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Professor, Department of Emergency Medicine, Pulmonary/Critical
Care Division, Department of Internal Medicine, Boonshoft School of
Medicine, Wright State University, Dayton, OH
Roy L. Johnson, MD, FAAEM
Abstract Assistant Professor, Associate Program Director, Integrated
Residency in Emergency Medicine, Boonshoft School of Medicine,
Wright State University, Dayton, OH
Anemia is a common worldwide problem that is associated with Scott D. Rubenstein, MD, MS, EMT-T
nonspecific complaints. The initial focus for the emergency evalu- Chief Resident, Wright State University/Wright-Patterson Air Force
ation of anemia is to determine whether the problem is acute or Base Combined Emergency Medicine Residency, Dayton, OH
chronic. Acute anemia is most commonly associated with blood Peer Reviewers
loss, and the patient is usually symptomatic. Chronic anemia is David Cherkas, MD, FACEP
usually well tolerated and is often discovered coincidentally. Once Assistant Professor of Emergency Medicine, Icahn School of
Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
diagnosed, the etiology of anemia can often be determined by
Chad Meyers, MD
applying a systematic approach to its evaluation. The severity of Director, Emergency Critical Care, Bellevue Hospital Center;
the anemia impacts clinical outcomes, particularly in critically ill Assistant Professor of Clinical Emergency Medicine, New York
patients; however, the specific threshold to transfuse is uncertain. University School of Medicine, New York, NY
Evaluation of the current literature and clinical guidelines does CME Objectives
not settle this controversy, but it does help clarify that a restrictive Upon completion of this article, you should be able to:
transfusion strategy (ie, for patients with a hemoglobin < 6-8 g/ 1. Differentiate between the 3 categories of anemia when
considering a differential diagnosis.
dL) is associated with better outcomes than a more liberal transfu-
2. Describe the diagnostic workup for patients presenting to the
sion strategy. Certain anemias may have well-defined treatment ED with anemia.
options (eg, sickle cell disease), but empiric use of nutritional 3. Summarize the general principles of transfusion therapy.
supplements to treat anemia of uncertain etiology is discouraged.
Prior to beginning this activity, see Physician CME Information on
the back page.
Editor-In-Chief of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New Attending Physician, Massachusetts Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Research Editor
Andy Jagoda, MD, FACEP York, NY General Hospital, Boston, MA Sinai, New York, NY Michael Guthrie, MD
Professor and Chair, Department of Michael A. Gibbs, MD, FACEP Charles V. Pollack, Jr., MA, MD, Scott Silvers, MD, FACEP Emergency Medicine Residency,
Emergency Medicine, Icahn School Professor and Chair, Department FACEP Chair, Department of Emergency Icahn School of Medicine at Mount
of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Medical of Emergency Medicine, Carolinas Professor and Chair, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL Sinai, New York, NY
Director, Mount Sinai Hospital, New Medical Center, University of North Emergency Medicine, Pennsylvania
York, NY Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hospital, Perelman School of Corey M. Slovis, MD, FACP, FACEP International Editors
Hill, NC Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Professor and Chair, Department
Peter Cameron, MD
Associate Editor-In-Chief Philadelphia, PA of Emergency Medicine, Vanderbilt
Academic Director, The Alfred
Steven A. Godwin, MD, FACEP University Medical Center; Medical
Kaushal Shah, MD, FACEP Professor and Chair, Department Michael S. Radeos, MD, MPH Emergency and Trauma Centre,
Associate Professor, Department of Director, Nashville Fire Department and
of Emergency Medicine, Assistant Assistant Professor of Emergency International Airport, Nashville, TN Monash University, Melbourne,
Emergency Medicine, Icahn School Dean, Simulation Education, Medicine, Weill Medical College Australia
of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New University of Florida COM- of Cornell University, New York; Stephen H. Thomas, MD, MPH
York, NY George Kaiser Family Foundation Giorgio Carbone, MD
Jacksonville, Jacksonville, FL Research Director, Department of Chief, Department of Emergency
Emergency Medicine, New York Professor & Chair, Department of
Editorial Board Gregory L. Henry, MD, FACEP
Hospital Queens, Flushing, NY Emergency Medicine, University of Medicine Ospedale Gradenigo,
William J. Brady, MD Clinical Professor, Department of Oklahoma School of Community Torino, Italy
Professor of Emergency Medicine Emergency Medicine, University Ali S. Raja, MD, MBA, MPH Medicine, Tulsa, OK Amin Antoine Kazzi, MD, FAAEM
and Medicine, Chair, Medical of Michigan Medical School; CEO, Director of Network Operations and Associate Professor and Vice Chair,
Emergency Response Committee, Medical Practice Risk Assessment, Business Development, Department Ron M. Walls, MD Department of Emergency Medicine,
Inc., Ann Arbor, MI of Emergency Medicine, Brigham Professor and Chair, Department of
Medical Director, Emergency University of California, Irvine;
and Womens Hospital; Assistant Emergency Medicine, Brigham and
Management, University of Virginia John M. Howell, MD, FACEP American University, Beirut, Lebanon
Professor, Harvard Medical School, Womens Hospital, Harvard Medical
Medical Center, Charlottesville, VA Clinical Professor of Emergency
Boston, MA School, Boston, MA Hugo Peralta, MD
Peter DeBlieux, MD Medicine, George Washington Chair of Emergency Services,
University, Washington, DC; Director Robert L. Rogers, MD, FACEP, Scott D. Weingart, MD, FCCM
Professor of Clinical Medicine, Hospital Italiano, Buenos Aires,
of Academic Affairs, Best Practices, FAAEM, FACP Associate Professor of Emergency
Interim Public Hospital Director Argentina
Inc, Inova Fairfax Hospital, Falls Assistant Professor of Emergency Medicine, Director, Division of
of Emergency Medicine Services,
Church, VA Medicine, The University of ED Critical Care, Icahn School of Dhanadol Rojanasarntikul, MD
Louisiana State University Health
Maryland School of Medicine, Medicine at Mount Sinai, New Attending Physician, Emergency
Science Center, New Orleans, LA Shkelzen Hoxhaj, MD, MPH, MBA
Baltimore, MD York, NY Medicine, King Chulalongkorn
Francis M. Fesmire, MD, FACEP Chief of Emergency Medicine, Baylor Memorial Hospital, Thai Red Cross,
Professor and Director of Clinical College of Medicine, Houston, TX Alfred Sacchetti, MD, FACEP Senior Research Editors Thailand; Faculty of Medicine,
Research, Department of Emergency Eric Legome, MD Assistant Clinical Professor, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
Department of Emergency Medicine, James Damilini, PharmD, BCPS
Medicine, UT College of Medicine, Chief of Emergency Medicine,
Thomas Jefferson University, Clinical Pharmacist, Emergency Suzanne Peeters, MD
Chattanooga; Director of Chest Pain Kings County Hospital; Professor of
Philadelphia, PA Room, St. Josephs Hospital and Emergency Medicine Residency
Center, Erlanger Medical Center, Clinical Emergency Medicine, SUNY Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ Director, Haga Hospital, The Hague,
Chattanooga, TN Downstate College of Medicine, Robert Schiller, MD The Netherlands
Brooklyn, NY Chair, Department of Family Joseph D. Toscano, MD
Nicholas Genes, MD, PhD Chairman, Department of Emergency
Medicine, Beth Israel Medical
Assistant Professor, Department of Keith A. Marill, MD
Center; Senior Faculty, Family Medicine, San Ramon Regional
Emergency Medicine, Icahn School Assistant Professor, Harvard Medical
Medicine and Community Health, Medical Center, San Ramon, CA
School; Emergency Department
Case Presentations positive fecal occult blood test on digital rectal examina-
tion. The patients ECG is consistent with rate-controlled
A 54-year-old Hispanic male presents to the ED with the atrial fibrillation and shows ST-segment depression in
complaints of fatigue and weakness. The weakness is de- the lateral leads. The CBC reveals a hemoglobin of 4.9 g/
scribed as generalized, and the symptoms have been pres- dL and a hematocrit of 15.2%, with a normal WBC and
ent and constant for the last 2 days. The patient denies platelet count, PT, INR, and aPTT. His basic chemistry
hematemesis, hematochezia, dark-colored stools, hematu- panel reveals an elevated BUN of 64 mg/dL and a cre-
ria, or other evidence of bleeding. He also denies chest or atinine of 2.3 mg/dL. The troponin is within the normal
abdominal pain, dyspnea, diaphoresis, fever, or chills. The range. A normal saline bolus of 500 cc is administered.
patient has not seen a doctor in the last 15 years and does As you call cardiology, you wonder: what is the optimal
not think he has any medical conditions. The only medica- treatment for this patients presentation cardiac cath-
tion he has been taking is over-the-counter ibuprofen, eterization or transfusion?
which he has been taking daily since he injured his back Just as you think you are getting control of the ED, a
at work 2 weeks ago. The patient works as a construction 6-month-old boy is brought in by his parents for conges-
laborer and denies past surgeries or allergies. His vital tion, increased work of breathing, and perioral cyanosis.
signs are: blood pressure, 110/50 mm Hg; heart rate, 127 The parents state that their child is taking longer to feed
beats/min; respirations, 22 breaths/min; and SpO2, 97% because he seems to be out of breath. This has been going
on room air. The patient is afebrile. His skin is warm and on for several weeks, and they are unsure if their child has
dry but, despite being dark-skinned, he appears a little had a fever; they do not have a thermometer or a pediatri-
pale. On eye examination, the sclerae appear to have a cian. The patient was born at home with a midwife. The
yellow hue. Cardiovascular examination reveals bounding childs vital signs are: blood pressure, 70/50 mm Hg; heart
pulses, a hyperdynamic precordium, and a grade II over rate, 155 beats/min; respiratory rate, 53 breaths/min;
VI soft, systolic murmur. The remainder of the examina- SpO2, 92% on room air. He is afebrile. On your examina-
tion is unremarkable, including a rectal examination, tion, the child is alert and responsive, but he is small for
which is negative for occult blood. An ECG shows a sinus his age. He cries at appropriate aspects of the physical
tachycardia but is otherwise normal. A basic chemistry examination and is easily consoled by his mother. He is
panel is within normal limits; however, the CBC reveals a tachypneic with bilateral faint rales but does not demon-
hemoglobin of 5.4 g/dL, hematocrit of 16%, WBC of 8000, strate retractions or nasal flaring. The patients face is
and platelet count of 154,000. Based on the presenting dysmorphic. His skin has a yellow hue with scleral icterus
symptoms and signs, the patient is likely to need RBC and perioral cyanosis and acrocyanosis. On abdominal
transfusions. An IV catheter is placed, and a normal sa- examination, he has significant hepatosplenomegaly. The
line infusion is initiated. A 500-mL bolus of normal saline rest of his physical exam is unremarkable. A basic chemis-
reduces the heart rate to 105 beats/min. As you write try panel is otherwise normal; however, his CBC reveals a
the order for the transfusion, your nurse asks, What is hemoglobin of 7.8 g/dL, with a normal WBC and platelet
the goal for the transfusion and what is the cause of the count. The mean corpuscular volume is 75.4 fL, mean
anemia? You think, Good questions! corpuscular hemoglobin concentration is 29.1%, and red
In the next room, there is a 68-year-old male who re- cell distribution width is 16.2%. A chest radiograph is
ports 1 week of increasing weakness, dyspnea on exertion, suggestive of pulmonary congestion. Pediatrics isnt your
and mild chest pressure. He states the reason for coming strength, and you wonder: why is this child anemic, and
in today is that his chest pressure was substantially worse what are my next steps?
and was associated with diaphoresis. The patient has a
history of atrial fibrillation (rate controlled) and has been Introduction
taking dabigatran for the past 2 years. The patient denies
hematemesis but has a history of dark stools. However, he Anemia is defined as an absolute decrease in the
states that he was placed on iron supplementation by his number of circulating red blood cells (RBCs). The
primary care physician over a year ago. He denies back diagnosis of anemia is based upon laboratory mea-
pain, abdominal pain, fevers, chills, or focal neurological surements of RBC indices that fall below accepted
complaints. The patient has no known drug allergy and normal values. (See Table 1.) It is the most common
denies past surgeries, but he does have a history of hyper-
tension and chronic anemia in addition to atrial fibrilla-
tion. Based on his chief complaints, an ECG, CBC, BMP, Table 1. Normal Values
PT/INR, portable chest radiograph, and 325 mg of aspirin
are ordered. His vital signs are: temperature, 37C; blood Age Hemoglobin Hematocrit Red Blood Cell
(g/dL) (%) Count (x 106/mcL)
pressure, 105/65 mm Hg; heart rate, 105 beats/min;
respirations, 26 breaths/min; and SpO2, 94% on room air. 3 months 10.4-12.2 30-36 3.4-4.0
Overall, the patients examination is unremarkable except 3-7 years 11.7-13.5 34-40 4.4-5.0
for an irregularly irregular heart rate accompanied by a Adult man 14.0-18.0 40-52 4.4-5.9
soft blowing systolic murmur, pale conjunctiva, and a Adult woman 12.0-16.0 35-47 3.8-5.2
Hypothyroid-
globin Obtain
ism
Vitamin B12 and
Bone marrow
folate levels
suppression
iron, TIBC,
Aplastic
ferritin
anemia
Hemolysis Coombs test
NO YES
NEGATIVE POSITIVE
Thalassemia
Iron deficiency
Sideroblastic
Nonautoim-
anemia Autoimmune
mune hemolytic
Chronic dis- hemolytic anemia
anemia
ease (late)
Abbreviations: AZT, zidovudine; ETOH, ethanol; G-6-PD, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase; Hgb, hemoglobin; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; MCV,
mean corpuscular value; RBC, red blood cell; TIBC, total iron-binding capacity.
1. He didnt say he was on warfarin, so why 6. The vital signs are normal, so he cant be
would I check an INR? bleeding much.
Many elderly patients are poor historians Many patients are on beta blockers or other
secondary to dementia or polypharmacy. In an atrioventricular nodal blocking agents that may
elderly patient being evaluated for anemia, the falsely normalize the vital signs in the face of
INR should be considered, as elderly patients significant hemodynamic compromise.
are more likely to omit mentioning prescribed
medications than their younger counterparts 7. I gave the patient 4 units of packed RBCs, but
and are more likely to develop coagulopathies she continued to bleed and deteriorate.
from other causes. When patients bleed, they lose more than just
RBCs. Coagulation factors and platelets are also
2. Patients always exaggerate how much bleed- lost as hemorrhage continues, and dilutional
ing there is. Most is self-limited anyway. coagulopathies can occur. Resuscitation with
Bleeding (eg, from the gastrointestinal tract and fresh frozen plasma (and possibly platelets)
upper airway) can produce a significant amount may be required, depending on the degree
of hemorrhage that may require admission to of bleeding and amount of RBCs that are
the hospital for observation. transfused.
3. The patient with a gastrointestinal bleed was 8. Since the patients hemoglobin was 11 g/dL
old, but he didnt have any chest pain, so why with a low MCV of 78 fL, I figured the anemia
would I get an ECG? was due to iron deficiency and I discharged
Many older patients have major cardiovascular him on iron supplements.
risk factors. With enough bleeding, there may Although iron deficiency is the most common
be ECG changes to suggest cardiac ischemia cause of a microcytic anemia, other causes of a
secondary to supply/demand mismatch. low MCV need to be considered. As it turned
out, this patient had thalassemia minor, which
4. The hemoglobin was 9 g/dL, so I didnt think is usually asymptomatic and does not require
she needed a transfusion; I just gave her 1.5 L treatment.
of normal saline for resuscitation.
By initiating too much crystalloid, there is 9. The hemoglobin was 9.8 g/dL; since it was
the possibility of dilution of RBCs, causing < 10 g/dL, I transfused the patient.
decreased oxygen-carrying capacity and further No isolated threshold hemoglobin value has
injury (such as cardiac ischemia). been shown to correlate with outcome of RBC
transfusion. The use of blood transfusions
5. The patient came in with a history of mod- should be based on whether the patient has
erate gastrointestinal bleeding and a blood clinical symptoms or signs suggesting a
pressure of 90/60 mm Hg. I gave him 2 L of clinically significant anemia and not on as
crystalloid. The blood pressure improved, but specific number.
the bleeding restarted.
While not true for every patient, it may be more 10. The parents said there was blood in their
advantageous to allow a patient to be mildly baby's diaper, so I felt I needed to work up a
hypotensive as long as they do not show signs potential coagulopathy and anemia.
of tissue hypoperfusion. Increasing the blood In infants with a history of rectal bleeding, the
pressure may disrupt primary hemostasis as first step is to confirm that what the parents saw
hydrostatic forces within the blood vessels was really blood. Even if blood is not confirmed
increase. on the rectal examination, a laboratory screening
for anemia and coagulopathy should be
pursued.
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