ENGINEERING PHYSICS

MODULE 1: MODERN PHYSICS AND QUANTUM MECHANICS

1.1 UNIT 1 : BLACK BODY RADIATION

1.2 UNIT 2 : WAVES AND PARTICLES

1.3 UNIT 3 : UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
1.4 UNIT 4 : SCHRODINGERS WAVE EQUATION

MODULE 2 : ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS, CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND ELASTICITY

1.1 UNIT 1 : CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

1.2 UNIT 2 : QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY
1.3 UNIT 3 : CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

1.4 UNIT 4 : ELASTICITY

MODULE 3 : MATERIALS AND PROPERTIES

1.1 UNIT 1 : DIELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1.2 UNIT 2 : LASER AND APPLICATIONS

1.3 UNIT 3 : OPTICAL FIBERS

1.4 UNIT 4 : SUPER CONDUCTIVITY

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 COURSE CONTENT

MODULE 1 : MODERN PHYSICS AND QUANTUM MECHANICS

1.1 UNIT 1 : BLACK BODY RADIATION
Introduction to black body radiation spectrum, classical laws for black body radiation
Wiens law, Rayleigh Jeans law, Plancks radiation law, photoelectric effect Compton
Effect.

1.2 UNIT 2 : WAVES AND PARTICLES

Wave particle dualism, De-Broglie hypothesis, De-Broglie wavelength Davisson
and Germer Experiment
Matter waves and their characteristic properties, Phase velocity, Group velocity and
Particle velocity. Relation between phase velocity and group velocity. Relation
between group velocity and particle velocity.
Expression for de-Broglie Wavelength using the concept of group velocity

1.3 UNIT 3 : UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

Heisenbergs Uncertainty principle and its physical significance (no derivation).
Application of uncertainty principle (non-existence of electron in nucleus)

1.4 UNIT 4 : SHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION

Wave function. Properties and physical significance of a wave function.
Probability density and Normalization of wave function. Setting up of a one dimensional
time independent Schrdinger wave equation.
Eigen values and Eigen function. Application of Schrdinger wave equation - particle in
a potential well of infinite depth (particle in a box) and free particle.

MODULE - 2 : ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS, CRYSTAL

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 STRUCTURE AND ELASTICITY
1.1 UNIT 1 : CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY
Free electron concept. Classical free electron theory Assumptions Drift Velocity -
Mean Collision time,
Mean free path Relaxation time.
Expression for drift velocity Expression for electrical conductivity in metals.
Effect of impurity and temperature on electrical resistivity of metals.
Failures of classical free electron theory.
1.2 UNIT 2 : QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY
Assumptions Fermi Dirac statistics Fermi energy Fermi factor Density of states
(no derivation).
Expression for electrical resisitivity -Temperature dependence of resistivity of metals.
Merits of Quantum free electron theory.

1.3 UNIT 3 : CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Space lattice. Unit cell. Primitve cell. Lattice parameters.
Crystal systems. Bravais lattice - Directions and planes in a crystal.
Miller indices. Expression for interplanar spacing in terms of Miller indices.
Coordination number. Atomic packing factor Braggs Law.

1.4 UNIT 4 : ELASTICITY

Stress, Strain and Hookes law, Stress-strain diagram Elastic constants Types
Poissons ratio Workdone per unit volume in a strain - Twisting couple on a cylinder(or
wire) Torsional pendulum Expression for time period Beam Bending moment of a
beam Expression for bending moment Cantilever Expression for Youngs modulus
of the material.
MODULE 3 : MATERIALS AND PROPERTIES
1.1 UNIT 1 : DIELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Dielectric materials Polar and Non-polar dielectrics Dielectric constant Polarization
of dielectric materials.
Types of Polarization.
Equation for internal fields in liquids and solids (one dimensional).
Clausius Mossotti Equation. Frequency dependence of dielectric constant.
Ferro and Piezo electricity (qualitative)
Classification of magnetic materials - Dia, Para and Ferromagnetic materials B-H graph
in ferromagnetic materials Weiss Domain theory.

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 Soft and Hard magnetic materials. Characteristic features and applications.

1.2 UNIT 2 : LASERS AND APPLICATIONS

Laser Characteristic features.
Interaction of radiation with matter. Absorption. Emission.
Einsteins Coefficients. Expression for energy density.
Laser action. Condition for Laser action.
Basic requisites for a laser system. Types of Laser. He-Ne Laser Principle ,
Construction and Working of He-Ne laser.
Laser welding. Laser cutting and Laser drilling. Holography Principle of Holography -
Recording and reconstruction of images.
1.3 UNIT 3 : OPTICAL FIBERS
Optical fibers Basic principle. Total internal reflection.
Light propagation in Optical fibers. Condition for propagation. Angle of acceptance.
Numerical aperture Expression for numerical aperture - Modes of Propagation.- Types
of fibers.
Application Optical fiber Communication Block diagram discussion of point-to-point
communication. Attenuation.
1.4 UNIT -4 : SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Temperature dependence of resistivity in super conducting materials. Characteristic
features of Super Conductors.
Meissner Effect. - Type I and Type II Superconductors - BCS theory (qualitative).
Applications of Superconductors. Superconducting magnets Maglev Vehicles and
SQUIDS.
MODULE STRUCTURE
Objective
Introduction
Unit 1 (Content)
Key words
Important questions
Problems
Unit 2 (Content)
Key words
Important questions
Problems
Unit 3 (Content)
Key words

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 Important questions
Problems
Unit 4 (Content)
Key words
Important questions
Problems
Text books and reference books

MODULE 1

MODERN PHYSICS AND QUANTUM MECHANICS

OBJECTIVE

This module is meant to serve a first course in modern physics. This includes
black body radiation, wave mechanics, de-Broglie concept and an introductory course in
quantum physics.
There is an increasing need for modern physics and quantum physics in many
disciplines like computer science, electrical engineering, nuclear physics and so on. This
course provides basic concepts in these areas.

INTRODUCTION

Modern Physics
The term modern physics refers to the post Newtonian conception of physics. This
branch of physics refers to any development in physics in the early 20th century and onwards or
branches greatly influenced by early 20th century physics.

The topics which are generally considered to be core of the foundation of modern
physics are black body radiation, photoelectric effect, quantum thermodynamics, wave particle
duality, etc.

A particle can be interpreted in terms of mass and velocity and can be explained using
Newtons laws of motion. But for some experiments, this classical approach is not sufficient and
in order to explain many results wave mechanics was introduced.

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 The important feature of wave mechanics, is the breakdown of classical
distinction between particles and waves. In wave mechanics electromagnetic waves are
treated as waves as they exhibit diffraction, interference and polarization. And under
other circumstances electromagnetic waves behave as though they consist of streams of
particles.
The dual aspect of radiation can be clearly established using photoelectric effect, black
body radiation, emission of line spectra, compton effect and also the phenomena like
interference, diffraction and polarization. Using Einstens mass energy relationship, E = mc2
showing that mass and energy are mutually convertible, the French scientist Louis deBroglie
extended the idea of dual nature of radiation to matter itself. He proposed that matter
possesses wave as well as particle characteristics.

The existence of deBroglie waves was experimentally demonstrated and enabled the
development of quantum mechanics.

Some of the applications of wave particle duality is exploited in electron microscopy,

where the small wave lengths associated with the electron can be used to view objects much
smaller than what is visible using visible light and neutron diffraction to determine the structure
of solids.

Quantum Mechanics
Many aspects of atomic phenomena could not be explained using Bohr theory of
atoms. A more general approach called Quantum mechanics was developed to explain
atomic phenomena.
Quantum mechanics is a set of principles describing the physical reality at the atomic
level of matter (molecules and atoms) and the subatomic (electrons, photons) and even smaller
particles. Quantum mechanics is a mathematical description of reality like any scientific model.

In classical mechanics, the future history of a particle is completely determined by its

initial position and momentum together with the forces that act upon it. Quantum mechanics
also arrives at relationships between observable quantities but the uncertainty principle
suggests that the nature of an observable quantity is different in the atomic realm.

Quantum mechanics says that the most complete description of a system is its wave
function, which is just a number varying between time and place. Using this wave function, the
position of a particle or its momentum can be derived and the wave functions describe
probabilities. Some physical quantities cannot be defined at the same time by the universe.

The future behavior of a particle in classical physics may be predicted with absolute
certainty using Newtons laws. In quantum physics the particles behavior can be predicted
using Schrodinger equation. Unlike Newtons laws, the Schrondinger equation does not give the
trajectory of the particle; instead its solution gives the wave function of the particle. This carries
the information about the particles wave like behavior.

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 Quantum mechanics has been enormously successful in explaining microscopic
phenomena in all branches of physics. It explains the structure of atoms, atomic nuclei,
molecules, the behavior of subatomic particles, the nature of chemical bonds, the properties of
crystalline solids, nuclear energy, and the forces that stabilize collapsed stars. It led to the
development of laser, electron microscope and transistor.

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UNIT 1: BLACK BODY RADIATION
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Electromagnetic Waves:

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Electromagnetic waves are associated with electric and magnetic fields. They require no supporting
medium and can be propagated through space. They are at right angles to each other and to the
direction of propagation.
Electromagnetic waves travel through space with a uniform speed C of 2.99 x 108 m. According
to Maxwells theory C = 1/ o o where o is Electric permitivity of free space and o is its
Magnetic permeability.
The nature of Electromagnetic radiation depends upon their frequency. The range of
frequencies over which Electromagnetic radiation are propagated constitutes Electromagnetic
spectrum.
In an electromagnetic spectrum, the lower frequencies are radio waves, and then comes
infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and Gamma-rays.
Black body Radiation:
All bodies of matter emit radiation continuously but the frequency of radiation depends on
temperature
At room temperature most of the radiation is in the infrared region of spectrum and hence it is
invisible.
An ideal body which absorbs all radiations incident upon it regardless of frequency is called a
black body.
A black body can be approximated to a hollow object with a very small hole.
When a radiation strikes the hole, it enters the cavity where it is trapped by reflection and then
it is absorbed.
The cavity walls are constantly emitting and absorbing radiation called black body radiation.

Black Body Radiation Spectrum:

The black body radiation spectrum for different temperatures is as shown.
The graph shows the variation of intensity of emitted radiation w.r.t wavelength.

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 0
1650 K

0
1450 K
Intensity of incident
radiation

0
1250 K

0
900 K

Wave length
Inference from the graph:
a) At a given temperature the intensity of radiations increases with increase in
wavelength. The intensity attains maximum for a particular wavelength.
b) The energy is not uniformly distributed in the radiation spectrum of the body at
a given temperature.
c) The wavelength at which the maximum emission of energy takes place
decreases with increase in temperature as shown. This wavelength is
represented by max.
d) The area under different curves represents the total energy emitted for the
complete spectrum at a particular temperature.
e) The peak of the curve shifts to shorter wavelength.
f)
Classical laws for black body radiation
There are many classical laws to explain black body radiation.
1) Stefans Law:
This states that the total energy emitted by a black body is directly
proportional to the fourth power of temperature
i.e. E T4 where E is the total energy emitted and T is its temperature.
Therefore, E = T4 where is called Stefan Boltzmann Constant
( = 5.670399 x 10-8 w/m2K4)
2) Wiens law

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 According to Wiens Law, the amount of energy radiated by a black body is not
uniformly distributed over all the wavelengths emitted by the body, but it is maximum for a
particular wavelength.

This maximum wave length max is different for different temperatures and varies
inversely with the temperature.

Thus if max is the wave length corresponding to peak radiation and T is the
temperature of the Black body, then .

max ( 1 / T)

Therefore max T = Constant.

This Law is called Wiens displacement law. The term displacement refers to the way the peak is
moved or displaced as the temperature is varied.

Wiens Law of distribution of energy

Wien also shows that the maximum energy is directly proportional to the fifth
power of the temperature. i.e.,
5
Em T

Therefore, Em = (constant) T5

Using the constant value the equation can be expressed as

ud = C1-5 exp - C2 d

T
Where ud is the energy per unit volume in the range & +d.

Here C1 and C2 are constants.

This equation gives the Wiens law of distribution of energy.

Limitations:

The Limitations of Wiens Law are:-

- It holds good for shorter wavelength region and fails for longer wavelength
region
- This law is not derivable from a physical model.

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(3)Rayleigh-Jeans law

According to Lord Rayleigh and James Jeans, the walls of a cavity are perfect reflectors
and the radiation inside the cavity can be considered to be a series of standing electromagnetic
waves. The number of vibrations per unit volume in the wavelength range and +d is given
4
by (8/ )d. This is usually called as Jeans number.

The average energy per standing wave can be determined using the theorem of equi-
partition of energy.

According to the theorem, the average energy per degree of freedom of any entity at
temperature T is kT. Where k is Boltzmanns Constant. (A degree of freedom indicates the
energy acquired).

Each standing wave in a cavity originates in an oscillating electric charge in the cavity
wall and will have two degrees of freedom. Thus each standing wave will have an average
energy of 2 x kT = kT. Thus the average energy per standing wave = kT.

Thus the total energy per unit volume in the cavity in the wavelength range and + d
is given by ud = (8 / 4). d. KT.

Therefore, ud = (8kT/ 4 )d

This is known as Rayleigh-Jeans formula. Using this law, Spectrum of Black body radiation can
be explained.

Ultraviolet Catastrophe or Limitations:

Though Rayleigh Jeans law describes the experimental curve in the long wavelength region, it
cannot explain the radiation as the wavelengths approach zero. Rayleigh Jeans law can be
written as
ud = (8kT/ 4 )d
According to this equation, as the wave length decreases ie the frequency increases towards
the ultraviolet end of the spectrum, the energy density should increase. Thus for short wave
length (high freq ( )), u . But the energy distribution in black body radiation shows
that the energy density should attain zero for shorter wave length or for . This
discrepancy at short wavelength region is called Ultraviolet Catastrophe.

Plancks Radiation Law:

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Planck explained the nature of the electromagnetic oscillators which are in equilibrium with the
energy density within the black body cavity, using certain postulates. These postulates are,
a. The amount of energy emitted or absorbed by an oscillator is proportional to
its frequency .Thus the change in oscillator energy
E = h where h is called Plancks constant
b. An oscillator cannot have an arbitrary energy but must occupy one of a
discrete set of energy states given by nh where n is an integer or zero. Here
the ground state is assumed to be zero energy state.
Using these postulates, Plancks explained that the oscillator consists of discrete set of
quantized states. The amount of energy emitted or absorbed is also quantized. Each quantum
corresponds to the energy difference between two states of a given oscillator and each
quantum of electromagnetic energy is called a photon.
The absorption of a photon of frequency will raise the energy of an oscillator of frequency by
an amount given by h . Emission of photon occurs when the oscillator energy drops to the next
lower energy, the frequency of the emitted light will correspond to the oscillator frequency.
Planck gave an equation to explain the entire spectrum of black body radiation.
By definition, the number of vibrations/unit volume in the wavelength range and + d is
given by 8/ 4 d .
According to Plancks postulates, the average energy per standing wave is given by
h/e h /KT 1.
Therefore, the total energy/unit volume in the cavity in the wavelength range and + d is
given by
u d = 8/ 4 h/(e h/KT - 1 ) d
u d = 8 h/ 4 1/(e h/KT - 1 ) d

Since = C/ ,
u d = 8hc/ 5 (1/e hc/ KT - 1) d
This equation is called Plancks Radiation Law.

Reduction of Plancks law to Wiens law and Rayleigh Jeans law:

Plancks law can be reduced to Wiens law and Rayleigh Jeans law at shorter and longer
wavelengths respectively.
1. Reduction to Wiens law:
For shorter wavelength = C/ is large

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 e h/KT is large and > > 1 Because
(e h/KT 1 ) e h/KT = e hC / KT ( = C/ )
From Plancks law,
u d = 8hc/ 5 (1/e h/KT - 1) d
For shorter wavelength, this reduces to
u d = 8hc/ 5 (1/e hc/ KT - 1) d
In this case, two constants C1 and C2 can be chosen where C1 = 8 hc and C2 = hc/K.
Substituting this in the above expression,
u d = C1 -5 e C2/ T d .
This is Wiens Law of Radiation.

2. Reduction of Rayleigh Jeans law:

For longer wavelength = C/ is very small
e h/KT is small i.e. h/KT is small.
Expanding e h/KT as power series,
e h/KT = 1 + h/KT + (h/KT)2 + . . . .
= 1 + h/KT (Here higher terms are neglected)
(e h/KT - 1 ) = h/KT = hc/KT

According to Plancks law,

u d = 8hc/ 5 (1/e hc/ KT - 1) d

For higher wavelength,

u d = (8hc / 5 )(1 / hc/ KT) d

u d = 8KT/ 4 d

This is Rayleigh Jeans law.

Photoelectric Effect:

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Photoelectric effect is a phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface when
illuminated by light or any other radiation of suitable frequency.

The electrons emitted are called photoelectrons. Though photoelectric effect was
observed by Hertz, he could not explain using electromagnetic theory of light.

But, Einstein explained photoelectric effect using quantum theory of light.

Einsteins Photoelectric Equation:

In order to explain photoelectric effect, Einstein considered the quantum theory of light.
According to him, the energy in light is not spread out over wave fronts. But the energy is
concentrated in small packets or photons. Each photon of light of frequency has the
energy h.

When light is incident on the metal surface, one photon is completely absorbed by one
electron. The electron then gains sufficient energy and escapes from the metal surface.

Thus the energy of photon is used to free the electron from the metal and also to impart
kinetic energy to the electron. This energy will be maximum.

According to Einstein, if h is the energy of photon and is the energy used to free the
electron from the metal then,

h = K.Emax +

This equation is called Einsteins Photoelectric Equation. In this equation, K.Emax =

mv2max where m is mass of the electron and vmax is the maximum velocity. Here is the
minimum energy needed for an electron to escape from the metal surface. This is called
Work Function of the metal.

If the photons energy is just sufficient to liberate the electrons from the metal then
kinetic energy of the electrons is zero.
h o = o Here o is the minimum frequency to cause photoelectric emission which is
called as Threshold frequency.

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Physical significance of Photoelectric effect:
Photoelectric effect shows the particle nature of photons. Electron is a particle because it
has mass and it can be accelerated.
But photon has no rest mass and cannot be accelerated.
In photoelectric effect, since the electron is interacting with a photon, the photon is
considered as a localized particle rather than a wave front.

This clearly establishes the quantum or particle nature of light.

Compton Effect:
When a monochromatic beam of light of high frequency radiation ( X- rays, rays etc)
is scattered by a material, the scattered radiation will have smaller energy, lower
frequency or greater wavelength than that of the incident radiation.

This observed change in frequency or wave length of the scattered radiation is known as
Compton Effect.

This phenomenon cannot be explained using classical theory.

Compton explained this phenomenon using Quantum theory of Radiation.

According to Quantum theory of radiations, a radiation consists of energy packets called

photons whose energy is given by h where is the frequency of radiation.

When a photon (incident radiation) is incident on a material (scatterer), because of elastic

collision between two particles (photon and electron of scatterer), scattering occurs.

When the photon collides with the electron, it transfers some of its energy to the electron
and loses energy. Thus, the scattered photon will have smaller energy and lower
frequency and thus greater wavelength than the incident photon.

In the scattering process, the electron gains kinetic energy and thus recoils with velocity
v.

Compton Equation and Compton Wavelength:

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Let a photon of energy h collide with an electron at rest. During the collision the photon
loses a fraction of energy and gives it the free electron. Thus this energy is same as the
kinetic energy gained by the electron. If the scattered photon has the lower frequency 1
then loss in photon energy = gain in electron energy
h h 1 = K.E

During this scattering process, the electron after gaining kinetic energy recoils with
velocity v.

The process of recoiling of electron and scattering of photon is as shown. Let be the
scattering angle and is the recoil angle.

Compton derived an expression for the change in wavelength using scattering angle .
Thus,

1 = h/moc (1 cos )

Here mo is the rest mass of the electron.

This equation is called Compton Equation and change in wavelength is called Compton
Shift.

.. Compton shift = h/moc ( 1 cos )

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The quantity h/moc is called the Compton Wavelength of the scattering particle and is
denoted by c .. c = h/moc.

.. Compton shift = 1 = c (1 cos )

This Compton wavelength gives the wavelength change of the incident photon.

The greater wavelength change occurs at = 180o . In this case, the Compton Shift will
be twice the Compton Wavelength.

Physical Significance of Compton Effect:

Compton Effect shows that, a photon can be treated as a particle which undergoes a
collision with the rest mass particle (electron). Thus the phenomenon provides evidence
that a photon can undergo particle like collisions with both atoms and unbound electrons.
This clearly establishes the particle nature of waves.

KEY WORDS
A black body is an ideal body which absorbs all radiations incident upon it regardless of
frequency.
The classical laws which explain black body radiation are Stefans law, Wiens law and
Rayleigh-Jeans law.
Wiens law holds good for shorter wavelength or higher frequency region.
Rayleigh-Jeans law holds good for longer wavelength or shorter frequency region. This is
called ultra-violet catastrophe.
According to Plancks law of radiation, the process of absorption or emission of
electromagnetic energy can be considered to be an exchange of a photon between
matter and electromagnetic field.
Plancks equation u d = 8hc/ 5 (1/e hc/ KT - 1) d
explains the entire spectrum of black body radiation.

Photoelectric effect is a process of emission of electrons from a metal surface when

illuminated by light or any other radiation of suitable frequency.
Einsteins Photoelectric equation is given by
h = K.Emax +
Here is called the work function of the metal and
K.Emax = mv2max

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 Threshold frequency is the minimum frequency (of the photon) to cause photo
electric emission. It is denoted by 0. In this case the K.E. of electrons is zero.
Therefore h0 = 0.
Photo electric effect shows the particle nature of photons.
When a monochromatic beam of light of high frequency radiation is scattered by
a material, the scattered radiation will have smaller energy, lower frequency or
greater wave length than that of the incident radiation. This observed change in
frequency (or wave length) of the scattered radiation is known as Compton effect.
Compton equation is given by
- 1 = h/m0c(1- cos )
Compton shift is given by h/m0c(1- cos ).
Compton wave length of the scattering particle is given by h/m0c = c . This
Compton wavelength gives the wave length change of the incident photon.
Compton effect establishes the particle nature of waves.

Important Questions :
1. What is the nature of black body radiation?
2. Discuss Wiens law and its limitations.
3. State and explain Rayleigh Jeans law. Show how its drawbacks can be overcome using
Plancks law.
4. State and explain Plancks law of radiation. Show that it reduces to Wiens law and Rayleigh
Jeans law under certain conditions.
5. Discuss energy distribution in black body radiation.
6. Explain photoelectric effect and give its physical significance.
7. Explain Compton Effect and give its physical significance.

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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii.UNIT 2 : WAVES AND PARTICLES
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Wave Particle Dualism:
Black body radiation, phenomena like photoelectric effect and Compton Effect can be
successfully explained using Plancks Quantum theory. According to Quantum theory, the
radiation interacts with matter in the form of Photons or Quanta and it behaves as a particle.
Thus radiation has wave particle dualism ie it can exhibit particle nature and wave nature but
not simultaneously.
De Broglie concept of matter waves (De Broglie hypothesis) :
De Broglie suggested that just like radiation, matter also has dual characteristics. His concept
was based on following considerations.
a. Nature loves symmetry:

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 Radiation exhibit dualism and hence matter also should exhibit wave-particle
dualism. This is because, matter and energy are the two forms in which Nature
manifests itself and they are symmetrical.

b. The close parallelism between mechanics and optics:

The principle of least action in mechanics and the Fermats principle of least time
in optics suggest that radiation and matter should have wave-particle dualism.

c. Bohrs theory of atomic structure:

According to Bohrs theory, the stable non-radiating orbits of the electron in the
atom obey integer rules which indicates wave motion. Thus electrons in the orbits
exhibit not only particle behavior but also wave nature.
Using these considerations, deBroglie suggested that matter also exhibit dual
nature. There is always close relationship between waves and particle both in case
of radiation and matter.
A moving particle of matter is associated with a wave and it is controlled by the
wave. This is similar to a photon which is controlled by waves.
The electrons are particles, they have mass, charge and energy. But in order to
find the path of a beam of electrons, the electrons should be treated as waves. The
energy is carried by the electrons and not by the waves associated with them.

These matter waves are called as deBroglie waves. The wavelength of these
waves is called deBroglie wavelength represented by .

On the basis of relativity principle, the momentum p of the photon is given by

h/c.
.. p = = (. = c for a photon and c is the velocity of
photon)

.. = h/p
This is deBroglie wavelength.
This applies to both material particles and photons.
The momentum p of a particle of mass m and velocity v is given by p = mv
.. deBroglie wavelength = = h/p = h/mv

i. deBroglie wavelength in terms of K.E:

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 If the K.E of the material particle is E then by definition E = mv2 = p2
/2m
(. p = mv)
.. E = p2/2m .. p2 = 2mE .. p =

deBroglie wavelength = h/p = h/

Here E = mv2

ii. deBroglie wavelength associated with electrons:

Consider an electron of rest mass m and charge e. Let this be accelerated
by a potential V volts from rest to velocity v.
.. mv2 = eV .. v = 2eV/m

But deBroglie wavelength = h /mv

.. = h/m 2eV/m

= h/ 2meV

Here h, m, and e are constants (h = Plancks constant, m = mass of the

electron,
e = charge on the electron)

Substituting the values,

= Ao

This gives the deBroglie wavelength of an accelerated electron

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Davisson and Germer Experiment:
Davisson and Germer experimentally detected the electron waves predicated by deBroglie and
measured DeBroglie wavelengths for slow electrons by diffraction methods.
Experimental Arrangement:
The experimental arrangement is as shown.

A beam of electrons are emitted from a heated filament F within an electron gun G. These
electrons are then accelerated in an electron field of known P.D. The beam is then made to pass
though a fine aperture and strikes a single crystal of nickel (target T) as shown.
The electrons are scattered in all directions by the atoms of the crystal. The angular
distribution can be measured using a collector C which is connected to a sensitive
galvanometer and can be moved along a graduated circular scale.
The collector has two walls insulated from each other. A retarding potential is applied between
the inner wall C and outer D so that only the fastest electrons whose velocity corresponds to
incident velocity may enter the collector and can be detected by the galvanometer.

Result of the experiment:

The beam strikes the crystal and the scattered beam is detected at an angle relative to the
incident beam. The collector can be moved in the range of 0 to 50o.
The experiment is conducted for various accelerating potential V and polar graphs of electron
intensity are drawn as shown. The graphs show distinct maxima and minima whose positions
depend upon the electron energy.
Incident Beam

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 o
50

48V 54V 60V

From the graph, when the acceleration voltage is set at 54V, a sharp maximum in the electron
distribution occurred at an angle = 50o with the original beam.
This result cannot be explained using any other effect than the super position of waves to give
an intensity maximum.
Davisson and Germer experiment confirmed the existence of matter waves

Verification of deBroglie hypothesis

According to deBroglie, electron waves are diffracted by the crystal, just like x-rays which are
diffracted by planes of atoms in a crystal. Each atom of the crystal is considered as a scatterer
and the scattered electron waves interfere and the grating for the electrons. The electrons obey
Braggs law.
The Braggs equation for maxima in the diffraction pattern is (ie for constructive interference
2dsin = n . In this case cos is the glancing angle and d is the interplanar distance.
The electron beam gets scattered at = 500 from the crystal surface. These waves undergo
Braggs reflection from the atomic planes as shown.

From the fig, a represents the lattice constant. For Nickel crystal a = 2.15 x 10-10m. Let
d be the interplanar spacing. From fig d = OA = OBsin250. .. d = (2.15 x 10-10) sin250 =
0.91x10-10 m.

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Let be the angle of incidence and scattering relative to the family of Braggs planes.
From fig = 650. (This is also glancing angle). .. using Braggs condition, 2dsin = n .
..2 x 0.91 x 10-10sin65o = 0.165nm.(Here n = 1). .. = 0.165nm.
This wave length is the observed wave length during the experiment.
Using the deBroglie theory, if an electron is accelerated through a potential difference v,
then the deBroglie wavelength is given by = 12.26/v Ao . In this case, the sharp
maximum in the electron distribution occurred at 54v, V=54v. .. = 12.26/54 Ao
= 0.166nm. .. = 0.166nm. This agrees with the observed wavelength of
0.165nm. Thus Davision-Germer expt confirmed deBroglie hypothesis.

Phase Velocity:
The velocity with which an individual wave travels is called Phase Velocity or
Wave Velocity. In case of deBroglie waves, it is the velocity of each
individual component wave in a wave packet.
It is denoted by vphase or vp.
Expression for vp:
Since Vp represents the wave velocity, vp = where is the wavelength and is
the frequency of the wave.

But the angular frequency = 2 and the wave number or propagation

constant
k = 2/ .. /k= 2 /2/ =

.. vp = /k

Since for a wave E = h = mc2

.. = mc2/h
Substituting this in ,

vp = mc2/h = mc2/h . h/mv [ . =h/mv]

.. vp = c2/v
Thus the phase velocity of a wave is given by
vp = /k = c2/v

24
This expression shows that vp > C and also vp > v

Thus vp has no physical significance when the motion of the body is considered.

Group Velocity:
A particle that is localized in a certain region of space must be
represented by a wave packet consisting of super position of large
number of waves.
The velocity of this group of waves or wave packet is called group
velocity.
It is represented by vg
Expression for group velocity vg
Consider two waves having same amplitude A but slightly different wavelengths
and frequencies traveling in the same direction
The two waves are represented by
y1 = A sin (t kx)
y2 = A sin [(+)t (k+k)x]
When the two waves super impose, the resultant displacement is given by,
y = y1 + y2
.. y = A sin (t kx) + A sin [(+)t (k+k) x]

Since

y = 2A cos
Here and k are small compared to and k

.. y =

This equation shows that the amplitude of the resultant wave is not a constant
but is given by }

Since the velocity with which the variation in amplitude is transmitted is the
group velocity

25
 vgroup = =

If and k have a continuous spread taking limits

vgroup = vg =

Relationship between Group Velocity and Phase Velocity:

By definition, for a deBroglie wave, the group velocity of a wave packet is given by

vg =

The velocity of each individual wave is given by vp =

Where is the angular frequency and k is the wave number.

By definition, the wave number

K=

Differentiating,

..

.. K )( = -

. K = - --------- (a)

vg = = {. vp = }

= vp + K

.. vg = vp + K

Substituting for k ( from (a)

This is the relation between vg and vp.

26
Relationship between vg and vparticle:

By definition, vg =

Since = 2 and E= h
= 2E/h

.. d = ------------------- (a)

By definition K= = 2. { . = }

.. dK = --------------------(b)

Substituting for d and dK in vg

vg = = =

.. vg = -----------------------(c)

In this equation, E = where p is the momentum of the particle

.. dE =

Substituting this in equation (c)

vg = =

.. vg =

Comparing vg and vparticle

vg = vparticle =

This is the relation between vg and vparticle.

This shows that the group velocity of deBroglie wave is same as the velocity of the particle.

Relationship between velocity of light, group velocity and phase velocity:

By definition, vp =

But = 2 =

27
And K = = 2.

vp = = =

vp =

Here E = mc2 and p = mvparticle

.. vp = =

But by definition, vg = vparticle

.. vp = or vp. vg = c2

Expression for deBroglie wavelength (in terms of group velocity):

According to deBroglie theory, the velocity of group of waves vg = where is the angular

frequency = 2 and k is the wave number =

.. d = and dk = 2 d (

.. vg = = =

But the definition vg = vparticle

.. vg = vparticle =

-------------(1)

Energy of the particle:

If m is the mass of the particle , v the velocity and V is the potential energy of the particle

28
then,

Total Energy E = K.E. + P.E

E = mv2 + V
According to deBroglie theory, E= h
.. E = h = mv2 + V
If the particle moves in constant potential field, V is constant
Differentiating the above equation,
h d = mv dv

..

But from (1) =

..

Integrating the above equation

Let constant of integration be zero and momentum of the particle p=mv,

..
This is the equation for deBroglie wavelength

Characteristics of matter waves:

1. Matter waves are the waves associated with moving particle.
2. These waves are called deBroglie waves or Pilot waves
3. These waves differ from electromagnetic waves
4. The wavelength of those waves is given by = h/p = h/mv
5. The amplitude of the matter waves at a given point determines the probability of
finding the particle at that point at the given instant of time.
6. The phase velocity or wave velocity of the individual wave in the wave packet is given by
vp = c2/vg.vg is called the group velocity which represents the velocity of the wave packet
or wave group

Important Questions:

29
1.What is deBroglie concept of matter waves?
2.Explain the characteristics of matter waves.
3. Describe Davisson and Germers experiment and explain how it enabled verification of
deBroglie equation.
4.Define Phase velocity and Group velocity. Derive a relation between them.
5.Show that group velocity is same as particle velocity.
6.What is deBroglie wavelength? Deduce an expression for deBroglie wavelength using the
concept of group velocity.
7.Explain the differences between phase velocity and group velocity.
Problems:
1.Calculate the deBroglie wavelength associated with 400gm cricket ball with a
speed of 90 km/hour.
Soln: Given: m = 400gm = 0.4 kg

v = 90 km/hour = = 25 ms-1

h = 6.6 x 10 -34 J-S

=?

By Defn: = = = 6.6 x 10 25 m

2.Calculate the deBroglie wavelength associated with an electron with K.E of

2000eV.
Soln: Given: m = 9.11 x 10 -31 kg
E = 2000 eV = 2000 x 1.602 x 10 -19 J
h = 6.6 x 10 -34 J-S
=?

By defn: = =

.. = 2.74 x 10 -11 m

30
3.Compare the energy of a photon with that of a neutron when both are
associated with wavelength of 1 Ao
Soln: Given : mn = 1.675 x 10 -27 kg
p = 10 -10m
n = 10 -10 m
c = 3 x 10 8 ms-1
Ep / En = ?

By Defn: Ep = energy of photon = h

= =

= 1.9889 x 10 -15 J
Ep = 1.989 x 10 -15 x 6.24 x 10 18 eV
Ep = 12411 eV
Energy of neutron En =

.. En = h2/2mnn2 =

= 1.3121 x 10 -20 J
= 1.3121 x 10 -20 x 6.24 x 108 eV
= 0.08 eV

.. Ep/ En = = 1.5 x 105

31
4.A particle of mass 0.65 MeV / c2 has a K.E 80eV. Find the deBroglie
wavelength, group velocity and phase velocity of the deBroglie wave.
Soln: Given m = 0.65 MeV / c2
E = 80 eV = 80 x 1.6 x 10 -19 J
=? vg = ? vp= ?
m = 0.65 MeV / c2 = 0.65 x 10 6 x 1.602 x 10 -19 J/c2

= 1.157 x 10 -30 kg

= h/ 2mE = 1.218 x 10 -10 m

vg = = = = 4.7 x 106 ms-1

vp = Vp = = = 1.193 x 10 10 ms-1

32
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

i.UNIT 3: Uncertainty Principle

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle:

Statement :
It is impossible to know both the exact position and exact momentum of an object at the same
time. The product of the uncertainty involved in the determination of position and momentum
simultaneously is greater than or equal to h/4.
Mathematically, this principle can be written as x . px h/4.
Here, x is the uncertainty involved in the measurement of position and px is the uncertainty
involved in the measurement of momentum of the particle ( h is the Plancks constant).
Heisenbergs Uncertainty principle can also be expressed in terms of other variables (conjugate
pairs) like angular momentum, angular displacement etc,
Thus, the other forms of the principle are :

a) E . t

Here E is the uncertainty involved in energy and t is the uncertainty involved in time.

b) L .

Here L is the uncertainty involved in angular momentum and is the

uncertainty involved in angle.

33
Physical significance of Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle:
In classical mechanics, the position and momentum of a particle can be determined at any
instant of time.
But in Quantum mechanics, the position and the momentum of a particle cannot be
simultaneously determined i.e. precise measurement is not possible.
To determine the momentum accurately distance x should be long. If the particle is confined to
a small region x then, momentum cannot be measured accurately.
The uncertainty in the measurement is not due to inadequate apparatus but the nature imposes
a limit on the accuracy with which the experiments are conducted.
Though position and momentum cannot be measured accurately, the most probable position
and most probable momentum of the particle can be determined.

Application of Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle To Prove that Electrons Cannot exist inside
The Nucleus:
According to the Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle , x. px h/4.
The diameter of the nucleus is of the order 10-14m. If the electron is present within the nucleus ,
it can be anywhere within the diameter of the nucleus.
.. the maximum uncertainty x in the position of the electron is also 10-14m.
.. x = 10-14m
.. the minimum uncertainty in the momentum is given by

px = = = 0.5 x 10-20 NS = px min --------------- (a)

Thus if the electron exists in the nucleus then its minimum momentum is 0.5 x 10 -20 N-S and its
minimum energy is given by :
E2min = P2min c2 + mo2 c4 ----------------------------- (b)

The above equation is obtained from the basic equation of theory relativity. According to the
theory of relativity E = mc2.
But when a body is moving with a speed v relative to an observer, then the mass of the body is
larger than its mass when at rest relative to the observer by the factor 1/1- v2/c2 . This mass is
called Relativistic Mass m .

.. m = where mo is the mass at rest or rest mass

34
.. E = mc2 = . c2

Squaring the above equation, we get

E2 = mo2 c4/(1-v2/c2) = (mo2 c6)/(c2-v2)

By definition momentum p of the body is given by p = mv =

Squaring the above equation, we get,

p2 = =

.. p2c2 =

.. E2 - p2c2 = [(mo2 c6)/(c2-v2) - (mo2v2c6)/(c2-v2)]

= = mo2 c4

.. E2 = p2c2 + m2c4

Thus, using Heisenbergs Uncertainty principle,

E2min = p2min c2 + m2oc4
Substituting for p = 0.5 x 10 -20 Ns , mo = rest mass of the electron = 9.11 x 10 -31 kg and
c=velocity of light 3 x 108 ms-1

.. E2min (3x108)2 [ (0.5 x 10 -20)2 + (9.11 x 10 -31)2 (3x108)2]

(3x108)2 [0.25 x 10 -40 + 7.46 x 10 -44]
Here second term can be neglected
.. Emin 1.5 x 10 -12 J 9.4 MeV
If an electron exists inside the nucleus it should have a an energy greater than or equal to
9.4 MeV.
But experimentally it has been found out that the kinetic energy of the beta particles is of the
order 3 or 4 MeV ( Beta particles is an electron or position emitted by a radio active nucleus).
This clearly shows that electrons cannot exist within the nucleus of an atom.

35
KEY WORDS:

Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that, in any simultaneous determination of the

position and momentum of a particle, the product of uncertainty involved in the
measurement is equal to or greater than (h/4)
Mathematically uncertainty principle can be written as x. px h/4.
x is the uncertainty involved in the measurement of position and px is the uncertainty
involved in the measurement of momentum of the particle.

The other forms of the principle are

E. t h/4 (E=Energy and t=time)

L. h/4 (L=Angular momentum and is the angle)

Heisenberg uncertainty principle shows that the position and momentum of a particle
cannot be simultaneously determined (with precision). Only the probability of the
measurement can be made.
Using the uncertainty principle it can be proved that the electrons do not reside inside
the nucleus.
The uncertainty in momentum = p = mv
Where v is the uncertainty in speed.

The uncertainty in energy =E =hc. (1/ )

.. E = hc. / 2 = (hc/ 2) where is the uncertainty in wavelength.

Important Questions:
1. State Heisenbergs Uncertainty principle and give its physical significance.

2. State Heisenbergs Uncertainty principle. Based on this, prove that free electrons
cannot exist inside the nucleus.

Problems:
1) In a simultaneous measurement of position and velocity of an electron
moving with a speed of 6 x 105 ms-1. Calculate the highest accuracy
with which its position could be determined if the inherent error in
the measurement of its velocity is 0.01% for the speed stated.

Soln : Given : v = 6 x 105 ms-1

m = 9.11 x 10-31 kg

36
 Max accuracy with which position is measured = x = ?
v = 6 x 105 ms-1

.. v = = 60 ms-1

.. p = m. v = 9.11 x 10-31 x 60 = 546.6 x 10-31

Using Uncertainty Principle,
x. p h/4

x h/4 . m. v = = 9.65 x 10-7 m

.. x 9.65 x 10-7 m

2) The inherent uncertainty in the measurement of time spent by

Iridium 191 nuclei in the excited state is found to be 1.4 x 1010 s.
Estimate the uncertainty that results in its energy in the excited state.

Soln: t = 1.4 x 10-10 m

Uncertainty in the energy E = ?
Using Uncertainty principle,
E. t h/4
.. E = 3.77 x 10-25 J

3.77 x 10-25x 6.24x1018 eV

.. E 2.35 x 10-6 eV

37
38
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii.UNIT 4 : SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Wave function:
The variable quantity in matter waves is called a wave function. This is denoted by the letter .
The value of the wave function associated with a moving body at the particular point x, y, z in
space at the time t gives the likelihood of finding the body there at that time.
Physical significance:
The wave function itself has no direct physical significance. The wave function cannot
be interpreted in terms of an experiment.The wave function by itself cannot be an
observable quantity.
The probability that something is present in a certain place at a given time must
lie between 0 (which shows the object is definitely not there) and 1 (which shows
that the object is definitely there).An intermediate probability does not exist.
A wave function describes a particle being spread out in space, but the particle itself is
not spread out . A particle is either found at a certain time and place or it is not.A wave
function is complex with both real and imaginary parts.A complex wave function is
written as = A + i B where A & B are real functions and i = -1.A wave function always
describes the behavior of the single particle.
Probability density:
The square of the absolute value of the wave function is known as probability density
which is given by | | 2 .The probability of experimentally finding the body which is
described by a wave function at the point x, y, z at the time t is proportional to the
value of | | 2 there at t.
A large value of | | 2 indicates the strong possibility of bodys presence and small
value indicates little chance of bodys presence.But as long as | | 2 has a definite
value, somewhere there is chance of detecting the body there.

39
 A probability is a positive real quantity. The probability density | | 2 for a wave
function is the product * , is the complex conjugate of and is written as * = A
iB
.. The product * = A2 i2 B2 = A2 + B2
.. * is always a positive real quantity.

Since | | 2 is proportional to the probability density p of finding the body described by , the
integral of | | 2 over all space must be finite. This shows that the body is somewhere.

Normalization:
By definition, the value of | | 2 is proportional to the probability density p of finding the body
described by . This clearly indicates that the integral of | | 2 over all space must be finite.
But usually the value of | | 2 is taken to be equal to the probability density p of finding the
particle.
.. if | | 2 = p then

=>

This process is called Normalization.

A wave function which obeys the above equation is called a Normalized wave function. Every
acceptable wave function can be normalized by multiplying it by an appropriate constant.

Properties of Wave Function:

a. The wave function must be finite everywhere.
- A wave function should be finite for all values.
b. The wave function must be continuous and single-valued everywhere.
Since the probability density p of finding the particle can have only one value at a
particular place and time and continuous, the wave function must be continuous
and single-valued everywhere.
c. The partial derivatives of the wave function /x , /y and /z must be
continuous and single-valued everywhere.

40
 d. The wave function must be normalizable. This means that => 0 as x -> + , y

-> + and z -> + . This is because over all space be a finite

constant.
These well behaved or acceptable wave functions are admissible as mathematical
representations of real bodies.

Schrodinger wave equation:

Schrodingers equation is a basic equation in quantum mechanics. It is a fundamental second-
order differential equation which determines the wave function in a specific situation.
Schrodingers equation does not give the position of the particle but the solution of the
equation gives the wave function of the particle. This equation can be set in both time
dependent and time independent situations.
Time independent Schrodingers wave equation for a free particle in one dimension:
In time independent situation, the potential energy of a particle does not depend on time
explicitly but it depends on the position of the particle only.
Consider a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v along the positive X-axis.
Using de Broglie hypothesis, the wave associated with the particle will have the wavelength
=h/p where p is the momentum = mv.
The wave equation for the deBroglie wave travelling along the positive x direction is given by
(x, t) = Ae-i(wt-kx)
Here depends both on x and t
(x, t) = (x) Ae-iwt------------ (1)
where (x) =

By considering the position and differentiating eqn. (1) w.r.t x twice, we get

= .A ---------------- (2)

By considering the time and differentiating eqn. (1) w.r.t t twice, we get

= (x) . (- 2 . A ) ---------- (3)

By definition, the general wave equation is given by

41
 = . ----------------------- (4)

Here v is the velocity of wave.

Substituting eqn. (2) & (3) in eqn. (4)

By definition, the angular frequency = 2 where is the frequency of the wave & v =
where is the wavelength of the wave

.. .= .

.. . = 0 --------------- (5)

Let E be the total energy of the particle and v be the potential energy
.. E = Potential Energy + Kinetic Energy
.. E = V + mv2
.. mv2 = 2 ( E V)
=> mv2.m = 2 ( E V).m
=> (mv)2 = 2m (E V)
By definition of deBroglie wavelength = h/mv or mv = h/
.. mv2 = (h/ )2 = 2m (E V)
.. (1/ )2 = 2m (E V)/h2
Substituting for 1/2 in eqn. (5),

=0

.. d2/dx2 + 82m/h2(E-V) = 0
This equation is the time-independent Schrodingers wave equation for a free particle in one
dimension.
Eigen values and Eigen functions:
Eigen functions:
Schrodingers equation is a second-order differential equation which determines the wave
function in a specific situation. The solution of the equation gives the wave function of the
particle.

42
But since it is a second-order differential equation having many solutions, all solutions (or all
wave functions) are not acceptable.
Those solutions or wave functions which satisfy the following conditions are acceptable wave
functions.

should be finite everywhere

should be continuous and single-valued everywhere.
The partial derivatives of i.e. /x , /y and /z must be continuous
and single-valued everywhere.
should be normalizable.
These acceptable, well behaved wave functions are called Eigen functions.

Eigen Values:
Schrodinger wave equation has many solutions which represent wave functions. Each of
these wave functions corresponds to a specific value of the energy.
Since only some wave functions are acceptable, some energy values are
acceptable.These values of energy for which Schrodingers equation can be solved are
called Eigen Values.These Eigenvalues are determined using the formula En = n2h2/8ma2
where n = 1, 2, 3
Eigen values are also called as Proper or Characteristic values.
Since each wave function corresponds to a specific value of energy, energy is Quantized.
Applications of Schrodingers equation.
Particle in a box: [Particle in one dimensional potential well of infinite height]
Consider a particle trapped inside a box of rigid walls.
The particle is restricted to travel along X-axis between x=0 and x=a by walls.
The potential energy V of the particle is infinite on both sides of the box.

43
But if the potential energy is a constant i.e V = 0 inside the box
Outside the box, since the particle cannot have an infinite amount of energy, it cannot
exist.
.. The wave function = 0 for x 0 and x a
Inside the box, the particles motion is restricted between x = 0 and x = a
Schrodingers wave equation for a particle in one dimension is given by

(E V) = 0

Since potential energy is zero inside the box, V = 0

..

The solution of this equation is of the form = A ----- (1)

Here A & B are constants

Solution: (To determine A & B)
Since the particle is restricted between x =0 and x = a, the boundary conditions are = 0 when
x=0 and = 0 when x=a.
(a) When x =0, = 0
Using this in eqn. (1)
0 = A sin 0 + B cos 0
Since cos 0 = 1 , the second term cannot describe the particle. .. B = 0

(b) When x = a , = 0
Using this in eqn. (1)

44
 0=A

Since A 0,

.a=0

Since sines of angles , 2, . is 0

. a = n where n = 1, 2, 3

Squaring , n22 =

.. 8mE.a2 = n2h2

.. E =n2h2/8ma2

Since there are certain acceptable energy levels E => En (which denotes the Eigen
values)

.. En =n2h2/8ma2 where n = 1, 2, 3 .
These are Eigen values which represent the energy levels of the system.

Eigen functions:
The solution of the Schrodingers wave equation is given by

= A sin ( . B = 0)

Let =K

.. = A sin Kx
When x = a , sin Ka = sin n .. Ka = n .. K = n/a
Substituting this in

= A sin

Since there are n number of Eigen values can also be written as

n = A sin where n = 0, 1, 2

45
These are Eigen functions corresponding to Eigen values En
Zero point Energy:
The Eigen values which represent the energy levels of the system are given by

En =

Here if n=0, n = 0 which shows that the particle does not exist inside the box. Since this is not
acceptable, the lowest value is assigned to n = 1

.. E = This lowest energy state is called Zero point energy.

.. Ezero-point =

Zero point energy is taken as the ground state energy.

Normalization:
In normalization, the square of the absolute value of the wave function i.e. ||2 is taken to be
equal to the probability density P of finding the particle.
..Normalized wave function is given by

dx = 1 => dx ------- (1)

The solution for Schrodingers wave equation for a particle inside a potential well of infinite
height (i.e box) is given by

=A sin

Substituting this in eqn (1)

. dx = 1 [ the limits are x=0 & x = a]

.. A2 [1/2

This is because sin2

Mm => =1

=>

=> [Since sin(2n) = 0]

=> A =

46
 Substituting for A in equation for n

n =

.. n = 2/a sin (n/a)x

This is the normalized wave function of a particle in a one-dimensional potential well of infinite
height.

Determination of wave functions, probability density and energy levels for a particle in a box
in ground state and first two excited states:
Schrodingers wave equation for a particle in a box is given by

By definition, the Eigen values (energy levels) are given by

En =

The normalized wave functions are given by

n =

The probability density is given by |n|2

For Ground State: Here n=1

.. Energy values (Eigen value) En =

.. E1 = = E0 (Zero point energy)

Eigen function:

n =

Here since n=1, 1 = 0 for x=0 & x=a

But 1 is maximum for x = (a/2)
|1|2 = 0 for both x=0 & x=a & maximum at x = a/2
This is as shown

47
 2
1 |1|

X=0 a/2 X=a X=0 a/2 X=a

This shows that in the ground state, the probability of finding the particle is maximum at the
middle of the box (x=a/2)

For the first excited state (n = 2) :

Eigen values:
En = n2h2/8ma2 (here n = 2)

.. E2 = = 4 E0

Eigen function:

n =

Since n = 2, 2 = 0 for x=0, a/2 and a & maximum for x=a/4 &3a/4
|2|2 = 0 at x=0, a/2 and a
The plots are as shown.

2
2 |2|
a/4 3a/4
a/4

a/2 X=0 a/2 X=a

X=0 X=a

3a/4

For second excited state ( n= 3):

Eigen value:

En = = 9E0

48
 Eigen function:

n =

3 = 0 for x=0,a/3,/2a/3 and a

3 is max for x = a/6, a/2 and 5a/6
|3|2 is max at x=a/6, a/2 and 5a/6
The plots are as shown.

2
3 |3|

X=0 X=a X=0 X=a

Free Particle:
Consider a particle which is not under the influence of any force. The particle is called free
particle and its potential energy is zero.
Schrodingers wave equation for a particle is given by

Since V = 0

Let k2 =

.. + K2 = 0

The solution of this equation is given by = A sin Kx + B cos Kx where A & B are constants.
In this case, since the particle is free there are no boundary conditions. Thus A, B & K can have
any values.

Since K2 =

49
E = k2h2/82m
This gives the energy of the particle. This shows that the particle can have any value of
energy. It is not quantized. Thus when a particle is not bound in a system it does not have
quantized energy states.
KEY WORDS:

The variable quantity in matter waves is called a wave function. This is denoted by . It
describes the behavior of a single particle.
The square of the absolute value of the wave function is known as probability density.
This is given by 2 . The probability density for a wave function is the product of *
. It is a positive real quantity.
The integral of 2 over all space must be finite i.e. the total probability of finding the

particle somewhere in space must be equal to unity. Thus . This

process is called normalization. A wave fnction which obeys the above equation is called
a Normalized wave function.
The properties of the wave function are
(a) A wave function must be finite everywhere.

(b) The wave function must be finite everywhere single valued everywhere.

(c) The partial derivatives of the wave function must be continuous and single valued
everywhere.

(d) The wave function should be normalizable.

The time-independent Schrodingers wave equation for a free particle in one dimension
is given by (d2/dx2) + (8 2m/h2) (E-V) = 0.
The wave functions which satisfy the following conditions are acceptable wave
functions.
1. The wave function should be finite everywhere.
2. should be continuous and single-valued everywhere.
3. The partial derivatives of i.e. /x, /y and /z must be continuous
and single valued everywhere.
4. should be normalizable.
These acceptable, well-behaved wave functions are called Eigen functions.

Eigen values are the allowed energy values for a particular system. These are energy
values for which Schrodingers equation can be solved. They are also calles as proper or
characteristic values. Eigen values are determined using the equation En = n2h2/8ma2
where n = 1,2,3.
Schrodingers equation for a particle in a box is given by (d2/dx2) + (8 2m/h2) E = 0.
Eigen function for particle in a box is given by n = A sin(n /a)x where n =0,1,2,.
The normalized wave function is given by n = 2/a sin (n/a)x.
Zero point energy is the lowest energy level of a system and is taken as the ground state
energy. It is given by E0 = h2/8ma2 (here n=1)
The Schrodingers wave equation for a particle not bound to a system is given by

50
 (d2/dx2) + k2 = 0 and its energy is given by E = k2h2/82m. The particle does not have
quantized energy states.

Important Questions

1. What is a wave function? Give its physical significance.

2. What is a wave function? Explain its properties and normalization.

3. Explain probability density and normalization of a wave function.

4. Set up time independent Schrodingers equation for a free particle in one

dimension.

5. Explain Eigen values and Eigen functions.

6. Assuming the time independent Schrodinger wave equation discuss the solution
for a particle in one dimensional potential well of infinite height. Hence obtain the
normalized wave function.

7. Explain Zero point energy

8. Discuss the wave functions, probability densities and energy levels for a particle
in a box by considering the ground state and the first 2 excited states.

Problems:

1. An electron is bound in an one dimensional potential well of width 1 Ao,

but of infinite wall height. Find its energy values in the ground state and
also in the first two excited states.

51
 Soln: Given : a = 1 Ao = 10 -10 m m = 9.11x10-31kg
E1 = ? E2= ? E3 = ?
By definition, the energy of an electron in one dimensional potential well of
infinite height is given by
En =

.. For ground state, n = 1

.. En = E1 = =

E1 = 6.0314 x 10-18 J = 6.0314 x 10-18 x 6.24 x 1018 eV = 37.64 eV

For first excited state n = 2

.. E2 = = 22 E1 = 4 E1 = 4 x 37.64 = 150.54 eV

For second excited state n = 3

.. E3 = = 32E1 = 9 x 37.64 = 338.7 eV

2. An electron is confined to move between two rigid walls separated by 2 Ao.

Find the Eigen values and the corresponding deBroglie wavelengths of the
first two allowed energy states.
Solution: Given a = 2 Ao = 2 X 10-10 m.
E1 = ? , E2 = ? 1 =? 2 = ?. The energy of the electron confined to a system is given by
En = n h /8ma2.
2 2

For ground state n =1

.. E1 = h2 / 8ma2 = (6.63 X 10-34)2 /(8 X 9.11 X 10-31 X (2 X 10-10)2) = 150 X 10-20J.

The momentum of the electron is given by

p1 = 2mE1 = (2 X 9.11 X 10-31)

= 16.53 X 10-25 kgms-1

52
 3. An electron is confined to move between two rigid walls separated by 20 Ao. Find
the Eigen values and the corresponding values of de Broglie wavelengths of the first
two allowed energy levels of the electron.
Solution: a =20 Ao = 20 X 10-10.

E1 = ?, E2 = ? 1 = ? 2 =?

The energy of an electron confined to a system is given by

En = n2h2/8ma2

First allowed energy level:

Here n = 1 .. E1 = h2/ 8ma2 = (6.63 X 10-34)2 / (8 X 9.11 X 10-31 X (20 X 10-10)2

.. E1 = 1.51 X 10-20 J

Since E = p2 / 2m , p = 2mE. Here p is the momentum.

In this case p1 = 2mE1. Using deBroglie concept 1 = h / p1 = h / 2mE1
.. 1 =(6.63 X 10-34 ) / (2 X 9.11 X 10-31 X 1.51 X 10-20)

1 = 4 X 10-9 m
Second allowed energy level:
E2 = n2h2 / 8ma2 = n2E1
Here n = 2
.. E2 = 22 E1 = 4 X 1.51 X 10-20 J
.. E2 = 6.03 X 10-20 J
The deBroglie wavelength 2 = h / 2mE2
2 = 6.63 X 10-34 / (2 X 9.11 X 10-31 X 6.03 X 10-20)
..2 =2 X 10-9m

MODULE 2

53
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

i.UNIT 1 : CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Free electrons:

Free electrons are valence electrons which are free to move within the metal. Their motion in a
conductor is similar to the motion of gas molecules confined in a vessel.
The laws of classical kinetic theory of gases can be applied to free electron.
The free electrons have mean free path, mean collision time, relaxation time etc.
Classical free electron theory:
Assumptions:
(1) The free electrons move freely through the positive core of the metals
(2) Free electrons resemble a gas molecule. Thus these electrons have mean free path,
mean collision time and an average speed
(3) The kinetic energy of an electron is given by mv2 = 3/2 KT = m 2

Here K is the Boltzmann constant, is the average velocity, and T is the

Absolute temperature

.. = this gives the root mean square velocity

..
(4) Since the motion of the electrons is random, the net electric current is zero in the
absence of electric field
But when an electric field is applied, current is produced due to the drift velocity
of the electrons
(5) Though there is a force of attraction between the electrons and lattice ions and
force of repulsion between electrons, these forces are neglected.

Drift velocity:

Drift velocity is the constant average velocity acquired by the free electrons when
a constant electric field is applied. The free electrons move in a direction opposite
to the field.
Drift velocity is denoted by the letter vdand units are ms-1
Expression for drift velocity:

54
In a metal, the free electrons undergo collisions with positive ions. Let vd be the drift velocity
acquired by the electrons just before next collision then vd = 0 + at (. v = u + at)
.. vd = at
Since vd = is the average velocity acquired by the electrons, the time is taken as the average time
between successive collisions which is called as Mean Free Time or Relaxation time and is
represented by .. vd = a
When an electron moves in an electric field, the force acting in the electron is given by F=eE
where e is the charge on the electron and F is the electric field.
This force F = ma = eE (using Newtons second law)
..a = eE/m

.. vd = a = (eE/m)
.. vd = (eE/m)
This gives the expression for drift velocity.
Mean free path:
The average distance travelled by the free electrons between two successive collisions with the
lattice ions is called mean free path.
It is denoted by .
Mean collision time:
The average time taken by free electrons between two successive collisions with lattice ions is
called Mean Collision time.
It is denoted by .
The electron velocity v is due to the thermal velocity (which is the root mean square velocity c-)
and drift velocity vd.

.. v= vd + vth= vd +

.. = /v but since vd <<

= /

Relaxation time:
It is defined as the time required for the average velocity of the free electrons to reduce to (1/e)
times its value when the field is switched off.
It is denoted by r.

55
In any metal, in the absence of the field the average velocity vav of the free electrons is zero i.e.
vav = 0.
But when the field is applied vav will have a definite value as vav 1
but when the field is switched off, the average velocity vav starts decaying exponentially which is
given by

vav = vav 1

Where t is the time counted form the instant the field is switched off
If t = r = relaxation time then

Vav = 1/e Vav 1

Relaxation time can also be expressed in terms of mean collision time as

r = here is called Scattering angle and <cos > is the average value of cos taken
over a large number of collisions.
Electrical conductivity in metals:
Electrical conductivity of metal is the ability of the metals to allow electrons to flow through it. It
is denoted by the letter .
Expression for electrical conductivity in metals:
Electrical conductivity in metals can be derived using current & current density in a conductor.
Expression for current in a conductor:
Consider a conductor of uniform area of cross section A. Let I be the current in the conductor &
v be the velocity of the electrons. Then the distance travelled by the electrons in unit time is
velocity x time = v x 1 = v
Then the volume through which the electrons are flowing = length x area = v x A = vA
If n is the number of electrons/unit volume then the number of electrons in this volume = n (vA)
If e is the charge on each electron, the total number of charges crossing this volume per second
is n (vA) e
By definition, this is the rate of flow of charge = neAv
But current I is defined as the rate of flow of charge, I = n e Av
Since the electrons acquire average velocity due to electric field, the velocity v of the electrons is
the drift velocity vd.
.. I = neAvd
This gives the current in a conductor.

56
Expression for electrical conductivity:
Consider a conductor of length l, having an area of cross section A as shown.

conductor

I
A I

X A

Let n be the number of electrons per unit volume. Let e be the charge on each electron. Let E
be the electric field applied.
The electron in an electric field experiences a force F = eE. Let m be the mass of the electron & a
is the acceleration & v is the velocity of the electron
.. From Newtons second law of motion,

F= ma = m. = eE

.. dv = eE/m .dt
Integrating,

.. v = (eE/m) t

Here t is the time of traverse

Let the time of traverse be equal to collision time . .. t =
When the time becomes collision time, the velocity attains the average velocity which is taken
as

.. = (eE/m) ------------------- (1)

If J is the current density then using Ohms law J = E .. = J/E
But current density by definition is given by
J = I/A where I is the current in the conductor

.. = J/E = = I/AE

57
.. = I/AE ------------------------ (2)

Since is the average velocity, the distance travelled by the electrons 1 unit time is given by
distance = x time = . The volume through which the electrons are flowing = A
Since n is the number of electrons /unit volume, the number of electrons through this volume is
given by n A. The total charges flowing through this volume in unit time is given by n Ae =
neA .
Since this represents the rate of flow of charges, it is the current I through the conductor.

.. I = n e A
Substituting for I in eqn (2)

= neA /AE = ne/E .

substituting for v- from eqn (1)

.. =

This is the expression for electrical conductivity.

Mobility of electrons: The mobility of the electrons is defined as the drift velocity acquired by
the electrons in unit electric field. It is denoted by
= vd / E Where vd is the drift velocity and E is the Electric field.
= ne vd / E = ne
.. = /ne = ne2 /m.ne = e/m
.. = e/m
Effect of temperature and impurity on electrical resistivity of metals
Electrical resistivity:
In metals, the resistivity is due to scattering of conduction electrons.
Scattering of electrons may be due to lattice vibrations or due to impurities
(1) Scattering due to lattice vibrations (phonons):
When the temperature of metal is increased, due to vibrations of lattice ions, the
scattering of electrons may take place. The resistivity due to this type of scattering
is called ideal resistivity denoted by ph . This is temperature dependent.
(2) Scattering due to impurities:
The impurities in metals may also scatter electrons and the resistivity due to this is
denoted by i. This is temperature independent.

58
 Thus in any metal, the total resistivity is given by = ph + i
This is called Matthiessens Rule.
Since the conductivity = = 1/ =

The resistivity =

.. = ph + i = +

Here ph & i represent the mean collision time in two types of scattering.

Variation of electrical resistivity with temperature T:

The variation of with T is as shown.
Resistivity

0 5 10 15

o
Temperature T ( K)

This variation applies to almost all metals.

From the graph,

(a) At low temperature, 0 but it has attained very low value.
According to Matthiessens rule, = ph + i..At low temperature ph tends to
zero. Since i does not depend on temperature = i at low temperature.
(b) At high temperature, is very high. This shows that as temperature increases ph
increases & also increases.
At room temperature, the curve is almost linear as shown.

59
Failures of Classical free electron theory
Classical free electron theory failed to explain many experimental facts.
(a) Specific heat of solids:
According to classical free electron theory, the free electrons should absorb
energy. In a metal each electron has an average K.E = 3/2 KT. Since one
kilomole of a metal has NA number of atoms (Avogadros number) E = K.E. =
3/2NAKT. Thus the specific heat contributed by the electrons = Cv = dE/dT
.. Cv = 3/2 KNA = 3/2 R
But for most solids the value of Cv= 3R (according to Dulong & Petit)
This shows that free electrons do not contribute significantly to the heat capacity
of a metal.
(b) Mean Free Path:
According to Classical free electron theory, the resistivity of a metal is given by

= 1/ = 1/ =

.. Mean collision time =

If is the mean free path then =

Since & for an electron are known can be calculated which is equal to 2.85
nm. Experimentally it is found to be equal to 0.285 nm
(c) Temperature dependence of electrical Conductivity:
According to free electron theory the energy of an electron is given by
3/2 KT = mv2th

.. vth = or vth

By definition, mean collision time is inversely proportional to vth .. 1/vth

1/

The electrical conductivity =

.. 1/

.. 1/

Experimentally it is shown that 1/T

60
KEY WORDS:
The K.E of an electron is given by mv2 = 3/2 KT according to CFET.
Drift velocity vdis the constant average velocity acquired by the free electrons when a
constant electric field is applied. vd = (eE/m).
The average distance traveled by the free electrons between two successive collisions
with the lattice ions is called mean free path .
The average time taken by the free electrons between two successive collisions with
lattice ions is called mean collision time .

=/

Relaxation time ris defined as the time required for the average velocity of the free
electrons to reduce to (1/e) times its value when the field is switched off.
Electrical conductivity of a metal is the ability of the metal to allow electrons to flow
through it. =ne2 / m = I/AE.
The current I in a conductor is given by I = neAvd
The resistivity of a metal is given by = ph + i. This is called Matthiessens rule.
Classical free electron theory failed to explain specific heat of solids, mean free path and
temperature dependence of electrical conductivity.
The mobility of the electrons is defined as the drift velocity acquired by the electrons
in unit electric field. = vd/E. Also = e / m

Important Questions

1) What are the assumptions of classical free electron theory?

2) Define the terms: Drift velocity, Mean velocity, Collision time, Relaxation time,
Mean free path.

3) Based on classical free electron theory, derive an expression for electrical

conductivity of metals.

4) How does electrical resistance of a metal change with impurity and temperature?

61
 5) State Matthiessens rule and give an account of the nature of the total resistivity
both at high and low temperatures.

6) Explain the failures of classical free electron theory.

Problems:
(1) Calculate the drift velocity and thermal energy of electrons in a metal of
thickness 1mm across which a potential of 1 volt is applied at temperature
300K (mobility of electron is 40 cm2/Vs.
Soln: Given : d = 10-3 m
V=1v
T = 300K
= 40 x 10-4 m2/v-s
vd = ? Eth = ?

Drift velocity vd = E x But E = V/d

.. vd = V/d x = = 4ms-1

Thermal energy Eth = 3/2 KT

= 3/2 x 1.38 x 10-23 x 300
= 6.215 x 10-21 J

(2) Find the relaxation time of conduction electrons in a metal of resistivity 1.54 x
10 -8 ohm-m, if the metal has 5.87 x 1028 electrons per m3.
Soln: Given : n = 5.8y x 10 -28 /m3
= 1.587 x 10-8 -m
=?

By definition, electrical conductivity =

= 1/ .. =

.. = = = 3.974 x 10 -14 s

62
 (3) The drift velocity of free electrons in a copper wire of cross sectional area 1.0mm2 is 7.4
x 10-4 ms-1. If the wire carries carries a current of 1A, find the number of electrons per
unit volume.
Soln: A = 1 x 10-6 m2 I = 1A
vd = 7.4 x 10-4 ms-1 n=?
e = 1.6 x 10-19 C
By definition I = neAvd
.. n = I / Avde = 1/1 x 10-6 x 7.4 x 10-4 x 1.6 x 10-19
.. n = 8.5 x 1028 electrons/m3

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii.UNIT 2 : QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THOERY
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Quantum free electron theory:

Arnold Sommefeld developed Quantum free electron theory. This theory succeeded in
explaining the drawbacks of classical free electron theory. This theory is based on Quantum
mechanical principles.

Assumptions of Quantum free electron theory:

i. The free electrons in any metal will have only discrete energy values. Thus the
energies are quantized.
ii. The electrons obey Paulis exclusion principle which states that there cannot be
more than two electrons in any energy level
iii. The free electrons have the same potential energy throughout the metal.
iv. The force of attraction between the electrons and lattice ions and the force of
repulsion between electrons can be neglected.
v. The distribution of electrons in various energy levels will be according to Fermi-
Dirac distribution.

Fermi Energy:
Fermi energy is the energy corresponding to the highest occupied level at zero degree absolute.

63
This is denoted by EF.
Femi energy represents the maximum energy that electrons can have at absolute zero
temperature.
Fermi level:
The highest occupied energy level is called Fermi Level.
At absolute zero temperature, all the energy levels below the Fermi level are completely filled
and all the energy levels above the Fermi level are completely empty.
Fermi factor:
Fermi factor gives the probability of occupation of energy at a given temperature for a material
in thermal equilibrium.
The probability of occupation of an energy level is given by the function f(E) which is equal to

f(E) =

Dependence of Fermi factor on temperature and energy:

The variation of Fermi factor f(E) with energy E for various temperatures is as shown.

o
T=0 K

1.0

f (E)
o
0. 5 T>0 K

0 EF
E

Variation of f(E) with E

I. At absolute zero temperature ( T = 0)

a) when energy E < EF and T = 0
By definition, the Fermi factor

64
 f (E) = = = =1

.. f (E) = 1 for E < EF

b) when energy E > EF & T=0

The Fermi factor, f(E) =

.. f (E) = = =0

.. f (E) =0 for E > EF

This shows that at T=0, all the energy levels above Fermi level are vacant.

II. For temperature T > 0

a) When energy E < EF

Here > 0 but < 1

.. f (E) < 1 but >

b) When energy E > EF

>1
.. f (E) > 0 but <

c) When energy E = EF

= 0 .. f (E) =

65
From the graph, it can be shown that the probability of occupation of Fermi level is
always .
Thus, Fermi energy is considered as the most probable energy that electron possess in the
material.

Density of states:
The density of states is defined as the number of energy levels available per unit volume
per unit energy centered at E. It is denoted by g(E).

The number of energy states per unit volume between the energy levels E and E + dE is
given by g(E) dE
The number of electrons per unit volume having energies between E and E+dE is given
by
N(E)dE = g(E) dE. f(E)
Where f(E) is the Fermi factor

Expression for density of states:

g(E) dE = [ E1/2 dE

This represents the number of states in an energy range E and (E+dE) for the electrons in
a3
dimensional solid of unit volume.

Expression for Fermi energy at T = 0K:

Number of electrons per unit volume having energies between E and E + dE is given by
N(E) dE = g(E) dE. f(E)

At T=0 K, energy levels up to EF are filled. .. f(E) = 1 for E < EF

Substituting for f(E),

N(E)dE = g(E) dE

66
.. Number of electrons per unit volume of the material = n =

.. n =

But g(E) dE = E1/2 dE

.. n =

.. n =

.. =

Since ( is a constant = A

.. EF0 = An2/3

Fermi energy at T > Oo K

Fermi energy EF at any temperature T is given by

EF = EFo [ 1 ]

67
At ordinary temperatures EF = EFo

Fermi Temperature:
It is the temperature at which the average thermal energy of the free electrons in a solid
becomes equal to the Fermi energy at T = 0K
The thermal energy of free electrons = KT when T = TF , KTF = EFo
But EFo = EF
.. KTF = EF .. TF =

Fermi Velocity:
The velocity of the free electrons which occupy the Fermi level is called Fermi velocity and is
denoted by vF

EF = m vF2 .. vF =

Fermi-Dirac Statistics:
Fermi-Dirac statistics is applicable to particles which obey Paulis exclusion principle. These
particles are identical particles of spin 1/2,.
Electrons obey Fermi-Dirac statistics and they are called Fermions.
In this case, the probability of occupation of energy levels by electrons in a particular energy
range can be determined. This can be done using Fermi factor f(E).

Expression for electrical resistivity/conductivity:

According to Sommerfeld theory, the electrons obey Fermi-Dirac statistics.
Thus, the electrical conductivity of metals is given by

= Here m* is called the effective mass of the electron.

.. = 1/ =

.. = m*vF / ne2

68
Dependence of resistivity on temperature and lattice defects:
According to Sommerfeld theory, the electron flow in a metal is considered as motion of matter
waves in periodic lattice.
For perfectly periodic lattice, with stationary ions, there is no scattering of waves & mean free
path is infinite.
But when there is a lattice defect there is scattering which causes resistivity.
The electrons which occupy energy levels near EF can be conduction electrons having drift
velocity vd= vF
.. = / vd and = / vF
When temperature is increased, because of the lattice vibrations, scattering of waves increases
and thus resistivity increases.

Merits of Quantum free electron theory:

The Quantum free electron theory successfully explains the drawbacks of classical free electron
theory.
a) Specific heat:
According to classical free electron theory, all free electrons should absorb energy
and thus specific heat is very large.

But according to Quantum free electron theory, only those electrons which are
very close to Fermi level absorb energy and hence specific heat is small.

According to this theory Cv= 10-4 RT which agrees with the experiment.

b) Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:

According to classical free electron theory,

But according to Quantum free electron theory,

= [here = / vF ]

.. (mean free path)

Mean free path of the electron reduces for larger area of cross section

69
 .. = 1/r2 where r is the amplitude of vibrations.

Square on the amplitude of vibration i.e. r2 ..

But since

..

This agrees with experiments.

c) Electrical conductivity & electron concentration:

According to classical free electron theory, where n is electron
concentration.

According to Quantum free electron theory, =

Since depends on both n & ratio (/ vF)it can be shown that trivalent metals
have lower conductivity than mono-valent metals.

Key words:
The main assumptions of QFET are
1. The free electrons have discrete energy values
2. The electrons obey Paulis exclusion principle
3. The distribution of electrons in energy levels will be according to
Fermi-Dirac distribution.
Fermi energy EF is the enrgy corresponding to the highest occupied level
at absolute zero temperature.
Fermi level is the highest occupied energy level at absolute zero
temperature. It is the energy level at which the probability of electron
occupancy is one half or 50 percent.
Fermi factor f(E) is defined as the distribution function which gives the
probability of occupation of a given energy state for a material in thermal
equilibrium in terms of the Fermi energy EF.
f(E) = 1 / (e(E-EF/KT)+1)

70
 At absolute zero temperature, T = 0, f(E) = 0 for E>EF and f(E) = 1 for
E<EF
For temperature T>0, f(E)<1 for E<EF and f(E)>0 but <1/2 for E>EF
f(E) = when E = EF
The density of states g(E) is defined as the number of energy levels
available per unit volume per unit energy centered at E
g(E)dE =((82 m3/2) / h3). E1/2 dE.
Fermi energy at T = 0K is given by EF0 = An2/3 where A = (h2/8m)(3/ )3/2.
Fermi temperature TF is the temperature at which the average thermal
energy of free electrons in a solid becomes equal to the Fermi energy at T
= 0K. TF = EF/K
Fermi velocity vF is the velocity of the free electrons which occupy the
Fermi level vF = (2EF / m)1/2
Quantum free electron theory successfully explains specific heat,
temperature dependence of electrical conductivity and electrical
conductivity and electron concentration.

Important Questions

1. What are the assumptions of Quantum free electron theory?

2. Define the terms: Fermi energy, Fermi-factor, Density of states.

3. Discuss the dependence of Fermi-factor on temperature

4. Discuss Fermi energy at T=0K & T>0K

5. Define the terms: Fermi temperature, Fermi velocity.

6. Explain the success of Quantum free electron theory.

71
72
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
a.UNIT 3: CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

In crystals, the atoms, ions or molecules are arranged in regular, orderly manner. The crystal
structure can be analyzed using X-ray diffraction.

Space Lattice:

A space lattice is defined as an array of lattice points arranged in a regular manner in three
dimensional space.

These lattice points represent the atoms in the crystal & these points have identical
surroundings. A lattice plane consists of lattice points.

Basis and Crystal Structure:

Each lattice point is associated with the same group of atoms which are identical in composition.
This group of atoms is called basis. When the basis is repeated with correct periodicity in all
directions, the crystal structure is obtained. This is as shown.

(2-D space (lattice

Lattice + Basis = Crystal structure

Unit cell:

It is the smallest portion of space lattice. By repeating the unit cell in various directions, the
crystal can be generated.

A unit cell can be chosen in different ways.

If the unit cell has a point at each corner and nowhere else it is called Primitive Cell. If the unit
cell has additional points then it is called as Non-Primitive cell.

73
 Primitive Cell Non- primitive cell

Lattice Parameters:

A unit cell can be described by the length of its edges and the angle between them.

The edge or length of the unit cell is the distance between the atoms of the same kind and it is
called Lattice Constant.

The intercepts and angles are called as primitives and interfacial angles respectively. These are
called as lattice parameters. This is as shown.

Unit cell

Crystal systems:

Based on the lattice parameters, crystals are classified into seven basic crystal systems. Each
crystal system differs from the other in lattice parameters.

These seven crystal systems with lattice parameters are

74
 (a) Cubic crystal system a = b = c and = = = 90o

(b) Tetragonal crystal system a = b c and = = = 90o

(c) Orthorhombic crystal system a b c and = = = 90o

(d) Monoclinic crystal system a b c and = = 90o

(e) Triclinic crystal system a b c and 90o

(f) Trigonal crystal system a = b = c and = = 90o

(g) Hexagonal crystal system a = b c and = = 90o and = 120o

The seven crystal systems are as shown.

c
b
a
a c
a a
a a a

a a orthorhom trigon
Cubic tetrago

triclini
monoclin
hexagon

Bravais lattices:

According to Bravais, there are 14 possible types of space lattices in three dimensions in the
seven crystal systems. These are called Bravais Lattices. They are

(a) Three cubic lattices - Simple, body centered, face centered

(b) Two tetragonal lattices - simple and body centered

75
 (c) Four orthorhombic lattices - simple, face centered, body centered and base
centered

(d) Two monoclinic lattices - simple and base centered

(e) One triclinic lattice

(f) One trigonal lattice (rhombohedral)

(g) One hexagonal lattice

These are as shown.

a a ca
a a a
a
a a

P F l

Cubi

c
c c c
a

b b
a a
a b
P c b F l

Orthorhom

c
a

a
a a
P a
hexagon
Rombohed

c
c c


76
a a
b b b
Directions and planes:

In crystals, directions and planes contain centration of atoms. Crystal analysis can be done using
these directions and planes. Arrows in two dimensions show directions. The directions are
described by giving the co-ordinate of the first whole numbered point through which each of the
direction passes. [(x, y) in two dimensions and (x, y, z) in three dimensions]. Directions are
enclosed within square brackets.

It is as shown A

B
O

O
Direction OA = [ 1 1]
Direction OA = [0 1 B
Direction OB = [3 1]
Planes: 1]

Lattice planes are a set of parallel equidistant planes passing through the lattice points. These
planes can be chosen in different ways. Different lattice planes are as shown.

Different lattice planes

Miller Indices:

Miller indices are a set of three numbers (h k l) to designate a set of parallel planes in a crystal.

77
Miller indices are the three smallest possible integers which have the same ratios as the
reciprocals of the intercepts of the plane on the three axes.

Procedure for determining miller indices:

(1) The co-ordinates of the intercepts made by the plane along the three
crystallographic axes are determined.

(2) The intercepts are expressed as multiples of the unit cell dimensions or lattice
parameters along the axes.

(3) The reciprocals of these numbers are determined

(4) These are reduced to smallest set of integral numbers and are enclosed in simple
brackets

(5) Miller indices will be same for all parallel equidistant planes

(6) Planes are parallel if the miller indices have the same ratio

(7) If the plane is parallel to any of the axes then the corresponding intercept is taken
to be .

Example for finding the miller indices:

Consider a plane ABC with miller indices (h, k, l) as shown. Let x, y, z be the intercepts
made by the plane along the three crystallographic axes x, y, & z respectively.

78
To determine miller indices (h, k, l):

(1) The intercepts are x = 2a, y = 2b & z = 5c as shown

(2) Multiples of lattice parameters are

(3) Reciprocals are

79
 (4) Reciprocals are reduced to smallest set of integral numbers. This is done by taking
LCM

.. 10 x , 10 x , 10 x 1/5 = 5 5 2

.. Miller indices of the plane ABC = (h k l) = (5 5 2)

Expression for interplanar spacing in terms of Miller Indices:

Consider a lattice plane ABC which is one of the planes belonging to the set of planes
within Miller indices (h k l). Let x, y & z be the intercepts made by the plane along the
three axes X, Y & Z respectively.

Let OP be the perpendicular drawn from the origin to the plane. Let , , be the angles
made by the OP with axes X, Y & Z respectively. Let another consecutive plane parallel
to ABC pass through the origin. Let a, b, & c be the lattice parameters. OP is the
interplanar spacing which is denoted by dhkl

80
Since the intercepts of the planes are OA, OB and OZ (i.e z, y and x), then OA = z = c/l,
OB = y = b/k and OC = x = a/h

From the right angled triangle OCP,

In the Cartesian co-ordinate system,

=1

.. =1

For the cubic lattice a= b= c =a

81
..

..

This gives the expression for interplanar spacing.

Expression for lattice constant a for a cubic lattice:

The lattice constant a for a cubic lattice is given by

a=

Where n is the number of molecules in the unit cell

M is the molecular weight of the material

NA is the Avogadros number

is the density of material

Lattice constant can also be expressed in terms of atomic radius

Let a be the lattice constant and R be the atomic radius

For simple cubic (sc) structure, a = 2R

For bcc structure, a= 4R/

For fcc structure, a=2 R

Co-ordination Number:

Co-ordination number of an tom in a crystal is defined as the number of nearest equidistant

neighbour atoms that an atom has in the given structure.

In any Bravais lattice, all atoms have the same co-ordination number.

82
Co-ordination number in Cubic system

(a) Simple cubic structure: In this structure, there is one atom at each of the eight
corners of the cube. Any corner atom has four nearest neighbour in the same
plane and two nearest neighbours in a vertical plane.

.. Co-ordination number = 4 + 2 = 6

(b) Body centered Cubic lattice (bcc structure): Here there is one atom in each corner
of the cube and one atom at the centre of the cube. For each corner atom the
nearest atoms are the atoms which are at the centers of unit cells.

Thus corner atom is surrounded by eight unit cells having eight body centered
atoms.

.. Co-ordination number = 8

(c) Face Centered Cubic Lattice (fcc structure): Here there is one atom at each
corner of the cube and one atom at the centre of each face of the cube.

For corner atom, the nearest atoms are the face centered atoms.

For any corner atom there are 4 face centered atoms in its own plane, 4 atoms
below & 4 atoms above this plane.

.. Co-ordination number = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12

Atomic packing factor (APF) :

It is defined as the ratio of volume occupied by atoms in unit cell to the volume of the
unit cell.

If n is the number of atoms in the unit cell and v is the volume of each atom & V is the
volume of the unit cell then,

Atomic packing factor (APF) = nv/V

Atomic packing factor gives the fraction of the small space occupied by the atoms in the
unit cell.

Atomic packing factor for cubic system:

83
(a) Simple Cubic lattice:

No. of atoms per unit cell = n = 1

By definition, Volume of each atom (since atom is sphere) = 4/3 R3 = v

Where R is the atomic radius

Volume of the unit cell = a3 where a is the lattice constant

.. Atomic packing factor = nv/V =

For simple cubic structure a = 2R

. APF = = 1 /6 = 0.52

. APF = 0.52

(b) Bcc structure:

Here n = 2

Volume of the unit cell = V= a3

Volume of each atom = v = 4/3 R3

. APF =

For bcc structure, a = 4 R /

. APF = = = 0.68

. APF = 0.68

(c) Fcc structure:

Here n= 4

84
Volume of the unit cell = V = a3

Volume of each atom = v = 4/3 R3

. APF =

For fcc structure a = 2 R

. APF = = 1 /32 = 0.74

. APF = 0.74

Braggs X-ray Diffraction:

X-rays have a wavelength of the order of Angstrom (Ao). Thus optical grating
cannot be used to diffract X-rays. In a crystal since the dimensions of atoms is
few Angstrom, crystals can be used to diffract X-rays.

According to Bragg, a crystal has a set of equidistant parallel planes having

regular arrangement of atoms. These planes are called Bragg Planes. There are
different families of these planes which are inclined to each other with certain
angle.

Braggs law:

This law is given by

2d sin = n

Where d is the interplanar spacing

is the angle of incidence

85
 is the wavelength of incident light

n is an integer

Consider a crystal with Bragg planes as shown. Let a monochromatic beam of X-

rays of wavelength be incident on the crystal at an angle as shown.

From the fig,

AB is the incident ray which is scattered along BC

Similarly, DE is the incident ray which is scattered along EF

Let BP and BQ be the perpendiculars drawn on DE and EF respectively.

.. The incident rays have the same path upto BP and the scattered rays have the
same path from BQ

.. The path difference between the rays = = PE + EQ (from the fig)

From fig PE = BE sin & EQ = BE sin

.. = 2. BE sin

86
 But by definition, BE = interplanar spacing = d

.. = 2 d sin

For constructive interference the path difference between the waves should be n

.. For constructive interference

2d sin = n here n = 1, 2, 3..

This equation is called Braggs law and is called glancing angle.

Since this condition is same as the laws of reflection, this condition is also called
as Bragg Reflection.

KEY WORDS

Space lattice is defined as an array of lattice points arranged in a regular manner

in three-dimensional space.

Lattice points represent the atoms in the crystal.

Each lattice point is associated with the same group of atoms which are identical
in composition. This group of atoms is called basis.

A unit cell is the smallest portion of space lattice.

If a unit cell has a point at each corner and no where else it is called primitive cell.

If the unit cell has additional points then it is called non-primitive cell.

A unit cell can be described using lattice parameters. These lattice parameters
include the intercepts (primitives) and angles (inter-facial angles).

There are seven crystal systems. They are cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic,
monoclinic, triclinic, trigonal and hexagonal crystal systems.

Bravais lattices are the 14 possible types of space lattices in three dimensions in
the seven crystal systems.

They are three cubic lattices, two tetragonal lattices, four orthorhombic
lattices, two momoclinic lattices, one triclinic lattice, one trigonal lattice and one
hexagonal lattice.

The three cubic lattices (i.e. cubic system) are simple, body centered (bcc) and
face centered (fcc) lattices.

87
 The directions (in a crystal) are described by giving the co-ordinates of the first
whole numbered point through which each of the direction passes.

Lattices planes are a set of three numbers (h k l) used to designate a set of parallel
planes in a crystal.

Miller indices are the three smallest possible integers which have the same ratios
as the reciprocals of the intercepts of the plane on the three axes.

The interceplanar spacing d can be exprees in terms of miller indices as

dhkl = a / (h2+k2+l2)

Lattice constant a for a cubic lattice is given by a = (nM / NA)1/3

Atomic radius R is half the distance between the nearest neighbours in a crystal
of a pure element.

Relationship between lattice constant a and atomic radius R:

For simple cubic a = 2R

For bcc structure a = 4R/3

For fcc structure a = 22 R

Co-ordination number of an atom in a crystal defined as the number of nearest

equidistant neighbour atoms that an atom has in the given structure.

Co-ordination number = 6 for simple cubic

Co-ordination number = 8 for bcc structure

Co-ordination number = 12 for fcc structure

Atomic packing factor (APF) is defined as the ratio of volume occupied by atoms
in unit cell to the volume of the unit cell.

APF =nv/V

APF = 0.52 for simple cubic

APF = 0.68 for bcc structure

APF = 0.74 for fcc structure

88
 Bragg planes are a set of equidistant parallel planes in a crystal having regular
arrangement of atoms.

Braggs law is given by 2dsin = n . D is the interplanar spacing and is the

glancing angle. This is also called as Bragg reflection.

Important Questions:
(1) Define the terms : Space Lattice, Lattice parameters, Unit cell, Primitive Cell,
Bravais lattice

(2) Describe briefly the seven Crystal systems in neat diagram

(3) Describe different types of Bravais lattices with diagram

(4) What are Miller Indices? Derive an expression for interplanar spacing in terms of
Miller indices in a cubic structure

(5) Define Co-ordination number. Calculate the co-ordination number for sc, bcc and
fcc structures

(6) Define Packing factor. Calculate the packing factor for sc, bcc and fcc structures.

(7) Derive Braggs law

Problems:

1. The interplanar spacing for (212) plane in a simple cubic lattice is 1.53 x
10-10 m. Find the lattice constant.

Solution: dhkl = 1.53 x 10-10 m (hkl) = (212)

a=?

By definition dhkl = a / (h2+k2+l2)

.. 1.53 x 10-10 = a / (22+12+22)

..a = 4.6 x 10-10 m.

2. The atomic radius for a simple cubic crystal is 1.4 x 10 -10 m. Find the
interplanar spacing of (110) plane for the crystal.

Solution: R for simple cubic = 1.4 x 10-10 m

89
dhkl = ? (hkl) = (110)

For simple cubic lattice a = 2R

.. Lattice constant a = 2 x 1.4 x 10-10

= 2.8 x 10-10 m

By definition dhkl = a / (h2+k2+l2)

= 2.8 x 10-10 / (12+12+02)

.. d = 2 x 10-10 m

90
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
a.UNIT 4: ELASTICITY

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ELASTICITY

Elasticity:

When a deforming force is applied to a body, there is change in the dimension of the
body .When it is removed, the body tries to recover its original condition.

Elasticity is the property of the material to regain its original condition on the removal of
deforming forces.

If the material recovers its original condition completely on removing the deforming forces, it is
called perfectly elastic. If the material does not show any tendency to recover its original
condition then it is called plastic.

Stress:

It is defined as the restoring or recovering force per unit area set up inside the body.

It is the same as pressure and given by the load applied per unit area of the body (load is
basically a deforming force which brings about change in dimensions of the body).

91
 This is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to load.

.. stress = load / area units: Nm-2

Types of stress:

Normal stress: If the force is applied perpendicular to the surface, then this force measured per
unit area is called normal stress.

This brings about a change in volume .Normal stress can be compressive or tensile depending on
decrease or increase in volume (when a force is applied along one direction this brings about a
change in length. This force measured per unit area is called linear or longitudinal) units: Nm-2.

2. Shearing stress: If the deforming force is applied along the surface then the force measured
per unit area is called tangential or shearing stress. This brings about a change in shape of the
body. Units: Nm-2.

Strain:

The change produced in the dimensions of a body under a system of forces in equilibrium is
called strain. It is measured by ratio of change in dimension to the original dimensions of the
body. Since it is a ratio it has no units.

Types of strain:

Linear strain: It is defined as the ratio of change in length to the original length without any
change in shape (here the forces act along the length of the body).

A linear or longitudinal strain is always accompanied by a lateral strain of an opposite kind in a

direction perpendicular to the direction of the applied force.

Volume strain: It is defined as the ratio of change in volume to the original volume (when the
forces applied normal to the surface of a body in all directions it undergoes a change in volume).

92
Shearing strain: When a tangential force acts on a body, it undergoes a change in shape.

The angular deformation produced is called shearing strain or angle of shear. It is defined
as the ratio of the two layers, under the action of tangential force to the distance
between them, the distance being measured at right angles to the dimension of stress.

Hookes law: This is the fundamental law of elasticity.

It states that provided the strain is small, the stress is proportional to the strain and the
ratio stress to strain is a constant called modulus of elasticity or coefficient of elasticity or elastic
constant

.. Stress / strain = modulus of elasticity (units : Nm-2)

Elastic limit: The stress at which the linear relationship between stress and strain

Ceases to hold good is called elastic limit of the material.

It is the maximum stress below which a material behaves as elastic and beyond which
behaves as plastic.

The body recovers its original condition on the removal of the stress as long as the stress
is below the elastic limit.

Stress-strain diagram:
The relationship between stress and strain can be studied using stress-strain diagram. It
is a graph showing various values of stress and the corresponding strain produced. (Ex:
Extension of wire). It is as shown.

93
 Inference from the graph
The straight line OA of the graph shows that the strain produced is directly proportional
to stress applied or Hookes law is valid upto the point A.Thus A is called Elastic limit.
The curved portion AB of the graph shows that when the elastic limit is crossed, the
strain increases more rapidly than stress and the material is partly elastic and partly
plastic.
Thus when the stress is removed at the point B, the material does not come
back to its original condition along AO but takes the path BC.Thus a residual
strain OC remains in it. The material is said to have acquired permanent set.

The part BD of the graph is an irregular way line. This shows that for practically little
increase in stress there is large erratic increase in strain begins is called the yield point
and the stress corresponding to it is known as yielding stress.
The yielding ceases at D. By gradually increasing stress DF of the graph is obtained.
The maximum stress to which the material is subjected to is called tensile
strength or ultimate strength or breaking stress.

Beyond F, even without any increase in stress, the extension of the wire increases, and
the material behaves as if it is literally flowing down. Here because of faster rate of
decrease of its cross-sectional area, a constriction called neck begins. Thus strain is very
large and when the load is decreased at this stage, the material breaks. The point E
represents the breaking point of the material.
In actual practice, the stress on the material is kept far below the ultimate strength and
never allowed to cross the elastic limit.

94
 This maximum stress within the elastic limit to which the material is subjected
to in actual practice is called its working stress or working strength.

The ratio between the ultimate stress and the working stress is called factor of safety.
..Factor of safety = (Breaking stress/working stress)

The value of factor of safety depends on many factors.

Types of elastic constants:

There are three types of elastic constants. They are.

(1) Youngs modulus:

The ratio of longitudinal stress to linear strain within the elastic limit is called youngs
modulus. This is denoted by y and the units are Nm-2.
Let F is a linear force applied to a cross-sectional area a (i.e. along its length and
perpendicular to its cross-sectional area). It produces a change in length l to original
length L.
Then y = linear stress/linear strain = (F/a)/(l/L) = F.L/a.l.

Here F is a linear force and l is the displacement produced along L.

(2) Bulk modulus: The ratio of Normal stress to volume strain within the elastic limit
is called Bulk modulus. It is denoted by K and is called incompressibility of the material.
Its reciprocal 1/K is called compressibility. The units are Nm-2.
Let F be a normal force (i.e. a force applied uniformly and normally) applied on a
surface area a. let v be the change in volume produce to original volume V. Then

Bulk modulus K = Normal stress/volume strain = (F/a)/(v/V) = F.V/a.v .

Since force in this case is pressure applied P F/a = P .. K = P/(v/V) = P.V/v.

(3) Rigidity modulus: The ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain within the elastic limit is
called rigidity modulus. Or It is the ratio of tangential stress to the angular deformation
produced.
It is denoted by n and units are Nm-2

Consider a surface ABCD of the cube as shown.

95
 Let L be the length of the side AD

Let a tangential force be applied along AB and DC is fixed. Then point A shifts to A1 and B to B1 as
shown. The surface ABCD is then said to be sheared through an angle .

By definition, the shearing strain produced is

= l/L ( It is also defined as the ratio of relative displacement between two planes to the
distance between them) (Distance is right angles to the direction of stress)

.. shearing strain = = l / L.

If the force F is applied to the area a of the surface (upper surface) then the shearing stress =
F/a.

.. By definition, rigidity modulus n = shearing stress/ shearing strain

.. n = (F/a)/ = (F/a)/(l/L) = FL/al.

This is similar to Y expression. But F in this case is tangential force and the displacement l is
produced at right angles to L.

Work done per unit volume in a strain.

Work is done during deformation of a body. The enrgy spent is stored in the form of energy of
strain.

It can be shown that work done per unit volume during any strain is same.

1. Linear Strain: Consider the stretching of a wire. Let F be a linear force applied to a cross-
sectional area a. Let l be the change in length produced to the original length L.
By Deinition, youngs modulud Y = (F/a)/(l/L) = FL/al.

96
 .. F = Y.a.l / L.

For a small increase in length dl of the wire, the work done = F.dl.

Work done during the change in length l is given by .

Substituting for F, work done =

.. Work done during extension l = (Ya/L).(l2/2).

= (1/2)(Yal/L)(l) (But F = (Yal/L)

.. Work done during extension = (1/2).F.l

Volume of the wire = L x a.

.. Work done per unit volume = (1/2).F.l/ L.a

=(1/2).(F/a).(l/L)

.. Work done per unit volume during linear strain = x stress x strain (1)

2. Volume Strain:
Let p be the stress applied to a cross-sectional area a. Then the force applied is F = p.a.
..Work done during small displacement dx is given by = F.dx = pa.dx.
But a.dx = dv small change in volume.

..Work done during small change in volume = p.dv

Let v be the change in volume produced to original volume V.

By definition Bulk modulus = K = (F/a)/(v/V) = P/(v/V) = PV/v

.. P = kv/V

Since the work done during small change in volume is p.dv the ork done during the

whole change in volume v is given by substituting for p, work done during

change in volume = (K/V). (v2/2) = (1/2).(kv/V).v (But kv/V = p) = (1/2).p.v

.. Work done during volume strain = .p.v

97
 But the original volume = v.

..Work done per unit volume = .p.v/V

= .p.v/V = x stress x strain

..work done per unit volume during volume strain = x stress x strain --(2)

3. Shearing Strain:
Let F be a tangential force applied along one surface of the cube to a cross sectional area
a and length L. Let be the shearing strain produced. Let l be the displacement
produced perpendicular to the length L.
.. = l/L

By definition the rigidity modulus = n = (F/a) /

N = (F/a) / (l/L) = F.L/a.l

.. F = nal/L

Work done during small displacement dl is F.dl.

..Work done during the whole displacement l is given by .Substituting for F.

work done during whole displacement =

= (na/L).(l2/2) = . nal/L. l (But nal/L = F)

= F.l

..work done during shearing strain = F.l

The volume of the cube = L3 (length of each side is L)

..work done per unit volume during shearing strain = F.l / L3

= x (F/L2. l/L)

= x stress x strain.

..work done per unit volume during shearing strain = x stress x strain (3)

Comparing equations (1),(2) and (3) it can be shown that in any type of strain;

98
 Work done per unit volume = x stress x strain.

Relationship between Y, K and n

The relationship between Y, K and n can be derived using the deformation of a cube. When a
cube is defined with the application of forces, let be the extension produced per unit length
per unit tension along the direction of force. Let be the contraction (compression) produced
per unit length per unit tension in a direction per perpendicular to the force.
It can be shown that,

Y=1/ (1)

K=1/3(-2) (2)

and n=1/2(+) (3)

From (2) -2=1/3K

From (3) +=1/2n

Therefore 2+2=1/n

Adding 3=1/3K+1/n

3/Y=1/3k+1/n (Because 1/=Y)

3/Y= (n+3K)/ (3Kn) 9/Y= n/Kn+3K/Kn

.. 9/Y=1/K+3/n This is the relationship between Y, K and n.

Poissons ratio:

Within the elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain to the linear strain is constant for a given
material. This ratio is called Poissons ratio.
It is denoted by

99
If is the linear strain and is the lateral strain produced in a material (i.e. Extension
and contraction) then,

Poissons ration = lateral strain / linear strain = /

.. = /

Relation between Y, K and n in terms of :

Consider Y,K, n and in terms of extension and contraction . Then

By definition Y = 1 / --(1)

K = 1 / 3( - 2 ) --(2)

n = 1/(2(+ )) (3) and

= / (4)

Consider equation (2)

K = 1 / 3( - 2 ) = 1 / 3(1-2 /)

.. K = Y / 3(1-2) (. 1/ = Y, / = )

.. Y = 3K(1-2)

Consider equaton (3)

n = 1/(2(+)) = 1/(2(1+ /))

..n = Y/2(1+) (. 1/ = Y, / = )

.. Y = 2n(1+)

.. Y = 3K(1-2) = 2n(1+)

This is the relation between Y,K and n

Relationship between K,n and :

By definition Y = 3K(1-2) = 2n(1+)

..3K-6K = 2n+2n

100
..6K+2n 3K-2n

.. = (3K-2n)/(6K+2n)

Limiting values of :

Onsider the relationship between Y,K,n and .

By definition Y = 3K(1-2) = 2n(1+)

.. 3K(1-2) = 2n(1+) Here K and n are positive.

.. If is positive then LHS and RHS should be positive. This is possible only when 2 < 1
or < 0.5

If is negative then LHS and RHS should be positive. This is possible only when > -1.

.. Limiting values of are 1 and 0.5

But the value of negative means that when there is extension, the body should expand
laterally.

A value of = 0.5 means that the material is perfectly incompressible.

Thus in actual practice the values of is found to lie between 0.2 and 0.4

Twisting couple on a cylinder (or wire):

When a cylinder or wire is fixed at one end, and twisted at the other through an angle
about its axis, it is said to be under tension.

Under equilibrium condition, the restoring couple set up in it is equal and opposite to
twisting couple.

Expression for twisting couple on cylinder:

Consider a cylinder of length l, radius r and modulus of rigidity n as shown.

Let the upper end be fixed and a couple be applied to the lower end twisting it through
an angle (in radians)

101
 Let OO1 = l be the axis of the cylinder and AB be a line parallel to axis before twisting on
twisting point B shifts to B1 and thus AB becomes AB1 as shown.

If the cylinder is cut along AB1 and spread it takes the shape of a parallelogram
1 1
AB C D as shown.

Thus from the figure, is the shearing strain.

.. shearing strain .. = BB1/l (by definition)

.. BB1 = l (1) ( is not uniform)

Imagine the cylinder to be made up of number of co-axial hollow cylinders

Consider one such cylinder of radius x and thickness dx as shown. Each cylinder is turned
through the same angle (i.e is constant)

The shearing strain is maximum when x is maximum.

From the figure, BB1 = x = l . (2)

By definition rigidity modulud n = shearing stress /shearing strain

.. Shearing stress acting on this cylinder of radius x = n

.. Shearing force on this cylinder = n . Area of this cylinder

.. Shearing force on this cylinder = n .2 xdx. (Area of cylinder of radius x = 2 xdx)

.. Moment of force about OO1of this cylinder = n .2 xdx(x)

102
 = n .2 x2dx

(substituting for from equation 2)

Moment of force about OO1 of this cylinder = n . (x /l).2 x2.dx

= 2 n /l . x3.dx

(taking limits as x = 0 and x = r)

..Twisting couple acting on the whole cylinder =

Twisting couple on the cylinder =(2n/l). (r4/4)

= (nr4/2l). .

If = 1 radian then

Twisting couple/unit twist of the cylinder or wire = nr4/2l

This is represented by C and is called Torsional rigidity of the cylinder or wire.

.. Torsional rigidity of the cylinder or (twisting couple / unit twist) = C = nr4/2l

Beam and Bending moment of the beam:

Beam: A beam is a rod or bar of uniform cross section (either circular or rectangular).
The length of the beam is very large compared to its thickness and the shearing stress is
negligible.

When a beam is fixed at one end and loaded at the other end, the beam bends. The
upper surface of the beam gets extended and the lower surface gets compressed.
The extension and compression decreases towards the axis of the beam and
thus on this axis, there is no extension (increase) and no compression (i.e. decrease in
length).

This axis is called neutral axis of the beam.

In the plane or the surface containing neutral axis, the extensions in the upper half
change sign to become compressions in the lower half of the beam. This surface is called
neutral surface.

Bending moment of the beam:

103
Consider a beam fixed at the end A and loaded at the end B as shown. Let EF be the
neutral axis of the beam.

Consider the equilibrium of the section PBCP1 of the beam. Since the load is at the end
B, a reactional force must be acting along P1P. The couple due to these two equal and
opposite forces bond the beam in the clockwise direction. This couple due to the load
applied to the free end of the beam is called bending couple.

The moment of this couple is called bending moment of the beam represented by M. Since the
beam is in equilibrium, an equal and opposite couple also acts on the beam.
This couple is due to tensile and compression stresses in the upper and the lower halves of the
beam and it balances the bending moment of resistance to bending.

Expression for bending moment of the beam

Consider a beam fixed at end A and loaded at end B. Consider a small part C|D| of the beam
which is bent in the form of a circular arc subtending an angle at its center of curvature as
shown. Let EF be the neutral axis of the beam.

104
Let R be the radius of this part (i.e. CD) of the neutral axis. Let the element C|D| be at a distance
x from neutral axis.

The original length of this part of the beam =CD =R (from fig)

New length of this part of the beam =C|D|=(R+x) after bending.

.. change in length =(R+x) - R =x

.. linear strain = change in length/original length = x/R = x/R.

Let Y be the youngs modulus of the material.

By definition Y= linear stress/linear strain.

..stress on this part =Y linear strain= Yn/R

..linear force acting on this part of the part = Yx/R (Area of this part).

Let the area of this part of the beam =a

.. linear force acting on this part of the beam = (Yx/R) a.

Moment of this force about neutral axis EF= (Yx/R) a *x

.. moment of the force about EF (due to this part)= (Y/R) a x2

The moments of force acting on both the upper and the lower halves of the section are in the
same direction.

.. the total moment of the forces acting on the whole beam= (Y/R) a x2

a x2= Ig = aK2 which is called geometrical M.I. of the beam about EF.

By definition Ig=aK2 where a is whole area of the beam and K is the radius of gyration about EF.

105
.. total moment of forces acting on whole beam = (Y/R)Ig.

This is the restoring couple or bending moment of the beam M (because equal and opposite)

.. bending moment of the beam M= (Y/R) Ig.

Here Y Ig = Y aK2 is called flexural rigidity of the beam.

Ig depends upon the cross section of the beam for a rectangular cross section a=b*d

.. Ig =bd3/12 K2=d2/12

.. bending moment for a rectangular cross section M= (Ybd3)/12R = (bd3Y)/12R.

a=r2 and K2= r2/4 therefore Ig = (r4)/4.

Bending moment for a circular cross section = (Y/R)/ (r4/4) = (Yr4)/4R.

Cantilever: A cantilever is a beam fixed horizontally at one end and loaded at the other. The
depression produced, in any cantilever is very useful in many applications.

Cantilever loaded at the free end and weight of the beam is neglected.

In this case, the bending is due to the weight at the free end.

Consider a cantilever which is fixed at one end and loaded at the free end with a weight w. The
weight of the cantilever is neglected.
Let AB be the neutral axis of the cantilever.

106
Let l be the length of the cantilever. Because of the load w, the end is depressed into the
position B|. Thus the neutral axis takes the position AB| as shown. From the fig BB|. Consider a
section pf the beam at a distance x from end A.

The moment of the couple at this section due to load w= Bending moment acting on it= w*PB|=
w(l-x) (from fig)

Since beam is in equilibrium, this is = (Y Ig)/R (1)

Consider a point Q at a small distance dx from PQ such that, the radius of curvature at P & Q is
same. Therefore from fig dx=R d

Or R=dx/d substituting this in (1)

w(l-x) = (Y Ig)/(dx/d) therefore d= (w(l-x)dx)/YIg (2)

Let the tangents drawn at P &Q meet BB| at C & D respectively. Since the angle subtended by
the tangent is them, angle between tangents= d.

Therefore from fig, CD= d(l-x)d substituting for d from (2)

CD= (l-x)w(l-x)dx/(YIg) = w(l-x)2 dx/(YIg)

Therefore the depression =BB| in the cantilever is =x=lx=0 w(l-x)2 /(YIg) dx= w/Y Ig l2-2xl+x2)dx

107
=w/Y Ig [l3x-2x2 l+x3/3]l0

Therefore =w/ YIg(l3/3)= wl3/3 YIg.

=wl3/3 YIg.

this is the depression in cantilever due to load at free end (when weight is neglected).

Here Ig.= bd3/12 for rectangular cross section.

Torsional pendulum:

Torsion:

Torsion is the action of twisting or the state of being twisted especially when one end of the
object is twisted re (active to the other end

Torsional pendulum: A torsional pendulum consists of a heavy cylindrical rod or disc, suspended
from one end of a fine wire, the upper end of the wire is fixed.

When the rod or disc is turned in its own plane to twist the wire and released then the wire is in
the state of being twisted (i.e. torsion). The rod or disc executed torsional vibrations about the
wire as axis. The time period of torsional vibrations can be
calculated using twisting couple produced on the wire.

Expression for the time period of torsional pendulum

Consider a torsional pendulum consisting of a disc suspended from one end of wire as shown.
Let the disc be turned in its own plane and then released on being released, it executed
torsional vibrations about the wire as axis. Lett be the time period of the disc. Let be the
angle through which the wire is twisted.

108
Then the restoring couple set be in it is equal to (nr4)/2l*= c where c is the twisting couple
per unit twist of the wire.

This produces an angular acceleration in the disc. If I is the moment of inertia of the disc
about the wire as axis then I= -c.

Therefore =-(c/I) (1)

Since c and I are constants for a given system, the angular acc is proportional to displacement
(2)

A simple harmonic motion is represented by Y= a sint where Y is displacement of a particle at

instantt, a is its amplitude and t represents phase.

The velocity of the particle = dy/dt = a cost

and the acceleration of the particle = dy/dt= -a2 sint

Therefore d2y/dt2= -w2Y therefore d2y/dt2 y

In any S.H.M acc displacement

The time period t=2/w= 2(1/w2)= 2(1/const)

Therefore t=2(I/c)

In case of torsional pendulum, angular acc is to displacement simple harmonic. Its time period
is given by t=2(I/c).

KEY WORDS:

Elasticity is the property of the material to regain its original condition on the removal of
deforming force. The bodies which exhibit the property of elasticity are called elastic
bodies.

109
 Plastic bodies are those which do not show any tendency to recover its original
condition.
Stress is defined as the restoring or recovering force per unit area set up inside the
body.
Stress = Force/Area = Load/Area = F/A

Units : N-m-2

The different types of stress are linear stress, normal stress nd shearing stress
(tangential stress).
Strain is defined as the ratio of change in dimensions to the original dimensions of the
body. Since it is a ratio it has no units.

Strain = change in dimensions/original dimensions.

Dimensions can be with respect to length, volume or shape.

There are three types of strain. They are linear strain, volume strain and shearing or
tangential strain.

Linear strain = change in length/original length = l/L

Volume strain = change in volume/original volume = v/V.

Shearing strain = Angle of shear = = l/L.

Hookes law states that provided the strain is small, the stress is proportional to the
strain and the ratio stress to strain is a constant called modulus of elasticity or
coefficient of elasticity or elastic limit.

Stress/Strain = Modulus of elasticity or elastic constant.

Elastic limit : It is the stress at which the linear relationship between stress and strain
ceases to hold good.
The maximum stress to which the material is subjected to is called tensile strength or
ultimate strength or breaking stress.
The maximum stress within the elastic limit to which the material is subjected to in
actual practice is called the working stress or working strength.
Factor of safety = Breaking stress/Working stress
There are three types of elastic constants. They are Youngs modulus (Y), Bulk modulus
(K) and rigidity modulus (n).
Youngs modulus Y = linear stress/linear strain = (F/a) / (l/L)

110
 Units : Nm-2
2
In case of stretching (wire), area = r = a

Where r is radius of the wire.

Bulk modulus K = Normal stress/Volume strain = (F/a)/(v/V)

K is called incompressibility of the material and 1/K is called compressibility of
the material.
Rigidity modulus n = Tangential or shearing stress/shearing strain.
N= (F/a)/ = (F/a)/(l/L).
(l is the displacement)
Work done per unit volume in any strain = x stress x strain.
Work done during stretching (linear strain) = x Force x Extension
Work done during volume strain = x stress x change in volume.
Work done during shearing strain = x Force x displacement.
Relationship between Y, k and n :
9/y = (1/k) + (3/n)
Poissons ratio is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to the linear strain within elastic
limit.
= lateral strain/linear strain = / .

It has no units.

In case of stretching lateral strain = decrease in dia/original diameter and linear

strain = Extension/original length.

Torsional rigidity of the cylinder or wire= C = nr4/2l = Twisting couple per unit twist.
A beam is a rod or bar of uniform cross section either circular or rectangular. The length
of the beam is very large compared to its thickness.
When a load is applied to the free end of the beam, the couple produced is called
bending couple and the moment of the bending couple is called bending moment m of
the beam.
Bending moment of the beam = YIg/R
Where Ig = ak2

For rectangular cross-section Ig = (bd3)/12

For circular cross-section Ig = (r4)/4

Cantilever is a beam fixed horizontally at one en and loaded at the other.

The depression produced in the cantilever when the weight of the beam is ineffective
is given by = (wl3)/3YIg and Y = (4mgl3)/ bd3

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 Torsional pendulum consists of a heavy cylindrical rod or disc suspended from one end
of a fine wire, the upper end of the wire is fixed.
The time period of the torsional pendulum is given by t = 2I/c where I is the moment
of inertia and c is the twisting couple per unit twist.

Important questions :
(1) What are elastic and plastic bodies?
(2) Define stress and strain and elastic limit.
(3) State Hookes law.
(4) Explain stress-strain diagram.
(5) Explain the three types of elastic constants.
(6) Write a note on Poissons ratio.

(7) Show that the workdone per unit volume in any type of strain is x stress x strain.
(8) Derive an expression for twisting couple on a cylinder (or wire).
(9) Define ending moment of a beam. Derive an expression for the bending moment of a
beam.
(10) What is a cantilever? Derive an expression for the depression produced in a cantilever
when it is loaded at the free end. (the weight of the beam is neglected).
(11) What is a torsional pendulum? Derive an expression for the time-period of a torsional
pendulum

Problems
(1) A force of 19.6N produces an extension of 1mm in a wire of 3m in length and 1mm
in diameter. Calculate the Youngs modulus of the wire.

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 Solution : F = 19.6N L = 3m d= 1mm Y=?
D = 1mm = 1 x 10-3 m.
By definition Y = F/A l/L
Area = A = r2
.. Y = F/A i/L = F/ r2 i/L = 19.6x3/(0.5x10-3)2 x 10-3 = 7.48 x 1010 Nm-2

(2) Calculate Poissons ratio for silver. Given Y = 7.25 x 1010 Nm-2 and K = 11 x 1010 Nm-2

=?

By definition Y = 3K(1-2 ) = 3K 6K
.. = 3K-Y/6K = 0.39

(3)A bronze bar, 1.7m long and 50mm in diameter,is subjected to a tensile stress of 70 x
106 Nm-2. Calculate the extension produced in the bar and the work done during the
process.
Given Y of the material = 8.5 x 1010Nm-2.
Solution : L = 1.7m, d = 50mm .. r = 25 x 10-3m.
Stress = F/a = 70 x 106 Nm-2 l = ?
Work done = ?
(i) Extension l = ?
By definition Y = Stress/Strain = Stress/l/L = F/a/l/L
Extension l = Stress x L/Y = 70 x 106 x 1.7/8.5x1010
L = 14 x 10-4 m.

(ii) Work done during stretching = x Force x Extension

Here Stress = Force/Area

.. Work done = x Stress x Area x Extension

x 70 x 106 x x (25 x 10-3 )2 x 14 x 10-4

.. Work done = 96.16J.

MODULE-3
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UNIT 1 : DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

113
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Dielectric materials:
Dielectric materials are electrically non-conducting materials whose main function is to store
charges.
These materials exhibit a phenomenon called as Polarization or electrical polarization.
Polar and Non-polar dielectric materials:
Electric dipole:
A dipole is an entity in which equal positive and negative charges are separated by a small
distance.
An electric dipole moment is given by = q.l where q is the charge and l is the distance of
separation.
Non-polar dielectric materials:
In these materials, the centres of positive and negative charge distribution coincide in the
absence of the field. Thus in the absence of the field, there are no permanent electric dipoles.
When a field is applied, there is slight displacement of charges and thus dipoles are created. Ex:
Inert gases like He, Ne, etc,.
Polar dielectric materials:
In these materials the centers of positive and negative charge distribution do not coincide, even
in the absence of the external field. Thus they have permanent dipoles. But these dipoles are
randomly oriented and the net dipole moment is zero. When the field is applied, the dipoles
tend to align in the field direction thus producing dipole moment. Ex: water, N2O etc.
Important features of dielectric:
The important features of dielectric materials are:

Dielectric constant or relative permittivity

Dielectric loss or loss tangent
Dielectric strength
Polarizability
Dielectric susceptibility
Electrically, a good dielectric should have high resistivity, high dielectric strength, high dielectric
constant and small dielectric loss.
Dielectric materials may be solids, liquids and gases.
Basic concepts:
Permittivity of the medium:

114
It is defined as = or where o = 8.854 x 10-12 Fm-1 which is called Permitivity of free space.
r is called relative permittivity or dielectric constant.
Force on a charged body:
Force on a charged body in an electric field E is F = qE
Electric field E from a charge q is given by

E=

Electric flux density:

The number of lines of forces received by unit area is called flux density or electric displacement
D. Since the lines of force are received by an area 4r2, D =

.. D = E .. D = E or (. = or )
In free space, r = 1 .. D = E o

Dielectric constant or static dielectric constant or relative permittivity:

This is an experimental result discovered by Faraday in parallel plate experiment.
In this experiment, first the region between the plates is evacuated and let the capacitance of
the system be C1.
By definition, C1 = Ao/d = Q/V1 where V1 is the potential difference between the two plates. Q is
the charge on the plate.

Then the region is filled with dielectric and let the capacitance be C2.
By definition, C2 = Aor/d = Q/V2 where V2 is the potential difference between the plates
.. C2/C1 = r = V1/V2

115
Here C2 > C1 which shows that the capacitance of the system increases with dielectric. The ratio
C2/C1 = r is called the dielectric constant of the material.
Dielectric constant of the material is a macroscopic quantity. This measures the effectiveness of
the electric field to polarize the dielectric material.
It is independent of the shape and dimensions of the conductor and is dependent on the
dielectric material.
For free space r = 1, but for other materials r > 1. It is a dimensionless quantity.

Electrical polarization or polarization:

Polarization is a process in which there is a displacement of charged particles in atoms or
molecules of dielectric materials in the presence of an external field. Polarization leads to the
development of dipole moment.
These dipoles which are created develop a field of their own which opposes the applied field.
The total electric field at the atom site is called Internal field or Local field.
Polarization can occur due to
a. Displacement of electrons and nuclei
b. Displacement of cations and anions
c. The alignment of permanent dipole moment in the field direction
d. Redistribution of charges
Polarization is also defined as dipole moment per unit volume .. P = /v
If there are N number of atoms and dipole moment produced by each molecule is then P = N
Polarization in terms of electric flux density is given by D=P + Eo .. P = D - Eo
Since D = Eor , .. P = E or - E o .. P = E o (r 1)

Types of Polarization:
There are four types of polarization. They are
a) Electronic polarization:
Electronic Polarization occurs due to the displacement of positive and negative
charges (i.e. electrons & nucleus) in a dielectric material when an external field is
applied.

Due to this dipoles are created & dipole moment will be produced.

116
 - -
-

Charge distribution in the Charge distribution due to the

applied
Absence of the field field

Let E be the electric field applied to the dielectric & be the dipole moment produced.
Then E .. = E where is called the Polarizability.
Polarizability of the material measures the ability of the material to polarize. In this case
e = e E where e is called electronic polarization Pe .
Expression for e :
e can be given by the equation e = 4oR3 where R is radius of the sphere.
.. r = 1+4NR3 .. r = 1+(Ne/ o)

By definition, Pe = Ne = E o (r 1) - N eE .. e = where N is number of

atoms/unit volume . Units is F-m2
b) Ionic Polarization:
This polarization occurs due to the displacement of ions. This occurs only in ionic
substances. Ex: NaCl

117
 Ion displacement in the absence of the field Ion displacement due to the applied field

Because of the displacement, the distance between the atoms also increases which
creates dipoles & dipole moment will be produced.

This process is temperature independent. If i is the dipole moment produced

then
i = i E where i is the ionic polarizability

Since the ionic polarization is given by dipole moment per unit volume Pi = i/v =
N i
For most materials the ionic polarization is less than the electronic polarizability.
Typically o = 1/10 e
c) Orientation Polarization:
This type of polarization occurs due to the alignment of the permanent dipole
moments in the field direction.

In the absence of the field, the permanent dipoles are randomly oriented. But
when an electric field is applied, these dipoles align in the field directions & thus
net dipole moment will be developed.

118
 Dipole orientation in the absence Dipole alignment due to the
In the absence of the field applied field.

If o is the dipole moment produced then o = o E where o is the orientation

polarizability. o = 2/3kT where k is the Boltzmann constant & T is the temperature.
The orientation polarization Po = N o = N o E

.. Po = This polarization depends on temperature.

d) Space charge Polarization:

Space charge polarization occurs in substances in which there is a charge of
resistivity. When an electric field is applied, the electric charges accumulate at the
interface of a multiphase material. This leads to the development of dipole
moment.

Here s = s E where s is called the space charge polarizability. The space charge
polarization is given by Ps = N s E. Thus the total polarizaility of the material is
given by = e + i + o + s

Usually s is neglected.

The total polarization P = Pe + Pi + Po + Ps .

Ps can be neglected.

Internal field in solids and liquids:

Internal field or local field is the resultant field at the atomic site developed due to the
applied field and the field due to all the surrounding dipoles.

When an electric field is applied to a dielectric, dipoles are created. Each dipole develop
a field and the resultant field (i.e. the sum of the applied field and the field due to dipoles)
is called Internal field or local field. This is denoted by Ei.

Expression for internal field in solids and liquids (one dimensional case):

119
Consider a dielectric material placed in an external electric field of strength E. Consider
an array of equidistant atomic dipoles arranged in field direction as shown.

Let the dipole moment of each dipole be & distance between them bed as shown.

C1 B1 A1 X A2 B2 C2

d d d d d d

Electric field due to each dipole:

Consider a point P which is at a distance of r from the midpoint of dipole as shown.

Er

Field Components due to dipole

120
Let E be the electric field at P due to this dipole. This field can be resolved into Er & E in polar
forms Er = & E =

Here is the angle between the dipole and the line joining the dipole with the point P.
In the linear array of atomic dipoles consider an atom at X.
Electric field at X due to the first dipole A1:
Here the distance r = d & = 0. This is because the dipole moments are collinear
.. Er = Ed = and E = E0 = 0

.. Field due to A1 at X = Er + E =

Electric field at X due to dipole A2:

Since r = d & = 0, the electric field due to A2 =

.. Field due to A1 & A2 = = = E1

Similarly, the electric field due to dipoles B1 & B2 is given by

E2 = [ . distance r = 2d]

E3 =

.. The total field E1 at X due to all the dipoles = E1 = E1 + E2 + E3

.. E1= +

= where n = 1,2,3

.. E1= [. = 1.2]

Internal field which is the total field at X is given by

Ei = E1 + E

Ei = E +

Lorentz field:

121
In a three dimensional case, the internal field is complicated and depends on crystal structure.
In this case, the equation can be written by replacing (1/d3) by N, the number of atoms per unit
volume and (1.2/) by a constant which depends upon the type of the structure
.. Ei = E + Ni / 0 since N = P
Ei = E +(/0) P
is called the internal field constant
In case of crystals possessing cubic symmetry = 1/3 and the internal field is given by
Ei = E + P/30
This equation is called Lorentz field.

Clausius Mossotti Equation:

This equation relates the macroscopic dielectric constant to microscopic polarizability. This is
applicable for crystals of high degree of symmetry.
By definition, the internal field for a crystal in 3 dimensional case is given by
Eo = E +(/0) P ------------ (1)
Here is the internal field constant
Let the dielectric constant of the material be r and N be the number of atoms/unit volume of
the material and be the dipole moment.
By definition, P = N e Ei .. Eo = P/ N e

But polarization P can also be written as P = o (r 1) E where E is the applied field

..E = P/ 0(r 1)
Substituting for Ei and E in eqn (1)
Ei = E +(/0)P

P/ N e = + (/0) P

..1 / Ne = 1/ 0 [1/( r+1) + ]

If the Crystal has cubic symmetry = 1/3

.. = 1/

.. =

This equation is called Clausius Mossotti equation.

122
 Frequency dependence of dielectric constant
When a dielectric material is subjected to an alternating field, the orientation of the
dipoles and polarization will tend to reverse every time the polarity of the field
changes.
The total polarization depends on the ability of the dipoles to orient themselves in the
irection of the field during each alternation of the field. Thus the behavior of relative
permitivity r which is a measure of polarization is different at different frequencies.

The dependence of r on frequency of the electric field is as shown.

The average time taken by the dipoles to orient in the field direction is known as the
relaxation time. The reciprocal of the relaxation time is called relaxation frequency

123
If the frequency of the applied field is very low (<106 c/s), the polarization follows the
alternations of the field without any significant lag and the permittivity is independent of
the frequency and has the same magnitude as in a static field.
As the frequency is further raised the permanent dipoles if present in the medium will be
completely unable to follow the field and the orientation polarization ceases. This occurs in
the radio frequency range (106 1011 Hz).
At still higher frequencies usually in the infrared region (1011-1014 Hz) the heavy positive and
negative ions cannot follow the field variations and the contribution to permittivity from
ionic polarization ceases. Thus in this region only electronic polarization contributes to the
total polarization.
Therefore P = P0.
In the optical region, the electron cloud follows the field variations and the material exhibits
an electronic polarizability e. The relative permittivity in the optical region is equal to the
square of the refractive index n of the dielectric. Thus

[r]optical region = n2.

In the ultraviolet region, the electron cloud cannot follow the field alterations and
electronic contribution to the polarization ceases. Thus total polarization becomes
zero.
Thus at frequencies above the ultraviolet range, the relative permitivity approached
unity.
Therefore, [r]x-ray = 1. (Because r = 1+(Ne/ o)).

Ferroelectrics or Ferroelectric materials.

Ferroelectrics are a group of dielectric materials. These materials spontaneously
acquire an electric dipole moment below certain temperature.
There are three main types of crystal structures which exhibit ferroelectricity. They
are
1. Rochelle Salt structure (Ex: Rochelle salt)
2. Perovskite group (Titanates and niobates ex: barium titanate BaTi03).
3. Dihydrogen phosphates and arsenates Ex: KH2PO4
Characteristic features of Ferroelectric materials
(1) Ferroelectric materials concentrate considerable quantity of electric energy within
a small space.
In ferroelectric materials the electric flux density D is not determined uniquely by
the applied field but depends on the previous history of the material.

124
 These materials have large regions and when the electric field is applied, these
regions turn in the direction of the field and overcomes the thermal agitation.
The aligned electric fields of such regions of a ferroelectric material combined
with the external electric fields increases the flux density and thus the charge of the
condenser is increased and the charge density increases.
Condensers made of ferroelectric materials concentrate large quantity of electric
energy.
(2) The dielectric constant of a ferroelectric material depends on temperature.
The dielectric constant of ordinary dielectrics donot change much with temperature.
But in case of ferroelectric crystals, ex exhibit one or more sharp maxima and the
value of r becomes very large (several thousands). The temperature at which these
maxima occur are called curie temperature.
Ex: The temperature dependence of r of BaTiO3 is as shown.

125
(4) The dependence on polarization of ferroelectric on external field.
In ordinary dielectrics, the polarization p varies linearly with E and are called
Linear dielectrics.
But in ferroelectric materials, the relationship between P&E is complex in
nature and nonlinear and these are called nonlinear dielectrics.
The r value is not constant but depends on the applied field E.
(5) Ferroelectric materials exhibit hysterisis.
When an electric field is applied to a ferroelectric crytal, the polarization wll rise
nonlinearly and reach saturation at a value Ps.

The variation of P with electric field E is as shown. This curve is called hysterisis
curve.

If the field is decreased, the curve does not follow the same path. When the
external field is switched off, P does not attain zero and ferroelectric retains
residual polarization Pr. In order to make P=0, an reverse field Ec called coercive
field is required.
The hysteris behaviour of ferroelectric can be explained using domains.
The domains are regions of spontaneious polarization. In an unpolarized

126
ferroelectric solid, the different domains are oriented with their polarization
vectors in different directions so that the net polarization of the solid is zero.
When an external electric field is applied, the polarization directions of
individual domains change, as they tend to rotate into the direction of the field.
But most favourable oriented domains grow by pushing their boundaries into the
neighbouring domains. This polarization increases.
The domain exists in a ferroelectric only in a definite temperature range.
When the ferroelectric is heated above Curie temperature, the domains disappear
and ferroelectric behavior ceases.

Piezoelectricity or Piezoelectric materials

When some dielectric materials are compressed in a certain direction, they
become polarized and polarization charges appear on its surface. The polarization
of a dielectric as a result of mechanical deformation is called Piezoelectric effect.
The crystals that exhibit the piezoelectric effect are called Piezoelectrics.
Ex: Ammonium Phosphate Quartz, PZT (Lead Zirconate titanate). All
piezoelectric materials are ferroelectrics.
Characteristic features of Piezoelectrics.
(1) When the piezoelectric crystal is compressed the charges appear on its surface.
The amount of polarization charges appearing on the crystal depends on the
crystal lattice direction along which the deformation occurs and on the crystal
lattice type.
(2) If the mechanical pressure on the piezo electric crystal altered, a varying
voltage is produced by the crystal. This voltage can be small or large depending
on the material and pressure.
(3) The piezoelectric effect is reversible. If a piezoelectric crystal is placed in an
electric field, it will be polarized and deformed. If the direction of the electric
field is changed, the deformation sign changes ie from contraction to extension.
(4) Piezoelectricity can occur in crystals which do not have a center of symmetry.
Of 32 crystal classes twelve have center of symmetry and other does not
possess center of symmetry.
If a unit cell of a dielectric is such that we can draw from a central point a
vector to one charged to ion and on drawing an equal and opposite vector from
the point we also find a similar ion then the structure has a center of symmetry.
In the fig, the position of ion A is a center of symmetry, when the array
has been compressed by a mechanical force, the ion B has been moved closer to
ion A thus decreases the BA dipole moment. But the ion C has also been moved
closer to ion A which decreases the CA dipole moment by the same amount in the
opposite direction to the decrease in BA moment. Thus no net change in

127
polarization occurs from mechanical deformation of a crystal with center of
symmetry.

A
A

C C

The structure without center of symmetry is as shown.

The dipole moment is determined using an ion plus a fraction of its nearest
neighbours, when strained this structure develops net dipole moments due to each
ion and its neighbours.
Applications of piezoelectric crystals
(1) A piezoelectric crystal will vibrate naturally in several mechanical modes.
The frequencies of vibrations depend on the dimensions and elastic constants of
the material.

128
 If the crystal is placed between the electrodes and an alternating voltage is
applied, then the amplitude of oscillation will build up at resonant frequency.
(2) Piezoelectric oscillations can be used to convert mechanical pulses into
electrical pulses. The crystal is used as a transducer. Acoustic pulses are used in
under water search and other applications.
(3) Piezoelectric crystals are used as delay lines.
If an electrical signal is converted into an acoustic signal at one end of a
quartz rod, the acoustic signal will travel in quartz with sound velocity. At the
other end of quartz, the signal is then converted into electrical signal. Thus the
original signal is delayed.

KEY WORDS
Dielectric materials are electrically non-conducting materials whose main
function is to store charges.
The important features of dielectric are dielectric constant or relative
permittivity, dielectric loss, dielectric strength, polarizability and dielectric
susceptibility.
Dielectric constant of the material is a macroscopic quantity which measures
the effectiveness of the electric field to polarize the dielectric material.
Polarization is a process in which there is a displacement of charged particles
in atoms or molecules of dielectric materials in the presence of external field.
There are four important types of polarization. They are electronic, ionic,
orientation or dipolar and space charge polarization.
Electronic and ionic polarization are temperature independent.
Polarizability of the material measures the ability of the material to polarize.
The electronic polarizability is given by e = 4 o R3
r = 1+4NR3 .. r = 1+(Ne/ o)

By definition, Pe = Ne = E o (r 1) - N eE .. e =

The orientation polarizability is given by

o = 2/3kT
The internal field or the local field is defined as the electric field that acts at
the site of any given atoms of a solid or a liquid dielectric subjected to an
external electric field.
It is the resultant of the applied field and the field due to all the effects of the
surrounding atoms. The internal field is given by Ei = E1 + E

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 Ei = E +

Lorentz field equation is given by

Ei = E + P/30

Clausius Mossotti equation is given by

. =

The dielectric constant of the material depends on the frequency of the electric
field. It decreases as the frequency increases At frequencies above the
ultraviolet range, the dielectric constant or relative permitivity approaches
unity.

Ferroelectric materials are a group of dielectric materials which acquire

electric dipole moment spontaneously below certain temperature.
Ex: Rochelle salt.
When some dielectric materials are compressed in a certain direction they
become polarized and polarization charges appear on its surface. This
polarization which occurs due to mechanical deformation is called
piezoelectric effect and the crystal which exhibit this effect are called
Piezoelectric crystals. Ex: Ammonium Phosphate, Quartz.

Important Questions:
1)What are dielectrics?

2)What is polarization in dielectrics? Explain the different types of polarization.

3)Define internal field. Derive an expression for internal field in case of dielectric
liquids and solids.

1) Derive Calusius-Mosotti equation.

2) Explain ferroelectric materials.

3) Explain piezoelectricity

4) Explain the frequency dependence of dielectric constant.

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 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Magnetic materials are classified on the basis of dipole moment (or magnetic spin) and
susceptibility into five groups. They are:
a. Diamagnetic materials
b. Paramagnetic materials
c. Ferromagnetic materials
d. Anti-ferromagnetic materials
e. Ferrimagnetic materials
Diamagentic Materials:
These materials have a very weak magnetic effect. When a magnetic field is applied, the induced
magnetic moments oppose the field.
Thus the magnetization and susceptibility of these materials are negative.
In the absence of an external field, these materials have zero magnetic moment. These
materials reduce the density of lines of forces.
The susceptibility is independent of temperature.
Examples of diamagnetic materials: Gold, Copper, Antimony etc,.
Super conductors are perfect diamagnetic material having susceptibility = -1.
Paramagnetic materials:
A paramagnetic material possesses permanent dipoles. But in the absence of the applied field
these dipoles are randomly oriented and thus have no net magnetic moment.
But when a field is applied these dipoles have a tendency to turn in the field direction causing
magnetization.
But because of the lattice vibrations i.e. thermal agitation, all the dipoles may not follow the
field & thus few spins turn in the field direction.
Thus paramagnetic materials have low magnetization and low susceptibility (Both are positive).
When the temperature is increased, the susceptibility decreases & varies inversely with the
temperature.
Usually, materials with unpaired spins are paramagnetic.
Examples of paramagnetic materials: Manganese, Platinum, Tungsten etc,.

131
Ferromagnetic materials:
These materials possess permanent dipole moment & net 0. Thus they are permanent
magnets.
These dipoles have a regular perfect alignment as shown. Thus net 0.

When an external field H is applied, these spins align in the field direction & thus magnetization
is produced.
This is very large and positive. This can be explained using Weiss theory.
According to Langevins theory, when an external field is applied, the lattice atoms vibrate and
this is called thermal agitation. This prevents the dipole moments to align in the field direction.
Thus usually (ex. Paramagnetic) magnetization (M) will be very small.
But according to Weiss, in a ferromagnetic material there is an interaction between the
neighbouring moments because of the perfect alignment. This interaction is called as molecular
field or force. This will accelerate the dipole moments in the field direction. When an external
field is applied, this is very large compared to thermal agitation and hence it opposes thermal
agitation.
Thus in a ferromagnetic material, all the spins align in the field direction and magnetization M is
very large.
The susceptibility = M/H & thus is positive and very large.
It obeys Curie-Weiss law, according to this law, = C / T Tc where C is the Curie constant & Tc is
Curie temperature.
The variation of w.r.t temperature is as shown.

is
very
large

0 Tc T

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From the graph, is very large till Tc. Beyond Tc it decreases with temperature & attains
paramagnetic character.
Examples of Ferromagnetic materials: Iron, Cobalt, Nickel & alloys.
These materials exhibit hysteresis phenomenon.
Hysteresis: When an external field H is applied to a ferromagnetic material, magnetic induction
B is produced. This B is a function of H. when H is increased, B increases & it decreases when H is
decreased. But when H is removed, B is not equal to zero but there is some residual B left in the
material.
Thus B lags behind H & this lagging effect is called hysteresis.
Ferromagnetic materials exhibit hysteresis. This shows the behavior of the ferromagnetic
material under the influence of an external field.
The variation can be studied using a graph of B Vs H. Hysteresis curve can be explained on the
basis of Weiss Domain theory.
Weiss Domain theory:
The best ferromagnet Iron has a high curie temperature of 1041 K & thus all the spins should
remain aligned at room temperature.
But at room temperature, an ordinary piece of iron is not magnetic in the absence of an applied
field.
Weiss explained this using Domain theory.
According to Weiss, the ferromagnetic material is divided into a large number of small regions
called domains.
Within each domain, the spins of all the atoms are aligned. But the spins of adjacent domains
are not parallel. Due to random alignment of the domains w.r.t one another, the magnetic
moments cancel out & the material as a whole is not magnetic.
In the presence of an external field, the domains tend to align themselves with the field. This
results in a large net magnetization of the material.
Domain alignment:
Any ferromagnetic material has easy & hard directions of magnetization. Hard directions require
stronger fields to produce saturation magnetization.
Each domain has a bloch wall which is a transition layer that separates adjacent domains
magnetized in different directions.
When an external field is applied, domain alignment can take place by two independent
processes.
a) Domain rotation: Here all the domains rotate in the field direction. This needs
strong field (i.e. high energy)

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 b) Domain growth: Here the more favourably oriented domains (i.e. domains with
less angle of orientation) grow at the expense of less favourably oriented domains
(i.e. domains with more angle of orientation). This requires less energy.
The domain structure in unmagnetized & magnetized condition is as shown.

Unmagnetised Magnetised by domain growth Magnetised by domain rotation

Classification of materials using relativity:

Magnetic materials can be classified into two groups soft & hard magnets based on
retentivity (i.e. the ability to retain magnetism)

Soft magnets: It is basically a temporary magnet because when an external field is

removed it loses the property of magnetism to a great extent.

Properties:
The properties of a soft magnet can be discussed using B-H curve.
When an external field H is applied to a soft magnet, the variation of magnetic induction
B is as shown in B-H graph.
Soft magnet is characterized by steeply ascending magnetization curve and small area of
Hysteresis loop.

B-H Curve

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Features:
1) When H is increased, B is increasing which shows that domain growth starts
Thus r and should be high.
Hence soft magnet is easy to magnetize and has high permeability and
susceptibility.
2) Since the material is easy to magnetize, the domain wall or bloch wall movement
is easy.
Thus a soft magnet has easy domain boundary movement.
3) When H increases, B increases continuously & domain growth takes place. But at
Bs all the domains are in the field direction and the growth stops & the magnetic
induction B attains saturation called saturation induction Bs.
From the graph, a soft magnet has high saturation induction.
4) When the field H is decreased, B decreases almost immediately.
This shows that the domains which are aligned in the field direction, randomizes
themselves & thus domain growth starts. This process randomization takes place
immediately in a soft magnet.

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 5) When the field is reversed, B decreases and reaches a residual value Br for zero
field (i.e. H = 0). This value Br is the magnetization left in the material & is called
residual induction.
A soft magnet has low residual induction or remanance.
6) When the field is applied in the opposite direction, B attains zero for a field Hc
called Coercive field.
From the graph, soft magnet has low coercive field (Hc).
7) The area within the B-H curve gives the energy needed for the process.
From the graph, the energy needed is very less or BH product is low for a soft
magnet.
8) The energy loss occurs during magnetization and demagnetization processes is
called hysteresis loss. The area within BH curve is a measure of hysteresis loss.
In a soft magnet, hysteresis loss is minimum.
9) The behaviour of the material is same both in magnetization & demagnetization
processes.
Thus in a soft magnet there is perfect back track.
Example of soft magnets : mild steel, silicon steel, perm alloy, pure nickel.

Applications:
A soft magnet is used as a temporary magnet.
Since it has a perfect back track, a soft magnet is used in application where
frequent reversal of direction of magnetization is required.
Ex: Cores of transformers, motors, generators etc.
A soft magnet made of metallic glass is used in cartridges and audio, computer
tape heads.
Fe-Ni alloys such as perm alloys & superm alloys are used in high frequency
circuits in kHz range.
Soft magnets are used in magnetic bubbles.
Bubbles are magnetic domains similar to magnetic film in a magnetic disc memory. The
magnetic film is moved mechanically at high speeds where as the bubbles are
electronically moved in a bubble memory device.
Hard Magnets:
It is basically a permanent magnet because when the external field is removed, it retains the
property of magnetism.
Properties:

136
The properties of hard magnet can be discussed using B-H curve.
When an external field H is applied, the variation in magnetic induction is as shown.
Hard magnets are characterized by relatively large area of hysteresis loop.
B-H Curve:

Bs

Br

Hc
H
-H

-B
Features:
1. When H is increased, B does not increase immediately. This shows that r & are
low.
Thus a hard magnet has low permeability, low susceptibility. Thus it is difficult to
magnetize.
2. Since it is difficult to magnetize, the domain wall movement is difficult.
Thus a hard magnet has difficult domain boundary movement.
3. When H is increased continuously, the domain growth starts & B increases. But at
Bs it reaches saturation.
Thus a hard magnet has saturation induction Bs as shown.
4. When field is reversed, B does not decrease immediately. Randomization does not
occur immediately in a hard magnet.
5. When the field is reversed, B decreases & reaches a residual value Br for zero
field (i.e. when H=0)

137
 From the graph, hard magnet has a high residual induction or remanance.
6. When the field is applied in the opposite direction, B attains zero for a field Hc
called Coercive field. From the graph, hard magnet has a large coercive field Hc.
7. The area within B-H curve gives the energy needed for the process. From the
graph, the energy needed is large & BH product is very large for a hard magnet.
8. Hysteresis loss is of no significance as no repeated reversal of magnetization is
involved in a permanent magnet (hard magnet).
9. There is no back track.
Examples of hard magnets : Carbon and alloy steel, alnico alloys, tungsten steel alloys.
Applications:

Hard magnets are used as permanent magnets. (Al Ni Co alloy is the best
permanent magnet)
They are used in magnetic separators, magnetic detectors
They are used in speakers in audio system & microphones
They are used to manufacture toys. Carbon steel because of its low cost is used
for this purpose.
They are used in certain types of measuring meters.

KEY WORDS:
Diamagnetic materials have very weak magnetic effect and magnetization and
susceptibility are negative.
Examples of diamagnetic materials : Gold, Copper and Antimony.

Paramagnetic materials have low magnetization and low susceptibility (both are
positive). These materials have unpaired spins.
Examples of paramagnetic materials: Manganese, Platinum, Tungsten.

Ferromagnetic materials possess permanent dipole moment and are permanent

magnets. They have very large and positive magnetization.
Examples of Ferromagnetic materials : Iron, Cobalt and Nickel.
These materials exhibit hysteresis phenomenon.
When an electric field H is applied to a ferromagnetic material, magnetic induction B is
produced. This B lags behind h. This lagging effect is called hysteresis.
The B-H curve or hysteresis curve shows the behaviour of a ferromagnetic material
under the influence of an external field.
According to Weiss domain theory, a ferromagnetic material is divided into a large
number of small regions called domains. Within each domain, the spins of all the atoms
are aligned. But the spins of adjacent domains are not parallel.

138
 When an external field is applied, the domains tend to align themselves in the field
direction. This domain alignment takes place by two independent processes; Domain
rotation and domain growth.
Magnetic materials are classified into two groups on the basis of retentivity as soft
magnets and hard magnets.
Soft magnets are basically temporary magnets and are characterized by steeply
ascending magnetization curve and small area of hysteresis loop.
They are easy to magnetize and have perfect back track. Examples of soft
magnets :Mild steel, silicon steel, permalloy.
Hard magnets are basically permanent magnets and are characterized by a relatively
large area of hysteresis loop.
In these materials, hysteresis loss is of no significance and there is no back track.
Examples of hard magnets : Carbon and alloy steel, alnico alloys, tungsten steel alloy.
Important Questions :

(1) What are ferromagnetic materials?

(2) Explain magnetic hysteresis on the basis of Weiss domain theory.

(3) Discuss Weiss domain theory.
(4) Explain the characteristic features and applications of a soft magnet.
(5) Write five important applications of a soft magnet.
(6) Explain the characteristic features and applications of a hard magnet.
(7) Write five important applications of hard magnet.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
UNIT 2 : LASER AND APPLICATIONS
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LASER:
Laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
Laser beam is a highly parallel coherent beam of light of very high intensity.
Laser can be considered as an optical device that amplifies light.
Characteristic features of Laser:
a) Directionality:
A conventional light source emits light in all directions.
The beam divergence (i.e. beam spreading) is very large.

139
 Laser source emits light only in one direction.
For a typical laser, the beam divergence is less than 0.01 milli radian i.e. the beam
spreads less than 0.01 mm for every meter.
b) Intensity:
A conventional source of light emits light in all directions & its energy spreads uniformly
in all directions.
The laser beam is a narrow beam and its energy is concentrated in a small region.
c) Monochromaticity:
The light emitted by a conventional source is never perfectly sharp. It spreads over a
frequency range i.e. the band width is very large of the order 1000 Ao as shown.
A line emitted by laser is nearly sharp and there is very little spreading i.e. band width is
of the order 10Ao (very less) as shown.
o
Laser (10 A )

o
Normal (1000 A )

Thus laser light has a high degree of monochromaticity.

d) Coherence:
A conventional source of light is not coherent.
In order to get coherent sources, a source and its image or two images of the same
source is used.
But laser has a high degree of coherence. The coherence condition of laser can be
grouped under two categories Temporal and Spatial Coherence.
Temporal Coherence (or Longitudinal Coherence) :
It refers to the coherence of the two waves at two separate locations along the
propagation direction of the two beams.
Here the phase difference between the waves is constant during the period normally
covered by observation i.e. at that instant.
Spatial Coherence (or Transfer Coherence) :
It refers to how far apart two sources of light can be located in a direction transverse
to the direction of observation and exhibit coherent properties over a range of
observation points.

140
 In this case the phase difference between the waves is constant over any time.
Interaction of radiation with matter:
Radiation interacts with matter under appropriate condition.
The interaction leads to an abrupt transition of the quantum system such as an atom or
molecule from one energy state to another.
If the transition is from a higher state to a lower state the system gives out a part of its energy
(this is called emission) and if the transition is in the reverse direction then it absorbs the
incident energy (this is called absorption).
Thus the interaction of radiation with matter can occur in two ways i.e. absorption & emission.
According to Einstein, emission can be spontaneous or stimulated.

Absorption:
In this process the system (atom) absorbs an incident photon and it makes a transition from
lower energy state to higher energy state.
Let E1 and E2 be the lower and higher energy levels of an atom. Let a photon having energy h
be incident on the atom. The atom absorbs this photon and makes a transition to E2 as shown.

This process is called induced absorption because the atom is forced to make transition from E1
to E2.
Schematically this process may be represented as atom + photon atom * (excited atom)
Condition for absorption:
The necessary condition for this absorption is that the incident photon should have the energy
equal to the difference in energy levels.
.. h = E2 E1 .. = E2 E1 /h
Thus for absorption to occur the frequency of the incident radiation should satisfy the above
equation.
Rate of absorption:

141
Let N1 and N2 be the population of E1 & E2 respectively. (Population is the number of atoms in
any energy level). Let u be the energy density of the incident radiation.
The number of absorption/unit time/unit volume is called the rate of absorption.
The rate of induced absorption (RA) depends on N1 and also on u.
.. RA N1 u

Emission:
When an atom is in the higher level, then it will make a transition to lower level by emitting a
photon. This process is called Emission.
According to Einstein, emission process can occur in two different ways. Thus emission can be
spontaneous or stimulated.
(a) Spontaneous emission:
In this process the atom makes a transition from higher energy state to lower energy
state spontaneously and emits a photon.
This emission does not require any external agency.
Let E1 and E2 be the lower and higher energy levels of an atom (system). In this process the atom
makes a transition from E2 to E1 emitting a photon of energy h = E2 E1 as shown.

This process can be represented as atom* atom + photon

Rate of Spontaneous Emission:
Let N1 and N2 be the population in the energy levels E1 and E2 respectively.
The rate of spontaneous emission (i.e. RSP) depends on N2 only.

.. RSP N2

Statistical Process:

142
 Spontaneous emission is a statistical process. This is because the probability of this
transition can be predicted. It is difficult to predict when exactly this transition will take
place.
Nature of photons:
During spontaneous emission, the photons are emitted in all possible directions.
There is no definite phase relationship between the photons.
Laser Beam:
The emitted light is incoherent in nature as the photons have no definite phase
relationship.
Thus this light cannot be used as laser beam.
(b) Stimulated emission:
In this process the atom under the influence of a photon of right energy makes a
transition from higher energy state to lower energy state and emits a photon.
Here the emission is induced by the incident photon and hence it is called Stimulated or
Induced emission.
Let E1 and E2 be the lower and higher energy levels of an atom. Let a photon of energy h = E2
E1 be incident on the system which induces emission and photon of h is emitted as shown.

This process can be represented as atom*+photon atom + (photon + photon)

Rate of stimulated emission:
Let N1 and N2 be the population in the levels E1 and E2 respectively. Let u be the energy
density of the incident radiation.
The rate of stimulated emission RST depends on the number of atoms in E2 (i.e. N2) and the
energy density of the incident radiation (i.e. u)
.. RST N2 u
Statistical Process:
It is not a statistical process.

143
 Since the process is induced it is easy to predict when exactly the transition will take
place.
Einstein predicted that both induced absorption and induced emission have the same
probability.

Nature of photons:
The photons emitted during stimulated emission (stimulated photon) has the same
energy as the incident photon (stimulating photon).
The waves associated with the simulating and stimulated photons have identical
frequencies, they are in same phase, and have the same state of polarization and travel in
the same direction.
Thus with stimulated emission the amplitude of the incident wave can grow as it passes
through a collection of excited atoms & thus this process is an amplification process.
Laser Beam:
Since the photons are identical, they are coherent and these photons constitute laser
beam.

Einsteins theory and Einsteins Coefficients:

Einstein predicted that the induced absorption and induced emission have the same probability.
Also in an ordinary condition, stimulated emission is not possible.
(a) Energy density of the incident radiation and Einsteins Coefficients:
Consider a system having two energy levels E1 , the lower energy level and E2 , the higher energy
level.
Let N1 and N2 be the population or number density of atoms in the levels E1 & E2 respectively.
Let u be the energy density of frequency which is incident on the system.
According to Einstein, three processes absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated
emission can take place.
Let A21, B12 and B21 are three constants chosen which are called Einsteins Coefficients. [A is the
constant chosen when the transition is independent of energy density u and B is chosen when
the transition is dependent on u].
[B12 indicates that the transition is from E1 to E2 and A21 or B21 indicates that the transition is
from E2 to E1].
Induced absorption:

144
 Here the atom in the lower level E1 absorbs the incident photon of energy h and goes to E2 as
shown.
The rate of absorption or number of absorptions/unit time/unit volume depends on N1 & u
.. rate of absorption N1 u
.. RA = B12N1 u

Spontaneous emission:

Here the atom in the higher energy state E2 makes a spontaneous transition to lower energy
state E1 emitting a photon of h as shown.
The rate of spontaneous emission (i.e. the number of emission/unit time/unit volume depends
only on N2.
.. rate of spontaneous emission N2
.. RSP N2
.. RSP = A21 N2

Stimulated emission:

145
Here the atom in the higher energy state E2 is induced by the incident photon of energy h and
the atom goes to lower energy level E1 by emitting a photon of energy (h).
The rate of stimulated emission (i.e. the no. of emissions/unit time/unit volume depends on u
and N2.
.. rate of stimulated emission N2 u
.. RSt = B21 N2 u

At thermal equilibrium, the number of upward transitions must be equal to the number of
downward transitions.
.. rate of absorption = rate of spontaneous emission + rate of stimulated emission
.. RA = RSP + RSt
.. B12N1 u = A21 N2 + B21 N2 u
B12N1 u - B21 N2 u = A21 N2
.. u = A21 N2/ B12N1 - B21 N2
Divide by N2 & B21

u = -------------------- (1)

From Boltzmann distribution law, the ratio of population of a system is given by

N1/N2 = = where is the frequency of the radiation and K is the Boltzmann constant
and h is the Plancks constant.
Substituting this is in eqn (1)

u = ------------------ (2)

According to Plancks law of radiation the energy density of radiation is given by

u = [ ------------ (3)

146
Comparing eqns. (2) & (3)

and .. B12 = B21

This gives the ratio of A & B coefficients. This also shows that the induced absorption and
induced emission have the same probability.
Expression for u in terms of A & B coefficients:
From eqn (2)

u =

Here A21 = A and according to Einstein, B12 = B21 = B

.. u =

This gives an expression for u (energy density) in terms of Einsteins Coefficients A & B)
(b) Laser Emission:
At thermal equilibrium, the ratio of number of spontaneous emission to stimulated
emission is given by
RSP /RSt = A21 N2/ B21 N2 u = A21/ B21 u ------- (4)

But according to Einsteins theory,

And from Plancks law of radiation,

u = [

Substituting these eqns in eqn (4)

.. 1)

147
Thus from the above eqn.,
a. if << kT/h , the number of stimulated emission exceeds the number of
spontaneous emission
b. if >> kT/h , the number of spontaneous emission exceeds the number of
stimulated emissions.
kT/h is found to be equal to 1.3 x 1014 s-1. Here T = 103k for optical sources
In optical region 4 x 1015 s-1 and thus from the above eqn >>kT/h.
This means no. of spontaneous emission exceeds no. of stimulated emission.
Thus in ordinary condition, the emission is predominantly due to spontaneous transition
& stimulated emission does not occur and laser emission is not possible.

Laser Action:

Consider number of atoms in the excited state E2. When a photon of right energy (i.e h =
E2 E1) is incident on this system, it may induce an atom to the ground levels by emitting
a photon of energy h = E2 E1. The stimulating and stimulated photons are coherent.
If these two coherent photons interact with two more excited state atoms four coherent
photons are produced and so on. This gives rise to an avalanche of an intense beam of coherent
photons moving in the same direction.
Thus the amplitude of an incident wave can grow as it passes through a collection of excited
atoms & it is an amplification process. Thus light gets amplified & constitutes laser beam.
This is the basic operation of laser action.
Condition for laser action:
Population inversion is the basic condition for laser action.
It is the state of a system where upper levels are more populated than lower levels.
When population inversion is achieved stimulated emission takes place and coherent photons
are emitted which constitutes laser beam.

148
Condition for stimulated emission:
Using Einsteins coefficients, the rate of absorption = RA = B12N1 u and the rate of spontaneous
emission = RSP = A21 N2
Rate of stimulated emission = RSt = B21 N2 u
1) the ratio of rate of stimulated emission to spontaneous emission
= RSt/RSP = = =

Since A21/B21 = constant

RSt > RSP if u is high
.. No. of stimulated emissions will be more if energy density is high.
2) The ratio of rate of simulated emission to rate of absorption

= RSt/ RA = =

But from Einsteins theory B21 = B12

..

Thus RSt > RA if N2 > N1

.. No. of stimulated emissions is more if N2 > N1
Thus when these conditions are satisfied stimulated emission & hence laser action
can be achieved.

Here the condition N2 > N1 is called Population Inversion.

Thus when population inversion (N2 > N1) is achieved stimulated emission &
hence laser action can be achieved.

Requirement for Population Inversion:

Population inversion cannot be achieved in a real physical system under normal condition
because using Boltzmann law N2 < N1 (i.e. in any system ground level is more
populated).

149
But population inversion can be achieved in a system where there is a meta-stable state
(i.e. a 3 level system)

Meta-stable state:
Consider a system having three energy levels E1, E2 & E3 with population N1, N2 & N3
respectively as shown.

Here E3 > E2 > E1 and hence N1 > N2 > N3

When a photon of required energy (i.e. h) is incident on the system, the atoms in E1 are
excited & make a transition to E3
The average lifetime of an excited atom is of the order of 10-8 s & thus the atoms cannot
stay in E3 & they make a transition to E2 . This transition is spontaneous (non-radiative)

E2 is a meta-stable state

A meta-stable state is an excited energy state. The atoms can stay for a longer duration of
the order 10-3 s.

The transition from E2 to E1 is not forbidden but it is delayed.

Thus atoms accumulate in E2. As the transition proceeds, no. of atoms in E2 will be more
than the number of atoms in ground state (i.e. N2 > N1 ) & thus population inversion is
achieved & stimulated emission takes place.

Photons having same energy, phase and moving in the same direction are emitted. These
photons are coherent and constitute laser beam.

150
Thus laser action can be achieved using population inversion in a system having a meta
stable state (i.e. at least a 3 level system) stimulated emission can thus be achieved which
emit photons which constitute laser beam.

Basic Components of a Laser System:

(Basic requirements for laser system or laser action):

A laser system requires three components. They are

a) Energy source:
In any atomic system, the atoms of the system should be raised to the excited
level. Population inversion takes place & stimulated emission can thus be
achieved & laser action is thus possible.

The excitation of atoms from lower level to excited level can be done by
supplying energy from a source. This process is called Pumping.

There are different forms of Pumping

(1) Optical pumping (Here a light source is used)
(2) Electrical Pumping : Here the electric field causes ionization & atoms are
excited
(3) Direct Conversion : Conversion of one type of energy into another.
(4) Chemical reaction: Chemical energy is utilized.

b) Active Medium:
Laser action can take place in a medium in which light gets amplified. This
medium (or material) is called active medium.

Active medium can be solid, liquid or gas.

When energy is supplied to the active medium, the atoms of the medium should
get excited, undergo population inversion and stimulated emission and emit
photons which are coherent and should lase (i.e produce laser beam).

151
 Since population inversion cannot be achieved in normal conditions, the active
medium should at least have three energy levels (i.e. it should have a meta stable
state)

The particles of the active medium (i.e. atoms) are called Active Centres.
The active centres can be lasing or non-lasing. Lasing atoms are those atoms
which take part in lasing action.

Non-lasing atoms do not take part in lasing action directly. They may be inert or
may support lasing action in an indirect way.

c) Optical resonator or optical cavity:

The cavity or the resonator consists of two parallel mirrors with the active
medium placed between them.

One of the mirrors is partially reflecting mirror and the other mirror is 100%
reflector.

Functions of the optical resonator:

i. It defines the direction in which the radiation is emitted
ii. It minimizes the optical losses caused by scattering & absorption due to non-
lasing atoms
iii. It creates selectivity for photon states
The components are as shown schematically

Energy Source

Output beam

Active medium

Partial reflector
100%
reflector

152
 Output laser beam coming out of optical cavity can have three modes of
oscillations
a) Continuous Oscillations: The output beam is a continuous beam with constant
power.
b) Pulsed mode of free oscillations : The output beam consists of periodic light
pulses or spikes
c) Pulsed mode with controlled oscillations: The output beam consists of
periodic light pulses called Giant Pulses.

He-Ne Laser:
Type : It is a four level gas laser.
Components:
(a) Active medium:
The active medium in this laser is a mixture of the He and Ne.

The He & Ne atoms are kept at pressures of 1mm of Hg (i.e. 1 torr) and 0.1mm of
Hg (i.e. 0.1 torr) respectively.

The lasing atoms are Ne atoms. These take part in lasing action.
The non-lasing atoms are the He atoms which do not take part in lasing action.
But they support lasing action. They take part in selective pumping of upper laser
levels of Neon.

(b) Energy source:

The source used here is an electrical discharge which is a continuous source.

The output laser beam is a continuous beam with constant power.

(c) Optical cavity or resonator:

The resonator consists of two mirrors kept parallel to each other. One of the
mirrors is 100% reflector & the other is a partial reflector.

Principle: The laser action in the He-Ne laser takes place through energy
exchange process between He and Ne atoms.

153
Construction: He Ne laser consists of a discharge tube made of fused quartz of
length about 1m & dia 1.5 cm.

The tube is filled with a mixture of helium & neon gases in the ratio 10:1.

The tube has two electrodes which are connected to a high voltage supply.

Two mirrors are kept on either side of the tube. One mirror is fully silvered and
the other is partially silvered.
The ends of the tube are set at Brewster angle and are called Brewster windows.
These windows minimize the unwanted reflections.
When photons are emitted, the component of light which is polarized normal to
the plane of oscillation is completely reflected by the window and the component
which is polarized in the plane of oscillation is transmitted in the same direction
and repeatedly reflected by the mirror without any loss.

Thus a single beam of plane polarized light is obtained.

Working:

154
When the discharge dc voltage is applied across the electrodes, the electric field
ionizes some of the atoms in the gas mixture.

The energetic electrons excite He atoms (which are lighter) through collision to
the levels 21S & 23s which are meta stable states as shown (energy level diagram).

This process is represented by

e1 + He e2 + He *
e1 & e2 energy levels of the electrons before & after collision
He & He* energy levels of the atoms in the ground & excited states.

In the discharge tube, there is collision between He & Ne atoms. Thus energy is
transformed to Ne atoms.

Due to this energy exchange, the He atoms are de-excited to ground level and Ne
atoms are excited to 2s and 3s levels which have the same energy as 23s and 21s
levels of atoms.

This energy transfer process is represented as

He* + Ne He + Ne*

Ne and Ne* represent the energy values in the ground and excited states.

Thus the Ne atoms accumulate in 2s & 3s levels. Population inversion takes place
& stimulated emission emits three types of transitions. These transitions emit laser
beam.

The atoms in 2p level and 3p level undergo transition to 1s level but this transition
is spontaneous.
1s level is regarded as a metastable state. But these atoms have no allowed
downward transition.

Since lasing transition requires 4 levels, it is called a 4 level system.

Energy level Diagram:

Ne

155
 He
I 3s
2s
Meta Through
stable atomic =3.39m
states collision
=0.633m

3p

2s
3
2s

=1.15m

2p

Relaxation(spontaneous
emission)

Relaxation (wall
1s collision)

Output
1 s beam:
I

Output beam is a continuous plane polarized beam with constant power. Three
transitions are observed in He-Ne laser. They are
(a) 3s 3p this generates a wavelength 3.39 m in Infrared region
(b) 3s 2p this generates = 0.633 m in Red region
(c) 2s 2p this generates = 1.15 m in Infrared region
He-Ne laser can be made to oscillate on a particular transition. Thus it exhibits
wavelength selectivity.

Effective working of He-Ne laser:

He-Ne laser can be made to work effectively when the following conditions are satisified.
(1) (a) 2p atoms should not be excited by inelastic collision (with 1s atom)
(b) 2s atoms should not be de-excited to ground state
These conditions can be achieved by adjusting the current density to its
optimum value.

(2) The population of 1s level should be kept at minimum value.

156
 This is achieved by taking a tube of small diameter. Here the atoms collide with
the walls of tube and get depopulated.

(3) There is no energy transfer in the reverse direction (i.e. from Ne to He atoms).

He and Ne atoms are in the ratio 10:1 and Ne atoms are set at low pressure (0.1
torr) compared to He atoms. Thus this condition can be achieved.

Advantages of He-Ne laser:

(1) He Ne laser is a continuous laser beam with constant power.
(2) Since it is a gas laser, there is no imperfections or defects and hence it produces
highly monochromatic beam
(3) It produces plane polarized beam
(4) He-Ne laser exhibits wavelength selectivity.

157
 APPLICATION OF LASERS
Laser Welding:
Principle:
The ability of the laser beam to concentrate large power in a small region is used in this process.
Conventional Welding:
In this process, small metal parts can be welded. Here due to the generation of heat, the
material melts over a small area on which the heat is supplied.
The impurities in the materials float on the surface and upon cooling, the matter becomes
homogeneous solid structure which makes a joint.
Limitations:
a) The amount of heat input is very large.
b) Large area of the material may be melted
c) There may be destruction in the shape of the work pieces.

158
 d) Welding spots of the material cannot be located precisely.
Laser Welding:
In this process the spot to be welded is focussed by a laser beam as shown. The technique is
same as conventional method.

Laser Light

Welding
spot

Laser Welding

Advantages of Laser Welding:

Since the laser beam is highly intense and can be controlled to a great precision
the welding spots can be located precisely
No destruction occurs in the shape of the work piece
It is a contact less process & there is no contact between welded joint and foreign
material.
Type of laser used:
A high average power laser is preferred. Ex: NdYAG & CO2 lasers are used.

Laser Drilling:
Principle:
The ability of laser beam to concentrate large power in a small region is used in laser drilling.
Conventional drilling:
Drilling holes in material is a successful technique. But it has limitations.
Limitations:

This process is always accompanied by frequent breakage of drill bits

Precise location of the hole cannot be made

159
 This technique cannot be used to drill holes in very hard materials.
Laser Drilling:
Drilling is done with high power pulsed laser. The laser bam heat the metal to its boiling point
and vapour it or remove it by high pressure vapour.
The material vapourizes locally and a hole is made.
Advantages of Laser drilling:

Laser drilling technique can be used to drill small holes which are adjacent to
each other.
Precise location of the hole can be made
Drilling can be done in hardest substances.
Type of laser used:
NdYAG laser is used to drill holes in metals.
CO2 laser is used to drill holes both in metallic & non-metallic materials.
Laser Cutting:
Principle:
The ability of laser to concentrate large power in a small region is used in laser cutting.
Conventional Cutting:
Conventional cutting is used to cut different types of material. There are limitations.
Limitations:

The material along the cut should be removed.

This process is very expensive
It is a slow process
Laser cutting:
In this process, the material to be removed can be accomplished by melting & blowing out of
molten metal.
The efficiency of the laser cutting can be increased by making use of a gas jet coaxial with the
laser as shown.

Laser Light

Oxygen

160
 Laser Cutting

Advantages of Laser Cutting:

The gas jet used helps in expelling the molten material.

Two types of gases can be used to expel the material along the cut.
(a) Oxygen: This is used to cut stainless steel, low carbon steel
(b) Inert gases:This is efficient with materials which absorb most radiation at the
laser wavelength.
This is used to cut wood, paper plastic etc,.
It is a fast process
In this method, laser controls the accuracy of cutting and the cut edges will be of
very high quality.
Type of laser used: CO2 laser is used.

161
 Holography

Photography: It is a technique to get the image of the object. This method involves two
steps.
a) Recording of the image:
In this case the object is illuminated by sunlight (or flash light) & the
photographic plate or film in the camera detects this light energy & the image is
recorded.
The film on which the image is recorded is called the negative.
b) Developing:
In this process, the negative is developed to get the photograph using chemical
methods.

Limitations:
Photographic method produces two dimensional image of the object. Third dimension
cannot be obtained using this method.

Light waves are associated with two important parameters.

(1) Amplitude of the wave &
(2) Phase of the wave
During recording of the image, when flight falls on the object, the film or the photo detector
records only the amplitude component of the wave.
Since intensity is square on the amplitude, a 2-dimensional image is recorded.
Third dimension cannot be recorded because the film does not record the phase component of
the wave.
Features of Negative:
A negative contains 2D image. It contains only the amplitude component of the wave & not the
phase component. It records the whole image. It resembles the object.

162
Holography:
Holography means complete recording. In this technique 3D image can be obtained. In this
process the light wave which is incident on the object is made to interfere with the auxillary light
wave.
Since the amplitude of the resultant light wave depends on the relative phase of the original &
auxillary waves, the photo detector detects both amplitude & phase components of the wave.
The photo detector on which the image is recorded is called the Hologram.
Features of hologram:
It contains 3D image. It contains both amplitude & phase components of the wave. It records
the whole reflected light waves. It does not resemble the object.
Principle of holography:
Principle of holography can be explained in two steps.
(1) Recording of the image: (or construction of the hologram):
Prinicple:
This process is based on interference of light waves.

Procedure or Arrangement:
Division of wavefront method:
Here the given object and the mirror are placed one next to each other as shown.

When laser beam is directed on this arrangement, a part of the beam is incident on
the mirror and the other part is incident on the object as shown.
Laser Beam
mirror

object Object beam

Photographic
plate

163
A photographic plate is placed in such a position that it receives the light reflected
from both mirror & the object.

The light reflected from the mirror and incident on the plate is called reference
beam. The light incident on the plate from the object is called the object beam.

These two beams superimpose to form an interference pattern which is recorded

on the plate.

The interference pattern:

The reference beam from the mirror is in the form of plane wavefront. When a
part of laser beam is incident on the object, every point on the object scatters the
incident light and thus spherical wave-fronts are produced. A part of the spherical
wave front which falls on the plate is called object beam.

Thus there is interference between spherical waves of the object beam and plane
waves of reference beam.

Thus the interference pattern consists of circular rings called as Gabor zone plates
as shown.

Since each point on the object generates its own zone plate, recording consists of
number of zone plates; the centre of each zone is slightly displaced from the
other.

The plate with the recorded interference pattern is developed. This developed
plate is called hologram.

Thus a hologram is constructed using interference. This hologram contains all the
information about the object.

Interference pattern can also be recorded using Division of amplitude method by

using beam splitter.

164
(2) Reconstruction of the image:
Principle:
This is based on diffraction of waves.

Procedure or Arrangement:
In this method, the original laser beam or another laser beam of same wavelength
is directed on the hologram in the same direction as reference beam while
recording.

This beam is called Read out wave. The read out wave interacts with the
interference pattern & thus diffraction takes place.

In this case, the hologram acts as diffraction grating and thus because of the
constructive interference, two images are produced by the diffracted waves on
either side of hologram as shown. These images are called as Virtual & Real
images.

165
 Virtual Image:
This image is a 3 dimensional image. It is formed at the same position as the
object. This image is seen by looking through the hologram as if it were a
window. It contains all the information about the object and is superior in quality.

Real image:
It is a 3 dimensional image. It is formed on the other side of the hologram. It is
inverted in depth. This image also contains all information about the object but is
inferior in quality. This image is called Pseudoscopic image.

Characteristic features of holography:

(1) The virtual image produced by a hologram is a 3D image.
(2) Data storage: Destruction of a portion of photographic image results in the loss of
information corresponding to that portion of the object. But destruction of a part
of a hologram does not erase a specific portion of the image. This is because each
point on the hologram receives light from all parts of the object & contains
information & each part of the hologram can reproduce the entire image.
(3) High information capacity: Super position of several images on a photographic
plate is not possible. A hologram may contain a number of consecutively recorded
scenes that can be recorded independently. Different scenes can be recorded on a
hologram each time changing the angle at which the reference wave is incident on
the plate which can be done by rotating the plate. Reconstruction of a specific
scene requires the proper orientation of the hologram w.r.t image.

166
KEY WORDS:
LASER is as an Acronym for light amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation.
The characteristic features of laser are directionality, intensity,
monochromaticity and coherence.
Interaction of radiation with matter can occur in two ways absorption and
emission. Emission can be spontaneous or stimulated.
Absorption is a process in which the system (atom) absorbs an incident photon
and makes a transition from lower energy state to a higher energy state.
Condition for absorption : = (E2-E1)/h.
Spontaneous emission is a process in which the atom makes a transition from
higher energy state to lower energy state spontaneously and emits a photon.
The photons emitted are in coherent.
Stimulated emission is a process in which the atom under the influence of a
photon of right energy makes a transition from higher energy state to lower
energy state and emits a photon. The photons emitted are coherent and these
constitute a laser beam.
The Einsteins coefficients are A21, B12 and B21.
In any system the rate of any process (Absorption and emission) can be given by
Rate of absorption RA = B12N1U . Rate of spontaneous emission RSp = A21N2 and
Rate of stimulated emission RSt = B21N2U .
According to Einsteins theory, B12 = B21 ie induced absorption and induced
emission have the same probability and also laser emission is not possible in
ordinary condition.

The energy density of incident radiation is given by u =

Laser action is a process in which coherent photons are emitted by stimulated

emission. The basic condition for laser action is population inversion.

167
 Population inversion is the basic condition for laser action. It is the state of a
system in which the upper levels are more populated than the lower levels. P.I
= N2 > N1.
The basic requirement for population inversion is a system with a metastable
state ie a system having atleast 3 energy levels.
The basic components or requirements for a laser system are energy source,
active medium and optical resonator or optical cavity.
He-Ne laser is a four level gas laser. The active medium is He-Ne mixture in the
ratio 10 : 1. The principle used in He-Ne laser is energy exchange. Energy is
transferred from He to Ne atoms.
He-Ne laser is a continuous, plane polarized and highly monochromatic beam.
The mechanical applications of laser are laser welding, laser cutting and laser
drilling.
In laser welding, the welding spots can be located precisely and is a contact less
process.
Laser drilling can be used to drill small holes that are adjacent to each other and
it can be done in hardest substances.
Laser cutting is a very fast process and laser controls the accuracy of cutting and
the cut edges will be of very high quality.
Photography is a technique to get the image of the object. It has two steps :
Recording of the image and developing. This technique produces only two
dimensional image of the object.
In photography, the film on which the image is recorded is called negative which
contains 2d image. It contains only the amplitude component of the wave and
not the phase component.
Holography is a technique in which 3d image of the object can be obtained. It
means complete recording. It has two steps: Recording of the image and
Reconstruction of image.
In holography the photo detector on which the image is recorded is called
hologram. This contains 3d image and contains both amplitude and phase
components of the wave. It records the whole reflected light waves.
Recording of image is the construction of a hologram. This is based on
interference of light waves. In this case the interference pattern obtained
consists of circular rings called Gabor zone plates. The photographic plate with
the recorded interference pattern is developed and this forms hologram.
Reconstruction of the image is based on diffraction of waves. In this case the
hologram acts as a diffraction grating and produces two images: virtual and real.
Virtual image is a 3d image and superior in quality. But real image is a 3d image
inferior in quality.

168
 The important characteristics of holography are virtual image (3d image), data
storage and high information capacity.

Important questions:
1. What is Laser? Explain the characteristic features of Laser.

2. Explain the interaction of radiation with matter.

3. Explain Absorption, Spontaneous emission, and Stimulated emission.

4. What is laser action? Explain the condition for Laser action.

5. What is Population Inversion? Explain the need of population inversion for lasing
action.

6. Define the terms: Spontaneous emission, Stimulated emission, population

inversion.

7. Explain the requisites of a Laser system

8. Obtain an expression for energy density of incident radiation using Einsteins

coefficients.

9. Discuss the construction of He-Ne laser and components used.

10. Explain the construction and working of He-Ne laser with energy level diagram.

11. Explain the working of He-Ne laser with energy level diagram

12. What are the advantages of the He-Ne laser

13. Explain Laser Welding, laser drilling, and laser cutting.

14. What is holography?

15. Explain recording and reconstruction of image in holography with the help of
suitable diagrams.

Problems:
1. A He-Ne laser is emitting a laser beam with an average power of 4.5 mw.
Find the number of photons emitted per second by the Laser. The
wavelength of emitted radiation is 6328 Ao.

169
 Given : = 6328 Ao = 6328x10-10 m
P = 4.5 mw = 4.5 x 10-3 w
N=?
By Plancks equation E = h = E

.. E = hc/ =

.. Energy difference E = 3.143 x 10-19 J

Power output = N x E

.. N = P/E = = 1.43 x 1016

.. no. of photons emitted = 1.43 x 1016

2. A laser medium at thermal equilibrium temperature 300K has two energy

levels with a wavelength separation of 1m. Find the ratio of population
densities of the upper and lower levels.
Given : T = 300K
= 10-6m
N2/N1 = ?
Using Boltzmann law,

N 2 / N1 =

.. N2/ N1 = =

.. N2/ N1 = 1.365 x 10-21

.. Ratio of Population densities = 1.365 x 10-21

3. The ratio of population of two energy levels is 1.059X10-30. Find the

wavelength of light emitted at 300K
Given: N2/ N1 = 1.059x10-30

170
 T = 300K
=?
Using Boltzmann law,

N2/ N1 =

.. ln =-

.. =

.. = 696 nm

171
172
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
UNIT 3 : OPTICAL FIBERS
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
OPTICAL FIBERS

An optical fiber is a wave guide for light rays.

These fibers are transparent dielectric materials.
The fibers guide visible and infrared light over long distances.

Light Propagation through the fiber (Or fiber as a wave guide)

An optical fiber propagates light rays.
The basic principle involved in the propagation is total internal reflection.
When a ray of light traveling from an optically denser medium into an optically rarer medium is
incident at an angle greater than the critical angle then the ray is totally reflected back into the
medium. This phenomenon is known as Total Internal Reflection (TIR).
Condition for Total Internal Reflection
Consider a ray travelling from a denser medium to a rarer medium as shown.

n2 r o
r = 90

i i=c i>c

n1

Let the refractive indices of the two media be n1 and n2 respectively.

173
Let i and r be the angle of incidence and angle of refraction.
Let c be the critical angle.
According to Snells law
n1 sin i = n2 sinr
At TIR, i = c and r = 900

n1 sin c = n2 sin 90 .. n1 sin c = n2

.. sin c = n2/ n1

or c = sin-1 n2/ n1
This is the condition for TIR.

Construction
An optical fiber consists of three regions or layers.
The inner region is called the core which is made of transparent dielectric material like
glass or plastic.
The core region is surrounded by a middle region called as cladding made of plastic or glass.
The refractive index of cladding is always lower than that of core (n1>n2).

Light rays

Sheath
Core (n1) Cladding (n2)

The outermost region is called Sheath or Jacket. The Sheath protects the core and cladding form
moisture, contamination and it gives the mechanical strength of fiber.

Refracted ray (r )
Total internal reflection
Cladding (n2)

Core (n1)

i
Axis of the fiber

Incident ray

Optical fibers are either made as a single fiber or a flexible bundle or cable. A bundle fiber is a
number of fibers in a single jacket.
Light Propagation (Fiber as a wave guide)

174
Light from a source enters one end of the fiber. As it travels through the core, it strikes the
interface of the core and the cladding at large angles of incidence. Since, n1>n2, the ray will
suffer TIR at the interface. Thus, light is guided through the core due to repeated Total Internal
Reflection and thus, fiber can act as a wave guide.
Since, each reflection is a Total Internal Reflection, the light signal sustains its strength and
confines itself completely within the core during the course of propagation.
Propagation of light through fiber
The main function of the optical fiber is to accept maximum light and transmit the same with
minimum attenuation.
Light gathering ability of a fiber depends on two factors-
(a) Core Size
(b) Numerical aperture
Numerical aperture of fiber is determined by acceptance angle and fractional refractive index
change.
Expression for acceptance angle or numerical aperture
Consider an optical fiber through which light is being sent. The end at which light enters is called
Launching end. Let the refractive indices of the core and cladding be n1 & n2 respectively. Here
n2<n1. Let the refractive index of the medium through which light is launched be n0.
Let the light beam enter at an angle w.r.t the axis of the fiber. The ray gets refracted at an angle
r and strikes the core cladding interface at an angle . For an angle more than critical angle c,
light will undergo total internal reflection. The ray will undergo total internal reflection at
interface as n1>n2 i.e. so long as >critical angle c, light will stay within the fiber.
Applying Snells Law to the launching end of the fiber,

.. sin i = sin r

From the fig. angle r = 90 .. sin r = sin (90 ) = cos

.. sin r = ---------- (1)

The largest value of i occurs when = c

i.e. when i = i max, = c
Substituting this in eqn (1) , we get,

175
sin imax = ---------- (2)

Applying Snells law at the interface,

n1 sinc = n2 sin 90

.. sin c =

.. cos c = = =

Substituting this in eqn (2)

Sin imax = x =

When incident ray is launched from air medium & let imax =0

.. sin o = or o =

This angle o is called the Acceptance angle of the fiber. Acceptance angle is defined as the
maximum angle that a light ray can have relative to the axis of the fiber and propagate down the
fiber.
Condition for Propagation:
The light rays contained within the cone having a full angle 2 o are accepted and transmitted
along the fiber. The cone is called the Acceptance cone. The greater the diameter of the core,
the larger the acceptance angle.
Thus the ray is propagated through the fiber if the angle of incidence is less than angle of
acceptance o.
Numerical aperture:
Numerical aperture (NA) is defined as the sine of angle of acceptance.

.. NA = sin o =

Numerical aperture accounts for the light gathering ability of the fiber and it measures the
amount of light accepted by the fiber.
NA ranges between 0.13 to 0.50.
Larger value of NA means that the fiber can accept more light from the source.

Fractional refractive index change:

176
The fractional difference between the refractive indices of the core & the cladding is called the
Fractional Refractive Index Change.
It is expressed as,

This is always positive as n1>n2

In order to guide light rays effectively through a fiber <<1. Typical value of =0.01
Expression for NA in terms of :
By definition,

NA = sin o = (Here no = 1)

But

Divide and multiply by 2n1

..n12 n22 = (n1+n2)/2 +(n1-n2)/n1

Here and (n1-n2)/n1 =

.. = = 2n12

.. NA = = =

.. NA =

Modes of Propagation:
In an optical fiber light travels as an electromagnetic waves and all the waves moving in
directions above the critical angle will be trapped in the fiber due to total internal reflections.
But all these waves do not propagate through the fiber.
Only certain ray directions are allowed for propagation.
These allowed directions correspond to modes of the fiber.
Thus modes are number of paths of light in an optical fiber. The modes are the light ray paths
along which the waves are in phase.

177
Number of modes in a fiber:
A fiber can support one or many modes of propagation.
The number of modes in a fiber can be calculated using a parameter called V-number or
normalized frequency of the fiber.
V number is given by

V= or V = here a is the radius of the core, is the free space

wavelength and NA is the numerical aperture.
The number of modes (Nm) supported by the fiber is given by
Nm = 1/2V2

The wavelength corresponding to value V=2.405 is called Cutoff wavelength of the fiber.
If V < 2.405 fiber can support only one mode
If V > 2.405 fiber can support many modes of propagation.
Types of fibers:
Classification of fibers:
Fibers can be classified on the basis of the modes of fibers and index profile.
Modes are number of paths of light in an optical fiber.
A fiber can support either one or many modes of propagation.
The number of modes supported by a fiber can be calculated using a parameter called V-
number.
Refractive Index Profile:
It is a graph of refractive index (along X-axis) and distance from the core (along Y-axis).
Index profile can be either step index type or graded index type.
Types of fibers:
Fibers can be of three types. They are:
1. Single mode step index fiber
2. Multimode step index fiber
3. Multimode graded index fiber

1. Single mode step index fiber:

This is generally known as SMF.

178
 An SMF consists of a very fine thin core of uniform refractive index surrounded
by a cladding of refractive index lower than that of core.
The core diameter is very small
The V-number < 2.405. Hence it can support only one mode of propagation.

Path of light rays:

Light travels along a single path i.e. along the axis only as shown.

Cladding

Core

Thus zero order mode is supported by SMF.

Index profile:
The index profile for SMF is as shown.

From the fig.,

The refractive index is uniform throughout the core & uniform throughout
cladding.
But it abruptly changes at the core and cladding interface.
Thus it is called Step index fiber.
Usually SMF has a very small value of . ( 0.002)
SMF needs lasers as source of light and they are used for long distance communication.
2. Multimode step index fiber:
This is generally known as MMF.
It is very much similar to SMF.
But it has a large core diameter. Core diameter is very large compared to the
wavelength of transmitted light.

179
 Modes of fiber:
The V-number is > 2.406. thus it supports many modes of propagation. Hence it is
called Multimode fiber.

Path of light rays:

Light travels along a zig-zag path in MMF as shown

Index profile:
The index profile for MMF is as shown.

The refractive index is uniform throughout the core

But it abruptly changes at the core-cladding interface
Thus it is called Step Index Fiber.
The numerical aperture (NA) of MMF is large as core diameter is large (NA 0.3).
MMF can use LED as light source. But they cannot be used over long distance
communication.
3. Graded Index Multimode Fiber:
This is generally called GRIN.
The core diameter is very large as compared to the wavelength of the transmitted
light.

180
 The V-number is > 2.405. Thus it can support many modes of propagation &
hence it is called Multimode fiber.
Index profile:
The index profile of GRIN is as shown.

The refractive index is not uniform throughout the core.

It is highest at the center of the core and decreases with increasing radial
distance from the axis
But the refractive index of the cladding remains constant.
Thus this is called Graded Index Fiber.

Path of light rays:

The index profile causes typical periodic focussing of the light moving through the fiber.

In case of GRIN, acceptance angle & NA decreases with increase of radial distance from
the axis.
NA is given by

NA =

Where r is the radial distance from the axis.

GRIN can use either laser or LED as source of light.
It is the most expensive fiber.

181
182
 Optical Communication
(Basic Point-to-Point Communication)
Optical fiber communication is the transmission of information (signal) by propagation of optical
signal through optical fibers over the required distance.
Features of Optical Communication:
The main features are very large information transmission capacity, large repeater spacing and
greater band width.
Principle:
The basic principle involved in the optical communication is to convert a non-electrical or
electrical message to an optical signal at the transmitting end, transmission of this optical signal
through optical fibers to the receiving end and converting the optical signal back to input signal
at the receiving end.
Point-to-Point Communication:

Optical fiber

amplifier
electrical

Coder Optical Photo decoder

detector
transmitter
Output
Input signal
pulses
signal

Transmitting end Receiving end

Transmitting End:
At the transmitting end, the information to be transmitted will be in the form of an analog signal
such as voice of a telephone user.
The input signal is fed onto coder.
Coder:
Coder is a drive circuit. This converts the input signal to binary data. The binary data consists of
electrical pulses.
Optical transmitter:
The binary data is fed into an optical transmitter. This consists of a light source such as laser
diode or LED. When the electrical pulses are fed onto this source, light waves whose intensity is
proportional to the current (of electrical signal) are generated.

183
Thus electrical pulses are converted into optical pulses by modulating the light waves.

Optical fiber:
The optical pulses are then fed onto the optical fiber.
These signals are transmitted through the fiber to the receiving end.
During transmission of the optical signal over large distance, attenuation & delay distortion may
arise because of various losses and dispersion in the fiber.
Attenuation is the reduction in the strength of the signal because of loss of optical power due to
absorption and scattering of photons.
Delay distortion is the reduction in the quality of signal because of pulse spreading with time.
To overcome attenuation and delay distortion repeaters are used in the transmission lines which
will amplify and reshape the signal.
Receiving End:
Optical coupler:
At the receiving end, an optical coupler is used to direct the light coming from the fiber into a
photo detector .
Photo detector:
The photo detector converts the light pulses into electrical pulses (binary data) which will
contain the message fed onto the fiber.
Decoder:
The pulses are fed onto decoder which converts the binary data into the analog signal (which is
the original signal at the transmitted end).
Thus output signal is received at the receiving end.
Attenuation (losses in fiber)
An optical signal passing through a fiber will get progressively reduced. This reduction in signal is
called Attenuation.
Attenuation is defined as the ratio of the optical output power from a fiber of length L to the
input optical power.
It is expressed in terms of (dB/km)

Attenuation co-efficient = ..dBKm-1

Where P1 is the power of the signal at the launching end and P2 is the power of the signal at the
receiving end.

184
Fiber losses can be classified into two categories.
(a) Bonding losses (Radiation losses):
These losses are due to the distortion of the fiber from the ideal straight line
configuration.

A fiber can have two types of bends macro bends and micro bends
Macro bends are large bends. Whenever a fiber bends (macro bends) a part of the
mode inside the fiber may have to travel at velocities greater than that of light in
the cladding to maintain plane wave front.
Since this is not possible, this portion of the mode must be radiated away.
The bends with radii of curvature of the order of magnitude of the fiber radius
will give rise to heavy losses. But the mechanical properties of the fiber usually
cause the fiber to break long before such bends can be achieved. Thus losses from
macrobends tend to be very small.

Micro bends are continuous succession of small deformation.

This is caused when a fiber is pressed up against a surface which is not perfectly
smooth as shown.

These bends can be caused when a fiber is pressed against a jacket or wound
tightly on a drum.
Micro bends produce heavy losses.

(b) Intrinsic fiber losses:

These losses are inherent in the fiber itself.

This can occur due to two sources.

(1) Scattering Losses:

Fibers are usually made of glass which may have disordered structure. This
disorder may be either structural or compositional in origin.

185
 In structural disorder, the same basic molecular units are present throughout
the material but these are connected in a random way.

In compositional disorder the exact chemical composition varies from place to

place.

Because of the disorder, the refractive index fluctuates throughout the

material.

If the scale of these fluctuations is of the order /10 or less, each irregularity
acts as a scattering center & this scattering is called Rayleigh Scattering.

This scattering gives rise to an absorption coefficient which varies as -4.

(2) Absorption Losses:

These losses arise in the visible and near infrared regions due to the presence
of impurities particularly traces of transition metal ions (Eg Fe3+, Cu2+, or
hydroxyl ions (OH -) )

Advantages of Optical Communication (over conventional communication system):

(1) The main features of optical communication are very large information capacity,
large repeater spacing and greater bandwidth.
(2) Fibers are made of dielectric materials and they are totally immune to interfering
electromagnetic signals.
(3) There is no signal leakage from the fibers and so there is no cross talks between
neighbouring fibers.
(4) These fibers do not pick up line currents and are immune to electromagnetic
interference.
So they can be safely used in power station and can be laid alongside metallic
power cables.
(5) These fiber cables are smaller in size and occupy less space compared to
conventional cables.
(6) The raw material used in the fabrication of fibers is Silica which abundantly
available in nature and thus it is inexpensive.

186
KEY WORDS:
An optical fiber is a wave guide for light rays.
The basic principle involved in the propagation of light rays through an
optical fiber is the total internal reflection (TIR). The condition for TIR is
given by c = sin-1 (n2/n1). Where c is the critical angle and n1 , n2 are the
refractive indices.
An optical fiber consists of two regions or layers core and cladding. For
light propagation n1> n2 where n1 is the refractive index of the core and n2
is the refractive index of the cladding.
Acceptance angle o of the fiber is defined as the maximum angle that a
light ray can have relative to the axis of the fiber and propagate down the
fiber. It is given by o = / n0.
The ray can be propagated through the fiber if the angle of incidence of
the ray is less than the angle of acceptance. All the light rays contained
within the cone having a full angle 2 o are accepted and transmitted along
the fiber. This is the condition for propagation.
Numerical aperture (NA) is defined as the sine of angle of acceptance.
NA = Sin o =(n12- n22)/n0. NA measures the amount of light accepted by
the fiber.
Fractional refractive index change = ((n12- n22)/n0- n2)/n1. NA is given
by NA =
n1 2 .
Modes are the ray directions, which are allowed for propagation in a fiber.
These are number of paths of light in a fiber.
V-number is given by V = or V =
. The number of modes in the fiber is given by Nm = V2/2.
Fibers are of three types : Single mode step index fiber, multimode step
index fiber and multimode graded index fiber.
Single mode step index fiber (SMF) has very small value of , needs laser
as source and used for long distance communication.
Multimode step index fiber (MMF) has a very large core diameter, large
NA and uses LED as light source.
Graded index multimode fiber (GRIN) has large core diameter. It can use
laser or LED as source of light and most expensive fiber.
Optical fiber communication is the transmission of information (signal) by
propagation of optical signal through optical fibers over the required
distance.

187
 The basic components (parts) used in point-to-point communication are
coder, optical transmitter at the transmitting end and photo detector,
amplifier and decoder at the received end.
Attenuation is defined as the ratio of the optical output power from a fiber of
length L to the input optical power.

Attenuation co-efficient = ..dBKm-1

Fiber losses can be classified into two categories : (1) Bending

losses(which includes microbends and macrobends). (2) Intrinsic fiber
losses (This includes scattering losses and absorption losses).
Advantages of optical communication are - Greater bandwidth, immune
to electromagnetic interference, no signal leakage, no picking up of line
currents, smaller in size and cheap raw material.

Important questions :
1. What is optical fiber? Explain the principle on which the optical fiber works.

2. Explain light propagation through an optical fiber and discuss the condition for
propagation.

3. What is numerical aperture? Derive an expression for numerical aperture in terms

of refractive indices of core and cladding

4. Define Numerical Aperture, angle of acceptance, Fractional refractive index

change

5. Explain the different types of fiber and modes of propagation.

6. What is optical communication? Explain the advantages of optical communication

over conventional types of communication.

7. Explain point-to-point communication using block diagram

8. Explain attenuation in optical fibers.

Problems:
(1) An optical fiber has a core material with refractive index 1.55 and its
cladding material has a refractive index of 1.50. The light is launched into it

188
 in air. Calculate its numerical aperture, the acceptance angle, and also the
fractional index change.

Given : n1 = 1.55
n2 = 1.50
n0 = (for air) = 1
NA = ? 0 = ?
By definition,

NA = = = 0.39

Angle of acceptance,
Sin 0 = NA .. sin 0 = 0.39
0 = = 33o

Fractional refractive index change

= = = 0.032

(2) The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 30o when kept in air. Find the
angle of acceptance when it is in a medium of refractive index 1.33

Given: 0 = 30o
0 1 = ?
n01 = 1.33

By definition,

sin 0 =

..

..

189
 .. = 0.5

In the medium, sin 0 1 =

.. sin 0 1 =

.. 0 1 = = 22o

(3) Find the attenuation in an optical fiber of length 500m. When a light signal of
power 100 mW emerges out of the fiber with a power 90mW

Given: L = 500 m = 0.5 Km

P in = 100 mW = 100 x 10 -3 W
P out = 90 mW = 90 x 10-3 W

By definition,
Attenuation coefficient,

= 0.915 dB km-1

.. = 0.915 dB Km-1

190
191
Important Questions:
9. What is Superconductivity?

10. Compare the dependence of resistivity on temperature of a super conductor with

that of a metal.

11. Explain the important features of Super conductors.

12. Explain Meissner Effect.

13. Explain Type-1 and Type-II Super conductors

14. Explain BCS theory of Superconductivity

15. Discuss Super conducting magnet

16. What are SQUIDS and Maglev vehicles?

17. What is SQUID? Discuss the construction and working of a SQUID

18. What is optical fiber? Explain the principle on which the optical fiber works.

19. Explain light propagation through an optical fiber and discuss the condition for
propagation.

20. What is numerical aperture? Derive an expression for numerical aperture in terms
of refractive indices of core and cladding

21. Define Numerical Aperture, angle of acceptance, Fractional refractive index

change

22. Explain the different types of fiber and modes of propagation.

23. What is optical communication? Explain the advantages of optical communication

over conventional types of communication.

24. Explain point-to-point communication using block diagram

25. Explain attenuation in optical fibers

192
Problems:
(4) An optical fiber has a core material with refractive index 1.55 and its
cladding material has a refractive index of 1.50. The light is launched into it
in air. Calculate its numerical aperture, the acceptance angle, and also the
fractional index change.

Given : n1 = 1.55
n2 = 1.50
n0 = (for air) = 1
NA = ? 0 = ?
By definition,

NA = = = 0.39

Angle of acceptance,
Sin 0 = NA .. sin 0 = 0.39
0 = = 33o

Fractional refractive index change

= = = 0.032

(5) The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 30o when kept in air. Find the
angle of acceptance when it is in a medium of refractive index 1.33

193
Given: 0 = 30o
0 1 = ?
n01 = 1.33

By definition,

sin 0 =

..

..

.. = 0.5

In the medium, sin 0 1 =

.. sin 0 1 =

.. 0 1 = = 22o

(6) Find the attenuation in an optical fiber of length 500m. When a light signal of
power 100 mW emerges out of the fiber with a power 90mW

Given: L = 500 m = 0.5 Km

P in = 100 mW = 100 x 10 -3 W
P out = 90 mW = 90 x 10-3 W

By definition,
Attenuation coefficient,

194
 =

= 0.915 dB km-1

.. = 0.915 dB Km-1

195
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

UNIT 4: SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Resistivity of a metal:

All metals or normal conductors have loosely bound electrons called valence electrons which
move under the influence of an electric field and constitute current.

The atoms become positive ions and due to the thermal excitation, these ions oscillate about
their fixed positions and these are called Lattice Vibrations which scatter electrons.

When the temperature is lowered the thermal vibrations of the atoms decrease and the
conduction electrons are less scattered. Since the resistance of a metal is due to scattering of
electrons, the resistance also decreases.

For a perfectly pure metal, where the electron motion is only due to thermal vibrations of the
lattice, the resistivity should approach zero as temperature is reduced towards 0K.

But any real specimen of metal cannot be perfectly pure and will contain some impurities. Thus
the electrons in addition to being scattered by thermal vibrations of the lattice atoms are
scattered by the impurities.

The resistance of any metal is given by Matthiessens rule.

= o + (T)

196
where o is the residual resistivity caused by impurity scattering which is independent of
temperature. (T) is the resistivity due to lattice vibrations which is dependent on temperature.

When temperature is lowered, though (T) approaches zero towards 0K, the residual resistivity
remains.

The temperature dependence of resistivity ( ) of a metal is as shown.

Impure

o
Pure

0 T

Superconductivity:
When the temperature of any metal is decreased, the resistance decreases but attains low
constant value nearing absolute zero (This is because of residual resistivity).
But certain metals show very remarkable behaviour. When these metals are cooled, their
electrical resistance decreases in the usual way but on reaching a temperature few degrees
above absolute (zero) they suddenly loose resistivity i.e. the resistivity becomes zero.
This phenomenon of zero resistivity or infinite conductivity attained by certain metals when
they are cooled to a temperature nearing absolute zero is called Superconductivity.
The temperature at which the material undergoes transition from normal state to super-
conducting state is called critical temperature or Transition temperature ( Tc).
The metals which exhibit this property are called superconductors. Ex: Hg, Pb, Zn, Al, etc.
The temperature dependence of resistance of a superconductor is as shown.

0 Tc
T

197
Properties of Super Conductors (Features):

i. A superconductor is a material having zero resistivity or infinite conductivity.

ii. A super conducting state is reversible. When temperature is lowered, the metal
attains superconducting state at Tc. When the temperature is increased, the super
conductor attains normal state above Tc.

iii. A superconductor is a perfect diamagnetic material. If a superconductor is cooled

in a magnetic field below Tc then at the transition temperature, magnetic fluxes
are pushed out as shown.

S.C.

H
iv. Effect of magnetic field
When a strong magnetic field is applied to a super conductor, the super
conductivity disappears or it is converted to a normal conductor at a particular
field strength.
This field at which the super conductivity disappears is called Critical field
strength Hc.

The critical field is a function of temperature and obeys a parabolic law

Hc = Ho { 1

Where Ho is the critical field at absolute zero & Tc is the critical temperature.

The above equation defines a curve which divides the normal region of the field
temperature diagram of the metal from the super conducting region.

The dependence of critical field w.r.t temperature is as shown.

198
 Ho
Normal state
Magnetic
field Hc
Superconduct
ing state

0 Tc

Temp T

The critical field curve shows that the magnetic energy required to raise the
electrons of a material from the superconducting to the normal state is very less
than that required to normalize the super conducting state by thermal energy.

This can be explained using quantum electronic model of a metal.

v. Critical current:

The magnetic field which causes a superconductor to become normal from a super
conducting state is not necessarily by an external applied field, it may arise as a
result of electric current flow in the conductor.

The minimum current flowing in a super conductor (which does not destroy super
conductivity) is called Critical current Ic.

Ic = 2r (Hc 2H)

where r is the radius of the wire.

vi. A metal has residual resistivity even at very low temperature. Thus the current in
a metal decreases with time.

199
 But a super conductor has zero resistivity and thus the current does not decrease
with time.

vii. Josephsons Effect:

A super current flows across an insulating gap between two super conductors
provided the gap is small. This is called Josephsons effect.

viii. Isotope Effect:

It has been observed that the critical temperature of super conductors varies with
isotopic mass.

According to BCS theory, the isotopic mass can enter in the process of the
formation of the superconducting phase of the electron states (Cooper pairs)
only through the electron phonon electron interaction.

According to BCS theory, the critical temperature obeys a simple law Tc M-

or

Tc M = constant. This is called Isotopic Law.

ix. Energy gap:

Energy gap exists in super conductors. In semi conductor the energy gap is
attached to the Fermi gap. The gap prevents the flow of current.

But in super conductor, the gap is tied to the lattice. The current flows in spite of
the presence of gap.

x. Entropy:

Entropy is a measure of disorder of a system. In all super conductors the entropy

decreases on cooling below the critical temperature. The observed decrease in
entropy between the normal state & the super conducting state shows that the
superconducting state is more ordered than the normal state.

xi. Super conductivity normally occurs for substances whose number of valence
electrons z lies between 2 and 8.

Meissner Effect:

The expulsion of magnetic flux from the interior of the superconductor as the material
undergoes transition to the superconducting phase in the presence of the magnetic field is
called Meissner Effect.

200
At the transition temperature, the specimen spontaneously becomes perfectly diamagnetic
cancelling all flux inside even though it is cooled in a magnetic field.

Meissner effect shows that a super conductor is a special type of resistance less metal and it is
perfect diamagnetic material.

Special resistance less metal:

According to Meissner superconductors are special resistance less metals.

When a resistance less metal is cooled in the absence of magnetic field, it acquires zero
resistivity below Tc & magnetic field is applied & removed, there is no flux density inside it. But if
this cooled in the presence of the magnetic field & then the field is removed, there is some flux
density inside the material.

But when a superconductor is cooled either in the presence or absence of the magnetic field
there is no flux density inside it.

This shows that inside a resistance less metal there may or may not be flux density depending
on the circumstances but a superconductor never allows a magnetic flux density to exist in its
interior i.e B = 0 (in any circumstance).

Thus a super conductor is a special resistance less metal in which B is always zero.

Magnetic behavior of a super conductor:

Resistance less metal Superconductor

Cooled in mag
Cooled (in ,mag cooled
cooled field
field)

=0
=0 =0
=0

H H H H

B0
B=0

H
H
B=0 B=0

Perfect diamagnetism:

201
When an external magnetic field is applied to a super conductor, the flux do not enter the
material & thus for a superconductor B=0.

By definition, the magnetization M =

Since B=0, M= - H

This shows that the magnetization produced is equal & opposite to the applied field.

The susceptibility , = M/H (by definition)

.. , = -H/H = -1.

This is the maximum value for diamagnetic susceptibility & hence a super conductor is a perfect
diamagnetic material.

Types of superconductors:

Super conductors are classified into Type-I & Type-II based on their perfect diamagnetic
property.

1) Type-1 superconductors:

These are known as Soft superconductors.

Magnetisation Curve:

The magnetization curve for Type-I super conductor is as shown.

-M

Normal
state
S.C

O Hc
H

202
 From the graph,

a) The transition from S.C. state to normal state is sudden

b) It is a perfect diamagnetic material

c) It has a critical field Hc at which the transition takes place

d) It exhibits complete Meissner Effect.

The magnetic field can penetrate only the surface layer & current can only flow in this
layer.

The critical field Hc is relatively low for these super conductors & hence they cannot be
used for the coils of strong electromagnets.

Example of Type-1 superconductors: Al, Pb etc.

2) Type II Superconductors:

These are called as hard superconductors. The magnetization curve is as shown.

From the graph,

203
 a) Transition from superconducting to normal state is gradual.

b) The material has two critical fields lower critical field Hc1 & upper critical
field Hc2

c) The material behaves like a perfect diamagnetic material below Hc1

d) At Hc2 the material attains normal state

e) Between Hc1 & Hc2 the material is in a mixed state called vertex state.
The material is in a magnetically mixed state but electrically it is a super
conductor.

These super conductors can carry large currents when the magnetic field is between
Hc1& Hc2. These materials behave as though they consist of filaments of normal & of
superconducting matter mixed together.
Type II super conductors are used in the application of creating very high magnetic
fields.

Example of Type II super conductors: Transition metals & alloys of niobium vanadium
etc

BCS Theory:

Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer theory explains super conductivity phenomenon.

Basis for the theory:

Super conductors have energy gap & zero resistivity.

This shows that the electrons in a super conductor should be in a bound state. This is
because existence of energy gap shows lowering of energy & thus two electrons should
attract & form a bound state.

This type of interaction is called electron-phonon-electron interaction.

Electron-Phonon-Electron Interaction (E-P-E interaction):

In a metal, suppose an electron approaches a positive ion core, there is attraction & due
to this attraction the ion core is set into motion & distorts the lattice. This lattice
distortion is called Phonon.

Suppose another electron approaches this distorted lattice, again there is attraction.
There is an interaction between two electrons via the phonon field & the energy of the
electrons decreases.

204
The lowering of electron energy implies that the force between the two electrons is
attractive.

This type of interaction is called Electron-Phonon-Electron interaction & it occurs in all

metals.

But since the coulomb repulsion is very large, this interaction is a weak type of
interaction.

In a super conductor, this interaction is maximum & overcomes the coulomb repulsion
between the electrons.

Maximum E.P.E interaction:

In a super conductor, this interaction is strongest and maximum & thus electrons are in
the bound state. This is because the electrons have opposite spin & momenta & the
phonons are virtual phonons.

Virtual phonons: in metals, the phonons are regarded as thermal phonons which are
stimulated by temperature.

In case of super conductors, the distortion of the lattice is a short-lived phenomenon &
phonons are treated as Virtual phonons.

In this phenomenon, an electron of wave vector k1 emits a phonon q which is absorbed

by an electron of wave vector k2. k1 is scattered as k1-q and k2 as k2 + q as shown.
q
K1 - q K2 + q

K1 K2

Thus the interaction is regarded as constant emission and absorption of phonons.

The two electrons now are in bound state and form a pair called Cooper pair.
The difference in energy of the two states appears as energy gap at the Fermi surface.
Energy gap is a function of temperature. It is maximum at 0K (when T = 0K). It is zero
when T = Tc.
Cooper Pair:
Cooper pairs are in condensed state with a definite phase coherence. At critical
temperature this coherence disappears & the pairs are broken.
Cooper pairs are not scattered because of their peculiar property of smoothly riding
over the lattice imperfections without ever exchanging energy with them.

205
The cooper pair of electrons can maintain the coupled motion upto a certain distance
among the lattice points in a super conductor called coherence length which is of the
order of 10-6m.
A cooper pair is considered as a new particle having twice the mass and charge of an
electron.
In a super conducting state, the current is due to the motion of the several cooper pairs
in the same direction with the same velocity.
These cooper pairs can be represented by a single deBroglie wave.
The wavelength of deBroglie wave ( = h/p) is very large. Thus the scattering from
imperfections do not occur at all.
Since there is no scattering, resistivity tends to be zero and conductivity becomes
infinite.BCS theory thus explains zero resistivity and infinite conductivity of a super
conductor.
Applications of super conductor:
1) Super conducting magnets:
Super conducting magnet is an electromagnet made of using coils of super
conducting wires or cables.

Disadvantages of Conventional electromagnet:

A conventional electromagnet is made of Copper or aluminium coils. Using these
magnets large magnetic fields can be produced.

But the power needed to produce a field H is given by P = 10-4 DH2 and most of
the power input is released as joule heating in the coil.

Thus for an electromagnet large power supply is needed and heat should be
removed.

Superconducting Magnets:
In super conducting magnets, large power supply and the means to remove heat
are not needed.

The only power supply required by this magnet is to keep it cool so that the wire
remains in super conducting state.

206
 While designing super conducting magnets following factors should be
considered.
a) Superconductors used for the magnets should have high critical fields.
Normally the materials like Nb-Ti and Nb3 Sn alloys are used which are
Type-II super conductors having high critical fields.
b) These super conductors are normally ductile & can easily be wound into
coils.
But ductility is always accompanied by brittleness.
Thus care should be taken to remove brittleness while designing.
This can be achieved using two methods: Vapor deposition method &
Porous matrix method.
c) In super conducting magnets mechanical fracture occurs due to large
forces in super conducting material.
Thus the magnet is not used in the form of wires. It is made to lie as
filaments embedded in a copper matrix. This copper matrix will prevent
mechanical fracture.

Applications of superconducting magnets:

Super conducting magnets are used
i. In magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) which is a technique employed to
generate images of body cross section.
ii. In NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) imaging in the form of NMR
tomography.
iii. In chemical industries for magnetic separation & refining.
iv. In large synchronous generators and motors.

Maglev Vehicles
Maglev vehicles are vehicles which are magnetically levitated. These are Maglev trains, cars, etc.
Maglev vehicles (trains) do not slide over steel rails but float on a four inch air cushion over a
strongly magnetized track.

Principle
Magnetic levitation is based on Meissner Effect.
These vehicles are made of Maglev coaches which consists of super conducting magnets built
into the back.

207
The vehicles (train) floats on aluminium guide way by magnetic levitation.
The magnetic levitation is produced by enormous magnetic repulsion between super conducting
magnet inside the vehicles and the electric currents in the aluminium guide way.
The super conducting coils produce the magnetic repulsion in order to levitate the coaches.
The currents in the aluminium guide way not only produce magnetic field to levitate the vehicle
but also help in propelling the vehicle forward.

Advantages
There is no mechanical friction because there is no contact between the moving and the
stationary systems.
Great speed can be achieved with very low energy consumption.

Disadvantages
Super conducting state which is condensed state should be maintained.
SQUID
SQUID is an acronym for super conducting quantum interference device.
This is a device for measuring tiny magnetic field.
Principle
SQUID is based on Josephson Effect and flux quantization.
According to this, when two super conductors are connected then a super current will flow
through a weak (insulating) link even in the absence of any voltage difference.
If magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the junction, the value of critical super current
drops to zero whenever the flux through the junction is a multiple of flux quanta.
Construction
SQUID is a double junction quantum interference device formed from two Josephson junctions
mounted on a super conducting ring.
The super conducting ring with two side arms P & Q and two weak links (Insulating Junctions) AB
& CD as shown

C
A

208
 B D

A magnetic field is applied normal to the plane of the ring.

External current flows in through P. The super current branches out into the two arms P & Q and
then through Q.
The variation of super current on the magnetic field is as shown.

Since this is an interference pattern the device is interference device.

The flux through the loop is quantized and the current through the loop will change in such a
manner so as to have a discontinuous change in flux.

Applications
Since the current in SQUID is sensitive to very small changes in the magnetic field, the SQUID
can be used as a very sensitive magnetometer.
This detects even a small fraction of flux quantum.
KEY WORDS :
Superconductivity is a phenomenon of zero resistivity or infinite conductivity attained
by certain metals when they are cooled to a temperature nearing absolute zero.
The metals that exhibit the property of super conductivity are called superconductors
ex: Hg, Pb, Zn, Al, etc.
The temperature at which the material undergoes transition from normal state to super
conducting state is called critical temperature or transition temperature Tc.
The important features of superconductors are: zero resistivity, infinite conductivity,
reversible state, perfect diamagnetism, etc.

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 Meissner effect is the expulsion of magnetic flux from the interior of the
superconductor as the material undergoes transition to the superconduting phase in the
presence of magnetic field.

Meissner effect shows that a super conductor is a special type of resistance less metal
and a perfect diamagnetic material. (ie superconductor never allows magnetic flux
density to exist in its interior and = -1).
There are two types of superconductors: Type 1 and Type 11.
Type 1 superconductors are known as soft superconductors. They are perfect
diamagnetic materials and critical field Hc for these materials will be low Ex: Al, Pb.
Type 11 superconductors are known as hard superconductors. These materials have
very two critical fields. They are used to create very high magnetic fields. Ex: Alloys of
Niobium, Vanadium.
BCS theory explains zero sensitivity of superconductors using electron-phonon
electron interaction and cooper pairs.
Cooper pair is a pair of electrons formed by the interaction between the electrons with
opposite spin and momenta in a phonon field.
Cooper pairs are pair of electrons which are in condensed state with definite coherence.
Cooper pair is considered as a new particle and can be represented by a single deBroglie
wave. These cooper pairs are not scattered by imperfections and thus resistivity is zero
for superconductors.
A superconducting magnet is an electromagnet made of coils of super conducting wires.
These magnets need low power supply and are used in MRI, NMR, chemical industries
and synchronous Generators, etc. Ex: Type 11 superconductors (Nb-Ti).
Maglev vehicles are vehicles which are magnetically levitated. These vehicles are based
on Meisner effect and great speed can be achieved in thee vehicles with low energy
consumption.
SQUID is an acronym for super conducting quantum interference device. SQUID is
based on Josephson effect and flux quantization . It is used to measure tiny magnetic
field and detects a small fraction of flux quantum.
Important Questions:
26. What is Superconductivity?

27. Compare the dependence of resistivity on temperature of a super conductor with

that of a metal.

28. Explain the important features of Super conductors.

29. Explain Meissner Effect.

30. Explain Type-1 and Type-II Super conductors

31. Explain BCS theory of Superconductivity

32. Discuss Super conducting magnet

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 33. What are SQUIDS and Maglev vehicles?

9. What is SQUID? Discuss the construction and working of a SQUID

TEXT BOOKS AND REFERENCE BOOKS

(1) Concepts of modern physics Arthur Beiser

- Tata McGraw-Hill Edition

(2) A text book of Engineering Physics Dr.S.P.Basavaraju Sbhas Stores.

(3) Elements of properties of matter D.S.Mathur.

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