiveness is non-existent, or zero, there is no cooling effect; whereas, if the cooling effectiveness is equal to
unity, the airfoil metal and coolant temperature are the same. These two extreme values of either zero or unity are considered as outer
limits for cooling effectiveness parameter. In general, the cooling effectiveness lies in-between these two limits and characterizes the
performance of the cooling circuit inside the turbine airfoil.
The other parameter denoted as the heat load parameter is dened as the ratio of internal heat to the external heat uxes as
follows14:

(2)

Figure 1 illustrates cooling effectiveness for typical cooling congurations as a function of heat load parameter simplied here
just by the variable in cooling ow15. The cooling effectiveness is naturally a function of many design variables, that is, the cooling
conguration, and the coolant ejection requirements. It also a strong function of the amount of cooling medium used, usually measured
as percentage of the mainstream gas. As illustrated in gure 1, the cooling effectiveness increases rapidly with small amounts of
coolant. Then, the cooling effectiveness increases monotonically at a lower rate. This implies that for demanding thermal applications,
where the thermal load parameter is high, large amounts of coolant may be required. For state-of-the-art engines, turbine cooling air
and leakage may be as high as 25-30% of engine mainstream ow. In terms of efciency, and since the cooling air is drawn from the
compressor, which is driven by the turbine, it represents a direct loss of efciency. In general, a very approximate rule-of-thumb of 1%
cooling air may represent a loss of a fraction of that percentage in specic fuel consumption. This leads to the obvious conclusion that
turbine cooling needs to be minimized. Clearly, this is not the only loss mechanism in the engine. Other losses may include mixing and
aerodynamic losses, such as prole drag, skin-friction, gas diffusion, secondary ows, tip clearance, boundary-layer separation, shocks,
losses due to off-design airfoil incidence angles, trailing edge vortex shedding, and blockage losses16. All these losses of engine cycle and
turbine efciencies have to be set against the gains in running the engine at higher turbine inlet temperatures for maintaining required
output. Therefore, it is always necessary to reduce and optimize the cooling air requirements for a gas turbine engine design.
In gure 1, the simplest cooling conguration is characterized by the lowest cooling effectiveness. For instance, the radial
cooling holes in the middle of the airfoil cross-section will not permit air to eject from the airfoil walls into the gas mainstream, avoiding
lm cooling and corresponding ejection mixing losses. However, forced convection through the radial holes may not be sufcient for high

390
Frank J. Cunha

thermal load applications, and even at low thermal loads,


this simple cooling arrangement is likely to induce high
temperature gradients between the airfoil surface and the
cooling hole locations. An improved cooling arrangement
over the radial cooling hole arrangement is the multi-pass
serpentine cooling conguration. In serpentine cooling
arrangements, coolant enters the airfoil through the blade
root inlet; passes though multiple circuits, cooling the
mid-body of the airfoil before ejecting out of the airfoil
through main body lm holes or trailing edge slots. The
leading edge, with high thermal loads, may be cooled with
dedicated cooling circuits. If the leading edge and the
mid-body circuits are combined and coupled together, one
can refer to these arrangements as cold-bridge or warm-
bridge designs depending on the feed source. If the feed
coolant comes from the mid-body with freshly supplied
coolant, we have a cold-bridge cooling design; whereas, if
Fig. 1. Cooling effectiveness illustration for different modes of cooling
the feed comes from the mid-body with warmed coolant,
naturally after heat pick-up from the mid-body serpentine Source: See note 1.
arrangement, we have a warm-bridge cooling design. Since
the serpentine cooling circuits have large wet perimeters in
the turbine airfoil cross-section, it is possible to introduce trips on the airfoil internal wall to promote turbulence and enhance internal
coolant heat pick-up. Many trip congurations have been designed throughout the years of cooling technology development. These
include normal trips, skewed trips, and angled chevron trips with different orientations relative to the ow, different trip heights,
different height-to-pitch ratios, different relative positioning with respect to each other, either in a staggered or in-line arrangements.
These different arrangements lead to different heat transfer characteristics enhancing heat pick-up by the coolant owing in the serpentine
passages tailored to minimize the effects of local external heat loads.
Further cooling improvements are obtained by the introduction of peripherally cooled airfoil designs. This is done to maintain
the greatest thermal gradient within a thin outer layer of the airfoil wall. In addition, the coolant can be ejected at many points around
the surface of the airfoil. This concept leads to an increase of convective cooling efciency by means of peripheral cooling circuits.
This new parameter can also be regarded as a dimensionless temperature ratio of the difference between the exit coolant to inlet coolant
temperatures relative to the difference of metal to coolant inlet temperatures17:

(3)

If this ratio is non-existent, or zero, it is implied that exit coolant temperature and inlet temperature are the same, and thus, no heat
pick-up in the circuit. If the ratio is unity, then the exit coolant temperature and the metal temperature are the same. In this case, it is
said that the cooling circuit is 100% efcient convectively. In general, serpentine cooling may be in the order of 15-30% efcient.
However, dedicated airfoil peripheral cooling may be 30-60% efcient. This is about 2X the convective efciency values of typical
serpentine cooling. In addition to the improved convective characteristics, lm cooling can be used in many points of the airfoil. The
lm effectiveness is also a dimensionless parameter dened as 18:

(4)

The overall cooling effectiveness, being a function of both the convective and lm cooling effectiveness, can be optimized for
any cooling arrangement. If the lm exit shape is optimized to cover the airfoil as much as practical, one can obtain overall cooling
effectiveness in excess of 75% with lm coverage and convective efciency in excess of 50%. Simply stated, the peripheral airfoil
circuits will pick-up heat by convection in a very effective manner and then eject from lm openings with high coverage designs to
further reduce the thermal load to the part.
It should be noted that the thermal load can be reduced externally by the effect of thermal barrier coating. This is a ceramic
coating that is applied on top of the metallic bond coating. The net result is the ability to increase the inlet turbine temperature to values
in excess of 3100F (1700C) while maintaining interface bond-to-metal temperatures at 2050F (1121C) for desired life requirements
of oxidation, creep life, and thermal-mechanical fatigue cycles19. In the limit, combination of peripheral convective cooling and lm
may lead to airfoil transpiration cooling which would occur in micro-porous surface to form a continuous lm blanketing of the airfoil
surface as illustrated in gure 1.
391
4.4 Heat Transfer Analysis

Regarding the different cooling schemes, peripheral cooling and conventional serpentine cooling arrangements may include
several internal design features for augmenting internal heat transfer. These internal features may be small posts connected to both sides of
the coolant passage, as pedestals, or may project to only about half of the coolant passage, as pin-ns20. Fundamentally, both features act
in a similar manner, by turbulating coolant ow eld and by exposing more surface area to the coolant. These synergistic cooling effects
lead to higher internal heat transfer coefcients, which can be regarded as a measure of heat pick-up by the coolant. It should also be noted
that there are conduction paths integrated directly with the walls of the airfoil for further cooling. The disadvantage of such augmentation
devices is that they increase the coolant ow blockage, which in turn increases the coolant pressure drop. Since the coolant supply pressure
may be limited, attention must be given to these blockage effects so as to assure sufcient pressure at the lm openings and overcome
external gas pressure. The internal-to-external pressure ratio is usually referred to as the back-ow-margin with minimum values established
for the leading edge and mid-body of the airfoil. On the other hand, if the internal coolant pressure is much higher than the external
pressure at the lm exits, then the lm jets may actually penetrate through the external boundary layer setting out blow-off conditions.
Blowing the coolant out nearly normal to the airfoil surface with high velocity is likely to lift the coolant right off the blade and allow the
hot mainstream gas to move below the coolant jets making contact with the airfoil surface. This is an adverse lm effect that needs to be
prevented. To prevent blow-off conditions, the geometrical attributes of lm openings need to reduce the ejection velocity by introducing
cooling hole shapes, angles, tapering, or diffusion zones while maintaining a high degree of cooling hole lling21. Externally in the main
ow eld, a mismatch between the gas mainstream and the coolant jet velocities will give rise to mixing losses. In this way, lm ejection
may trip or further energize the external boundary layer; thus, increasing the external heat transfer coefcient or thermal load to the part.
Figure 2 and 3 illustrates typical airfoil cooling schemes. Typically, for the rst vane, the coolant is fed into the casing plenum
chamber, and from there into the leading edge impingement bafe. From the leading edge bafe, the coolant impinges on the leading edge
target surface and is ejected into the external gas-path through
several close-spaced rows of holes known generally as shower-
head holes. For this component, the highest temperature occurs
at the leading edge where the stagnation point is located22. The
balance of the coolant ow in this vane will pass through a
small gap between the bafe and the internal wall of the airfoil
leading to other lm holes or slots in the main body or trailing
edge. Note that internal cooling is done by convective and
impingement cooling. At the trailing edge pedestals may be
placed to enhance internal cooling, heat pick-up, and decrease the
metal temperature23. The rst blade shown in gure 3 is only an
example of a wide variety of serpentine cooling congurations.
Stators and rotor blades of downstream stages will often have
multi-pass cooling of the type shown in gure 2. The coolant ow
Fig. 2. Typical airfoil cooling schemes for a two-stage high
is led through a series of serpentine passages and makes several
pressure turbine illustrating different modes of cooling.
passes along the span before nally ejecting at the trailing edge.
The purpose of turbine cooling is solely justied Source: See Note 1.
by the need to have turbine components withstand adverse
environments while maintaining life targets. Ling and
durability of airfoils require a synthesis of mission cycle, range of
operating conditions and time spent at each condition, including
the number of transients between conditions. Overall cooling
effectiveness is a function of the design, which is reected by
two other relevant parameters: the convective efciency and
the lm effectiveness. The overall cooling effectiveness should
balance the external heat load to the part. In turn, all cooling
parameters need to be balanced with their effects of aerodynamic
and cycle performance. For blades, the mechanical load, due
to centrifugal effects, need to be determined in conjunction
with the blade bulk metal temperature distributions to evaluate
its creep capability. The next sections will describe turbine
airfoil requirements for the purposes of converting energy to
produce shaft power output, or specic core power in a manner
where the gure of merit associated with thrust specic fuel
consumption is optimized with the thrust-to-weight ratio in the
case of aircraft engine applications. In this context, external
Fig. 3. Typical airfoil cooling schemes for high-pressure
and internal heat transfer details are explicitly listed and
turbine blade.
discussed. A section on durability is presented to describe most
of the design problems and possible solutions. Conclusions are Source: See Note 30.
then derived based on current assessment methods for airfoil
cooling technology advancements.
392
Frank J. Cunha

4.4-2 Heat Transfer Requirements

The primary components of gas turbine engines used in aircraft operations comprise the inlet duct, fan, compressor(s),
combustors, turbine(s), and nozzle24. Many engines have two turbines: the high and the low-pressure turbine. The high-pressure turbine
is required to drive the high-pressure compressor. Together with the combustor, these high-pressure, high-temperature, and high rotating-
speed components make up the gas generator portion of the engine. The high-pressure turbine is the most challenging component of
the engine design. Most of the attention given in this section covers the turbine limits, and the cooling required to withstand extremely
hot, corrosive, and unsteady environments. The low-pressure turbine drives the fan and the low-pressure compressor. The low-pressure
turbine is subjected to much cooler gas temperatures. In power applications, another turbine may be added to drive a rotor, a generator,
a pump, or a gas compressor. In land-based gas turbine applications, the compressor work is extracted from the rst rotor stages, while
the other stages produce useful shaft work transformed into electrical power by the electrical generator connected in tandem.
In traditional power generating plants, there are three fundamental elements: (1) the heat source, (2) the heat utilizer,
and (3) the waste heat reservoir25. To produce useful work heat is supplied by a working uid from the heat source. The utilizer
is required to convert portion of the heat supplied by the working uid into useful power. Since not all heat can be converted to
useful power, a waste reservoir is required to dispose of the remainder of heat. These are the elements of a modern steam plant which
can be divided into two major sub-parts: One half consists of the boiler or nuclear reactor as the heat source with its auxiliaries;
and the other, the turbine cycle, consisting of turbine generator, condenser, pumps and feed-water heaters. The major components
in the turbine cycle are the heat utilizer and the refrigerator or water heat reservoir. In general steam comes from the boiler drum
or nuclear reactor, passes through the turbine, which produces mechanical power on the turbine shaft to drive a generator of
electrical energy for distribution. Thermodynamic performance is reected in the overall cycle efciency, often times designated
as the plant heat balance, which is a measure of thermal energy conversion to electrical generation output in BTU per KW-hr.
In land-based power-producing applications, recent improvements in cycle heat balance have being achieved by combining the
operations of steam and gas turbines together in the same plant26. In these combined cycle plants, the elevated exhaust gas temperature
is used in heat recovery steam-generator to create steam before expanding through a train of steam turbines. Intermediate pressure steam
is then used as cooling medium in the gas turbine topping cycle. This is done in a closed loop circuit with reheated steam from the gas
turbine being returned to the steam turbine cycle for further expansion. In this layout, all gas turbine stationary and rotating airfoils were
designed with steam cooling in a closed-loop system. The main reason for this closed cooling system is to avoid losses associated with
coolant ejection onto the main gas stream from airfoil locations. Combined power plants operate at thermodynamic cycle efciencies
as high as 60 percent or a heat balance as low as 5700 BTU/KW-hr. One such unit is the GE H-class machine operating at just under 60
percent at Baglan Bay power plant in Wales, UK27. This is remarkable, since current advanced nuclear generating plants operate at an
overall cycle efciency of 32.5 percent or at a heat balance of about 10,500 BTU/KW-hr.

4.4-3 Gas Heat Transfer

Regardless of the type of power plant cycle, it is common knowledge that a design of the turbine engine is very challenging, and
it requires a mix of technical disciplines: cycle analysis, aerodynamic, heat transfer, combustion, uid dynamics, and turbine mechanical
design and manufacturing. The basic cycle parameters dene the engine capability for all operating modes. The overall design is selected
in concert with performance and mechanical design constraints. For instance, in gas turbine design, the average heat transfer design
point parameters are dependent upon a set of performance parameters dened at different points in the gas turbine thermodynamic cycle,
such as inlet conditions, at cycle point no 2, engine core ow, at cycle point no. 2.5, compressor discharge conditions of temperature
and pressure, at cycle point no. 3; turbine inlet conditions of temperature and pressure, at cycle point no. 4; high pressure rotor inlet
conditions of temperature and pressure, at cycle point no. 4.1; low pressure inlet conditions of temperature and pressure, at cycle point
no. 4.5; and high and low rotor speeds for different ambient conditions.

4.4-4 Gas Temperature Transverse Quality

The gas turbine combustor exit gas temperatures are further rened with pattern and prole factors consistent with the burner
characteristics28. The combustion process that takes place in the burner requires that incoming air be separated into primary and secondary
streams for adequate combustion. The primary air is mixed with the fuel at nearly stoichiometric proportions at the center of the burner,
and the combustion produces extremely hot core gaseous products. Secondary air is injected from the sides of the combustion chamber
and separates the very hot gases from the structure. The secondary air dilutes and cools the products of combustion to acceptable
levels before leaving the burner. Because of the size limitations, the burner may not be sufciently large to give gases time to mix
homogeneously, and as a result, the turbine may experience gas temperature variations which give rise to pattern and prole factors29:

393
4.4 Heat Transfer Analysis

Pattern Factor = (5)

Prole Factor = (6)

For the rst vane, the peak temperature is obtained from pattern factor and this information is used for thermal-mechanical
design. It should be noted current combustor exit temperatures are in excess of 3000F (1650C) with expected growth towards 3800F
(2100C). As the ow passes through the turbine components, the temperature prole retains the same basic form of the high temperature
in the center region and lower temperature at the outside region, but it is also affected by the processes that take place during turbine
expansion, such as mixing, tip leakage, and development of secondary ows. Figure 4 illustrates the thermal load distribution for the
high-pressure turbine components30. The primary gas temperature of interest in blade design is the total temperature relative to the
blade31:

V2 W2
T gas, relative = Tgas +r .
2Jg c c p 2Jg c c p (7)

At the inlet to the rotor, the relative velocity W is smaller than the absolute velocity V, and the relative gas temperature should reect the
effect of Mach number through the recovery factor, 32
.

Fig. 4. Illustration of thermal load distribution for the high-pressure turbine components.

Source: See Note 30.

The effect of secondary ows on streamline migration and the effect of lm ow should be reected in the stage Mach number
distributions. In addition to these considerations, there are margins or adders that lead to increments imposed on the gas temperature
values. These are used to account for the following design tolerances: engine-to-engine variation, deterioration, overshoot, and production
scattered tolerance to sustain thrust guarantee33. It should be noted that lm, or external surface to gas, thermophysical properties required
to determine heat transfer coefcients, for instance, should be calculated using Eckerts reference temperature34. Other dimensionless
ratios used to characterize stage local conditions, such as relative-to-total temperatures and pressures can be assumed nearly constant for
operating conditions at idle and above in high-pressure turbine design35.

394
Frank J. Cunha

4.4-5 Airfoil Thermal Load

Externally to the turbine airfoil, gas static pressure and gas stream velocity distributions are used for determining the external
heat transfer coefcients. The external heat transfer depends on the development of the boundary layers on the airfoil. The external
boundary layer is subject to several factors, which make this calculation difcult. These factors include, pressure and temperature
gradients, turbulence level, surface curvature, surface roughness, laminar-to-turbulent transition, and ow unsteadiness. Separation
bubbles near the airfoil leading edge could also have a major inuence on the development of the boundary layer. These could be caused
by rapidly changing the curvature or during off-design conditions when incidence angles may be high. If, however, pressure gradient is
favorable and strong enough, a turbulent boundary may re-laminarize with subsequent reduction in the heat load. It should be noted that
the presence of lm cooling will invariably trip or energize the boundary layer. Standard relations for ow over at plate with suitable
modifying factors to account for these effects, can be used to calculate external heat transfer rate to the airfoil as follows36:

(8)
.

The empirical correlation factor is obtained by matching test data.

Despite their simplicity, the at plate correlations provide a good estimate of heat transfer. Figure 5(a) and 5(b) are examples
for the pressure and suction sides37. The Nusselt number calculated are based on measurements of static pressure, from which the
distribution of the Reynolds number is obtained. On the downstream region of the suction side, with fully turbulent ow, the heat transfer
coefcient is predicted well. On the pressure side, the turbulent at plate correlation predicts heat transfer well on downstream region
towards the trailing edge; but on the upstream region, the heat transfer prediction is low. In this upstream region the ow is very unsteady
causing very large heat transfer coefcients. Fortunately, heat transfer coefcients are predicted using boundary layer codes, such as
those of reference38, which account for curvature effects, transition and surface roughness on the airfoil external wall.

(a) (b)

Fig. 5. Flat plate correlations estimate of heat transfer on the pressure (a) and suction (b) sides of the high-pressure turbine airfoil in terms
of Nusselt numbers versus Reynolds numbers.

Source: See Note 37.

Besides, main-body airfoil thermal load calculations, airfoil tip and blade platform thermal loads need to be determined as
well. Tip heat transfer is difcult to determine due to the complexities associated with leakage ows over a relatively small gap between
rotating blades and stationary shrouds. However, references listed in note 39 can be consulted for determining the external heat transfer
coefcients of different tip congurations39. Similarly, platform heat transfer is also complex due to the secondary ow and leakage
effects associated with inter-segment gaps. In this regard, note 40 can be consulted for determining the external heat transfer coefcients
associated with these difcult situations40.

395
4.4 Heat Transfer Analysis

4.4-6 Leading Edge Thermal Load

At the leading edge, effects related to unsteadiness due to the row of upstream airfoils lead to high heat transfer coefcients and
empirical correction factors are usually applied as follows41:

(9)

where all variables are dened in the nomenclature with 0 < < 80.

Turbine airfoils are optimized for aerodynamic performance and heat load to improve airfoil life. The ideal heat transfer
objectives, during the conceptual airfoil design, include the following considerations: (1) blunt leading edges to minimize heat transfer
coefcients at the airfoil stagnation points, (2) minimize blade count to minimize cooling surface. (3) minimal pressure diffusion to
minimize separation and high external heat transfer coefcients, (4) increase mid-body airfoil thickness to reduce losses in internal
cooling serpentine cooling arrangements, (5) avoid low trailing edge wedge angles that lead to large distances from the trailing edge and
the pressure side coolant ejection (lm) bleeds. Some of these considerations may be in conict with aerodynamic objectives, and, in
general, a compromise is reached between cooling and aerodynamic design groups.

4.4-7 Coolant Heat Transfer


The overall cooling effectiveness, , as a dimensionless metal temperature is a function of the other cooling parameters, such
as the convective efciency, , and the lm effectiveness, , for a given heat load, , to the part . The relationship between these
cooling parameters can be expressed in a simple relationship, derived from one-dimensional heat transfer analysis as follows42:

(10)

If a metal temperature at a point in the airfoils is limited to a required value for a specied thermal load, ; then, the overall cooling
effectiveness, , as a measure of metal temperature, is set for the design, and the design process begins with a search of the required
internal convective efciency and lm effectiveness.

4.4-8 Film Cooling


Film cooling takes the cooling medium and discharges it in a carefully designed pattern of openings in the blade surface to
form a protective lm over the airfoil surface. This lm blanket reduces the external heat load to the airfoil by reducing the driving
temperature from the local gas temperature to the lm temperature, as shown in Figure 6. The lm cooling effectiveness is a function
of injection geometry on the airfoil including the hole diameter, dh , hole spacing, x n , effective slot height, ,
surface distance from the lm row, x, inclination of the lm hole axis to the surface in terms of in-plane and out-of-plane angles, blowing
parameter, , density ratio, the ratio of x/(Ms), and lm coverage, Cov43. Film coverage is a fraction of the length
along the row of lm holes which is covered by the footprint of the breakout of the holes and is usually given by the ratio of lm hole
breakout, b, to the lm hole pitch, p, or Cov=b/p. Film effectiveness can then be expressed analytically as:

(11)

where, the empirical constants, C1 and C2 , are determined by tting the test data for different lm cooling congurations. In general,
the exponent C2 is about the same order of magnitude for the pressure and suction sides of the airfoil. However, coefcient C1 is about
an order of magnitude different between the pressure and suction side of the airfoil with the pressure side lm decaying much faster on
the pressure side of the airfoil. It should be noted that when the empirical constants of equation (11) are matched with test data, most of
the density ratio for the data reported in the literature is about unity, and this data needs adjustment for typical engine environments.

396
Frank J. Cunha

Fig. 6. Film blanket reduces the external heat load to the airfoil by reducing the
driving temperature from the local gas temperature to the lm temperature.

The use of diffuser shaped holes for lm cooling


reduce the penalties associated with lm of blowing ratios,
M. Shaped holes also provide increased coverage, as
shown in gure 744. In the past, shaped holes were almost
eliminated in favor laser drilled round holes, but it is now
apparent that they should be used due to superior cooling
advantage over laser drilled holes. For a given coolant
ow, laterally averaged lm cooling effectiveness from
staggered double row of holes is usually higher than from
a single row of holes. However, for the same coolant ow,
the double row hole diameters may be expensive to make.
The injection of coolant from succeeding rows of lm holes
results in a cooler lm temperature than if only one row
of holes were blowing. Film temperatures superposition
produced by coolant injection from multiple rows of
Fig. 7. The use of diffuser shaped holes for lm cooling provide
lm holes can be evaluated by successive heat balance increased lm coverage in terms of lm effectiveness versus hole
stations. This procedure is repeated for blowing from all locations.
N successive rows of holes upstream of the heat balance
station as follows45:

(12)

Computer programs are developed to superimpose the lm cooling effectiveness distribution downstream from several rows
of lm holes having individual levels of coolant injection, temperature, and ow rate to provide the effective distribution of cumulative
lm cooling effectiveness; and, hence, lm temperature along the airfoil surfaces.

4.4-9 Trip Strips or Turbulence Promoters for Cooling Passages


If the lm effectiveness, , is known for a particular design, due to the number and arrangement of lm cooling holes; then
the only unknown in equation (10) is the convective efciency, . This convective efciency has a fundamental solution, which can
be given, in simple terms, by the relation:

(13)

In this expression, the convective efciency, , is related to the internal heat transfer coefcient, wetted surface area, and coolant ow
rate. Expression (13) allows for design features to be evaluated in terms of this performance parameter. That is, for a required convective
efciency, , limited by the required cooling effectiveness, ; then a required product of internal heat transfer coefcient with the
wetted surface area, hc A c can be evaluated as a fundamental requirement for the cooling design.
In a general, it is the goal of the design to obtain the largest hc A c product, for the least amount for coolant ow rate, m ,
possible. Insofar as the airfoil internal cooling features are concerned, there may be a large number of congurations that can be explored
in the design space as noted in the reference provided by Han, et al.46. These would include congurations with internal cooling features,
such as pedestals or turbulating trip strips just to mention just a few.
397
4.4 Heat Transfer Analysis
Patankar and Spalding observed that in the near the internal wall of the airfoil, the convection associated with the primary ow
direction can be neglected, the so-called Couette ow assumption47. However, for the specic case of predicting the boundary layer
behavior under the inuence of rotation, this assumption may not be applicable. The boundary layer equations for momentum and energy
can be written as:

(14)

(15)

The rst term of the right-hand-side of equation (14) represents the shear stress at the wall. The second term represents the crosswise
convective mass ux, where the velocity is taken as the mean velocity component normal to the wall, in the near wall region. This cross-
wise component exists due to rotational Coriolis inuences on the boundary layer. The third term represents the axial pressure gradient
on the boundary layer. The variable, y, is taken as the cross-stream coordinate away from the wall. All other symbols are provided in the
nomenclature.
The relations given by equations (14) and (15) are written in dimensionless form by using the traditional groups of
v , y , and p + dened in the nomenclature. When these groups are substituted into (14) and (15), the following new relationships are
+ +
obtained;

(16)

(17)

Using the diffusion laws, the effective (laminar and turbulent) shear stress and heat ux are written in dimensionless form as

(18)

and

(19)

where is the dynamic viscosity, is the effective viscosity, and is the effective Prandtl number.

Two ordinary differential equations describing momentum and energy transport in the boundary layer can be obtaining by
equations (16) and (17) with equation (18) and (19), respectively. If the mixing-length hypothesis is used for the viscosity ratio as , as
described by Crawford and Kays48, the resulting set of equations become

(20)

(21)

+
where the effective sub-layer A =26 was used proposed by White49. The boundary conditions are:
Equations (20) and (21) can be solved numerically for given Prandtl numbers to yield the desired proles for the velocity and temperature
near the wall. Typical results are succinctly summarized as the law of the wall correlations:

(22)

and
(23)

where, E and P can be regarded as constant factors for a smooth wall condition and given Prandtl numbers. These are used to calculate
the Stanton number at the wall, which is given by the relation:

398
Frank J. Cunha

(24)

Note that the Nusselt number is related to the Stanton number by the relation; Nu =(Re) (Pr) (St). Solutions (22) through (24) are
applied for smooth channels; however, these correlations have been modied to account for non-smooth roughened walls. Typical
representations of dimensionless velocity and temperatures have catalogued by Han for a series of congurations50. These relationships
can assume the form
(25)

and

(26)

The functions R and G are the momentum and thermal roughness functions determined experimentally. All other variables are described
in the nomenclature.
In blade cooling passages, repeated roughness elements in the form of regularly spaced ribs are used to increase heat transfer
rates. As a by-product of the desired increases in heat transfer rates, the pressure losses through the channel also increase. It is usually
necessary to determine the best combination of heat transfer rate increases with the lowest possible pressure losses. As an example,
several trip strips congurations in a cooling channel are shown in gure 8. These are described as follows:

(a) Parallel 90 degree ribs


(b) Parallel inclined ribs
(c) Parallel v-shaped (Chevron) ribs
(d) Criss-crossed inclined ribs

Fig. 8. Several trip strips congurations in cooling channels. Fig. 9. Illustrates the geometrical parameters for the trip-strip
congurations.

The pertinent parameters to consider include the dimensionless heat transfer coefcient, the Stanton Number, the friction factor, and
the thermal performance index. Figure 9 illustrates the geometrical parameters for the trip-strip congurations.
The ribbed channel pressure losses were originally modeled using the law of the wall similarity by Nikuradse for sand grain
roughness51. The correlating parameter became known as the roughness function, R, which, for rectangular channels, is dened as:

(27)

399
4.4 Heat Transfer Analysis

where: e is the rib height, f is friction factor, and d h is the channel hydraulic diameter. The friction factors and the roughness function
for the rib congurations (a)-(d) of gure 8 are given in Table I.

Table I. Friction factor and momentum roughness function for the congurations of Figure 8.

Friction factor Roughness function

Sources:
(a) See Note 52.
(b) Han, J.C., J.S. Park, and C.K. Lei, Heat transfer enhancements in channels with turbulance promoters, Trans. ASME J.
Eng. Gas Turbine and Power, Vol. 107, 628-635,1985.
(c) Han, J.C., Y.M. Zhang and V.P. Lee, The inuence of surface heat ux ratio on heat transfer augmentation in square
channels with parallel, crossed and V-shaped angled ribs, ASME Paper 91-GT-3, 1991.
(d) Lau, S.C., R.T. Kukreja and R.D. McMillin, Effects of V-shaped rib arrays on turbulent heat transfer and friction of
fully developed ow in square channel, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 34, 7, 1605-1616, 1991.
400
Frank J. Cunha
Using the Reynolds analogy between momentum and heat transfer, Dipprey and Sabersky developed a thermal analog to the
roughness function to correlate heat transfer data in sand roughened channels52. Webb et al., extended the analysis to rib roughened
channels53. The thermal roughness function was given by:
f
1
G = R + 2St
f
2 (28)
The corresponding heat transfer correlations for geometries (a) (d) of gure 8 are given in Table II.

Table II. Stanton Number and thermal roughness function for the congurations of Figure 8

Sources:
(a) See Note 52.
(b) Han, J.C., J.S. Park, and C.K. Lei, Heat transfer enhancements in channels with turbulance promoters, Trans. ASME J.
Eng. Gas Turbine and Power, Vol. 107, 628-635,1985.
(c) Han, J.C., Y.M. Zhang and V.P. Lee, The inuence of surface heat ux ratio on heat transfer augmentation in square
channels with parallel, crossed and V-shaped angled ribs, ASME Paper 91-GT-3, 1991.
(d) Lau, S.C., R.T. Kukreja and R.D. McMillin, Effects of V-shaped rib arrays on turbulent heat transfer and friction of
fully developed ow in square channel, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 34, 7, 1605-1616, 1991.
The motivation for placing the ribs in a channel is to increase the rate of heat transfer from the channel walls to the bulk uid.
This is accomplished by two distinct mechanisms. First, the placement of ribs act as turbulators to break-up the near wall ow increasing
the turbulence level and enhancing the exchange of uid in the near wall region with the core ow by action turbulent diffusion. While
this increases the heat transfer, it also increases the wall friction resulting in higher pressure losses. A second heat transfer mechanism
is active if the ribs are inclined to the core ow direction. In this case, the ribs induce secondary ows in the core ow, which can
circulate uid from the middle of the channel towards the walls thus increasing the heat transfer along these walls. The secondary ows
have a smaller effect on the pressure losses, thus they are more benecial of increasing the thermal performance of the cooling channel.
The ow in a ribbed channel can be divided conceptually in a main core ow and near wall ow. The ow structures that
have been observed in the vicinity of the ribbed wall are shown in Figure 1054. This structure varies primarily upon the geometrical
401 ratio of p/e. As an example, when p/e>7, three different separated ows regions are observed: (1) In front of the rib, a separated
4.4 Heat Transfer Analysis

recirculation zone exists; (2) on top of each rib a separation bubble


forms due to upstream facing step; (3) following the back side of
the rib, a separated recirculation region exists which can extend up
to 7 rib heights downstream before the ow reattaches. From this
point the boundary layer re-develops until the next separated region
is encountered upstream of the rib. When p/e<7, the two separated
regions which lie between the pair of ribs combine. On top of each
rib a separation bubble exists. When p/e=7, the boundary layer
between the separation zones and preceding the up and downstream
ribs does not have a chance to develop. Separation occurs on the top
of each rib. When p/e=10, the separation bubble at the top of the
rib may not re-attach on the top surface of the rib but it may extend
past the back of the rib and combine with the separation region
following the rib. The re-attachment occurs between ribs. This is
believed to be the optimum conguration. However, the effects of
the Reynolds number may determine the validity of these results.
The core ows develops rapidly in a ribbed channel
compared to a smooth one. Friction factors become constant after
the 3rd rib or 4 diameters downstream. The Nusselt number shows
similar behavior. The presence of the ribs increase turbulence and
induce secondary ows that tend to move uid from the main core
towards certain walls and away from the others. Similar core uid
ow and heat transfer enhancements are found in rotating channels
caused by Coriolis as illustrated in gure 11. This is particularly true
for channels with aspect ratio of unity. Sources listed in note 55 can Fig. 10. Observed ow structures in the vicinity of the ribbed wall.
be consulted for determining the effects of rotation on internal heat
Source: See Note 53.
transfer coefcients where rotational and buoyancy numbers are the
fundamental dimensionless parameters55. The thermal performance
can be dened by the parameter of St/f 1/3 as given by Webb and
Eckert56. It relates the heat transfer to friction factors or pressure loss
in the channel.

4.4-10 Impingement Cooling for Cross-


Over Holes and Inserts

The impingement congurations have been used extensively


in the gas turbine industry. In general, there are two locations in airfoil
design where impingement cooled has been used. The rst location
is used for leading edge cooling. Dedicated cooling air is allowed
to pass through rib cross-over openings leading to jet impingement
on the inner wall of the airfoil leading edge57. After impingement
cooling the air ow passes through a series of lm holes forming
a shower-head arrangement through the airfoil the leading edge.
Internal jet impingement, convective cooling through the lm holes,
and lm cooling become very effective means to cool this section of
the airfoil with very high heat loads. The other location is for trailing
edge cooling. In this case, the cooling air is allowed to pass through
a series of rib cross-over openings58. Jet impingement occurs after
each cross-over hole. The air impinges on each subsequent ribs and
surrounding walls before discharging at the trailing edge exit slots.
Many references can be consulted for obtaining impingement heat
transfer coefcients for these two congurations59.
For high-pressure vanes, inserts or bafes can be used
to cool the airfoil with impingement cooling. There are several Fig. 11. Core uid ow and heat transfer enhancements are
references that can be consulted in this regard60. Each impingement found in rotating channels caused by the rotating vortices inside
correlation for this type cooling will be dependent on the cross ow the cooling passages.
degradation from upstream impingement jets. A useful correlation
has been provided by Floerschuetz et al as follows61: Source: See Note 30.
402
Frank J. Cunha

(29)

where

C nx ny nz

A 1.180 -0.944 -0.642 0.169


M 0.612 0.059 0.032 -0.022
B 0.437 -0.095 -0.219 0.275
N 0.092 -0.005 0.599 1.040

The different variables are described in the nomenclature. The validity of correlation is the dened by the following parameter range:

It should be noted that for the calculation of the Reynolds number in correlation (29) needs to be determined for the ow passing
through the insert impingement holes. Flow through these openings is a result of pressure differences which can be obtained from an
overall ow network analysis.

4.4-11 Pin-Fin or Pedestals for Trailing Edge Cooling


In trailing edge designs, typically two rows of cross-over holes
are used for cooling. The ow acceleration is high through these cross-over
impingement openings. The coolant ow Mach number proles follows
that of the coolant static pressure prole in that it assumes almost step-
wise proles as the cooling ow crosses through these openings. The
step-wise proles are undesirable as they lead to relative high peaks in
internal heat transfer coefcients at the walls of the blade as illustrated
in gure 12. In other words, there are regions in the airfoil trailing edge
walls, which attain relative lower metal temperatures due to high internal
heat transfer coefcients. Meanwhile, other areas attain relatively higher
metal temperatures due to lower internal heat transfer coefcients. These
metal temperature differences can lead to high thermal strains, which in
conjunction with transient thermal response during take-off or power
loading can, in turn, lead to undesirable thermal-mechanical fatigue damage.
It is, therefore, desirable to use a trailing edge cooling design,
which improves the internal proles for Mach number, static pressure drop,
and internal heat transfer coefcient distributions along the airfoil trailing
edge. In that regard, internal features, such as pedestals provide design
advantages. Optimum designs may include internal pedestals with many
different cross-sectional areas, such as: circular, oval, racetrack, square, Fig. 12. Localized heat transfer enhancement on
rectangular, diamond cross-sections, just to mention only a few. In the different segments in trailing edge cavities.
illustrative example that follows, attention is given to the most simplest
form of an internal cooling feature: such as round pedestals. Source: See Note 58.

403
4.4 Heat Transfer Analysis

The relevant cooling characteristics of round pedestals could easily be extended to other cross-sectional area pedestals for
specic applications. In this context, for a staggered array of round pedestals the internal unobstructed trailing edge channel area will
have a cross-sectional area, A=WH, where W is the width and H is the channel height. The corresponding perimeter becomes Per =
2 (W+H) , and the hydraulic diameter is given by d H = 4A/Per . The surface area becomes A duct = 2WL , where L is the length of
the channel. The surface of the plate not being covered by the pedestals becomes , where
N L and N T are the number of pedestals in the longitudinal and transverse directions of the trailing edge channel. It should be noted that
the number of pedestals can be given by N T = W/S n and N L = L/S p , where S n and S p are the transverse and longitudinal pitches,
respectively. With these geometrical parameters, the Reynolds number, associated with the pin diameter, is calculated as follows:
, where Vmax = V(A/A min ) with . In this case, the coolant velocity, V , is the free
stream inlet velocity. With the knowledge of the pin Reynolds number, the following relationships for the Nusselt number from table III
can be obtained, following Zukauskas62.

Table III. Pedestal Nusselt numbers [17].

For the area not affected by the pedestals, the plate Nusselt number is given by 63
.The pin n efciency is
obtained from the relationship Ishida et al [65]:

(30)

where all variables are described in the nomenclature.


The overall internal heat transfer with pedestals is then based on the following two contributions: (1) the plate contribution, and (2) the
pin contribution as follows:

(31)

The corresponding heat transfer multiplier, HM, normalized by the Dittus-Boelter correlation64, , is then given
by

(32)

The pressure drop calculations through a bank of pedestals is given by Ishida et al. and are presented here for completeness as follows
65
.

(33)

404
Frank J. Cunha

The corresponding friction multiplier, FM , normalized with Blasius resistance formula, , becomes

(34)

Relationships provided by equations (32) and (34) can be used to design a trailing edge cooling channel with round pin-ns. These were
provided here to represent a design procedure; however, many other empirical correlations can be obtained for other type of internal
features as described by Han et al.66. The overall procedure for obtaining heat transfer and friction multipliers would follow the steps
outlined here. In many instances, plots of FM/HM versus ReH are used to compare the performance of different congurations. One
such plot is shown in gure 13, based on mass-transfer augmentation, from Chyu67. By mass-transfer to heat transfer analogy, the results
of this plot are directly related to heat transfer assessment. Figure 13 allows for comparison and determination of which conguration
would provide the best heat transfer for the least pressure drop. Plots similar to that of gure 13 are usually called performance index
plots and become useful early in the design process.

(a) (b)
Fig. 13. Pedestal trailing edge conguration and test results; (a) transparent view of blade showing pedestal bank
at trailing edge (b) effect of Reynolds number on performance index (HM/FM) in straight pins with llets.

Source: See Note 20.

4.4-12 Bulk Temperatures for Cooling Passages


To estimate airfoil cavity cooling ow, one needs to consider the inlet coolant ow rate, at the root of the blade passage, denoted
here as mRoot, as well as the cooling ow rate at the several lm holes, denoted as mlm, and ow variation through the cavity. The linear
function of cooling ow rate distribution from the root as ow exits the airfoil cavity leads to the following ow relationship68:

(35)

with LH as the blade span radial height to the lm hole location. The temperature of the coolant inside the cavity is obtained by
considering an innitesimal small control volume, dr, in the supply cavity. This consideration leads to the following energy balance69:
405
4.4 Heat Transfer Analysis

(36)

(37)

where Q denotes the total heat transfer onto the corresponding section of radial span, LH. The coolant ow rate is then introduced in
equation (36). The resulting expression is integrated from root to a radial section of the airfoil. This yields an expression for the coolant
temperature increase in terms of heat transfer, and rotational pumping, as a function coolant ow rate. The result is:

4.4-13 Thermal-Mechanical Aspects of Durability

Once the internal and external heat transfer


loads have been assessed, the gas and coolant
temperatures, together with the internal and external
heat transfer coefcients, will form a set of boundary
conditions for a heat conduction analysis to predict
the metal temperatures and stresses in the airfoil.
Usually, this analysis begins with the modeling of a
3D section of the blade as a solid model and then
proceeds by using a nite element code, such as
ANSYS70, for completing the thermal-stress analysis.
An example is provided here for illustrative purposes.
It was taken from the NASA report71 for the E3 HPT
blade. The blade solid model and the corresponding
nite element ANSYS model are shown in gure
14. As can be seen from the transparent solid model
of gure 14, this blade is cooled by convection
with cavity wall trip strips, not shown, and with a
set of pedestals in the trailing edge. While external
surfaces are locally lm cooled from the leading
edge with three rows of showerhead holes, there
are no lm cooling holes on either the pressure or
suction surfaces of the airfoil. The trailing edge has a
centerline cooling ow ejection. 3
Fig. 14. NASA E blade solid model and the corresponding nite element
The NASA E HPT blade is used as a vehicle
3
ANSYS model.
to demonstrate the thermal-mechanical analysis for a
typical uncoated anisotropic turbine component. The Source: See Note 23.
3D model of gure 14, using ANSYS, is composed
of 21567 elements, 13494 of which are 3D-10
node tetrahedral structural solid elements in the
trailing edge, while 8073 are 3D-20 node structural
solid elements in the rest of the airfoil. This hybrid
nite element model was selected to improve the
meshing of the pedestals in the trailing edge region
of the airfoil. This modeling technique is common in
durability assessment of turbine airfoils.
The thermal boundary conditions set-up for
a blade model is a very laborious process. On the
external side, computational uid dynamic codes
can be used to set-up external pressure and Mach number distributions for free-stream conditions with specied turbulence intensity
levels. Boundary layer programs are used to establish the external heat transfer coefcients based on expected wall roughness. Gas
recovery temperatures and lm cooling effectiveness, usually obtained from previous testing, are used to determine the adiabatic wall
(lm) temperatures. In the end, external heat transfer coefcients and lm temperatures are specied as external boundary conditions
for the model. Inside the airfoil, ow network models are used to determine internal pressure drops and Mach number distributions.
406
Frank J. Cunha

Heat transfer correlations, based on previous testing, can be used


to determine the internal heat transfer characteristics of the blade
cooling system under the effects of rotation. Thus, the network
ow analysis provides the means to determine internal heat
transfer coefcients and coolant temperatures as internal boundary
conditions for the model. The thermal results are shown in gure
15, which illustrates a region on the suction side with high metal
temperatures corresponding to high thermal loads due to ow
acceleration.
In this example selected for illustrative purposes, the
mechanical boundary conditions for the model are such that the
bottom plane must remain xed in the direction of the blade
stacking axis or the z-direction. One node near the middle of an
aft internal rib remains xed in space for all three directions, and
one other node near the leading edge is xed in the y-direction. The
top plane nodes are constrained to remain coupled and planar. The
primary crystal coordinate system has the z-axis coincident with
pull direction of the centrifugal force experienced by the blade at 3
rated design speed. In order to simulate this, a uniformly distributed Fig. 15. NASA E blade thermal results.
load is applied normally to the top face of the blade section. The
Source: See Note 23.
planar boundary condition applied this way is a rst approximation
to boundary conditions that may be experienced by the blade
section. The assumption is that there is sufcient constraint of the
surrounding blade material to counteract bending moments seen
as a result of temperature gradients and non-uniform deformation
rates72. The blade deformation will largely be controlled by the
conditions at the ends of the blade. At the root, the blade will
experience a relatively lower and more uniform temperature. Thus,
if the root of the blade experiences a more uniform temperature,
any other cross-section will be forced to deform at a uniform rate73.
Therefore, to a rst approximation, the constraint of planar sections
has been applied in the blade model. The results of this structural
analysis are shown in gure 16 in terms of von Mises total strains.
It should be noted that the analysis provided here could be applied
to a more complex blade model as well. The strain results can be
used for fatigue assessments. In general, strain range versus cycles
to crack initiation are available for the material under consideration
leading to assessment of the airfoil fatigue life.
The allowable stress in the blade depends on its temperature 3
and the target life. The link between these considerations is the Fig. 16. NASA E blade thermal strain results.
behavior of the blade material in creep. Although the maximum
stress occurs at the root, this airfoil section may not be the most Source: See Note 23.
critical area for creep life. This is because even though the stress
may largest at the root, the metal temperature is the lowest. The critical section is then where combination of stress and temperature will
make the blade reach the creep limit rst. References listed in note 73 present approaches to take the combination of metal temperature
and stress in assessing the creep life74. For aircraft propulsion engine mission cycles are characterized by takeoff, climb, cruise; whereas
for power-generation engine the mission cycle is simpler with long periods of running at constant conditions between starts and stops.
At each segment of the mission cycle, the engine will run at different speed and temperature conditions, so that the overall life needs to
be considered as the cumulative effect of the life expended in each mission segment. For each set of conditions, a thermal and structural
analysis needs to be made, and the results, together with material data, will be used to estimate the creep life of the component.
When the turbine airfoil is subjected to repeated loads, the airfoil may incur fatigue damage75. Whereas creep occurs through
initially elastic and plastic bulk deformation of the material, fatigue starts at localized plastic points due to defects, inclusions, corrosion
and oxidation damage. As soon as cracks exist in the component, the stress is transferred to the remaining material through load
shakedown. Eventually, if cracks reach critical size sound material will not be sufcient to support the load leading to failure. As a result,
crack initiation, and not propagation, is the preferred way to design for fatigue. In general the total strain, similar to the strain distribution
of gure15, can be used with material data to determine the number cycles that the component can withstand. This leads to the concept
of damage, D, which is dened as the mission actual cycles relative to the material cyclic capability under the same operating conditions.
The overall damage is the accumulated sum of the damage from all ight segments or types. The same denition can be applied for creep
damage; but instead of cycles, actual hot time becomes the variable. In the end, the total damage of participating modes should be less
407 than unity as described by the following damage summation equation:
4.4 Heat Transfer Analysis

Overall Creep
Mission Fatigue Load
Cycle Cycles Cycles

{
k =1 i =1
D Fatigue + i =1
D Creep } = 1 (38) (38)

There are other relevant modes of damage, such as high cycle fatigue, corrosion, and oxidation; but discussion of these topics
would be beyond this subject matter. Sufce to say that metal temperature, steady and unsteady stresses for the turbine component are
extremely relevant for all damage modes. As a result, one should strive for obtaining representative and accurate turbine component heat
transfer analysis and preparation for component life analysis.

4.4-14 Conclusions
Aircraft propulsion engines, land-based power generation, and industrial machines have, as a primary component, the turbine as
means to produce thrust or generate power. In the turbine section of the engine, airfoil components are subjected to extremely complex
and damaging environments. The combination of high gas temperatures and pressures, strong gradients, abrupt geometry changes,
viscous forces, rotational forces, and unsteady turbine vane/blade interactions, all combine to offer a formidable challenge in terms
of turbine durability. Nevertheless, the ultimate goal is to maintain or even improve the highest level of turbine performance and
simultaneously reduce the amount of ow needed to achieve this end. Coolant ow is a penalty to the cycle and thermal efciency,
and requires management by characterizing of the turbine airfoil thermal loads and the requirements for lm cooling. Despite being a
difcult situation to assess, relatively simple correlations can be used to determine the airfoil overall cooling effectiveness in terms of
thermal heat load, convective efciency and lm effectiveness. In this context, existing design approaches were presented to characterize
airfoil thermal loads and existing airfoil cooling schemes. Emphasis was given to the general characteristics of turbine cooling including
lm cooling, impingement cooling, and convective cooling for different parts of the airfoil such as leading edge, mid-body, trailing
edge, tip and endwalls. Convective cooling is presented in terms of fundamental cooling enhancements. The heat transfer phenomena
associated with turbulating trip strips and pedestals were presented and discussed in some detail. In the end, internal and external heat
transfer conditions are used to determine the durability of the airfoils in terms of oxidation, creep life and fatigue cycles. Recent literature
dealing with these topics is listed to provide more in-depth overview of the subject matter.

4.4-15 Notes

________________________

1. J. Moustapha, M.F. Zelesky, N. Baines, and D. Japikse, Axial and Radial Turbines, Concepts NREC, 2003
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. D.P. DeLuca and C.G. Annis Jr, Fatigue in Single Crystal Nickel Superalloys, Ofce of Naval research (ONR)
FR-23800, Aug. 1995; N.J. Arakere, High-Temperature Properties of Single Crystal Superalloys in Air and Hydrogen,
ASME IGTI 2001-GT-0585, New Orleans, June 2001; R.A. Naik, D.P. DeLuca, and D.M Shah, Critical Plane Fatigue
Modeling and Characterization of Single Crystal Nickel Superalloys, ASME IGTI 2001-GT-30300, Trans. ASME
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, 2004; D.W. Maclachlan and D.M. Knowles, The Effect of Material
on the Analysis of Single Crystal Turbine Blades: Part I Material Model, Fatigue and Fracture Engineering Material
Science 25 (2002): 385-398;D.W. Maclachlan and D.M. Knowles, The Effect of Material on the Analysis of Single
Crystal Turbine Blades: Part II Component Analysis, Fatigue and Fracture Engineering Material Science
25 (2002): 385-398.
5. V. Seetharaman, Thickness Debit Properties of PW1484, Pratt and Whitney Materials and Processes Engineering,
Interim Report, Nov. 2002.
6. C.T. Sims, N.S. Stoloff, and W.C. Hagel, Superalloys II, (John Wiley & Sons, 1980).
7. T.L. Dame, Anisotropic Constitute Model for Nickel Base Single Crystal Alloys: Development and Finite Element
Implementation, PhD Thesis, University of Cincinnati, 1985.
8. F.R.N. Nabarro and H.L. deVillers, The Physics of Creep, (Taylor and Francis, 1995).
9. F.J. Cunha, M.T. Dahmer, and M.K. Chyu, Thermal-Mechanical Life Prediction System for Anisotropic Turbine
Components, ASME GT2005-68108, Reno, NV, 2005, Trans. ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, 2006.
10. See note 5 above.
11. J.E. Heine, J.R. Warren, and B.A. Cowles, Thermal Mechanical Fatigue of Coated Blade Materials, Wright-Patterson
Final Report ERDC-TR-89-4027, Sept. 1988.
12. See note 1 above.
13. L. Torbidoni and J.H. Horlock, A New Method to Calculate the Coolant Requirements of a High Temperature Gas
Turbine Blade, ASME Paper GT2004-53729, Vienna, Austria, 2004.
14. Ibid. 408
Frank J. Cunha

15. See note 1.


16. H. Schlichting, Boundary-Layer Theory, (McGraw-Hill, 7th Edition, 1979).
17. See note 13.
18. Goldstein, R.J., Film Cooling, Advances in Heat Transfer, Vol. 7, pp. 357-358.
19. See note 1.
20. M.K. Chyu, Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop for Short Pin-Fin Arrays with Pin-Endwall Fillet. Trans. ASME Journal
of Heat Transfer 112 (1990): 926-932; A.A. Zukauskas, Heat Transfer from Tubes in Cross Flow, Advances in Heat
Transfer 8 (1972): 116-133.
21. R.J. Goldstein, E.R.G Eckert, and F. Burggraf, Effects of Hole Geometry and Density on Three-Dimensional Film
Cooling, Trans. ASME J. Heat Transfer, 1974.
22. J.E. Albert, D.G. Bogard, and F. Cunha, Adiabatic and Overall Effectiveness for a Film Cooled Blade, IGTI-ASME
GT2004-53998, Vienna, Austria, 2004.
23. F.J. Cunha, M. Dahmer, and M.K. Chyu, Analysis of Airfoil Trailing Edge Heat Transfer and Its Signicance in
Thermal Mechanical Design and Durability, ASME GT2005-68107, Trans. ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, 2006.
24. See note 1.
25. J.K. Salisbury, Steam Turbines and Their Cycles (Malabar, FL: R.E. Krieger Publishing Co., 1950).
26. F.J. Cunha, Integrated Steam/Gas Cooling System for Gas Turbines, US Patent No. 5,340,274, 1994; A. Jacala, R.M.
Davis, M.A. Sullivan, R.P. Chyu, and F. Staub, Closed Circuit Steam Cooled Bucket, US Patent No. 5,536,143,
1996; F.J. Cunha, D.A. DeAngelis, T.A. Brown, S. Chopra, V.H.S. Correia, and D.R. Predmore, Turbine Stator Vane
Segments Having Combined Air and Steam Cooling Circuits, US Patent No. 5,634,766, 1996.
27. L. Langston, A Year of Turbulence, Power and Energy, ASME Magazine, June, 2004.
28. A.H. Lefebre, Gas Turbine Combustion, Taylor and Francis, 2nd Ed., 1999.
29. Ibid.
30. J.C. Han, Turbine Blade Cooling Studies at Texas A&M University ~ 1980-2004, The 2004 AIAA Thermophysics
Award Lecture, 2005.
31. See note 16.
32. Ibid.
33. See note 1.
34. See note 16.
35. See note 1.
36. W.M. Kays and M.E. Crawford, Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 1980, 2nd Ed.
37. F.O. Soechting and O.P. Sharma, Design Code Verication of External Heat Transfer Coefcients, Paper No.
AIAA-88-3011, 1988.
38. W.M. Kays and M.E. Crawford, STAN5 - A Program for Numerical Computation of Two-Dimensional Internal and
External Flows, NASA CR-27-42, 1976.
39. R.L. McKnight, J.H. Laen, and Spamer, Turbine Blade Tip Durability Analysis, NASA CR-165268, Feb. 1981; J.
Christophel, K.A. Thole, and F.J. Cunha, Measured Adiabatic Effectiveness and Heat Transfer for Blowing from Tip of
a Turbine Blade, Trans. ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 127, (2005): 251-262; J. Christophel, K.A. Thole, and F.J.
Cunha, Cooling the Tip of a Turbine Blade Using Pressure Side Holes Part I. Adiabatic Effectiveness Measurements,
Trans. ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 127 (2005): 270-277; J. Christophel, K.A. Thole, and F.J. Cunha, Cooling the
Tip of a Turbine Blade Using Pressure Side Holes Part II: Heat Transfer Measurements, Trans. ASME Journal of
Turbomachinery 127 (2005): 278-286; E. Couch, J. Christophel, E. Hohlfeld, K.A. Thole, and F.J. Cunha,
Comparison of Measurements and Predictions for Blowing from Tip of a Turbine Blade, AIAA J. of Propulsion and
Power 21 (2005): 335-343.
40. M.F. Blair, An experimental Study of Heat Transfer and Film Cooling on Large-Scale Turbine Endwall, Trans. ASME
J of Heat Transfer 96 (1974): 524-529; R.A. Graziani, M.F. Blair, J.R. Taylor, and R.E. Mayle, An Experimental Study
of Endwall and Airfoil Surface Heat Transfer in a Large Scale Turbine Blade Cascade, Trans. ASME J. Eng. Gas
Turbine Power 102 (1980): 257-267; O.P. Sharma and T.C. Buttler, Reynolds Stresses and Dissipation Mechanisms
Downstream of a Turbine Cascade, Trans. J of Turbomachinery 109 (1987): 229-236; R.J. Goldstein and R.A. Spores,
Turbulent Transport on the Endwall in the Region Between Adjacent Turbine Blades, Trans. J of Turbomachinery 110
(1988): 862-869; J.T. Chung and T.W. Simon, Effectiveness of the Gas Turbine Endwall Fences in Secondary Flow
Control at Elevated Freestream Turbulence Levels, ASME Paper 93-GT-51, 1993; Y. Yu and M.K. Chyu, Inuence of
Gap Leakage Downstream of the Injection Holes on Film Cooling Performance, Trans. J of Turbomachinery 120 (1998):
541-548; W.W. Ranson, K.A. Thole, and F.J. Cunha, Adiabatic Effectiveness Measurements and Predictions of Leakage
Flows Along a Blade Endwall, AIAA J. of Propulsion, Nov. 2005.
41. F. Kreith, Principles of Heat Transfer , IEP- A Dun-Donneley Pub., 1976, 3rd Ed.
42. See note 13.
43. See note 18.
44. See note 21.
45. See note 18.
409
4.4 Heat Transfer Analysis

46. J.C. Han, S. Dutta, and S. Ekkad, Gas Turbine Heat Transfer and Cooling Technology, Taylor and Francis, 1st Ed., Ch. 1,
2000.
47. Patankar, S.V., and Spalding, D.B., Heat and Mass Transfer in Boundary Layers, CRC Press, Cleveland, 1968.
48. See note 36.
49. F.M. White, Viscous Fluid Flow, McGraw-Hill, 2nd Ed, 1991.
50. See note 41.
51. J. Nikuradse, (1933) Laws of ow in rough pipes, VDI Forsch.. 361(1933) English Translation. NACA TM-1292
(1965).
52. J.C. Han, Heat transfer and friction in channels with two opposite rib-roughnened walls, Trans. ASME Journal of Heat
Transfer 106 (1984): 774-781.
53. R.L. Webb, E.R.G. Eckert, and R.J. Goldstein, Heat transfer and friction in tubes with repeated-rib roughness,
Int. J. Mass Transfer 14 (1971): 601-617; R.L. Webb and E.R.G. Eckert, Application of rough surfaces to heat exchanger
design, Int. J. Mass Transfer 15 (1972): 1647-1658.
54. Ibid.
55. F.J. Cunha, Numerical Prediction of Heat Transfer in Internal Cooling Passages of Gas Turbine Blades, IGTI- ASME
Cogen Turbo Power 8 (1993): 307-316; F.J. Cunha, A Calculation procedure to Analyze Three Dimensional Parabolic
Flow Problems of Heat Transfer with Rotation, ASME HTD 300 (1994): 123-137; D.G.N. Tse and Steuber, Flow in a
Rotating Square Serpentine Coolant Passage with Skewed Trips, ASME Paper 97-GT-529, 1997; J.H. Wagner. B.V.
Johnson, R.A. Graziani, and F.C. Yeh, Heat Transfer in Rotating Serpentine Passages with Trips Normal to the Flow,
ASME Paper 91-GT-265, Transactions ASME, 1992.
56. See note 53.
57. U. Uysal, P. Li, M.K. Chyu, and F.J. Cunha, Heat Transfer on Internal Surfaces of a Duct Subjected to
Impingement of a Jet Array with Varying Jet Hole-Size and Spacing, ASME GT2005-68944, Trans. ASME Journal of
Turbomachinery, 2006; R. Gardon and J. Cohonpue, Heat Transfer Between a Flat Plate and Jet Air Impinging on It,
ASME/AICHE International Heat Transfer Conference Proceedings, 1962; H. Martin, Heat and Mass Transfer Between
Impingement Gas Jets and Solid Surfaces, Advances in Heat Transfer 13, 1977.
58. M.K. Chyu, U. Uysal, and P-W Li, Convective Heat Transfer in a Triple-Cavity Structure Near Turbine Blade Trailing
Edge, Proceedings of IMECE02, International Mechanical Engineers Congress, New Orleans, Nov. 17-22, 2002.
59. See note 46.
60. D.M. Kercher and W. Tabakoff, Heat Transfer by Square Air Jets Impinging Perpendicular to a Flat Surface Including
the Effect of Spent Air, ASME Paper 69-GT-4, Trans. ASME Journal of Engineering for Power, 1970; L.M. Florschuetz,
C.R. Truman, and D.E. Metzger, Streamwise Flow and Heat Transfer Distributions for Jet Array Impingement with
Crossow, Trans. ASME Journal Heat Transfer, March, 1981.
61. Ibid (Florschuetz).
62. See note 20 (Zukauskas).
63. See note 20 (Chyu).
64. F.W. Dittus and L.M.K. Boelter, University of California at Berkely Publications in Engineering 2 (1930): 443.
65. K. Ishida and K. Hamabe, Effect of Pin-Fin Aspect Ratio and Arrangement on Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop of Pin
Fin Duct for Airfoil Internal Cooling Passage, ASME Paper 85-WA/HT-62, 1985.
66. See note 46.
67. See note 20 (Chyu).
68. See note 23.
69. Ibid.
70. ANSYS Users Manual, Swanson Analysis Systems, Inc., Volumes I,II,III,IV, Revision 5.0.
71. R.D. Thulin and D.C. Howe, Energy Efcient Engine High-Pressure Turbine Design Report, NASA CR-165608,
PWA-5594-171, March 1982.
72. See note 4 (Maclachlan, 2002).
73. Ibid.
74. F.R. Larson and J. Miller, A Time-Temperature Relationship for Rupture and Creep Stress, Transactions of the ASME
(1952): 765-775; F. Garafalo, Fundamentals of Creep and Creep-Rupture in Metals, The Macmellan Co.,1965; D.C.
Stouffer and L.T. Dame, Inelastic Deformation of Metals Models, Mechanical Properties and Metallurgy, John Wiley &
Sons, 1st Ed.,1996.
75. D. Burgreen, Structural Growth Induced by Thermal Cycling, Journal of Basic Engineering, ASME 68-WA/Met-14,
1968; F.O. Soechting, Turbine Low Cycle Fatigue Design Program, Wright-Patterson Final Report AFWAL-TR-86-
2124, 1985; also see note 21.

410
BIOGRAPHY 4.4 Heat Transfer Analysis

Frank J. Cunha, Ph.D., P.E.

Pratt & Whitney


United Technologies Corporation
5 Bruce Lane
Avon, CT 06001

phone: (860) 565-8909


email: frank.cunha@pw.utc.com

Dr. Cunha has worked in the area of turbine cooling design and analysis, heat transfer and mechanical
design for a period spanning 25 years. During this time, Dr. Cunha assumed lead design responsibilities at
several original equipment manufacturers, including Siemens-Westinghouse, General Electric, and Pratt and
Whitney and has received 25 US patents for design of turbine engine hot gas path components. Throughout
his career, Dr. Cunha has continued to apply recent advances in cooling technology to both commercial and
military engine programs to achieve the highest rotor inlet temperature level in the aerospace industry. Dr.
Cunha has been a leader in developing advanced testing cooling programs at a consortium of Universities,
and has published numerous journal and symposium technical papers on turbine cooling technologies.
5.0 5.0-1 Introduction
Turbine System Economics
and Reliability, Availability With the varied and fast changing global power market, the complexity of
turbine system economics has increased dramatically. In the past, power plants were
& Maintainability (RAM) primarily government regulated and base loaded. Dispatch and electricity pricing
was relatively predictable. In todays market, with IPPs, there are endless variations
in the way power is produced, provided, regulated, and purchased. OEMs and power
producers need to understand methods to quantify and compare parameters, and to
understand the drivers and uncertainties to properly evaluate decisions and their
potential for protability in this constantly changing marketplace.

5.0-2 The Power Market Drivers


To understand the power market, one must keep in mind the key differences
between this market and others:

Electric power can not be economically stored.

Unlike other commodities, electric power cannot be easily or economically


stored. For the most part, it must be produced on demand. While there are some
efforts to retain energy generated during off peak hours using technologies such as
pumped storage, ywheels, and/or superconductors, the cost is high and the efciency
and reliability of these methods is low.

The demand for electric power is constantly uctuating.

The uctuating demand for electric power is clear. Demand varies during
the day, with a morning and evening peak and varies over the year with a winter
and summer peak. Some of this uctuation can be predicted based on historical
information, such as the typical change in consumption over a day, and the typical
seasonal variations, but the uctuations can shift signicantly from the norm due to
uncontrollable events like periods of severe weather.

Utilities have a high capital investment cost.

The initial required investment for a power plant varies based on the type of
power plant. Typically, utilities have very high xed costs, spending almost ve times
the initial investment per dollar than other manufacturing endeavors1. These xed
costs, which are typically between $475/kW and $1430/kW2, include equipment for
generation, transmission, distribution, and permitting.

Power plants have a relatively long life cycle.


Bonnie Marini, Ph.D. Power plants do require signicant initial investment, but they compensate
with very long life. Power plants operate for decades, with units operating 30 years
Manager, Gas Turbine Design
or more.
Gas Turbine Engineering
Siemens Power Generation
Fuel prices are subject to negotiation and electricity prices are constantly varying.
Orlando, FL
These factors impact the ability to compete effectively in the deregulated
phone: 407 736-6428
market.
email: bonnie.marini@siemens.com
There is an uninching expectation that required electric power is always and
immediately available.

Electricity has become a critical and integral part of the economy and there
is no tolerance for an inadequate supply no matter what the circumstances. This is
reected in the fact that electric consumption is generally accepted as one of the lead
economic indicators.
445
These unique features of the power market create a complex situation to evaluate and choose effective strategies for power
generation.

Power Market Solutions


The nature of this constantly uctuating demand for a commodity that must be essentially produced on demand drives a varied
supplier base, which can be broken into three basic types of operating modes base loaded plants, intermediate loaded plants, and
peakers.
Base load plants operate continuously for long periods of time. They are typically large plants (> 200MW), which are economical
and reliable to operate. These plants often do not have the ability to change load quickly and take advantage of spot market peak pricing.
These units operate year round and all day with an overall economy, which allows them to compete and operate protably, even at low
demand times. Base load plants provide the core of the power grid, and act to regulate and maintain the grid frequency.
Intermediate load supplier includes plants that operate to meet normal uctuating demands in the morning and evening hours
and typically operate for 10 to 14 hours per day.
Peak load suppliers include plants which can start up quickly and supply power to meet high demands during periods of high or
low temperature when the combined base and intermediate load capacity is not adequate. These plants are typically more expensive to
operate, but offer operational exibility. Electricity supplied during a peak demand is sold at a premium, making this the most protable
time to generate.

5.0-3 The Economics of Making Electricity


The US market is currently a hybrid market consisting of regulated market regions and deregulated market regions, with
each having different economic drivers. The regulated markets have contracts that are cost based. Rates are negotiated, xed, and
renegotiated allowing for a set return on investment for the power producer. The deregulated market is an auction market, with suppliers
bidding into the market, offering power to the grid. A controller ranks the bids and purchases power as needed from the lowest cost
supplier on up in price until the demand is met.
The traditional power market is regulated to meet local demand for power. In this scenario, the cost of electricity is typically
locked in by regulation and varies little. A network of base load units and expensive peakers is put in place to enable the supply to meet
the uctuating demand for power. Prots are based on a cost plus regulated model. For a power producer, when choosing an OEM
(Original Equipment Manufacturer) or AE (Architect Engineer), the primary economic variables to consider are rst time plant cost,
service costs, fuel costs, and plant availability and reliability. Fuel costs far outweigh the other factors and the driver in this case for the
OEM industry is efciency.
The power market has changed signicantly with deregulation and different variables must be considered to appropriately
assess the potential from a customer and supplier point of view. In the deregulated market power prices uctuate drastically over time.
In different areas and different countries, the rules vary, but it is common to have power generators bidding to supply to the grid and in
some cases, there are penalties for promising power and then not being able to deliver. This market, which seems as harried and volatile
as the stock exchange oor, bids the operation of units which vary in their ability to come up to full power, to sustain partial load and to
assure delivery of power at a precise time.

RAM and Economics


When a power plant is off line for maintenance, there is no income stream. When power is offered on the spot market and
the plant does not start, there may be penalties. These scenarios drive a need to consider RAM. RAM is an acronym for Reliability,
Availability, and Maintainability.
Reliability is used to express and quantify the unplanned maintenance needs of a power plant. Reliability is a measure of how
often a plant is available in comparison to the total number of hours the plant would be available with no unexpected maintenance. An
ideal power plant has a reliability is 100%.

Availability is a measure of how often a unit is capable of providing service. The availability can be quantied as the ratio of
the total number of hours the unit is actually available in comparison to the total number of hours. Availability considers both scheduled
and unscheduled maintenance and compares that to an ideal situation with no maintenance outages at all. An ideal power plant has an
availability that is less than 100%. Units with less frequent and shorter maintenance intervals have higher availabilities.

446
Bonnie Marini

Maintainability is used to express the cost of maintenance. This includes the cost for parts, and the cost of the servicing.
Maintainability can be used to compare plants that require frequent, lower cost servicing, with plants that require less frequent, higher
cost servicing.
Combining these considerations, RAM looks at how often you can use the equipment and how much it costs to keep it in
operating condition. The concept of RAM is used to consider the trade off between higher technology immature technologies, and less
advanced, but more reliable operation.

Modern Power Plant Economics


Throughout the US market exists a hybrid market in which the trend has been to move towards deregulation. The change
from regulation to deregulation changed the motivation and strategy of power producers. The old descriptions of the power industry as
stable and constant were traded in for adjectives like competitive, exible, dynamic even risky. This volatile market favors plants that
are highly fuel efcient for base load and plants with quick, push button starting capability to meet daily peak demands. As a power
producer, the ideal situation is to be efcient enough to compete in the base loaded market or exible enough to change load quickly
to compete in the peak market. For an OEM to have access to the largest market share, this means providing engines that can do both.
This need to have it all has driven the technology of power plants. Equipment manufacturers are competing to deliver plants with the
highest efciency and the most exibility. This demand for more performance results in pushing the technology envelope.
There have been positive and negative consequences to this change in the industry. The driver for the change was to increase
competition in the marketplace, and consequently to reduce utility bills. A discussion of the result in that regard is out of the scope of this
paper, but signicant secondary consequences occurred which are relevant. The technology of gas turbines has advanced very quickly
in this market. Efciencies have increased and emissions have reduced. The introduction of new technologies has increased in volume
and scope, resulting in issues in reliability and availability for less mature engines. A power producer must decide between buying the
most advanced technology with the highest efciency, or buying a model that is more mature, and more reliable, but not as efcient.
Utilities are businesses. Regulated utilities are mainly concerned with maintaining the lowest life cycle costs for their units.
For deregulated enterprises protability is what is important. Prior to deregulation, sound economic decisions were important, and with
regulation, these calculations were fairly simple and reliable. Subsequent to deregulation, sound economic decisions became absolutely
critical to survival, while becoming far more complex. Utilities must understand how to make appropriate purchasing decisions, and
OEMs must understand how these choices are made to compete effectively. The economics and the technology are intimately tied
together. While it may be clear which technical decision advances technology the fastest, it is not always as clear which technical
decision makes the best business case. Power plant economics explores the cost of a decision over time.

Basic Power Plant Economics


Economic evaluation of a power plant can be explored in a number of ways. All methods account for the cost of a decision over
time. There are several accepted methods to examine cost over time. A common approach is to evaluate net present value (NPV).
The net present value method looks at the value of the project over time by converting all income and expenditures into
equivalent values at the current time and subtracting the initial investment. To do this, the future interest rate and the rate of ination
must be estimated and expressed as a discount rate, r. While these estimates are somewhat inaccurate, the sensitivity to the assumption
can be explored to understand the implication of one choice over another.

Where;
In: initial investment
r: discount rate or weighted average capitol cost for a given company
t: time
CashFlow: Income expenses

447
5.0 Turbine System Economics and Reliability, Availability & Maintainability (RAM)

The basic rule of thumb is that the NPV should be greater than zero for an investment, though most investors will strive to get
a hurdle rate that is higher.
To calculate the NPV of a power plant, the following parameters are needed:
1) capital investments,
2) projected price of electricity,
3) size of the plant,
4) capacity factors (how many hours the plant will operate in a given year),
5) dispatch payments
6) projected fuel costs,
7) operating and maintenance costs,
8) start up time and costs,
9) regulating costs, and
10) the discount rate (the cost of money).

For a power producer, the initial investment is the cost of the plant and initial costs for support equipment and hiring staff.
The income is calculated per annum, and is income from the electricity sold to the grid. This is the price of electricity ($/MWh)
multiplied by number of hours the facility is producing power (MWh) in a typical year. In a deregulated market, the price of electricity
is determined by the market and for calculation, should be evaluated based on historical data and forecasted fuel and electricity prices.
In some markets, dispatch payments are another source of income. Dispatch payments are fees paid to producers that are capable of
providing power to the grid with a very short lead time, typically in the range of 10 minutes from demand to supply (spinning and non-
spinning reserve). These payments are for the assurance of capability and are paid regardless of whether the capability is leveraged.
This provides incentive to suppliers to develop and maintain a fast start supply, so the grid can adequately respond to unplanned peak
needs.
Expenses are determined on a per annum basis and include the cost of fuel, and operating and maintenance costs. The fuel cost
is a variable cost and must be estimated. For the calculation, fuel cost must be converted to annual cost in dollars by multiplying the
fuel price times cumulative fuel consumed per annum. The operating and maintenance costs include personnel costs, and the costs for
scheduled and unscheduled maintenance. Operating and maintenance costs are impacted directly by the mode of operation of a plant.
The frequency of maintenance is inuenced by both operating hours and number of starts. A single start for a combined cycle facility
can result in a signicant incremental increase in maintenance costs, with one producer estimating $20,000 in incremental costs for one
combined cycle start3.
Expenses may also include regulating costs. Regulating costs are government instituted economic consequence to encourage
industry to make decisions that have been determined to be for the good of the people. These costs include taxes and the cost of
complying with government regulations. Taxes may be implemented to inuence companies to choose preferred technologies or to
impact the local job market. Technologies may be politically preferable due to environmental or safety issues as viewed by the regulating
government. Certain fuel sources may be preferred to enhance energy independence or to promote local industry and employment.
Regulating costs also include costs for adhering to regulations that are put in place to assure the safety of a facility, such as OSHA
requirements. Regulations and taxes are dependent on the current political climate and are subject to frequent changes, often resulting in
the changing position of a certain facility in the market place. An example of this kind of inuence is environmental regulations where
emissions credits are traded. Over time a facility built to meet a certain regulation may become covered by a regulation with a more
aggressive limit. This may mean that additional operating costs are incurrent to purchase additional emissions credits, thus inuencing
the economics of the power producer.
The calculation complexity increases further when looking over the life of the power plant. Power plants have a long life
and many changes occur over the life of the plant. Some of these risks can be hedged by investing in futures to x the future price of
commodities such as fuels, or to insure against adverse business conditions, such as long periods of mild weather.
Some gas turbines have the capability to operate on alternate fuels. Some units are purchased with the exibility to switch
between gas and oil, and various qualities of oil can be considered. As the price for oils and gases uctuate, a plant with this capability
can be more competitive, but at a price. This option requires more capital investment, both in the unit and in the supporting auxiliaries,
and potentially in licensing and permitting fees.
Units desire to remain competitive over time by being highly efcient and as a result of this are also driven to increase capital
investment over time. New technology is regularly introduced and can be purchased as upgrades to improve efciency. To develop a
symbiotic relationship with customers, some OEMs offer access to upgrades to customers who purchase long term service agreements,
thereby integrating the need for consistent high quality service with the need for continually competitive technology.
To understand the drivers for protability, and the importance of RAM, the sensitivity of the calculation can be explored to
further understand the uncertainty of the calculation. The variables can be examined in terms of controllable variable and uncontrollable
variables.

5.0-4 Operating Strategies and Options


For a base loaded plant, low margins are compensated by long operating times. Long, uninterrupted operating times are
supported by reliability and maintainability. Gas turbine technology has been in service for many decades, and most units have 448
Bonnie Marini
reliabilities of greater than 95%. However, the base line efciency of a competitive unit is constantly increasing. The old robust engine
with learned out technology is simply not efcient enough.

At the other end of the operating spectrum are peakers that are looking to leverage the high costs of electricity during peak
needs. In June 25 of 1998, the price per megawatt-hour of electricity in parts of the Midwest soared briey from $40 to $70004. Though
the higher end of this scale is the exception and not the norm, the implication is clear that the investment costs and fuel costs pale in the
face of this return and the only signicant factor is how much the plant can generate. In this market the goal is to be ready to run when
the prices increase. Here again RAM is the driver since for the most part, a window of high potential for peak need can be identied,
and so owners can schedule planned maintenance outside these windows. However, availability and reliability are extremely important
because if an owner pushes the start button and does not get power, a competitor will quickly jump in and take over that share of the
market. If a plant is inoperable due to unplanned maintenance (low reliability) then the opportunity to compete during this need will not
even be possible.
Operators in the intermediate load business are balancing all of these needs. They want to be chosen for operation, so efciency
is important, and they need to ready to operate. Reliability, availability, and maintainability are all equally important.

Gas Turbines in the Power Market


Gas turbines operate in all three operating regimes. Simple cycle gas turbines are installed to meet peak demands. They are
extremely exible, relatively low in initial investment cost, and quick to install. While internal machine efciencies are quite high, gas
turbine simple cycles exhaust at roughly 1000F, wasting a signicant amount of energy and resulting in a rather low cycle efciency,
and limiting the application to peak markets.
For intermediate and base load applications, gas turbines are used in combined cycles. In this arrangement, the gas turbine
waste heat is used in a heat recovery steam generator to power a bottoming steam cycle. The combined efciency of such power plants
are quite competitive (> 55%), easily tting into the intermediate load market, and capable of competing as a base loaded units.
In both scenarios there are economic complexities. The base loaded plants must maintain very low costs. The business cases
are based on low margins and high volume. Large plants with high availability and low maintenance needs have the advantage in this
market. The business cases for load following plants are based on a low volume high prot model, which requires them to be available
when the need is present. The economics improve when an unexpected peak in demand occurs. Those who can meet these peaks
quickly and reliably can reap the benet of selling when the market is at its highest. For these reason, RAM reliability, availability and
maintainability become signicant driving factors in the power market.

Controlling RAM While Increasing Technology Level


To maintain competitiveness, OEMs are aware that new technology must be introduced at a lower risk level. Steps are taken
to control risk during design, prior to implementation, and during operation. During design, risk analysis and management methods are
used which allow a quantied assessment of the probability of a particular failure and the consequences. Results of these analyses are
used to mitigate risks by either changing the design, or altering the consequential impact. Prior to implementation, new technologies
are being tested more thoroughly. In the past, most of the testing was done with similar technologies in small engines, or aircraft engine
test beds. These approaches are similar, but not the same as the IGT (Industrial Gas Turbine) application. To further reduce risk, some
OEMs such as Siemens, have built IGT test beds, so fully scaled new technology can be fully instrumented and tested in a controlled
environment. For further reaching changes, an entire test site is constructed through cooperation between an OEM and a power producer
to validate a new design. In some cases, new technologies are introduced to a single customer site with an agreement to test out the
technology prior to release to a larger eet. Subsequent to implementation, engines can be tted with improved monitors and sensors,
condition monitoring, and better controls. OEMs are now offering producers the option to purchase a monitoring contract, where the
OEM constantly monitors plant operation. Monitoring a eet of engines allows the OEM to develop probabilistic indicators of potential
failures. When symptoms occurs, the owner is informed, and corrective actions can be taken in a controlled manner, at a convenient
time, greatly reducing the likelihood of unexpected failure during a peak need. All of these features combine to reduce the risk of
increased RAM costs.

5.0-5 Conclusion
Since deregulation the focus on efciency so over shadowed other needs that the technical envelope was pushed very hard,
very fast. The result was an improvement in the efciency of gas turbines, but there was a partnering risk when leveraging immature
technologies. Using RAM in business models allows appropriate evaluation of the benet and risk of immature technologies and allows
user to apply these technologies intelligently. Today, OEMs and operators are both cognizant of the need to make sound economic
evaluations of technology options and to consider technology maturity and the resultant RAM into their calculations. Additional actions
(further testing) are taken and additional products (such as online monitoring) are being offered to reduce and control RAM. With these
considerations, good choices can be made by power producers that will provide for prot for the company and reliable power for the
communities served.

449
5.0 Turbine System Economics and Reliability, Availability & Maintainability (RAM)

5.0-6 Notes

1. Bonbright, Danielson and Kamerschen, Principles of Public Utility Rates, Arlington, Virginia, Public Utility Reports, Inc.,
1988.
2. Cost Comparison IGCC and Advanced Coal, by Stu Dalton, Director Fossil, Emission Control and Distributed Energy
Resources, EPRI. Presented at EPRI Roundtable on Deploying Advanced Coal July 29, 2004.
3. Panel of Combined Cycle Users Group & Gas Turbine Users Group, Electric Power Conference, Chicago, April 5-7, 2005.
4. Exploiting Uncertainty, The real options revolution in decision-making, by Peter Coy, Published in Business Week,
June 7, 1999.

450
BIOGRAPHY
5.0 Turbine System Economics and Reliability, Availability & Maintainability (RAM)

Bonnie Marini, Ph.D.


Manager, Gas Turbine Design
Gas Turbine Engineering
Siemens Power Generation
Orlando, FL

phone: (407) 736-6428


email: bonnie.marini@siemens.com

Dr. Marini has been working in the power industry since 1980 and has a PhD in experimental uids
mechanics. She is currently the Manager of Turbine Technology and Processes for Siemens Power
Generation. In this position she is responsible for technical approaches and processes for turbine
hot gas path design and for advanced turbine development projects. Prior to this, she led the team
developing upgrade products for the Siemens gas turbine service eet. Other experience includes
combined cycle analysis, steam turbine gas path design, and systems design for nuclear power
plants while working for various AE rms, OEMs, and utilities
6.0.1
The DOE Turbine 6.0.1-1 Introduction
Program:
Overall Program The focus of the DOE Office of Fossil Energy (FE) Advanced Turbine
Program is on the key technologies needed to enable development of
Description advanced turbines that will operate cleanly and efficiently when fueled
with coal-derived synthesis gas and hydrogen fuels. Developing turbine
technology to operate on these fuels is critical to the development of
advanced zero-emission power generation technologies such as
FutureGen type plants that will minimize emissions of carbon dioxide.
These plants will most likely be based on integrated gasification
combined-cycle systems, and consequently should be capable of utilizing
coal-derived synthesis gas as well as hydrogen. The Turbine Program is
an investment in secure U.S. electric power production that is clean,
efficient, affordable, and fuel-flexible, and will make possible the
continued use of coal our Nation's largest domestic fossil energy resource
coal.

The FE Turbine Program R&D is supporting the adaptation and


development of existing and new advanced gas turbines for application to
coal-derived hydrogen fuels and synthesis fuels. Studies, both ongoing
and completed, have identified concepts for optimization and
modification of large frame combustion turbines in integrated gasification
combined-cycle (IGCC) applications. These studies have determined the
concepts, technologies, and modifications needed to meet the goals for
near-zero emissions, higher efficiency, and lower capital cost machines
for application to coal-derived fuels such as syngas and hydrogen.
Technology base activities will provide the basic underpinning for the
Program areas to resolve advanced systems, material, heat transfer,
aerodynamic, and combustion technical issues, as machines and systems
are modified for high-hydrogen fuels derived from coal.

The FE Turbine Program, as administered by DOEs National Energy


Technology Laboratory (NETL), is designed to provide low-cost
solutions to Presidential initiatives, and provide technological solutions to
high level DOE goals. These initiatives include:

1) Climate Change Initiative


(http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/02/climatechange.html)
2) Clear Skies Initiative
(http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/02/clearskies.html)
3) FutureGen Initiative
(http://www.fe.doe.gov/programs/powersystems/futuregen/)
4) Hydrogen Initiative
(http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/review04/2_mill
er_philadelphia_04.pdf)

Specific goals presented below are written for Advanced Coal-Based


Power Systems, and are designed to support these Presidential initiatives.
The Advanced Power Systems goals are addressed for the most part by
the efforts of the DOE-FE Gasification and Turbine Programs. This is
particularly true for the 2010 goal, with improved efficiency and costs.
The 2012 goal brings in the additional accomplishments and progress
made by the CO2 Sequestration Program.
The Advanced Power Systems goal for 2010 states:
By 2010, develop advanced power systems capable of achieving 4550% thermal efficiency at a capital cost
of $1,000/kW or less for coal-based plant utilization.

The Sequestration interim goal for 2012 states:


By 2012, R&D will be completed to integrate this technology with CO2 capture and sequestration into a zero-
emissions configuration(s) that can provide electricity with less than a 10 percent increase in cost.

A main objective of the Advanced Turbine Program is to support the FutureGen Initiative. The FutureGen
Initiative and the associated project can be described as an effort to validate the technical feasibility and
the economic viability of zero emission energy from coal. By 2012, begin operation of a nominal 275-
megawatt (MW) prototype plant that will produce electricity and hydrogen with zero emissions; and prove
the effectiveness, safety, and performance of CO2 sequestration.

The Fossil Energy 2015 goal states:


Create partnerships that provide technology by 2015 for near-zero emission plants (including carbon) that
are fuel-flexible and capable of multi-product output, and efficiencies over 60 percent with coal and 75
percent with natural gas.

It is FEs intent that program spending will be completed during the stated goal date, thereby completing the
R&D at a full-scale prototype or component scale. It is through this prototype scale testing that the ability to
meet these goals will be demonstrated and substantiated. Subsequent testing and deployment of the
technology at a demonstration scale will be completed through other programs and is expected to take four
years.

x FE Turbine Program contributions to the 2010 Advanced Power Systems goals are planned to be:
x Efficiency: Demonstrate 23 percentage points of improvement in combined-cycle (CC)
performance (above base line).
x Cost: Demonstrate a 2030% reduction in CC capital cost plus enhanced value for lower COE.
x Emissions: Demonstrate combustor emissions with 2 ppm NOx (@15% O2) in simple cycle exhaust.

It is expected that these advances to achieve the 2010 goal will contribute to the 2012 goal for IGCC-based
power systems that capture carbon. The challenge here is maintaining the 2010 performance advances but
now the turbine fuel will be nearly pure hydrogen. Additionally, the Turbine Program plans to contribute to
the 2012 Carbon Sequestration goal by providing advanced and highly integrated CO2 compression
technology to reduce the compression penalty (auxiliary load) by 2540%.

In supporting the FutureGen Project is a primary goal of the FE Advanced Turbine program. The Turbine
Program takes the approach to provide the latest advances made through pursuing the 2010, 2012, and 2015
goals. This will allow installation of the most advanced hydrogen fueled turbine at the FutureGen project. It
is envisioned that the FutureGen turbine could be installed with a plan that would allow the machine to be
optimized in the field for combustion and firing temperature performance. This approach would allow for a
machine fueled with 100 percent hydrogen to operate with the highest efficiency and lowest NOx emissions.

Plans for the FE Turbine Program contributions to the 2015 goal are:

Efficiency:
x Hydrogen turbine CC with 35% points improvement (total above base line).
x Oxy-fuel turbine based IGCC system > 50% eff. (HHV) with CO2 capture and compression.
Cost:
x Competitive COE for zero emission systems.
Emissions:
x H2 Turbine-based IGCC demonstrated with 2 ppm NOx (@15% O2)
x Oxy-fuel turbine based IGCC with zero emissions (100% turbine exhaust captured and sequestered,
and zero criteria pollutants and CO2)

2
Multiple Products:
x H2 turbine-based IGCC with higher capacity gasification.
x Oxy-fuel turbine based IGCC with multi-product production.

A generalized technical approach to realize the 2010 goals is presented below in Table 1.

Table 1. Generalized Technical Approach to 2010 Goal, and Potential Benefits

Technical issue to pursue Benefit to gas turbine or power plant


Eliminates SCR and other penalties (NH4 slip, cost back
Combustor for 2 ppm NOx
pressure)
More durable catalysis for in combustor NOx formation
Reduced O&M, makes catalytic combustion possible
prevention
H2 Premixing with out flash back Enables low NOx combustion and related robust combustion
techniques
Approximately 1% pt. improvement to simple cycle per each ~
Higher turbine inlet temperatures (TIT) (~ 210 F)
70 F increase
Better TBC materials Higher TIT, less air extraction, reduced RAM overall
improvement in efficiency
Enhanced cooling techniques Higher TIT and less air extraction
Increase rotor torque limitation
Higher power output with reduced capital cost (~ 20%)

0.51.0% points efficiency improvement


Compressor and air separation unit integration
Ceramic parts Higher TIT
Enhanced aerodynamics Higher throughput & specific power

Table 2 below presents a list of current FE turbine projects that received funding in FY06. Following the
table is a summary of individual projects. The University Turbine Systems Research (UTSR) Program is
summarized in a separate section of the Handbook.

Table 2 Active Turbine Program Projects That Received Funding in FY 06


Turbine Program Key Activities Contractor Contract ID

Hydrogen Turbines For FutureGen


Advanced IGCC / H2 Gas Turbine General Electric 42643
Advanced Hydrogen Turbine for FutureGen Siemens Power Generation 42644
Catalytic Combustion for Ultra-Low NOx Hydrogen Turbines Precision Combustion Incorporated 42647
Micro-mixing for Ultra-low emissions H2 / SYNGAS Combustion Parker Hannifin 42648
Catalytic Combustor for Fuel-Flexible Turbine Siemens Power Generation 41891
System Study for Improved Gas Turbine Performance for IGCC Application General Electric 41889
Fuel Flexible Combustion System for Coproduction Plant Applications General Electric 41776
Syngas & Hydrogen Combustion NETL In House Turbine Support NETL
Partial Oxidation GT for Coproduction from Coal in Industrial Applications GTI 42649

Advanced Oxy-Fuel Turbines for FutureGen


Zero Emissions Coal Syngas-Oxygen Turbo machinery Siemens Power Generation 42646
Coal-Based Oxy-Fuel System Evaluation and Combustor Development. Clean Energy Systems 42645

Advanced Research for FutureGen


University Turbines Systems Research SCIES 41431
Systems Analysis of Advanced Brayton Cycles UC Irvine 42652
Turbine Materials & TBC for High Hydrogen Fuels ORNL FEAA070
HX in Hydrogen Fuel Turbines Ames Lab AL05205018
Novel Concepts for the Compression of Carbon Dioxide SwRI 42650
Super Sonic Shock Compression for Compression of CO2 Ramgen 42651
Low-swirl Injectors for Hydrogen Gas Turbines LBNL FWP678402
Summary of Active Turbine Program Projects

Individual Turbine Program project descriptions provide insight into the breadth and depth of research
being supported by DOE. The descriptions provide a detailed overview of turbine activities, and tie
individual project goals to the larger national goal of energy security, which is attainable by using the
nations most abundant fossil energy resource coal.

Project Summary: NETL In-House Combustion R&D in support of Turbine Program

NETLs Energy Systems Dynamics Focus Area is actively involved in a number of projects to support
DOEs Turbine Program. These projects include research in low-emissions combustion, model validation,
sensor and controls development, and materials. Research in turbines combustion in focused primarily on
development of hydrogen and oxy-fuel combustion approaches to meet Future Gen efficiency and
emissions targets.

Hydrogen combustion: To meet DOE FutureGen targets for zero carbon and low-NOx emissions, new
combustion technologies will be required. To facilitate carbon capture, IGCC systems will remove carbon
upstream of the turbine by shifting the syngas composition to produce a high-hydrogen-content fuel. High-
hydrogen-content fuels will present some new challenges for combustor development. Lean-premix
combustion strategies currently employed for natural gas (NG) fired engines will not be easily retrofit for
high-hydrogen-content fuels due to the potential for flashback. Early IGCC systems will likely employ
diffusion flame combustion systems for this reason, but diffusion flame combustors are not likely to meet
FutureGen NOx targets of 2ppm. Solutions may come from the NETL Combustion Program, which has
several projects focusing on assessing the flashback potential for fuels with a hydrogen content ranging
from 20100 percent. In addition, alternative combustion approaches such as trapped vortex combustion
are being investigated, which have the potential for good flame stability and higher velocity flows to avoid
flashback with premixed hydrogen flames.

Research also is under way to assess the potential for dilute diffusion flame systems burning hydrogen.
Oxygen-blown gasifiers will have nitrogen available from the air separation unit, and NETL is
investigating approaches to using this nitrogen to dilute the hydrogen fuel, enabling both efficient, stable
combustion and low-NOx emissions. Hybrid approaches employing dilute diffusion flame and partial
premixing are also being investigated. These hydrogen combustion studies combine chemical kinetic and
computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulations, with laboratory and bench scale combustion testing at
pressures up to 30 atm using NETLs High Pressure Combustion research facilities. On a more
fundamental level, NETL has an optically accessible, swirl stabilized combustor that is being used to
develop validation data for Large Eddy Simulation and other advanced simulation methods. This activity is
a multi-agency collaboration involving DOE, Department of Defense, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, and several major research Universities to develop and validate advanced simulation tools
that are being used to design fuel-flexible combustion systems.

Oxy-Fuel Combustion: NETL also is investigating fundamental issues associated with oxy-fuel
combustion. Oxy-Fuel combustion systems are being considered for zero- emission power cycles where all
of the carbon from the fuel can be captured. These systems will either use steam or carbon dioxide as a
diluent to manage combustion temperatures. Thermodynamic and chemical kinetic modeling of the
combustor indicates that CO2 dilution may result in unacceptable CO levels in the combustor effluent.
NETL is examining combustion issues associated with high steam-loaded systems to develop the database
necessary for oxy-fuel combustor design.

Sensors and Controls: NETL is working on development of flame sensors and controls to improve
emissions and stability of advanced turbine systems. NETLs Combustion Control and Diagnostic Sensor
(CCADS) is a flame ionization sensor with a demonstrated capability to measure flashback and lean blow-
off for gas turbine combustors. Continued development of this sensor system now is focusing on
measuring the fuel-air equivalence ratio, which will offer the potential for adjustment of fuel flows and
lower NOx emissions.
Richard Dennis

Project Summary: Advanced Hydrogen Turbine for FutureGen (CID: 42644)


Participant: Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation

Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation (SWPC), with support from Florida Turbine Technologies, major
universities, and others, intends to advance the state-of-the-art gas turbine for integration into a coal-based
IGCC power plant that will be fueled with coal-derived hydrogen fuel and syngas. The project objectives will
lead to significant advancements in IGCC plant efficiency, near-zero emissions, and a reduction in plant cost.
The project will further develop and optimize integration of this advanced G-class gas turbine into an IGCC
plant to ensure that DOEs FutureGen Program objectives of plant efficiency, NOx emissions, and capability
for CO2 sequestration are achieved.

The proposed three-phase, 10-year SWPC project will begin with Phase I, which will focus on identifying
and down-selecting the advanced technologies needed to achieve the challenging program goals, producing
the required new component conceptual designs, and generating an R&D implementation plan. Phase II will
entail development of new component detailed designs, and technology validation test programs. Engine and
system fabrication, with deployment and testing in an IGCC plant, will be carried out in Phase III.

SWPC will focus key development efforts on gas turbine combustion system, performance enhancements,
and required materials/coatings advances. Combustion development will concentrate on advanced concepts
evaluation, down-selection, and development to produce operational systems for burning coal derived
hydrogen and syngas fuels, with natural gas burning capability as a back-up. To implement the new
performance enhancing concepts, the program will include evaluating and down-selecting the most promising
concepts for improving component efficiencies, enhanced cooling, and maintaining the turbines rated inlet
temperature while operating on the above range of fuels. Materials/coatings selection and development will
support the goal of higher efficiency, while supporting the extended fuel flexibility capability by targeting
improvements in component durability and life cycle costs. Advancements in sensors and controls will be
carried out to provide a capability for monitoring flame temperature, emissions, individual component metal
temperature, coating durability, and turbine blade tip clearance control.

Overall plant performance and economic optimization efforts of the SWPC program will lead to the effective
integration of advanced G-class gas turbines into future low-emissions, coal-based IGCC plants, thereby
ensuring that a cost-effective supply of electricity is available in the United States that uses our domestic coal
resources. (DOE award: $45.5 million; plus contractor cost-share; project duration: 56 months, Phase III of
this contract was not awarded)

Project Summary: Advanced IGCC/Hydrogen Gas Turbine Development (CID: 42643)


Participant: GE Energy

GE Energy proposes a gas turbine development project entitled Advanced IGCC/Hydrogen Gas Turbine
Development. This project will develop gas turbine technology for advanced IGCC and FutureGen power
generation plants, to support DOEs overall coal-based power generation goals of high efficiency (4550%
(HHV), near-zero emissions (<3 ppm NOx @ 15% O2), and competitive capital costs (<$1,000/kW). Gas
turbine improvements in this program address DOEs Turbine Program goals of 35 points of improvement
in combined-cycle efficiency, less than 2 ppm NOx emissions, and compatibility with either traditional IGCC
coal synthesis gas fuel or with high-hydrogen fuel produced from FutureGen type plants.

The proposed GE project will leverage existing state-of-the-art gas turbine technology, while developing,
validating, and prototype testing the technologies and systems needed to meet DOEs goals. Emissions
reductions for low-Btu and hydrogen fuels will be addressed through combustion technology advancements,
with the goal of achieving the same type of emissions improvement DLN (dry-low-NOx) technology
accomplished for natural gas fueled gas turbines. Based on previous technology program developments,
combustion testing of promising combustion technology platforms and enablers will be performed and
evaluated, leading to full-scale design and development of an optimum system. IGCC plant level efficiency
improvements will be achieved primarily through increased IGCC gas turbine firing temperature, to the same
levels as todays natural gas fired gas turbines. This will be enabled through application of high-temperature
7FB gas turbine materials/design technology and development of technologies to allow increased turbine

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6.0.1 The DOE Turbine Program: Overall Program Description

mass flow and output. Environmental testing of advanced high-temperature materials and coatings exposed
to IGCC/hydrogen fuels will be performed, along with selective coating development/improvements.

The GE technology advancements will start with R&D in Phase I, proceed to design and validation at the
component level in Phase II, and result in prototype testing in a GE 7FB IGCC gas turbine in Phase III. (DOE
award: $45.6 million; plus contractor cost-share, project duration: 75 months, Phase III of this contract was
not awarded)

Project Summary: Coal-Based Oxy-Fuel System Evaluation and Combustor Development (CID: 42645)
Participant: Clean Energy Systems, Inc.

Clean Energy Systems, Inc. (CES) will develop and demonstrate operation of its proprietary oxy-fuel
combustor technology on syngas. Currently, CES is demonstrating a 20-MWt combustor on natural gas.
CES next objective is to demonstrate its combustor technology on coal syngas, enabling zero-emission coal
plants with higher heating value efficiencies between 50% and 60%, coupled with 100% carbon dioxide
capture.

CES will implement a research, design, development, and validation project with three phases, as prescribed
by DOE. Phase I will include an R&D Implementation Plan and Conceptual Design. Part of the design
process calls for a System Study consisting of definition of subsystem performance parameters, power system
modeling, evaluation of alternative system configurations, and fuel variability evaluation. The deliverables
from Phase I will be a report of optimized cycles and an oxy-coal syngas fuel combustor conceptual design.
CES will team with SWPC, and the design progression will be conducted in collaboration to assure that the
final combustor/turbine product is viable, useful, and optimum for both available and next-generation turbine
hardware. Similarly, CES will team with other major subsystem suppliers and consultants, including
ConocoPhillips for gasification, Air Products and/or Air Liquide for air separation, Kinder Morgan CO2
Company for carbon dioxide systems, G.C. Broach Company for heat recovery steam generators, and
Western Research Institute for computer modeling.

CES will employ existing assets to the maximum extent possible as it develops the oxy-syngas combustor. In
particular, CES will use the previous cycle studies undertaken by DOE/NETL, Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory (LLNL), and numerous other parties; as well as using the existing Kimberlina Power Plant
demonstration facility. The Kimberlina facility will be evaluated to confirm that, with reasonable
modification, it can be configured to burn simulated coal syngas from tube trailer supplies of mixtures of
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane. This approach will allow the introduction of various syngas
compositions, which will validate operation of the combustor over a wide fuel range.

System studies will include air separation units, turbine types, gasification methods, and syngas cleanup
methods and requirements. CES will work with suppliers and subcontractors to obtain the various subsystem
parameters. System modeling and subsystem integration opportunities will be evaluated by CES and outside
contractor(s) using the Aspen Plus software program.

Phase II of the CES program will entail developing a detailed design and conducting validation testing, to
allow a pre-commercial combustor to be fabricated and tested in Phase III. CES will incorporate information
and knowledge gained from SWPC, including operating states, combustor size, and combustor configuration
(single or multiple combustors). Operating state flexibility is one of the merits of the CES combustor, and its
design can be initiated prior to knowing precise desired operating parameters, though nominal guidelines
from the turbine manufacturer will be incorporated.

Phase III will involve fabricating an appropriately sized pre-commercial prototype combustor and conducting
longer-term testing using actual and/or simulated coal syngas. Testing at this stage of the product
development will be conducted at the Kimberlina Power Plant using blended syngas, and then transition to a
site with actual syngas if an appropriate site is available. (DOE award: $4.5 million; plus contractor cost-share,
project duration: 39 months)

Project Summary: Zero Emissions Coal Syngas-Oxygen Turbo Machinery (CID: 42646)

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Richard Dennis

Participant: Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation

Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation (SWPC), with support of Clean Energy Systems (CES), Florida
Turbine Technologies, a major university, and others, intends to propose a multi-phase project for research
and development of turbines and related systems to utilize high-hydrogen fuels derived from coal. Activities
will include development of a turbine for an Oxy-Fuel Rankine Cycle System that would be integrated into a
highly efficient, near-zero emission power plant. The focus on fuel flexibility through combustion with
oxygen syngas is seen as key to continued use of coal, our largest domestic fossil energy resource, coupled
with capture of CO2 and all of the Clean Air Act criteria pollutants.

Phase I will initially review cycle optimization based on previous work on a limited number of system studies
to assess likely operating conditions of the turbines. This will require that both the combustion part of the
cycle along with the secondary part of the cycle be optimized together to select the most optimal pressure and
temperatures in the bottoming cycle. In order to evaluate the range of cycle options, three cycles will be
considered. The baseline cycle will be based on the ultra-supercritical steam cycle, in which turbo machinery
designs can be developed using materials from current industrial gas turbine frames. A second cycle will be
developed by moving beyond the current ultra supercritical designs, emphasizing realistic near-term
achievements with an acceptable increase in risk. Finally, a high-efficiency, higher risk cycle will be
developed incorporating concepts from the latest advanced gas turbine frames. Conceptual designs of
equipment for selected cycles will follow to identify total plant costs and technology challenges. Critical
component identification and cycle selection will lead to a more specific cycle with proposed cost and
schedule at the end of Phase I. The required R&D that will be conducted in Phase II and Phase III will also
be identified as part of Phase I of the program.

The Phase II of this SWPC project will involve the detailed design of the components and selected material
development, both of which are required to support component development. A significant effort will
address the challenges of how a working fluid, composed mainly of H2O and CO2, impacts rotating
components, as well as the associated material issues such as stress corrosion, general corrosion/erosion,
creep effects, and thermal mechanical fatigue. It is expected that material development will not only be
required for major components, but also for surface engineering and innovative cooling schemes so that the
turbo machinery can withstand the elevated temperatures required for the coal Syngas-Oxygen turbo
machinery.

Phase III will involve prototype testing of certain sub-components, and a scale-model test of a steam turbine
component. Fabrication and testing will include the specialized components such as rotating blades and other
stationary components critical to the overall performance of the power plant. It is expected that by the end of
successful completion of Phase III, feasibility of this type of high-efficiency, zero-emission cycle will be
demonstrated.

DOE award: $14.5 million; plus contractor cost-share, project duration: 56 months, Phase III of this contract
was not awarded

Project Summary: Catalytic Combustion for Ultra-Low NOx Hydrogen Turbines (CID: 42647)
Participant: Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI)

The proposed PCI project will develop and demonstrate an ultra-low-NOx rich catalytic combustion system
for fuel-flexible hydrogen combustors in megawatt-scale turbines. This will further develop PCIs rich
catalytic combustion technology for fuel flexible hydrogen application, in collaboration with Solar Turbines,
and provide a roadmap to commercialization of the technology across all size ranges of power generation
turbines. In a current DOE program, this technology has demonstrated subscale ultra-low-NOx with syngas
and with hydrogen diluted with nitrogen (low single-digit NOx corrected to 15% O2 with operation at IGCC
base load combustor temperatures and 10 atm. pressure). The technology offers low single-digit NOx
emissions, even with hydrogen as the only fuel; fuel flexibility for similar low emissions of syngas or natural
gas; and the potential to support increased firing temperature (and efficiency) while maintaining low
emissions. The benefits include combustors capable of delivering near-zero NOx without costly post-
combustion controls and without the need for added sulfur control. This advances DOE objectives for

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6.0.1 The DOE Turbine Program: Overall Program Description

achievement of low single-digit NOx emissions, improvement in efficiency versus post-combustion controls,
fuel flexibility, a significant net reduction in IGCC system net capital and operating costs, and a route to
commercialization across the power generation field.

In the proposed project, PCI will develop the technology for fuel flexible use of hydrogen in a megawatt-scale
combustor through design and analysis (CFD, Chemkin), and sub-scale, mid-scale, and full-scale testing.
The work plan is in three phases. Phase I involves development of conceptual designs for catalytic
combustion technology for hydrogen fuel, and an R&D implementation plan including supporting analysis,
fabrication, and testing of several small to intermediate scale components. Phase II, Detailed Design and
Validation Test Program, concentrates on development of multiple full-scale modules for validation testing,
to include full pressure testing and resolution of key issues related to startup, load shifting, turndown,
shutdown, module interactions, and system design. In Phase III, the full-scale design will be frozen, and a
full combustor system with multiple catalytic combustor modules will be fabricated for an initial engine rig
testing. This will be followed by either engine loop test using the full-scale engine hardware at mid-pressure,
or full-scale engine testing.

Solar Turbines, the world's largest manufacturer of mid-range industrial gas turbines (115 MW), will be an
active participant, developing combustor design and hardware for its engines as well as design, testing, and
system-level interactions with PCI. Solar and PCI have an established interactive relationship, with a current
DOE-supported engine trial program now under way for natural gas-fired catalytic combustion. The new
focus on the smaller machine will facilitate more rapid yet economic combustor development targeted to an
engine 5- to 15-MW size that may be considered a building block for larger turbine applications. Because the
catalytic system is scalable and modular in nature, integration to larger engines can be facilitated. (DOE
award: $4.9 million; plus contractor cost-share, project duration: 60 months)

Project Summary: Micro-mixing Lean Premix System for Ultra-LOW Emission Hydrogen/Syngas
Combustion (CID: 42648)
Participant: Parker Hannifin Corporation, Gas Turbine Fuel Systems Division

The general focus of this project is to develop the next generation of environmentally friendly,
hydrogen/syngas, gas turbine fuel injection technologies. Parker intends to prototype and test innovative,
multi-point fuel injector technologies that satisfy DOEs objectives of reducing NOx emissions to 2 ppm.
Detailed studies and experimentation with these injectors are proposed to elucidate the effects of various
operating parameters on overall turbine performance. The impact of nozzle design and operating conditions
on combustion efficiency, emissions, and lean stability will be characterized.

Burner technologies will be developed for lean and ultra-lean premixed hydrogen/syngas combustion in
combustor geometries similar to those used in gas turbine engines, and with compositions similar to those
obtained in coal gasification plants. Parker will investigate the impact that hydrogen content in syngas has on
flashback and emission characteristics in lean premixed combustion systems, and will develop strategies to
mitigate the impact of flashback and auto-ignition. Through a university partner program, data on
flammability limits, stability characteristics, laminar and turbulent flame propagation, as well as the impact of
the anchoring mechanism, burning conditions and syngas composition, will be collected and synthesized into
models. Diagnostics, corroborated with computational analyses, will be used to determine the role of
chemistry, and transport and fluid mechanics in the mechanisms of combustion.

Starting from already proven, Macrolamination technology, Parkers general approach is to adapt the proven
designs and concepts to hydrogen/syngas combustion and hydrogen enriched combustion. With
Macrolamination technology, elegant and sophisticated multi-point lean-premix nozzles and burners can be
developed with exceptional affordability. Parker proposes to develop, build, and test a large number of
burners spanning a wide range of sizes, from small-scale single-cup premixers to 1-Megawatt size premixers.
The modularity of the macrolamination approach affords the flexibility to build multiple scales of these
injectors from a basic building block (a single mixing cup) affordably and expeditiously.

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Richard Dennis

The combination of lean conditions and multiple point injection (for fast and efficient mixing) will be the
primary vehicle for achieving low-NOx emissions in this project. In order to further reduce NOx levels,
consideration will be given to operability at ultra-lean conditions, and designs that mitigate lean-combustion
instabilities will be developed. Stability augmentation will be achieved through optimization of swirl and
other aerodynamic features. Zone staging will also be used to enhance lean operability.

Parker has assembled a seasoned team to perform the proposed scope of work, including industrial
participants (Parker Hannifin and Solar Turbines), and a University partner (University of California Irvine).
Parker Hannifin will lead the project and the other participants will be subcontractors to Parker. The team
believes that the nozzles and combustor development tasks defined in this project will serve national interests
by helping to maintain U.S. leadership in the gas turbine market for power generation applications. (DOE
award: $1.2 million; plus contractor cost-share, project duration: 32 months).

Project Summary: Partial Oxidation Gas Turbine for Power and Hydrogen Co-Production from Coal Derived
Fuel in Industrial Applications
Participant: Gas Technology Institute (GTI)

The objective of this project is to provide a detailed assessment and evaluation of the feasibility, opportunities,
and challenges of using MW-scale Partial Oxidation Gas Turbines (POGT) for coal-based co-production of
electricity and hydrogen or syngas for steel, forest and paper, oil refinery, food, and other industries. The
feasibility and performance assessments will be conducted for turbine-based plants that are integrated and
optimized to provide high efficiencies, ultra-low emissions of criteria pollutants (2 ppm NOx), and reduced
costs.

This assessment and evaluation project will build upon the existing POGT technology that has been under
development by GTI since 1995, and can be effectively combined with a coal gasifier. The POGT operates
under reducing conditions as a combustion gas turbine generating power through the partial oxidation of
the gasifier product gas, and achieving highly efficient extraction of both thermal and pressure energy from
the partially oxidized stream. Because of the partial oxidation reactions, the POGT also acts as a fuel
reformer to convert hydrocarbons that are present in gasifier product gas into hydrogen-rich syngas. The
ultra-low NOx emissions are achieved because the oxygen-deficient atmosphere suppresses NOx formation
and converts the NH3 and HCN present in the gasifier product gas into N2. The POGT uses a smaller air
compressor than an equivalent conventional gas turbine. All of these factors, combined with system
integration benefits, will provide significant cost reductions for industrial applications.

In this project, the Team will conduct detailed techno-economic and engineering assessments of a plant
consisting of a coal gasifier, a POGT, and a hydrogen purification unit, with emphasis on the POGT. The
POGT evaluation will be based on the analytical, experimental, and modeling results from ongoing GTI
projects. The engineering evaluation of modifications needed to convert a conventional gas turbine to POGT
will be based on, but not limited to, estimates by two leading turbine manufacturers (Solar and SWPC) for
converting their own product lines and future planned products. A comprehensive market evaluation will be
conducted to define the specifics and applicability of the proposed system in different industrial segments.
System configurations will be chosen for specific applications and required co-products. These selected
configurations will be optimized to provide the best achievable energy efficiency, and lowest emissions. The
major result of the project will be an R&D Implementation Plan, cost, and schedule to bring the technology to
commercialization, and an R&D Plan for modification of one or more existing gas turbines to a POGT will be
developed and reported to DOE.

Large industrial users (in particular, the steel, glass, forest and paper, oil refinery, and food industries) will
directly benefit from this project. GTI anticipates that this new technology, providing a single on-site source
of co-products from coal (electricity, syngas, or hydrogen), will provide customers with reduced product costs
and improved efficiencies.

GTI will lead a team that includes Solar Turbines Incorporated (Solar) and Siemens Westinghouse Power
Corporation (SWPC). These gas turbine manufacturers command a large share of the current world turbine
market, where Solars share of the 1- to 30-MW gas turbine market is the largest of all manufacturers. SWPC

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6.0.1 The DOE Turbine Program: Overall Program Description

is one of the largest worldwide vendors of gas turbine technology in the 30- to 100-MW range. The team will
also include Oak Ridge National Lab to assist with material studies for POGT components, and Georgia Tech
University as a major U.S. expert in basic combustion science and flame stability. This team has the
experience, the resources, and the will to bring this new technology to the industrial marketplace quickly and
effectively. The U.S. energy markets, overall U.S. economy, and U.S. taxpayers will benefit from the project
due to a wider use of domestically available coal for industrial energy needs, which will replace imported
premium fuels. (DOE award: $999,992; plus contractor cost-share, project duration: 22 months)

Project Summary: Super Sonic Shock Compression for the Efficient Compression of Large Volumes of
Carbon Dioxide (CID: 42651)
Participant: Ramgen Power Systems, Inc.

Ramgen Power Systems is applying its super sonic shock wave compression technology toward the efficient
and cost-effective compression of large quantities of CO2 for sequestration. Ramgen will design, validate,
fabricate, and test a 100:1 pressure ratio, two-stage super-sonic compressor through three phases and 5 years
of development. The development plan has numerous design reviews, risk assessments and go/no-go
decision points. At the conclusion of Phase III, the sub-scale pre-commercial test unit will be the basis for a
full-scale optimization and test program.

The benefits of Ramgens technology approach are: fewer stages, higher efficiency, lower part count and
therefore lower capital and maintenance costs, and smaller size for comparable mass flow and pressure ratio.
Shock compression technology has the potential to simultaneously develop a very high compression ratio per
stage, and very high efficiency. Shock compression is affected by the mole weight of the gas. Since CO2 is
heavier than air, Ramgens shock compression approach benefits from the low speed of sound characteristic.
Conversely, conventional compressors are at a disadvantage with the heavy CO2 gas, because shocks are bad
for performance in a conventional compressor. This allows Ramgen to build a 2-stage CO2 shock compressor
for a pressure ratio of 100:1, while conventional technology will typically require six stages of compression.
The efficiency of the shock compression system will be at least as good as conventional approaches.

In addition, development of Ramgens compression technology is cross-cutting and capable of delivering


benefits to many of the technical areas of concern in zero-emission clean coal facilities. These benefits
include high-efficiency electric and fuel-fired air compressors to reduce the significant operating and capital
cost of the supporting Air Separation Unit (ASU) subsystem, both for cryogenic and Ionic Transport
Membrane (ITM) technologies. (DOE award: $11 million; plus contractor cost-share, project duration: 60
months)

Project Summary: Novel Concepts for the Compression of Large Volumes of Carbon Dioxide (CID: 42650)
Participant: Southwest Research Institute

In the effort to reduce the release of CO2 greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, sequestration of CO2 from
IGCC and oxy-fuel power plants is being proposed. This approach, however, requires significant compression
power to boost the pressure of CO2 to typical pipeline levels. The penalty can be as high as 812% on a
typical IGCC plant. The goal of this project is to reduce this penalty through novel compression concepts and
integration with existing IGCC processes.

The primary objective of this project is to boost the pressure of CO2 to pipeline pressures with the minimal
amount of energy required. First, fundamental thermodynamics will be studied to explore whether pressure
increases in liquid or gaseous states would be preferred. Since the first phase of the project involves
conceptual brainstorming, flexibility has been built into the project to permit investigation of several concepts.

For gaseous compression, the project seeks to develop novel methods to compress CO2 while removing the
heat of compression that is internal to the compressor. The high pressure ratio compression of CO2 results in
significant heat of compression. Since less energy is required to boost the pressure of a cool gas, both
upstream and inter-stage cooling is desirable. While isothermal compression has been utilized in some
services, it has not been optimized for the IGCC environment. This project will determine the optimum
compressor configuration and develop technology for internal heat removal. Furthermore, other process

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Richard Dennis

streams within the IGCC environment will be utilized to provide a total system solution by fully integrating
the air separation units, combined cycle, and the gas cleanup system. Other concepts that liquefy the CO2 and
boost pressure through cryogenic pumping will be explored as well.

Phase I will identify the concept that best meets the efficiency goals and integrates into the IGCC
environment. Based on the selected concept, Phase II will design the optimum solution and perform prototype
development testing. Phase III will apply a full-scale compression solution to an existing IGCC plant. This
project is being co-funded by Dresser-Rand Company. (DOE award: $175,033; plus contractor cost-share,
project duration: 12 months, Phase II and III were not awarded).

Project Summary: Systems Analyses of Advanced Brayton Cycles for High Efficiency Zero-Emission Plants
(CID: 42652)
Participant: Advanced Power and Energy Program (APEP), University of California at Irvine

The FutureGen plant concept is aimed at reducing the environmental impacts of fossil fuel usage while
generating electric power and providing a clean fuel for transportation and for distributed power generation.
Developing turbine technology to operate on coal-derived synthesis gas and hydrogen is critical to the
development of advanced power generation technologies and the deployment of FutureGen plants. The
FutureGen plant concept may also be deployed in natural gas based plants with respect to generating power
with near-zero emissions, while utilizing these advanced Brayton cycle machines and securing fuel diversity.
This APEP project therefore represents a key investment in implementing the FutureGen concept, and in
helping to secure clean, efficient, affordable and fuel-flexible electric power generation for the U.S. As with
the other turbine projects, APEP also will help make possible the continued use of our nations largest
domestic fossil energy resource, coal.

Numerous projections estimate that gas turbines will comprise a significant portion of the required generation
capacity in the 21st century. Novel advanced gas turbine cycle modifications, intended to improve the basic
Brayton cycle performance and reduce pollutant emissions, are currently under development or being
investigated by gas turbine manufacturers and R&D organizations. Preliminary conceptual analyses of
advanced cycles indicate that it may be possible to achieve an improved combination of efficiency, emissions,
and specific power output, which in turn should reduce the power generation equipment cost on a $/kW basis.
Thus, a need exists to evaluate advanced Brayton cycles and identify the best opportunities worthy of support
by DOE for their development, and to assess their R&D needs and the most likely commercialization path.

APEP will focus this study on defining advanced Brayton cycles and addressing the key technologies needed
to enable development of such advanced turbines and turbine-based systems that will operate cleanly and
efficiently when fueled with coal-derived synthesis gas, hydrogen fuels, and natural gas. System integration
issues will be addressed that will allow the combination of high-performance technology modules and
subsystems into safe, reliable, environmentally friendly, and economic power plants.
Specifically, the project will develop concept(s) and present approach(es) that will increase the state-of-the-
art Brayton cycle (in a combined-cycle application) from todays 5860% efficiency (LHV on natural gas) to
>65% equivalent efficiency. The proposed machine(s) will consider integration into advanced coal-based and
natural gas-based zero-emission systems, with the ability to attain a 60% (HHV coal) efficiency and 75%
(LHV natural gas) efficiency respectively (prior to carbon separation and capture). Options for zero CO2
emissions will be considered for both coal- and natural gas-based plants, and will show how the turbine
design, operation, and overall system performance are affected. The integration of subsystem technologies
such as advanced gasifiers, membrane technology for air and H2 separation, and fuel cells as they evolve, will
be accounted for in the advanced Brayton cycle design(s), while performance of the resulting integrated
advanced systems will be quantified. Start-up, shutdown, and off-design operating needs will be taken into
account while configuring the advanced cycles. (DOE award: $603,012; Plus contractor cost-share, project
duration: 24 months)

Project Summary: Catalytic Combustion for Fuel Flexible Turbine (CID: 41891)
Participant: Siemens Westinghouse Power Corp.

11
6.0.1 The DOE Turbine Program: Overall Program Description

Under the sponsorship of NETL, a team of organizations led by Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation
(SWPC) proposes a 3-year R&D program entitled Catalytic Combustor for Fuel Flexible Turbines. In this
program, the team will develop and demonstrate a cost effective catalytic-based turbine combustor that will
achieve the aggressive target of 2 parts per million NOx emissions at the turbine exhaust without the need for
expensive back-end after treatment systems currently employed in gas turbine combined cycle generating
plants.

The catalytic combustor will be suitable both for retrofit into the installed base of operating turbines and also
for deployment in the latest generation of advanced, high firing-temperature turbines, while achieving the low
emissions objective at even the high firing temperatures of advanced turbines. The combustor will support
fuel-flexible power generating facilities, with equal performance capabilities when operating on either
conventional natural gas fuels or on synthetic fuels derived from coal. The program supports objectives of
highly efficient, environmentally friendly power generating plants operating on our nations abundant
resource of coal reserves. The program culminates in the demonstration of the combustor on syngas at the
Power Systems Development Facility in Wilsonville, Alabama.

SWPC has teamed with Solar Turbines, Penn State University, and Southern Company Services in the pursuit
of the program objectives. (DOE award: $6,998,071; Plus contractor cost-share, project duration: 45 months)

Summary: Heat Transfer in Advanced Hydrogen Fueled and Oxy-fuel Turbines


Participant: Ames Laboratory/Iowa State University

The purpose of this project is to analyze gas turbine thermal performance with a variety of new fuels, and
optimize heat transfer within the turbine. Initially, the work will focus on cooling needs of turbines with new
fuels, and then work toward a system-based understanding of turbine performance.

Developing turbine technologies to operate on coal-derived synthesis gas (syngas) and hydrogen fuels is
critical to the development of advanced power generation technologies such as integrated gasification
combined cycle (IGCC) and the deployment of FutureGen type power plants that can lead to the capture and
separation of carbon dioxide (CO2). The goal of this project is to develop an analysis tool that can be used to
examine and explore heat transfer design and operation issues in turbine components to support the
development of turbine technologies used in advanced coal-based power systems. The tool will consider heat
transfer from the hot gases, thermal barrier coating systems that protect the superalloys, and cooling strategy
as a function of:
1. Fuel used (natural gas, syngas with different ratio of CO/H2, H2)
2. Firing temperature and turbine inlet temperature that account for convective and radiation heat transfer to
the combustor walls and combustion kinetics
3. Amount of diluents and the diluents used (e.g., N2, steam, or CO2 to control NOx formation)
4. Water steam content and different ratio of CO2/H2O in the working fluid
5. Mass flow rate
6. Cooling strategy with and without turbine blade cooling
7. Different thermo cycles (e.g., coal-based oxy-fuel Rankine cycles or advanced Brayton cycles).

As a first step for this project, the primary goal is to conduct a thorough literature survey on what has been
done and assess available modeling methods and codes.

This includes:
1. Available studies on applications of gas turbine (originally designed for natural gas) fueled with
syngas, and reports on existing gas turbine fueled with syngas in IGCC power plants. The focus is
on thermal management, heat transfer, and failure mode.
2. Studies on H2 fuel combustion and its effect on turbine heat transfer.
3. Studies on syngas fuel combustion with CO2 sequestration and its effect on turbine heat transfer
4. Studies on different working fluid (e.g., CO2, CO2 plus water vapor, or water vapor only)
5. Assess available turbine design tools.

12
Richard Dennis

IGCC Turbine Issues


Turbine inlet temperature. So far, power generation gas turbines have been designed for the utilization of
natural gas fuel. When they are used in IGCC applications, i.e., using syngas as fuel, the machines are derated
in firing temperature to accommodate long term operational issues associated with excessive temperature of
materials in the hot gas path. This temperature reduction is believed to be on the order of 200300_F for the
current F-frame machines when compare to the same machine fired on natural gas. This temperature
reduction has a directed affect on system efficiency. With the increase of turbine inlet temperatures, material
degradation issues will be evaluated and improvements to thermal barrier coatings explored.
Heat flux increase. Besides the firing temperature, the heat flux conditions can also affect the material
temperatures. For the combustion of the coal derived syngas, oxidants and diluents determine heat flux
conditions at critical hot gas path locations. Heat flux can increase depending on the combustion by products
and the diluent used to control NOx emissions. Higher heat flux conditions gives rise to higher material
temperatures.
Mass flow increase. Furthermore, commercially available gas turbines have been developed for the use of
natural gas, i.e., a fuel with high calorific value (LHV). With these turbines adapted to the use of syngas, a
low LHV fuel, the gas turbine encounters two major changes:
1. For the same fuel heat input, the fuel mass flow is several times greater than for natural gas, due to the
lower LHV.
2. Diffusion burners are used with syngas, and control of NOx is achieved by diluting the syngas with
nitrogen, steam or carbon dioxide.

These two factors increase substantially the overall mass flow through the turbine. The higher mass flow
coupled with rotor torque limitations results in higher average temperature profiles at individual turbine
stages. Due to this situation, last stage blades may experience temperatures higher than the original design
specification. It is also believed that this higher mass flow and associated volume increase leads to higher
local velocities and higher local heat transfer coefficients.

The following factors will be considered in the heat transfer analysis tool development: (1) fuel used (e.g.,
natural gas, syngas (including different ratio of CO/H2), H2; (2) firing temperature; (3) amount of diluents
and diluents used (e.g., N2, water vapor, or CO2 to control NOx formation); (4) amount of water and different
ratios of CO2/water in the working fluid; (5) mass flow rate; (6) different cooling strategies with and without
a thermal barrier coating; and (7) different thermo cycles (e.g., coal based oxy-fuel Rankine cycles and
advanced Brayton cycles).

Ames will conduct a thorough survey on what has been done so far, and available modeling methods and
codes will be assessed. This study will include: (1) available studies on applications of gas turbine (originally
designed for natural gas) fueled with syngas, and reports on existing gas turbine fueled with syngas in IGCC
power plants, the focus is on thermal management, heat transfer and failure mode, (2) studies on H2 fuel
combustion and its effect on turbine heat transfer, (3) studies on syngas fuel combustion with CO2
sequestration and its effect on turbine heat transfer, (4) studies on different working fluid, i.e., CO2,
CO2+water vapor, or water steam only, and (5) an assessment of available turbine design methods, codes and
tools.

For this project, Ames will work closely with engineers and researchers at NETL and at the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory to ensure that the work is relevant and compliments other related activities on-going at
those laboratories.

Project Summary: Material Issues in Coal-Derived Synthesis Gas/Hydrogen-Fired Turbines


Participant: Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Large gas turbines (i.e., about 250 MWe) firing on natural gas have been operating in combined-cycle
systems since the mid 1990s, providing around 400 MWe of power output with efficiencies in excess of 55%
in many cases, and with very low NOx and SOx emissions. Also, advanced concepts were evaluated to give
efficiencies of up to 60%. With the rising cost of natural gas in recent years (the price generally tracks that of
oil), attention has turned to the opportunities associated with the production of gas from coal (and from other
feedstocks, including waste products). One consequence has been an interest in improving the technology of

13
6.0.1 The DOE Turbine Program: Overall Program Description

gas turbines burning low-Btu gases, with the aim of building on the advances made with the current
generation of engines to improve generating efficiency with IGCC plant. In the United States, the FutureGen
Program is specifically focused on producing electricity, hydrogen, or chemical feedstocks via the
gasification of coal; in the power generation mode, gas turbines will be required to deliver efficiencies
comparable to the machines resulting from the U.S. Advanced Turbine Systems (ATS) Program (1), and NOx
levels < 5 ppm, while burning coal-derived syngas and / or hydrogen (2). Not unexpectedly, there are specific
problems associated with the combustion of low-Btu gas, depending on its source, which will require
additional development efforts, both in specific aspects of turbine design, and in materials performance, in
order to provide cost-effective solutions.

The objectives of this project are to provide materials guidelines for the reliable operation of gas turbines
when fired with syngas and H2-enriched fuel gases, in terms of firing temperature and fuel impurity levels
(water vapor content; sulfur; condensable species). The research effort in place aims to provide underpinning
understanding needed in the consideration of materials issues associated with these new operating conditions.
The intended outputs of this project are:
understanding of the factors limiting the firing temperatures of syngas turbines;
assessment of the potential for deposition, erosion, or corrosion (D-E-C) when firing syngas; and
evaluation of approaches for improved coatings to provide the basis for more robust hot gas path
components.

Current activities involve the development of a plan for addressing the overall materials and manufacturing
needs of syngas-fired turbines. Input for this plan is being obtained from a detailed review of published
literature concerning issues confronted in the combined cycle operation of gas turbines, with emphasis on
design and operating changes necessitated to allow operation on fuels other than natural gas; cycle analyses
that address the trade-off issues associated with optimizing the combined gas turbine and steam generation
system; as well as practical experience (where this is available and accessible). Reports from international
conferences, from demonstration programs in the U.S., Europe, and Japan, and from operating IGCC plants in
particular has been sought and critically reviewed. A report summarizing the outstanding materials and
manufacturing issues is being compiled, and the views of the GT manufacturers and materials suppliers and
other specialists on suggested priorities are being sought and incorporated. This preliminary listing of
materials needs and priorities will be tested at a workshop of turbine materials specialists, and the findings of
this workshop will be incorporated into the final draft of the Materials Needs Report.

This report is intended to summarize available information concerning the critical materials issues resulting
from the desire to increase the efficiency of operation of gas turbines applied to power generation and, in
particular, to achieve high efficiencies (and reduced emissions) with turbines fired by syngas and/or hydrogen
derived from coal. The effort has involved a review of published information from the U.S., Europe, and
Japan, including input from various current major programs (where available) which are mainly focused on
the materials needs for advanced, natural gas-fired turbines, as well as an attempt to understand differences
that arise from adaptation of these technologies to firing the coal derived fuels of interest. Since there is little
published information concerning changes in design or materials needed because of specific influences of
alternative fuels on the performance of gas turbines, contacts have been made with key organizations
involved in pilot/demonstration IGCC projects to obtain reports and/or first-hand information, and visits have
been made (or are planned) to the major U.S. gas turbine manufacturers. It was considered particularly
important to initiate an interaction with the General Electric Company, because of its activities (including the
recent acquisition of the Texaco/Chevron gasification technology) intended to position the company as a
leader in supplying complete IGCC plants.

Project Summary: Low-swirl Injectors for Hydrogen Gas Turbines in FutureGen Power Plants
Project Participant: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

This goal of this research is to develop a robust ultra-low emission combustor for the gas turbines in
FutureGen power plants that burn hydrogen derived from gasification of coal. The objective is to adapt low-
swirl combustion (LSC) to these utility size turbines. LSC is a dry-low-NOx method conceived at LBNL.
Under DOE-EERE, this technology has been commercialized for industrial heaters by Maxon Corp. of
Muncie, Indiana. DOE Office of Electricity is supporting its development for natural gas and fuel-flexible

14
Richard Dennis

industrial turbines (5 7 MW) in partnership with Solar Turbines of San Diego, CA. The California Energy
Commission is supporting a combined heat and power project that includes the development of LSC for
Elliott Energy Systems 100 kW microturbine. This research leverages the knowledge and experience gained
from these R&D activities.
FutureGen power plants produce hydrogen which is separated from a concentrated CO2 stream that is then
captured for subsequent sequestration. One of its key components is a cost-competitive all-hydrogen fueled
turbine with ultra low NOx emission and high efficiency. To lower NOx, the current approach is to operate
the H2 turbine at lower firing temperatures in combination with selective catalytic reductions (SCR). This
approach sacrifices efficiency and impacts costs of electricity (via capital cost, efficiency and capacity output).
Therefore, a cost-effective combustion technology that meets the FurtureGen emissions and efficiency targets
is critical to achieving its ultimate goal of no more than a 10% increase in cost of electricity for mature
FutureGen type plants that include CO2 capture and sequestration.
Preliminary laboratory studies have shown that LSC has good promise to be an effective enabling technology
for the H2 turbine to meet the FutureGen goals of 2 ppm NOx (@ 15% O2) at a firing temperature of 2500to
2600F. LSC is a sophisticated yet simple and very cost effective combustion technology that can operate with
a variety of gaseous fuels including H2 fuel blends under a broad range of inlet and outlet conditions. As one
of the components of a complex and fully-integrated FurtureGen power plant, the H2 turbines have to be
reliable and sufficiently flexible and adaptable to meet the inlet and outlet requirements without
compromising electricity output efficiency and emissions. With LSC, the H2 turbine will have greater
flexibility in their operations than is achievable by current technology. Greater flexibility provides more
options for developing a power plant scheme that offers an optimum balance between efficiency, reliability,
emissions and costs through intelligent integration of technologies including gasification, separation
technologies, combustion turbines, and steam turbines without the need to invoke SCR for exhaust gas
cleanup.

The feasibility of burning H2 in a LSI has been demonstrated in a recent laboratory study of the fuel effects
on LSI flow fields and flame characteristics [3]. The fuels tested in this study consist of seven diluted and
undiluted hydrocarbon mixtures, pure H2 and a fuel mixture consisting of 50% H2 and 50% CO2. The lean
blowoff limits for the two H2 fuels are found to be less than 0.2 and are close to the theoretical flammability
limit. These results demonstrate the LSIs capability to support ultra-lean premixed turbulent flames with H2
fuel mixtures. Within the velocity range afforded by our experimental setup (3 < U < 9 m/s) intermittent
attachment of the H2 flame to the LSI rim occur at greater than 0.3 showing that the high diffusivity of H2
can lead to phenomena that are unique to H2 firing. However, the significant conclusion of this study is that
the NOx emissions from the hydrocarbon fuels depends primarily on the adiabatic flame temperature set by
the fuel air equivalence ratio. For the very lean H2 flames (< 0.3), the NOx emissions are below the
detectable limit of our instrumentation (0-5 ppm).

This study demonstrates that the LSI concept is amenable to a very wide range of gaseous fuel mixtures. The
reason is due to the self-similarity of the LSI flow field and its linear coupling with the turbulent flame speed.
By invoking an analytical equation for the flame position that involves the self-similarity parameters, the
turbulent flame speed and turbulence intensity, we obtain a theoretical proof on why the LSI enables the lifted
flame to remain stationary throughout a very wide range of velocities from 5 to 80 m/s. The analytic model
based on this equation [4] also shows that the higher H2 flame speeds are not expected to cause a significant
change in the overall behaviors of the flame and the LSI flow field. It indicates that the first order effect of
switching from hydrocarbon to H2 is associated with a change in the correlation of its turbulent flame speed
with the turbulence intensity. The change can be accommodated by adjusting the swirl number of the LSI.
The second order effects will be associated with heat release and higher H2 diffusivity. Therefore, the
knowledge and insights gain from this study and the analytical model grounded on fluid mechanics and
turbulent combustion theories will be useful for guiding the developmental effort to optimize the LSI for
FutureGen turbines.

FY06 Define H2 LSI specifications and develop a skeletal R&D plan


As in our prior technology developments, a close partnership with gas turbine OEM is critical to the success
of this research. In FY06, the initial step is to discuss with their combustion engineers to obtain a preliminary
set of specifications for the configuration as well as the operational and performance criteria of their H2
turbines being developed for FutureGen. These include information on the geometric arrangement, the

15
6.0.1 The DOE Turbine Program: Overall Program Description

physical size, the form factor and the number of injectors and the size and shape and size of the combustion
chamber, the anticipated fuel compositions (i.e. H2 and the anticipated concentrations of N2 as a diluent) the
firing temperatures, firing pressures, firing rates for the injectors, and exit temperature etc. The outcome will
be an assessment of the compatibility of LSI with their hardware and a skeletal research and development
plan that highlights the critical issues as well as the pathways, and the roles and responsibilities toward
resolving them.

In parallel to the discussion with OEMs, laboratory studies will be conducted to obtain the basic information
needed to optimize the LSI for H2. These experiments will include the measurement and correlation of the
turbulent flame speed for diluted H2 fuels as well as simulated syngases. Our air flow supply systems will be
upgraded to enable experiments at velocities up to 20 m/s. Operating the LSI at higher velocities will allow us
to better understand the second order effects such as intermittent flame attachments and heat release.

FY07 Design and fabricate H2 LSI prototype

For H2 turbines, the challenges in achieving ultra-low emissions while balancing the tradeoffs between
efficiency, complexity, reliability and costs are similar to those for natural gas turbines. The design of the H2
fueled LSI, however, needs to address additional specific issues concerning with the high flame temperatures,
faster flame speeds, auto-ignition risk, shorter premixing, preferential diffusion, and inherent H2 flame
instability. Our approach in FY07 is to follow the development pathway for natural gas turbines by applying
our understanding of the LSC principle to optimize the LSI for burning lean H2 flames in a configuration that
is compatible with the proposed H2 combustor. In parallel, laboratory and analytical studies will continue and
focus on assessing the potential impact of the H2 fuel specific issues and seeking effective solutions. We
anticipate that the FutureGen H2 turbine will utilize diluents and staged premixing schemes (e.g. premixing
of H2 with N2 before injecting in air) to control auto-ignition and flashback. Mixing of an inert gas such as
N2 readily available from the coal gasification process into the H2 stream is an effective means to reduce
flame speed, lower flame temperature and increase ignition delays. For example, our estimation shows that
H2 with 50% N2 dilution at = 0.4 produces a flame temperature of about 2600F. A properly designed LSI
should be able to burn this mixture or similar mixtures of various combinations of N2 concentrations and
equivalence ratios. As to mitigating the hazards associated with auto ignition, the established approach is to
reduce the residence time by injecting the fuel as close as possible to the burner tip. The LSI is conducive to
this treatment because it can tolerate some variations in mixture homogeneity without sacrificing flame
stability and emissions. Additionally, there are other means that can further reduce the risks of auto-ignition
and flashback. One simple method worthy of consideration is by blending of N2 into the H2 stream prior to
injection into the air stream. Obviously, the optimum solution will depend on which combination of fuel
blend, fuel treatment and injection scheme would be the best to meet the specifications and requirements of
the OEM. The outcome of these studies will be applied to develop and fabricate a full-scale or pilot-scale
prototype H2 LSI. This prototype will include mixers and fuel injectors that can mitigate the H2 fuel related
issues.

Project Summary: Fuel Flexible Combustion System for Co-Production Plant Operations
Project Participant: GE

High-efficiency, low-emissions co-production plants that produce electric power, transportation fuels, and/or
chemicals from fossil fuel feed stocks require a new class of fuel flexible combustors. In this 36-month
program, a validated combustor approach will be developed which will enable single-digit NOx operation of
cogeneration plants with low-Btu off gas and high-hydrogen fuels, with the flexibility of process-independent
backup with both natural gas and liquid fuels. This combustion technology will overcome the limitations of
current syngas gas turbine combustion systems, which are designed on a site-by-site basis, and enable
improved plant designs. In this capacity, a fuel-flexible combustor will enhance the efficiency and
productivity of IGCC based coproduction plants.

One of the major challenges for coproduction plants is handling a fuel stream with a time varying heating
value and hydrogen content. In current Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle (IGCC) practice, the
combustor is tailored to the fuel properties at each site. In addition, there are emerging needs for high-
hydrogen fuels, which currently require diluent injection to meet emissions and safety constraints.

16
The approach in this program is to unify and improve these existing designs and introduce the latest
technology, where appropriate. A hybrid combustor, successfully incorporating the low-NOx performance of
our most advanced premixed combustion systems with enhanced versions of the Integrated Gasification
Combined-Cycle (IGCC) nozzles currently in production, will lead to a fuel-flexible combustor design
capable of meeting fuel flexible IGCC performance requirements. The success and the resultant quality of the
fuel-flexible combustion system is enhanced by the Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) quality process, which is a
statistically based methodology focused on flowing performance specifications and tolerances from the high
level of customer or power plant objectives down to the low level of component parts. The current process
capability of each component flows back up to understand the influence of its variability on system
performance.

Using this methodology with a conceptual plant configuration will ensure that the combustion system is
robust and flexible enough for highly efficient operation. The program focuses on plant optimization, low
emission combustor design, and development of tools for syngas flame modeling. A study of market fuel
variations and gas turbine combustor operating conditions will be studied to determine optimal plant
efficiency. The fuel space definition will be used with a combined cycle plant model to determine combustor
inlet and required firing conditions. The combustor design study will evaluate several design options in the
quest to define a design space that will meet the operating requirements. The flame modeling tools are based
upon fundamental data characterizing the syngas flames. Data for H2 flames and H2/CO mixtures has been
obtained at atmospheric pressures.

Project Summary: System Study for Improved Gas Turbine Performance for Coal IGCC Application
Project Participant: GE

This 15-month study will identify vital gas turbine parameters and quantify their role in meeting the overall
DOE Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle (IGCC) plant goals of 50% net HHV efficiency, $1,000/kW
capital cost, and low emissions. The proposed project will analyze and evaluate gas turbine conceptual cycle
designs, and quantify their influence on IGCC plant level performance. The study will provide DOE with
information as it develops strategies for identifying future technologies needed to advance IGCC gas turbine
performance.

A baseline conceptual IGCC system design will be established utilizing current General Electric (GE) F-class
gas turbine technology, based on a U.S. IGCC site such as the Tampa Electric Polk IGCC Project or the
Wabash River Coal Gasification Repowering Project. Confirmation of plant level performance goals would
help lead to the selection of gas turbine cycle concepts to be further investigated. An overall IGCC system
performance model will be constructed utilizing GE in-house proprietary software for the gas turbine and
steam turbine, and commercially available software for the balance of the systems. The model will be
exercised through parametric analysis to quantify gas turbine performance impact at IGCC plant system level.
Results from the system analysis will be used to identify gas turbine technology improvements for
development consideration in future program phases.

The proposed program will be performed through the following five major tasks utilizing GEs Design for
Six Sigma methodology:
Overall System Requirements Identification
Requirements Prioritization & Flow-Down to Gas Turbine Subsystem Level
IGCC Conceptual System Analysis
Gas Turbine Cycle Options vs. Requirements Evaluation
Recommendations for Gas Turbine Technical Improvements

In conclusion, the goals and project summaries outlined above represent the approach for the Advanced
Turbine program in the 2010, 2012, and 2015 time frames, and how these goals will be realized by way of
each project.

17
6.0.2
6.0.2 Combustion Strategies for Syngas and High-
Hydrogen Fuel

The technical challenges surrounding syngas and


hydrogen fuel combustion have been outlined in
section 3.1. Given the issues presented there,
various options can be considered for combustor
design and operation. First, it is critical to define
the type of combustion system that will be used.
There are two broad categories: diffusion flame
combustors, and premixed combustors. These are
described below, but before discussing the
combustion strategies, it is useful to review how
NOx pollutants are formed.

NOx formation

There are several routes to form NOx


pollutants and these may be broadly catalogued as
thermally-generated, flame-generated, or fuel-
bound NOx. Different authors use different names
to catalogue these mechanisms and there is still
continuing research to understand the most
prominent mechanisms at ultra-low NOx
conditions. For example, in hydrogen fueled
systems, the prominence of H radicals may
contribute to NOx in a manner that is different than
in systems fueled by natural gas [ 1].
Thermal NOx is formed by oxidation of
nitrogen in air and requires sufficient temperature
and time to produce NOx. A rule of thumb is that
below approximately 1700K, the residence time in
typical gas turbine combustors is not long enough to
produce significant thermal NOx. Where
temperatures higher than 1700K cannot be avoided,
it is necessary to limit residence time to control NOx
formation, which favors very short combustor
designs. Thermal NOx production also increases
with the square root of operating pressure, making it
more difficult to reduce in higher-pressure
aeroderivative gas turbines.
As the name implies, flame-generated NOx occurs in the flame front, created on
the short time scale associated with primary combustion reactions. There are a variety of
chemical mechanisms involved, all linked to intermediate combustion species that exist
only in the reaction zone of the flame. It is important to understand that in practical
combustors, the reaction zone is just a small portion of the total combustor volume most
of the combustor volume is sized to complete the relatively slow approach to equilibrium
products (notably CO to CO2 oxidation). Thus, residence time in the whole combustor
does not affect the flame-generated NOx produced a significantly different behavior
compared to thermal NOx. A convincing demonstration of this point was presented by
Leonard and Stegmaier 2 who studied multiple flame holders, operating conditions, and
residence times from 2 to 100 milliseconds, demonstrating that the flame temperature
alone (not residence time) determined the NOx production for emissions under 10 ppmv.
Fig. 1, adopted from [2], is useful to estimate the flame NOx produced at a given flame
temperature, accounting for ideal, and poor premixing (not carefully defined in [2]).
Note that the effect of poor premixing raises the NOx levels by as much as a factor of
three. These data were recorded in turbulent flames, where combustion products are
mixed with the fresh reactants right at the flame. It has been suggested that other
combustion configurations, without significant stirring between the flame front and
products, may reduce the flame generated NOx [ 3]. This may be the basis for NOx
reductions reported using low-swirl combustion in section 3.2.1.4.3
Finally, fuel-bound NOx is produced by nitrogen species in the fuel reacting with
air during combustion. For coal syngas, the most prominent fuel nitrogen species is
ammonia, generated during gasification from nitrogen compounds in coal. The ammonia
should ideally be removed from the fuel before entering the combustor, or it will be
converted to NOx by most combustion strategies. Where this is not possible, rich-lean
strategies have the most potential to reduce NOx pollutants. In this approach, combustion
is first carried out under fuel-rich conditions, followed by completing combustion under
fuel lean conditions. In fuel rich conditions, with sufficient residence times, the ammonia
can be reduced to nitrogen and water, rather than atmospheric oxygen. A number of
studies have been conducted to evaluate rich-lean combustion as an approach to reducing
fuel bound NOx. These studies have shown as much as 95% of the fuel ammonia can be
reduced to nitrogen and water using rich-lean combustion, with the remaining 5%
converting to NOx. [ 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. Untreated syngas ammonia concentrations can exceed
1000ppm, where even 5% conversion would lead to 50ppm NOx, which are well above
desired emissions levels. Thus, it is desirable to remove fuel ammonia during gas
cleanup, rather than rely on combustion techniques to reduce it to water and nitrogen.
George Richards

10

NOx (ppmvd) @15% O2


Poor Premixing
6
4

2
Ideal Premixing
1
1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950
Flame Temperature (K)

Fig. 3.1.1 NOx emissions, adopted from Leonard and Stegmaier [2].

Diffusion flame combustor

In this style of combustion, fuel and air are introduced in separate passages, and the flame
is stabilized where the fuel and air streams mix. Combustion reactions are typically so
fast that fuel and oxidant consumption is limited by transport to the reaction zone (i.e.,
diffusion), and the reaction proceeds locally at nearly stoichiometric conditions. The
Lewis number (Le) describes the ratio of thermal transport to species transport from this
reaction zone. Where Le = 1, the temperature in the reaction zone will equal the
adiabatic flame temperature because thermal energy diffuses away as fast as the reactants
are supplied. The fuel species in hydrocarbon combustion typically have fuel Lewis
numbers ( mix / Dij fuel ) in the range of 0.9 to 1.2, meaning that diffusion flame combustors
will have flame temperatures near the adiabatic flame temperature. These temperatures
are high enough to oxidize nitrogen in air, producing appreciable NOx pollutants.
Hydrogen itself has a fuel Lewis number as low as 0.4, making it even more difficult to
reduce NOx because the peak laminar flame temperatures are higher than adiabatic due to
differential diffusion effects. The effect of fuel Lewis number on flame temperature has
been observed experimentally as well as with direct numerical simulations (DNS). [ 9, 10]
Because of their high flame temperatures, diffusion flame combustors require
some method to achieve low-NOx performance. An obvious technique is to dilute the
fuel, lowering the adiabatic flame temperature. A common diluent is steam, which can
both lower the flame temperature, and reduce the production of non-thermal NOx. The
hydroxyl radical OH is increased by the presence of additional water, and these radicals
favorably scavenge HCN fragments which might otherwise produce NOx. Steam dilution
is already used on IGCC applications, but it is not completely desirable. The extra
energy that is needed to make steam from water is not recovered in the turbine expansion,
penalizing cycle efficiency, (but raising power output from the added mass flow). The
additional steam in the exhaust produces a modest increase in the turbine nozzle heat
transfer, raising metal temperatures. The protective thermal oxide layers in turbine
material sets can be affected by increased moisture levels. Finally, steam consumption
by stationary turbines should be minimized to conserve water resource. For these
reasons, any further development of diffusion flame combustors for IGCC applications
6.0.2 NETL Internal Combustion and Turbine Research

would ideally use nitrogen from the air separation plant, rather than steam. The amount
of nitrogen available for flame dilution is established by the engine cycle and the ASU,
and it can be shown that for example, hydrogen could be diluted up to about 50% with
nitrogen in a typical IGCC configuration. Unfortunately, this level of dilution produces
an adiabatic flame temperature around 2025 K, which is still too high for ultra-low NOx
performance.
Given the dilution limit on adiabatic flame temperature, it is important to consider
other methods to reduce the diffusion flame temperature. As noted above, the diffusion
flame temperature is set by the ratio of thermal diffusion away from the reaction zone to
heat generated by reactants. If the reaction zone is strained by fluid shear, it is
possible to change the balance between diffusion and reaction in the reaction zone,
changing the flame temperature. Strongly sheared flows can locally extinguish the
flame, providing opportunity for fuel air mixing before combustion is initiated elsewhere.
This raises the possibility that strong shearing could be used to make a diffusion flame
combustor behave more like a premixed combustor. The required levels of shearing
(known as stretch or strain) have not been fully characterized. These concepts are
discussed next.

Lean Direct Injection

Lean Direct Injection (LDI) combustion was developed as a low NOx alternative
to Lean Prevaporized Premixed (LPP) combustion for aircraft gas turbines, where the
inherent flashback and dynamic instability concerns of LPP combustion are considered
too great of a risk for flight application. In LDI combustors, liquid fuel is directly
injected into the combustion chamber, where it is mixed with air in the shortest possible
distance. The intent is to provide an essentially lean premixed fuel/air mixture that burns
in a low-NOx flame, similar to LPP combustors, which are discussed in the Premixed
Combustion section below [ 11, 12].
NOx performance is compromised in an LDI combustor if the fuel and air are not
perfectly mixed before combustion, creating regions with higher fuel content that burn
hotter and generate more NOx. Similarly, the mixture may burn upstream of the
premixed zone in a diffusion flame, with combustion occurring at stoichiometric
conditions that result in higher temperatures and NOx production. Nevertheless, flashback
and auto-ignition concerns are nearly eliminated in LDI combustors, and they can operate
over a wide turndown range with a high degree of static and dynamic stability using a
wide range of fuels.
The desire to burn high-hydrogen fuels in gas turbines used for power
applications raises similar concerns of flashback and instability when operating in the
Lean Premixed mode of combustion, so LDI combustors seem to be a natural fit for
burning these fuels in a low NOx gas turbine system. To demonstrate the potential of
LDI combustors, researchers at NASA Glenn have recently studied various low NOx LDI
concepts for pure hydrogen combustion in aircraft gas turbine combustors.[ 13] Five
separate injector concepts from different manufacturers were tested at aircraft gas turbine
conditions (4.8 13.6 atm., Tin = 600 1000 F). At low combustor exit temperatures, it
was possible to achieve very small NOx levels (~1 ppmv, wet, uncorrected). NOx
George Richards

emissions were primarily controlled by lowering equivalence ratios to limit combustion


temperatures, and no hydrogen dilution cases were considered.
One of the tested injectors at NASA Glenn was similar to those used in current
IGCC gas turbines that burn syngas, where fuel is injected axially into a swirling airflow.
Although this injector was very robust, it produced substantially higher NOx than the
other tested injectors. Some of the other tested injectors were similar to those studied
recently at GE Energy, where multiple fuel jets were injected at an angle into a central air
jet [ 14]. Their results show that more fuel injection ports per air jet reduce NOx emissions
due to higher fuel jet momentum and mixing. Increasing the number and decreasing the
size of the air jets is shown to reduce NOx by reducing the length of the combustion zone,
although this comes at the expense of increased combustor pressure drop. Similar
injector configurations studied at NASA Glenn had better NOx emissions, due in part to
the shortened combustion zone. However, in some cases, this also led to overheating
problems that led to failure of the injector, since the combustion zone was located much
closer to the fuel and air injectors.
Pressure drops in the NASA Glenn injectors were sometimes very large (4-25%).
Redesign and optimization for power gas turbines could reduce these pressure drops. In
addition, large pressure drops may have been required to reduce the flashback or
flameholding potential in those injector designs that operated more in a premixed
combustion mode than a diffusion combustion mode. As the injectors were tested on
pure hydrogen, dilution with nitrogen will reduce flame speeds and may decrease the
necessity for large injector pressure drops and high air velocities to avoid these issues.

Highly-strained diffusion flame combustors

Though not discussed explicitly in the above studies, successful LDI diffusion
flame combustors use jets of fuel and air that introduce high strain rates in the
combustion zone. In a pure diffusion flame, strain rate can be quantified by measuring or
calculating the velocity gradients in the mixing flow field. In regions of high strain and

3000 0.12
Tmax
2500 0.1
w NO (kg/m s) and X O

2000 0.08
Tmax (K)

1500 0.06
3

wNO
1000 0.04
10 XO
500 0.02

0 0
1 10 100 1000 10000
Strain Rate (1/s)

Figure 3.2.2: Strain rate effects, adapted from Sanders et. al. [15]. wNO = NO
formation rate, XO = O-atom mole fraction, Tmax = peak temperature
6.0.2 NETL Internal Combustion and Turbine Research

fluid shear, mixing rates and bulk transport rates are faster than chemical reaction rates,
thus local reactions are not allowed to go to completion before the flow carries the
combustion radicals away from the reaction zone. The net result of this process is a
reduction in peak flame temperature of a highly strained flame, which in turn reduces
thermal NOx production. It should be pointed out, however, that thermal NOx is not only
a function of temperature, but also of flame residence time and O-atom concentration in
the reaction zone. Increasing the flame strain also tends to reduce the residence time in
the flame, but it also can increase the O-atom concentration in the flame by an order of
magnitude. This effect is shown in Figure 3.2.2, where intermediate strain rates tend to
increase the production rate of NO due to the increased O-atom concentration, while at
high strain rates, the reduction in flame temperature overcomes the influence of the O-
atom concentration, and NO production rates are reduced [ 15]. This shows increased
strain rates as a possible path to reducing or effectively eliminating thermal NOx in a
diluted diffusion flame, where dilution of the fuel alone does not reduce flame
temperatures enough to satisfy ultra-low NOx emission goals.
Increased strain rates are typically attained by increasing the fuel and/or air jet
velocities to increase fluid shear, though at the expense of increased combustor pressure
drop. In addition, the static stability of the flame is a strong function of these jet
velocities, where too high of a jet velocity could cause the flame to blowout. Thus, flame
stability concerns place limits on allowable levels of flame strain, particularly for diluted
high-hydrogen content fuels, since flameholding ability is closely linked to the flame
speed of the fuel/air mixture, which decreases as more diluent is added to the fuel stream.
From this perspective, impinging fuel and air jet injector configurations [13,14] hold an
advantage over co-axial jet configurations, as forced mixing of the fuel and air should
improve the flameholding abilities of these diffusion flames.
Much more study could be done in this area to determine injector configurations
that maximize flame strain while minimizing stability and combustor pressure drop
concerns. In addition, the effect of strain rate on NOx emission from diffusion flames has
only been partially quantified for simple diffusion flames, and there are no such studies in
practical LDI-type diffusion flame combustors using hydrogen, syngas, and/or fuel
diluents. Other areas requiring further study include the effects of increased flame strain
on combustion efficiency and on in-flame NOx production mechanisms.

Premixed Combustion
As the name implies, premixed combustion is accomplished by mixing the fuel
and air upstream of the flame. The fuel-air ratio normalized by the stoichiometric value
is known as the equivalence ratio , and in many practical premixed turbine combustors,
has a value of slightly more than 0.5. Thus, there is approximately the fuel needed to
burn all the air, or conversely twice as much air as needed to burn all the fuel. The
excess air serves to dilute the combustion and keep the flame temperatures low enough to
avoid thermal NOx formation. While the concept of premixed combustion is simple and
effective at reducing NOx, it also has drawbacks. The combustor must operate in a very
narrow range of equivalence ratio to avoid blowout at (typically) < 0.5, and increasing
NOx formation for somewhat greater than 0.6. The combustor controls must include
some form of staging, since the range of desired exit temperatures usually cannot be
achieved with such a small range of . For example, if four fuel injectors are used in a
George Richards

combustor, it is possible to reduce the heat input 50% keeping two injectors operating,
but turning two off. The difficulty with this approach is that the air flow from inactive
injectors can quench the boundary of the flame from operating injectors, raising CO
emissions, but this can be addressed with good aerodynamic design. Staging in this
manner is used on commercial engines [ 16, 17]. Beyond simply de-activating injectors,
staging is also accomplished by operating some injectors at slightly richer equivalence
ratios, to improve flame stability. This can also be accomplished using pilots on
individual injectors. The pilot flame is typically supplied with some air for partial
premixing, and the pilot fuel circuit is controlled to achieve stable combustion at the
lowest possible NOx emissions, as described in the following section.

Tuning and Combustor Control

Balancing the fuel delivery among various fuel circuits to meet operating requirements is
known as tuning and has become a critical part of both commissioning and operating
low-emission gas turbines. Various strategies have been used, or are being developed so
that the emissions targets can be met with stable combustion. Because combustion
stability is affected by inlet temperature and fuel composition, tuning may need to be
adjusted to accommodate ambient environment temperatures and even fuel composition
[ 18]. In addition to controlling the fuel split, for some turbines, tuning may include
adjustment of compressor inlet guide vanes or bleeding compressor flow [18]. This
allows an adjustment of the combustor air flow at fixed compressor speed, providing
another tuning option even on single-speed (synchronous) gas turbines.

It is important to understand that turbines must be able to contend with requirements for
load rejection while low-emission combustors operate near the blowout condition.
Without careful development, cutting the fuel during load rejection can lead to flame
blowout, requiring (sometimes) unacceptable time to re-light and establish power, or
making the engine unable to meet grid requirements. An interesting account of the
development of combustor and control system required to meet stringent rejection
requirements is given in the references [ 19, 20].

On some engines, fast acting valves are used to enhance lean-blowout performance [ 21]
and allow operation right near the limits of stable combustion. A more advanced
concept is to modulate the fuel to counteract combustion oscillations, usually called
active combustion control. Active control has been studied in many research projects
[ 22, 23, 24], but has only been deployed on one test engine [ 25] and on one commercial
engine installation [ 26] to date.

An important aspect of combustion tuning and control is diagnosing conditions in the


combustor so that the control system can respond to maintain stable, low-emission
operation. For example, it is possible to improve engine operation by monitoring
combustion performance from available engine sensors [27]. A number of recent papers
have shown the potential of using flame optical signals, acoustic signals, or flame
ionization to monitor and control the combustion process [ 28, 29, 30].
Oxy-Fuel Combustion

As noted in section 1.3.1, advanced engine cycles using oxy-fuel combustion have been
proposed as a means of capturing CO2 from engine operation. These oxy-fuel cycles
require a different approach to combustor design because the combustion is ideally
operated at stoichiometric conditions having just enough oxygen to completely oxidize
the fuel. Oxygen is produced from air separation, such that any excess oxygen is
produced with an accompanying penalty to the overall cycle efficiency. In addition, after
the water is condensed from the exhaust, any excess oxygen should be eliminated from
the compressed CO2 to avoid corrosion in handling the CO2 gas. For these reasons, the
combustor design must achieve very high combustion efficiency at conditions with little
excess oxygen. This requirement places a premium on achieving high levels of mixing
uniformity in the combustor, because even modestly unmixed fuel stream will be starved
for oxygen. It should be noted that boiler designs also ideally operate near
stoichiometric, but typically use 1-3% excess oxygen, and have relatively long residence
times to complete fuel oxidation. For the oxy-fuel turbine, the excess oxygen would
ideally be lower, with much shorter residence times (~30ms) to avoid excessively large
pressurized combustion chambers. Oxy-fuel combustion for power cycles has been
studied in a number of papers [ 31, 32]. The easiest combustion strategy is to employ a
diffusion flame combustor. The stability and simple operation of diffusion flame systems
make them appealing for oxy-fuel systems. There is no need to control NOx, since the
products are sequestered, and there is otherwise little nitrogen in the combustor. Even
without sequestration, the peak flame temperature in diffusion flames can be controlled
by the level of diluent added, thereby avoiding NOx formation. Nevertheless, a potential
advantage of premixed combustion is that premixing the fuel and oxidant can reduce the
unmixed streams of fuel and oxygen that are created in diffusion flame systems where
relatively small fuel jets must penetrate and mix in the large combustion volume. There
is relatively little fundamental data on premixed oxy-fuel flames diluted by water or CO2
[ 33, 34] such that proposed designs must include some margin with respect to fundamental
issues like flame speed.
1
Konnov, A.A., Colson, G., De Ruyck, J. (2000). The new Route to Forming NO via NNH, Combustion
and Flame, Vol. 121, pp. 548-550.
2
Leonard, G., Stegmaier, J. (1994). Development of an Aeroderivative Gas Turbine Dry Low Emissions
Combustion System, ASME J. Eng. For Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 116, pp. 542 546.
3
Sattelmayer, T., Polifke, W., Winkler, D., Dobbeling, K., (1998). NOx-Abatement Potential of Lean-
Premixed Gas Turbine Combustors, ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 120,
pp. 48- 59.
4
Fietelberg, A. S., Lacey, M. A., (1997). The GE Rich-Quench-Lean Gas Turbine Combustor ASME 97-
GT-127.
5
Hasegawa,T., Sato, M., Ninomiya, T. (1997). Effect of Pressure On Emission Characteristics In LBG-
Fueled 1500C-Class Gas Turbine, ASME 97-GT-277.
6
97-GT-38 Constant, D. R., Bevan, D. M, Cannon, M. F., Kelsall, G. J. (1997). Development of an LCV
Fuel Gas Combustor for an Industrial Gas Turbine ASME 97-GT-38.
7
Folsom, B.A., C.W. Courtney, Heap, M. P. (1980). The Effects of LBG Composition and Combustor
Characteristics on Fuel NOx Formation, ASME J. Eng. Power, V102, pp459-467.
8
Domeracki, W.F., Dowdy, T. E., Bachovchin, D. M. (1997). Topping Combustor Status for Second-
Generation Pressurized Fluidized Bed Cycle Applications, ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines and Power, Vol.
119, pp. 27 33.
9
Takagi, T., Xu, Z. and Komiyama, M., Preferential Dissusion Effects on the Temperature in Usual and
Inverse Diffusion Flames, Comb. and Flame 106: 252-260 (1996).
10
Gabriel, R. Navedo, J. E. and Chen R.,, Effects of Fuel Lewis Number on Nitric Oxide Emission of
Diluted H2 Turbulent Jet Diffusion Flames, Comb. and Flame 121:525-534 (2000).
11
Tacina, R., Wey, C., Liang, P., and Mansour, A., A Low NOx Lean-Direct Injection, Multipoint
Integrated Module Combustor Concept for Advanced Aircraft Gas Turbines, Clean Air Conference, Porto,
Portugal, NASA/TM-2002-2111347.

12
Tacina, R. R., Wey, C., Choi, K. J., Flame Tube NOx Emissions Using a Lean-Direct-Wall-Injection
Combustor Concept, 37th Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, Salt Lake City, Utah, July 8-11, 2001,
AIAA-2001-3271.
13
Marek, C. J., Smith, T. D., and Kundu, K., "Low Emission Hydrogen Combustors for Gas Turbines
Using Lean Direct Injection," 41st Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, Tuscon, Arizona, AIAA-2005-
3776, July 10-13, 2005.
14
GE Energy, Premixer Design for High Hydrogen Fuels Final Report, DOE Cooperative Agreement
No. DE-FC26-03NT41893, November, 2005.
15
Sanders, J. P. H., Chen, J.-Y., and Gokalp, I., Flamelet-Based Modeling of NO Formation in Turbulent
Hydrogen Jet Diffusion Flames, Combustion And Flame, Vol. 111, pp. 1-15, 1997.
16
Joshi, N. D., Mongia, H. C., Leonard, G., Stegmaier, J. W., Vickers, E. C. (1998). Dry Low Emissions
Combustor Development, ASME 98-GT-310.
17
Lefebvre, A.H. (1998). Gas Turbine Combustion, 2nd ed, pp. 349, Taylor and Francis.
18
Sewell, J. B., Sobieski, P. A., (2005). Monitoring of Combustion Instabilities: Calpines Experience, in
Combustion Instabilities in Gas Turbine Engines, Lieuwen, T. C. , Yang, V. [eds.], American Institute of
Astronautics and Aeronautics, pp. 147 162.
19
Myers, G., Tegel, D., Feigl, M., Setzer, F., Bechtel, W., Fitts, D., Couture, B., Tuthill, R. (2003). Dry,
Low-Emissions For the H Heavy Duty Industrial Gas Turbines: Full-Scale Combustion System Rig Test
Results, ASME GT2003-38193.
20
Feigl, M., Setzer, F., Feigl-Varela, R., Myers, G., Sweet, B. (2005). Field Test Validation of the
DLN2.5H Combustion System on the 9H Gas Turbine at the Baglan Bay Power Station, ASME GT2005-
68843.
21
Mongia, H.C., Held, T. J., Hsiao, G. C., Pandalai, R.P. (2003). Challenges and Progress in Controlling
Dynamics in Gas Turbine Combustors. AIAA Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 822-
829.
22
Cohen, J. H., Rey, N.M., Jacobson, C. A., Anderson, T.J. (1999). Active Control of Combustion
Instabilities in a Liquid-Fueled Low-NOx Combustor. ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and
Power, Vol. 121, No. 2, pp. 281 - 284.
23
Sattinger, S.S, Neumeier, Y., Nabi, A., Zinn, B. T., Amos, D. J., Darling, D. D. (1998). Subscale
Demonstration of the Active Feedback Control of Gas Turbine Combustion Instabilities, ASME Paper 98-
GT- 258.
24
Jones, C. M., Lee, J. G., Santavicca, D. A. (1999). Closed-loop Active Control of Combustion
Instabilities Using Subharmonic Secondary Fuel Injection, Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 15, No.
2, pp. 1-7.
25
Richards, G. A., Thornton, J. D., Robey, E. H., Arellano, L (2004). Open-Loop Active Control Of
Combustion Dynamics On A Gas Turbine Engine, ASME IMECE2004-59702
26
Seume, J. R., Vortmeyer, N., Krause, W., Hermann, J., Hantschk, C.-C., Zangl, P., Gleis, S., Vortmeyer,
D., and Orthmann, A., (1998). Application of Active Combustion Instability Control to a Heavy Duty Gas
Turbine. ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 120, No. 4, pp. 721 -726.
27
Angello, L. C., Castaldini, C. (2004).Combustion Instability Tuning Guidelines: Understanding and
Mitigating Dynamic Instabilities in Modern Gas Turbine Combustors, ASME GT2004-54081.
28
Muruganandam, T., Seitzman, J.M. (2003). Optical Sensing of Lean Blowout Precursors in a Premixed
Swirl Stabilized Dump Combustor. ASME GT 2003-38104.
29
Lieuwen, T. (2004). Online Combustor Stability Assessement using Dynamic Pressure Data, ASME
GT2004-53149
30
Benson, K., Thornton, J. D., Straub, D. L., Huckaby, E. D., Richards, G. A. (2005). Flame Ionization
Sensor Integrated Into a Gas Turbine Fuel Nozzle, ASME Journal of Engineering For Gas Turbines and
Power, Vol. 127 pp. 42 - 48
31
Chorpening, B. Richards, G. A., Casleton, K. H., Woike, M., Willis, B., Hoffman, L., (2005).
Demonstration of a Reheat Combustor for Power Production with CO2 Sequestration. ASME Journal of
Engineering For Gas Turbines and Power, Vol 127, pp. 740 747.
32
Richards, G. A., Casleton, K. H., Chorpening, B. T., (2005). CO2 and H2O Diluted Oxy-Fuel
Combustion for Zero-Emission Power, Proc. IMecheE, Vol 219, Part A, J. Power and Energy, pp. 121
126.
33
Lewis, B., von Elbe, G., (1987). Combustion, Flames, and Explosions of Gases, 3rd ed. , ppAcademic
Press.
34
Koroll, G. W., Mulpuru, S. R., (1986). The Effect of Dilution with Steam and the Burning Velocity and
Structure of Premixed Hydorgen Flames, The Twenty First Symposium (international) On Combustion,
The Combustion Institute, pp. 1811-1819.
6.0.3
University Turbine 6.0.3-1 Introduction
Systems
The University Turbine Systems research (UTSR) Program began
Research Program in 1992, as part of the U.S. Department of Energys major development
program in gas turbines1. Between 1992 and 2001 the program was funded
with about $400 million of DOE money and a similar amount of contractor
money. Part of the program was a university research effort. Major emphasis
areas were university research projects, internships, and technology transfer.
The university program was coordinated by the South Carolina Institute for
Energy Studies (SCIES), a part of Clemson University, under the overall
direction of DOEs National Energy Technology Laboratory.
Total cost of the university research program from 1992 until 2001
was $35.5 million, of which $34.2 million came from DOE and $1.2 million
came from industry. The UTSR activity, which began in 2002, is budgeted
for $15 million in DOE funds and $750,000 from industry over 5 years.
More details on the UTSR Program can be found in note 12.
The DOE Program has continued since 2002 and is now called the
Turbine Program. The university activity is continuing as the University
Turbine Systems Research (UTSR) Program. In 2003, the UTSR program
shifted from an emphasis on natural gas fuel to research that supports a
future power industry needing turbines fueled by syngas and hydrogen
(SGH).
Under the university research program 108 universities in 40 states
did/do research in the elds of aerodynamics and heat transfer, combustion,
and materials. Besides the universities, the UTSR consortium includes
leading gas turbine original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and users,
and gas turbine component manufacturers. These companies comprise
the Industry Review Board (IRB), who recommend and track research
projects that are funded, and are the host sites for graduating seniors and
graduate students from UTSR universities placed for summer assignments
(Fellows).
Current IRB Member Companies are BP, Capstone Turbine
Corporation, Cinergy Energy Services, Clean Energy Systems, EPRI,
ExxonMobil, General Electric Company, Ingersoll Rand Energy Systems,
Parker Hannin, Pratt & Whitney/UTRC, Precision Combustion Inc.,
RAMGEN, Rolls-Royce, Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation, Solar
Turbines, Inc., Southern Company Services and Woodward FST. Voting
member companies are gas turbine manufacturers: GE, Pratt & Whitney,
Rolls-Royce, Siemens Westinghouse and Solar Turbines. The others are
Associate Member companies.

1. The overall program in 1992-2001 was called the Advanced


Turbine Systems (ATS) Program, and the university research
portion of ATS was called the Advanced Gas Turbine Systems
Research (AGTSR) Program.

An Academic Advisory Board (AAB) was formed in 2004 to


provide a mechanism for obtaining input from the academic community to
the UTSR program and to develop short courses on gas turbine technologies.
Their rst product was a short course in August 2004 on the impact of
synfuels on gas turbines. Current AAB members represent Virginia Tech,
Georgia Tech, U. of California Irvine, U. of Central Florida, Penn State, U.
of Connecticut, Brigham Young and U. of Wisconsin.

The program is geographically broad based, see gure 1.66

43766
Fig. 1. The UTSR Process

The point of the research program is to address the goals of the DOE Turbine Program while producing results that are useful to
the gas turbine industry. In order to achieve that outcome the program is designed with signicant input from industry, through the IRB.
The IRB and DOE decide which research topics are most relevant to their needs, in the areas of a) combustion, b) materials focusing
on thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) and c) aerodynamics / heat transfer focused on the turbine section of the gas turbine. These topics
dene the requested research in the Request for Proposals released yearly to the UTSR universities.
Then, after the proposals come in from the universities, the IRB ranks them within each of the three subject areas and
recommends a short list to DOE for funding in the annual IRB meeting. The short list is created in rank order starting with the most
important proposal and ending where the expected funding runs out, plus typically two backup proposals in case there is extra funding
or enough cost savings can be achieved on the selected ones to fund more projects.
The typical project lasts for three years, averaging about $150K per year. So each year, the available funding needs to cover
projects that were started one and two years ago in addition to the rst year costs of new projects.
There is considerable communication between industry, the universities, DOE and SCIES, designed to keep the program
relevant to the needs of industry, DOEs priorities, and the capabilities and ideas from the universities. The overall process of the UTSR
Program is illustrated in gure 2.

Fig. 2. Research Program

438
William H. Day, Richard A. Wenglarz and Lawrence P. Golan

Since its inception in 1992, the UTSR research program has launched 103 projects, including 77 completed, 21 underway
and 5 announced but not yet started. By visiting the website mentioned in note 1 the reader can select descriptions of each project
and search by Principal Investigator or University3.
Considerable results of use to industry have been achieved from these projects. A sampling of some of the most signicant
are listed below in the three technical areas of concentration.

MATERIALS (THERMAL BARRIER COATINGS):

Laser uorescence (LF) was determined to be the most promising technique for non-destructive evaluation (NDE) of TBCs
and a UTSR projected started the commercial development of a new low cost and portable NDE instrument.

Processing approaches have been identied that can increase TBC lifetimes by a factor of four and more.

A new Small Particle Plasma Spray (SPPS) process was shown to produce a factor of two lower internal oxidation rate of the
bond coat and TBC coatings that experience lower fatigue damage.

Two superior alloys and one coating were identied for operation at surface temperatures above 700 C (1290 F which did not
experience signicant degradation associated with water vapor effects, signicant to operation with syngas fuel.

COMBUSTION:

Active control approach to overcome instabilities in low emission turbine combustors. A factor of four reduction in
combustor pressure oscillations was demonstrated, and several gas turbine companies have started projects to evaluate
application of the approach to their combustors.

Method to determine the stability margin of combustors before experiencing problems in the eld.

Computer code for NOx and CO emissions prediction design of low emission turbine combustors. The code has shown a
factor of forty reduction in computation times.

Devices using infrared light for measuring fuel-air mixedness in combustors. Less than one-third of the cost of laser
devices for measuring mixedness and are more compact and rugged.

AERODYNAMICS / HEAT TRANSFER:

Experiments showing a scientic foundation for use of a ne water mist in steam for cooling high temperature turbine
components. The addition of 1% water mist can enhance cooling by 50 to 100%, and in best cases, as much as 700%.

Internal surface features within channels improve turbine blade cooling. Dimples on the interior of cooling channels can
improve cooling effectiveness by as much as a factor of two, signicant for operation with syngas fuels.

LES (Large Eddy Simulation) computational approaches improve predictions of heat transfer and design of turbine blade
cooling. This enables less coolant air to improve turbine performance.

Illustrations of a few of the completed projects are shown in gures 3 5.

439
6.0.3 University Turbine Systems Research Program

Fig. 3. Improvement in Life of Thermal Barrier Coatings

Fig. 4. Reduction in Combustor Pressure Oscillations

Fig. 5. Improved Turbine Cooling Design 440


William H. Day, Richard A. Wenglarz and Lawrence P. Golan

6.0.3-2 The Challenge of Synfuels


The use of coal-derived synfuels poses particular issues to the designers of the hot parts of the gas turbine. Table 1 summarizes the
major turbine research challenges and suggested means to overcome them.

Table 1

Issue Syn-H2 Gas Introduces Description Challenge/Resolution

Current combustors cannot manage this


Syngas to natural gas variability is as
Heating Value Variability variability and research is needed to aid design of
much as 20:1.
combustors that will.

Flash back is an issue for H2 bearing fuels and


Constituent proportions vary research on ashback will also aid design of
signicantly; for example H2 can vary natural gas turbines.
Gas Constituent Variability 8.6% to 44%. Amount of H2O in the Increased mass ow has required down rating of
combustion process will be signicantly current designs.
greater than for conventional fuels. Design to prevent combustion instabilities is
complicated by fuel variability

Research for more robust barrier blade coatings


Mixed gases (H2O, salt, etc.) attack
Blade coatings is justied in order to increase operating
current airfoil base materials.
temperature and life.

Increased heat transfer to components Research to gain improved understanding of heat


Heat Transfer
results for syngas-hydrogen fuels. transfer mechanisms for syngas is justied.

Research needed to gain improved


Syngas deposits will cause special understandings of consequences such as blade
Deposits
problems not now fully understood. wakes, reduced ow passageways, and clogging
of lm cooling holes.

Research is needed to understand rates and


consequence of blade passage wear, especially
in blade tip region. TBC degradation and
Erosion-corrosion issues not fully
Erosion-Corrosion spalling need to be understand in order to allow
understood.
operation at higher more optimal temperatures.
Contribution of syngas contaminants need
improved understanding.

Flashback due to H2 in the fuel, leanness limits


Flashback is an issue and increased
to support low NOx and residence time needs for
Combustion residence time is needed for CO burn-
CO burnout, must be researched separately and in
up.
an integrated sense.

Research is very important to aid prediction of


Syngas-hydrogen fuels are likely to
slow failures that would result in environmental
Prediction of Problems challenge predictive understanding of
issues, accelerated blade degradation, hindrance
turbine robustness.
of engine cycling.

441
6.0.3 University Turbine Systems Research Program

6.0.3 Gas Turbine Industrial Fellowship


As part of the UTSR Program, the Gas Turbine Industrial Fellowship Program offers students valuable work experience and
the opportunity to practice the art of engineering in an industrial setting. Discipline areas, as applied to land-based gas turbine power
generation systems, include mechanical design and manufacturing, heat transfer, aerodynamics, combustion, thermodynamic analyses,
materials and coatings, and testing and evaluation.
Emphasis is placed on gas turbine component design and manufacturing techniques, using state-of-the-art experimental and
computational facilities. UTSR professors and industry engineering staff serve as mentors and advisors for the fellows. Students
are exposed to gas turbine design techniques, analysis and system optimization methods, design limitations and practical problems
encountered in the industry.
Fellows participate in a 10-12 week work experience at turbine industry sites (manufacturers and end users). In order to
participate in the program, students must be in good standing in an appropriate degree program at an accredited U.S. college or university
that is a UTSR Performing Member. The program targets B.S. (graduating seniors), M.S. and Ph.D. graduate students. Applicants
must be U.S. citizens or permanent resident aliens. The applicants selection is based on academic record, aptitude and gas turbine
engineering interest, as well as the recommendation of the applicants advisor and engineering instructors.
Fellows are paid a stipend of $700, $800, or $900 per week, depending on academic status of BS, MS or Ph.D. respectively,
plus a one-time payment of $1200 to help cover travel and relocation expenses. Further details and background can be found in note
44.

Process of the Fellowship Program

Selection of Fellows: Annually, an announcement of the program is released, and applications are received and reviewed by
industry. The applicants rank the companies they most want to work for, and the IRB companies rank the applicants they are most
interested in, typically their top 4 or 5 since they get only 1 or 2 Fellows; one per Associate Member and two per Voting Member. The
applicants respond, accepting or rejecting the offers. Typically the student acceptance rate is about 90%. For those cases where the
applicant rejects the offer, SCIES, after conferring with the IRB company where that student was offered placement, makes offers to
backup candidates as needed until all the available slots are lled.

Reports and Presentations: At the conclusion of their projects, the Fellows are required to make a report on their projects, including
objectives, procedure and results. Also they develop a PowerPoint description of the projects. One Fellow from each IRB company
participates in a poster session at the annual Peer Review Workshop. The PowerPoint presentations are posted on the UTSR website.
The presentations are cleared with the IRB companies for placement in the public domain.

Fig. 6 Sample project description from the 2004 Fellowship Assignments

442
William H. Day, Richard A. Wenglarz and Lawrence P. Golan

Title: CFD Modeling of Rotor-Stator Cavity Purge Flow


Author: Jonathan McGlumphy Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University
Industrial Mentor: Dr. Philip Andrew, Mgr., Turbine Aero Engineering
Industrial Site: General Electric Power Systems, Greenville, SC facility
Objective: Apply GE in-house CFD solver to simple rotor-stator cavity geometries to lay foundation for future work

Achievements:

Reviewed literature to nd simple cavity geometry with available experimental data


Performed initial computations using GE in-house code
Developed technique to allow density-based code to solve incompressible ow eld
Results compared favorably with published data and accompanying computations
Conrmed that code can capture fundamental physics without modication to the code

Future Work

Code will be used to model ow elds of more complex geometries.


Method could be used in the future to guide experimental set-ups

2005 Fellows

The placement of the Fellows for 2005 is shown in Figure 4; a total of 20 applicants from 12 universities were placed in 13 companies.

Fellow University Company Placement


Benjamin Asefa University of Michigan Parker Hannin
Christopher Bolszo University of California, Irvine General Electric Company
Nicholas Cardwell Virginia Polytechnic Institute Pratt & Whitney/UTRC
Jeffrey Carullo Virginia Polytechnic Institute Solar Turbines, Inc
Jared Crosby Brigham Young University Pratt & Whitney/UTRC
Jason Habeger Michigan State University Siemens Westinghouse
Michael Hind University of Wyoming Ingersoll Rand Energy Systems
Jerrod Isaak University of Wyoming Clean Energy Systems
Richard Klop Michigan State University Rolls-Royce Corporation
Jonathan McGlumphy Virginia Polytechnic Institute Rolls-Royce Corporation
Adam Norberg Virginia Polytechnic Institute Ramgen
Clark Paterson Colorado State University Woodward FST
Travis Patterson University of Central Florida Siemens Westinghouse
Emmanuel Perez University of Central Florida General Electric Company
Stanton Peterson University of Wyoming BP
Patrick Sheppard Vanderbilt University Solar Turbines, Inc
Andrew Skoglund University of Minnesota Siemens Westinghouse
Ruwan Somawardhana University of Texas, Austin Precision Combustion
Paul Teini University of Wyoming Pratt & Whitney/UTRC
Scott Thawley Virginia Polytechnic Institute Capstone Turbine Corporation

In 2004 we contacted former Fellows concerning their permanent positions and heard back from 63 of them:

To the gas turbine industry : 29


To industry, non-gas turbine: 8
To academia: 3

Subtotal who have started full-time employment: 40


Still in graduate school at last report: 23

So, of those who have started full-time employment, 73% went to the gas turbine industry, and an additional 7% went to academia. If
we include those in academia, 80% of them are beneting the gas turbine industry.
443
6.0.3 University Turbine Systems Research Program
6.0.3-4 Notes
___________________________

1. SCIES website: http://www.clemson.edu/scies/; click on University Turbine Systems Research for information on the
UTSR Program.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. SCIES website: http://www.clemson.edu/scies/ then click on Gas Turbine Fellowship; W. Day, University Turbine
Systems Research Program: An Innovative Approach to Graduate Education ASME Paper number MECE2005-82534 (to
be presented at the ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress & Exposition, Orlando, FL, November 2005).6.0.3

444
BIOGRAPHY 6.0.3 University Turbine Systems Research Program

William H. Day

Outreach Manager
South Carolina Institute for Energy Studies (SCIES)
Clemson University

phone: (860) 404-0759


email: billday3@comcast.net
www.clemson.edu/scies

Dr. Day is a graduate of Cornell University BME 1960, Polytechnic University MSME 1966, and Polytechnic
University Ph.D. ME 1970. Dr. Day started as an engineer with General Electric in 1960. During his career with GEs
Gas Turbine Division he was responsible for establishing and managing the High Temperature Turbine Technology
Program, and managed the business with EPRI and the US Department of Energy. In 1979 Dr. Day joined the United
Technologies Corporation, where he managed a joint gas turbine design study between Pratt & Whitney and Siemens.
He was also responsible for negotiating the contract with the Peoples Republic of China that launched the FT8 gas
turbine and for directing the development of the FT8. He was responsible for negotiating the contract with Siemens
that led to development of the V84.3A gas turbine and was in charge of that development effort at UTC. From 1995
until his retirement from United Technologies in 2002, Dr. Day was Manager of Advanced Engine Programs for Pratt
& Whitneys industrial gas turbine business. In 1995, Dr. Day led the founding of the Gas Turbine Association, the
trade association for the gas turbine industry. He served as Chairman of the Board of GTA from its founding in 1995
until his retirement from United Technologies in 2002. In 2001 Dr. Day was named a Fellow of Pratt & Whitney in
recognition for his expertise in industrial gas turbines. In 2002, Dr. Day joined the South Carolina Institute for Energy
Studies (SCIES) as Outreach Manager. SCIES coordinates the university research programs for the U.S. Department
of Energys University Turbine Systems Research (UTSR) Program. Responsibilities and accomplishments include a
substantial expansion of the Gas Turbine Industrial Fellowship Program and of the Industry Review Board, publication
of numerous articles in gas turbine trade journals and ASME papers on the UTSR Program, while working closely with
the Department of Energy. Dr. Day has four patents and has published over 60 technical papers.
Richard A. Wenglarz
South Carolina Institute for Energy Studies (SCIES)
Clemson University

phone: (864) 656-0142


email: rwnglrz@clemson.edu
www.clemson.edu/scies

Richard Wenglarz received B.S. and M.S degrees from the University of Illinois, and Ph.D. degree
from Stanford University, all in Engineering Mechanics. He has held positions at the University of
Newcastle Upon Tyne, Bellcomm, Bell Laboratories, Westinghouse R&D Center, Rolls Royce/Allison
Division of General Motors, and South Carolina Institute for Energy Studies (SCIES) at Clemson
University.

His early experience involved dynamics and control for gyroscopic systems and manned space stations.
Later experience concerned developing and applying analytical and experimental methods to evaluate
deposition, erosion, and corrosion (DEC) in advanced energy systems (e.g., gas turbines and fuel cells)
operating with alternate fuels. Currently, Dr. Wenglarz is Manager of Research at SCIES for the DOE
sponsored University Turbine Systems Research (UTSR) program supporting university gas turbine
research nationwide.

Dr. Wenglarz has over 80 publications and presentations including invited presentations at the Von
Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics, Yale University, UK Central Electricity Research Laboratories,
Cambridge University, and the Kentucky Energy Cabinet Laboratories.
Lawrence P. Golan

South Carolina Institute for Energy Studies (SCIES)


Clemson University

phone: (864) 656-2267


email: glawren@clemson.edu
www.clemson.edu/scies

Lawrence P. Golan is presently Special Assistant to the Vice President for Research at Clemson University (2003 present). In addition,
Dr. Golan is Director of the South Carolina Institute of Energy Studies - SCIES. (1986-2003) He established the Energy Systems
Laboratory, a unit blending energy facilities, academics and research. Dr. Golan maintains a working relationship with the Gas Turbine
Association, the Alliance to Save Energy and the Southeast Energy Efciency Alliance. He received his Ph.D. from Lehigh University
and his B.S. and M.S. from West Virginia University.

Dr. Golans professional activities include: Chairman 1996 National Heat Transfer Conference hosted by AIChE, ASME, AIAA and
ANS; 1990, 1994 and 1999 Chair of the AIChE Heat Transfer Division; 1992 National Heat Transfer Conference Best Paper co-Chair;
1992, 1994 and 1996 Chair Kern and Jakob Award Committee; member National Heat Transfer Conference Coordination Committee;
AICHE Chair 2004 Summer Heat Transfer and Fluids Engineering Conference, advisor to the State of Illinois Coal Combustion
Program; and member of the Academic Advisory Committee West Virginia University Mechanical Engineering Department. Dr.
Golan has authored 34 articles, offered 13 short courses and organized numerous energy conferences and workshops. Prior to
his present position at Clemson University, Dr. Golan was employed by Exxon Research and Engineering Company (presently
ExxonMobil) for nineteen years. Since 1992 Dr. Golan has directed a nationwide activity of 110 universities and 10
U.S. corporations for the U.S. DOE that is providing technology necessary for developing the next generation
of advanced land-based power generation systems.

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