Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
DOI 10.1007/s10706-011-9473-2
ORIGINAL PAPER
Kyriazis Pitilakis
Received: 7 June 2010 / Accepted: 18 October 2011 / Published online: 30 October 2011
Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
Abstract This study examines the small-strain Based on a comprehensive set of test results a series of
dynamic properties of mixtures composed of sandy equations were developed that can be used to evaluate
and gravelly soils with granulated tire rubber in terms the shear modulus and damping ratio at small shear
of shear modulus (GO), and damping ratio in shear strain levels if the confining pressure, the content of
(Dmin). Torsional resonant column tests are performed rubber by mixture weight, the grain size of soil and
on dry, dense specimens of soil-rubber mixtures in a rubber particles, and the dynamic and physical prop-
range of soil to rubber particles size 5:11:10 and erties of the intact soil are known.
rubber content from 0 to 35% by mixture weight. The
experimental results indicate that the response of the Keywords Shear modulus Damping ratio
mixtures is significantly affected by the content of Soil-rubber mixtures Resonant column testing
rubber and the relative size of rubber to soil particles.
Concering the small-strain shear modulus, an equiv-
alent void ratio is introduced that considers the volume
of rubber particles as part of the total volume of voids.
1 Introduction
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et al. 2004a, b; Abichou et al. 2004; Humphrey 2004; mixtures having a ratio Dsoil/Drubber equal to 1:4 and
Edeskar 2006). Granulated tire rubber has been used as 1:5 respectively, indicated that an increase of rubber
backfill material in retaining walls, to reduce the content leads to a monotonically decrease of shear
lateral earth pressures (Humphrey and Sandford 1993; stiffness at low strain levels and to an increase of mix-
Humphrey et al. 1997; Lee et al. 1999; Kaneda et al. tures damping ratio. In addition, Anastasiadis et al.
2007), as construction material in embankments (2009), Senetakis (2011) and Senetakis et al. (2011a)
overlying soft or unstable soils to reduce the vertical reported a more linear behavior of soil-rubber mixtures as
stresses and settlements (Bosscher et al. 1997; the content of rubber increases in the region of medium
Zornberg et al. 2004a; Edil 2004; Edincliler 2007; to high shearing strain amplitudes (c = 10-210-1%).
Humphrey 2007), or as drainage layer (Reddy and In previous studies both the static and dynamic
Saichek 1998; Edeskar 2006; Karmokar 2007). In properties of pure rubber and soil-rubber mixtures
addition, pure rubber and soil-rubber mixtures have have been studied. The compaction, compressibility
been proposed as isolation system to modify the and strength characteristics of rubber materials and
seismic response of foundations/superstructures (Tsang granular soil-rubber mixtures are presented in
2008; Senetakis et al. 2009; Pitilakis et al. 2010, 2011), Humphrey and Manion (1992), Edil and Bosscher
retaining walls (Hazarika 2007; Hazarika et al. 2007, (1992, 1994), Bosscher et al. (1993), Foose et al.
2008) and buried pipes (Uchimura et al. 2007). (1996), Masad et al. (1996), Wu et al. (1997), Lee et al.
Considering relatively low to medium rubber (1999), Zornberg et al. (2004a), Edeskar (2006),
content, the main factors that affect strongly the Kawata et al. (2007), Edincliler (2007) and others,
dynamic behavior of soil-rubber mixtures are the whereas the effect of rubber content on the dynamic
content of rubber, the contrast in particle size, shape response and liquefaction potential of the aforemen-
and mass density of rubber solids compared to the soil tioned mixtures as well as the effect of rubber on the
solids as well as the dynamic properties of the soil part dynamic response of geo-structures when used as fill
of the mixtures (Kim and Santamarina 2008; Senetakis or construction material were presented in Feng and
et al. 2011a). The predominant behavior that the Sutter (2000), Pamukcu and Akbulut (2006), Kim and
mixtures exhibit, that is soil-like or rubber-like Santamarina (2008), Hyodo et al. (2007), Kawata et al.
behavior, depends on the predominant interfaces of (2007), Uchimura et al. (2007), Hazarika et al. (2008),
the soil-rubber solid skeleton. Ahmed (1993) and Anastasiadis et al. (2009) and Senetakis et al. (2011a).
Zornberg et al. (2004a) have indicated that for content Recently, Anastasiadis et al. (2012) and Senetakis
of rubber by mixture weight below 3540%, the et al. (2012) proposed analytical relationships for the
mixtures exhibit high shear strength, satisfactory estimation of shear modulus and damping ratio of
compaction characteristics, dilatant behavior and the granular soil/rubber mixtures in a wide range of
response of the mixtures is characterized as sand-like. shearing strain amplitudes. In addition, Anastasiadis
Kim and Santamarina (2008) examining the et al. (2012) and Senetakis et al. (2012) examined the
response at small-strain amplitudes of sand-rubber effect of duration of confinement on the response of
mixtures using a modified oedometer cell instrument the mixtures of variable rubber content as well as the
with bender-elements and a ratio Dsoil/Drubber equal to effect of specimens size on the experimental data.
1:10, indicated that up to a specific content of rubber However, the aforementioned studies were limited
by mixture volume on the order of 20%, the shear only on mixtures that were composed of fine to
wave velocity of the mixtures increases, and above medium grained uniform sands as physical portion and
that content the trend is reversed. This increase of the ratio Dsoil/Drubber was equal to or lower than unity.
small-strain shear stiffness with a simultaneous The present paper examines the small-strain
increase of damping ratio as the content of rubber dynamic properties in terms of shear modulus and
increases in the mixture and up to a specific rubber damping ratio of mixtures composed of clean granular
content was also observed by Pamukcu and Akbulut soils involving uniform sands, gravely sands and
(2006), on sand-rubber mixtures having a ratio gravels as well as well-graded gravelly soils as
Dsoil/Drubber equal to 1:1. On the other hand, Feng physical portion and granulated tire rubber of different
and Sutter (2000) as well as Anastasiadis et al. (2009) particle sizes as synthetic portion. The experimental
performing resonant column tests on sand-rubber program involved torsional resonant column tests, and
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Geotech Geol Eng (2012) 30:363382 365
is part of an extensive research program aiming to show the grain-size distribution curves of the soils and
investigate the dynamic behaviour and characteristics the rubber materials, respectively.
of soil-rubber mixtures (Senetakis 2011; Anastasiadis
et al. 2012; Senetakis et al. 2012). Considering the 2.2 Experimental Equipment and Sample
high permeability that granular soil-rubber mixtures Preparation
exhibit as well as the main applications of the
aforementioned materials, the specimens of this study All dynamic experiments were performed in a fixed-
were examined in dry conditions and high relative free type longitudinaltorsional resonant column
density. Particular emphasis is placed on the evalua- apparatus (Drnevich 1967). The specimen is rigidly
tion of the influence of the relative size of rubber solids fixed at bottom and the excitation is applied at the top-
in comparison to the soil solids as well as the content active end while the excitation is achieved using
of rubber in the mixture and the effect of the sinusoidal electromagnetic force of controlled magni-
coefficient of uniformity of the soil part of the tude. In order to obtain measurements in resonance,
mixtures on the shear modulus (GO) and damping the excitation frequency at each step of force magni-
ratio (Dmin) at low strain levels. In addition, based on tude is adjusted, until the velocity at the active end of
the test results a series of simple equations was the specimen is 180 degrees out of phase with the
developed that may be used for practical purposes to applied force. The tested specimens of approximately
estimate the GO and Dmin of the aforementioned 71.1 mm diameter and 142.2 mm height were con-
complex materials for given the mean confining structed in dry conditions using a metal mold. The
pressure, the content of rubber by mixture weight, ASTM D4015-92 specifications were followed for
the ratio of mean grain size of soil particles via rubber procedures and data reduction.
particles, the initial dynamic properties as well as the Soil and rubber materials were first dry mixed in the
grain size characteristics of the pure soil in a range of appropriate percentages; then dry specimens were
rubber solids size versus soil solids size from 10:1 to constructed in layers into the device using the uniform
1:5. The effect of rubber content on the dynamic mixture. Specifically, specimens were constructed
response of the aforementioned mixtures in the range very carefully in many layers of equal dry mass
of medium to high strain levels is comprehensively material using a funnel and following the under-
presented and discussed by Senetakis (2011) and compaction method. For this purpose, a metal rod
Senetakis et al. (2011b). tamper was used and the tips were applied at
increasing number from the bottom to the top layers.
All specimens of the clean granular soils and the soil-
2 Materials Tested, Sample Preparation rubber mixtures were constructed using the same
and Testing Program number of layers and tips in order to retain approx-
imately constant the compaction energy. During the
2.1 Materials Used specimens preparation it was observed that for low
content of rubber and relatively high ratio of soil
Seven granular soils of different grain size distribution particles versus rubber particles size, segregation
(D50 = 0.277.80 mm and Cu = 1.212.5) and four during the construction was not avoided; for this
approximately uniform rubber materials of different reason minimizing of any vibration during sample
mean grain size (D50 = 0.353.00 mm) are used. All preparation was mandatory.
natural (sands, gravels) and synthetic (rubber) mate-
rials have a coefficient of curvature near to unity. 2.3 Testing Program
Three of the granular soils are composed of natural
sand of sub-rounded to rounded particles, whereas the Forty-two torsional resonant column tests were per-
other four soils are composed of quarry sandy gravel formed on dense to very dense, dry soil-rubber
of sub-angular to angular particles. The granulated specimens using different percentages of granulated
rubber materials of this study are composed of tire rubber in a range of mean confining pressures of
recycled tire shreds. Table 1 summarizes the physical 25400 kPa. Performing low amplitude measure-
properties of the materials used, whereas Figs. 1 and 2 ments during the application of the isotropic confining
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Table 1 Physical properties of materials used for the construction of soil-rubber mixtures
Material code Initial material D50 (mm)a Cu b
cS (gr/cm3)c
Sandy and gravely materials C2D03 Rounded fluvial sand 0.27 1.58 2.67
C3D06 Rounded fluvial sand 0.56 2.76 2.67
C2D1 Rounded fluvial sand 1.33 2.13 2.67
C2D3 Angular sandy gravel 3.00 2.45 2.67
C6D3 Angular sandy gravel 2.90 5.95 2.67
C13D3 Angular sandy gravel 3.00 12.50 2.67
C1D8 Angular sandy gravel 7.80 1.22 2.67
Granulated rubber materials R03 Recycled tire rubber 0.34 1.95 1.10
R06 Recycled tire rubber 0.40 2.65 1.10
R2 Recycled tire rubber 1.50 1.81 1.10
R3 Recycled tire rubber 2.80 2.29 1.10
a
Mean grain size of particles
b
Coefficient of uniformity = D60/D10
c
Specific gravity of particles
Fig. 1 Grain-size distribution curves of clean granular soils Fig. 2 Grain-size distribution curves of clean granulated
rubber materials
pressure at various specimens and for close time steps,
it was observed that 6080 min was an appropriate period is also reported by Menq (2003) on his
time period for all specimens to equilibrate and to extensive experimental study on the dynamic proper-
stabilize the measured values of shear modulus and ties of granular soils.
damping ratio at low shear strain levels. Thus, for all The main characteristics of the test series conducted
specimens, each confining pressure was applied for in this study are summarized in Table 2. Each test
6080 min before the torsional excitation. This time series involves low-amplitude as well as high-ampli-
period was also reported by Anastasiadis et al. (2009) tude resonant column measurements focusing on the
and Senetakis (2011), as a sufficient time to consol- effect on low strain shear modulus (GO) and damping
idate of high-drainage capacity saturated clean sands ratio (DTmin) of various parameters. The first test
and specimens of sand-rubber mixtures. Similar time series comprises five uniform to poor graded soils
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Table 2 Torsional resonant column testing program on dry, dense soil-rubber mixtures: main characteristics of tested specimens
(71.1 mm diameter and 142.2 mm height)
Mixture group code D50,r/D50,s Percentage of rubber by mixture weight (%)
0 5 10 15 25 35
C2D03/R3a 10:1 d d d d d d
C2D03/R03 1:1 d d d
C3D06/R3 5:1 d d d d d d
C2D1/R3 2:1 d d d d
C2D3/R3 1:1 d d d d d d
C2D3/R06 1:5 d d d d
C6D3/R3 1:1 d d d d
C13D3/R3 1:1 d d d d d
C1D8/R2 1:5 d d d d
d Tested specimens
a
Specimens of soil-rubber mixtures using C2D03 and R3 as soil and rubber respectively
(C2D03, C3D06, C2D1, C2D3 and C1D8), with test series allowed the evaluation of the effect of the
increasing mean grain size (D50 = 0.27, 0.60, 1.33, mean grain size of soil solids and the ratio D50,r/D50,s
3.00 and 7.80 mm respectively), tested in mixtures on the dynamic properties of the mixtures in a more
with rubber materials R3 and R2 (mixture groups detailed manner.
C2D03/R3, C3D06/R3, C2D1/R3, C2D3/R3 and
C1D8/R2). The aim is to examine, the influence of 2.4 Effect of Rubber Percentage on Soil-Rubber
rubber content and relative size of rubber solids versus Unit Weight and Void Ratio
soil solids in a range of rubber content varying from 0
to 35% by mixture weight, and for mean grain size of Table 3 summarizes the void ratio values of specimens
rubber solids versus soil solids, D50,r/D50,s, equal to of mixture group C3D06/R3 that were constructed in the
10:1, 5:1, 2:1, 1:1 and 1:5, respectively. resonant column device as well as the parameters emax
In addition, the effect of rubber content on mixtures and emin of a compaction testing program on similar
dynamic properties including soils of the same mean mixtures (C3D06/R2 samples) presented in Senetakis
grain size as well as the same ratio D50,r/D50,s but with (2011). In general emin and e values decrease with
different coefficient of uniformity is studied. For this increasing rubber content. Most specimens exhibit
purpose, two well graded soils having mean grain size slightly lower void ratio values in comparison to the
equal to 3.00 mm and a ratio D50,r/D50,s equal to 1:1, as emin values of similar mixtures. Thus, it was assumed
the material C2D3 exhibit, but coefficient of unifor- that C3D06/R3 specimens having rubber contents equal
mity equal to 5.95 and 12.5 (C6D3 and C13D3 to 0, 5, 15 and 25% were constructed at a relative density
materials, respectively) are tested in mixtures with equal to 100%, whereas the specimen having 10%
rubber material R3 (mixture groups C6D3/R3 and content of rubber was constructed at a relative density on
C13D3/R3, respectively). the order of 91%. The sample preparation method
Finally, the effect of rubber content on mixtures followed in this study led intensively to the construction
dynamic properties including uniform soils of the of dense to very dense specimens.
same ratio D50,r/D50,s but different mean grain size of Figure 3 shows the effect of percentage of rubber
soil solids is studied. For this purpose, the soils having on the void ratio and dry unit weight of three out of
code names C2D03 and C2D3 are tested in mixtures nine soil-rubber mixture groups that were tested in this
with finer rubber grains (R03 and R06). The afore- study, at a mean confining pressure of 25 kPa. The
mentioned mixtures (C2D03/R03 and C2D3/R06) general trend is that void ratio and dry unit weight of
exhibit a ratio D50,r/D50,s equal to 1:1 and 5:1, respec- soil-rubber mixtures decrease with increasing rubber
tively, as the mixtures C2D3/R3 and C1D8/R2. This content. Consequently, an increase in rubber content
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The significant low shear stiffness of the rubber ratio eeq is used, instead of the typical void ratio,
specimen (code: R3) compared to the pure sandy defined as (Fenq and Sutter 2000):
specimen (code: C2D03) indicates that the contribu-
VVoids VRubber
tion of granulated tire rubber solids on the small-strain eeq 1
VSoil
dynamic shear stiffness of the sand-rubber matrix is
negligible. This is shown in Fig. 5 where we plot the where, eeq is the equivalent void ratio of the soil-
0
GO values versus the mean confining pressure (rm) in rubber mixture, VVoids is the volume of the voids,
log scale with respect to two specimens of mixture VRubber is the volume of the rubber solids and VSoil is
group C2D03/R3 (C2D03/R3-95/5: 5% rubber con- the volume of the soil solids. Therefore, due to the
tent, C2D03/R3-75/25: 25% rubber content by mixture small contribution of the soft rubber solids on the shear
weight). In the same figure we plot the analytically stiffness of the soil-rubber matrix, the volume of
derived GO values of the aforementioned specimens rubber solids is assumed to be part of the total volume
using empirical relations proposed in the literature for of voids. The empirical relations developed on the
clean granular soils (Saxena and Reddy 1989; Menq basis of eeq and inspired of similar expression of
2003). In these empirical relations an equivalent void granular soils, are proved evaluate in a satisfactory
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1
GO;mix;100 GO;soil;100 AG;100 8
eeq;mix;100 xe
where GO,mix,100 and GO,soil,100 is the small-strain
shear modulus (in MPa) of the soil-rubber mixture and
the pure dense to very dense soil, respectively. For the
clean soils of this study, GO,soil,100 may be estimated
from Eq. 2 as a function of the mean grain size of the
soil particles (Eq. 2). In addition, eeq,mix,100 is the
equivalent void ratio of the soil-rubber mixture that
considers the volume of rubber solids as part of the
total volume of voids and is given from Eq. 3 as a
function of rubber percentage by mixture weight and
the void ratio of the pure soil at a high relative density,
xe is an exponent given from Eq. 6a and 6b for
mixtures of uniform and well graded soils, respec-
tively. Finally AG,100 is a parameter given from Eq. 7a
and 7b for mixtures of uniform and well graded soils,
respectively. The parameters xe and AG,100 are directly
related to the ratio D50,s/D50,r, where D50,s is the mean
grain size of the soil solids and D50,r is the mean grain
size of the rubber solids.
For confining pressures different than 100 kPa the
shear modulus of the mixtures, symbolized as GO,mix
may be estimated through Eq. 9, as a function of
0
Fig. 15 Effect of coefficient of uniformity of soil part on a the GO,mix,100 and rm. In Eq. 9, AG and nG are parameters
exponent xe and b the parameter AG of soil-rubber mixtures
composed of soils of the same D50,s and ratio D50,s/D50,r but of the regression analysis, whereas nG expresses the
0
different coefficients of uniformity slope of the diagram GO,mix,100-rm in log scale.
0 nG
GO;mix GO;mix;100 AG rm 9
D50;s 0:1602 From the experimental results of this study, there was
AG;100 0:3919
D50;r 7a not a clear trend of the effect of rubber percentage or the
Mixtures of uniform soils ratio D50,s/D50,r on the parameters AG and nG of Eq. 9.
The main factor that is shown to affect the aforemen-
D50;s 0:1602
AG;100 0:3292 tioned parameters is the coefficient of uniformity of
D50;r 7b
the soil part of the mixtures. Thus, the parameters AG
Mixtures of well-graded soils
and nG may be estimated from the relation between
0
The small-strain shear modulus of dense to very the GO,mix,/GO,mix,100 and the rm values separately
dense soil-rubber mixtures, at a mean confining for mixtures of uniform and well graded soils, assum-
pressure of 100 kPa, may be evaluated through Eq. 8 ing an exponential fitting curve of the experimental
from the initial small-strain shear modulus of the clean results.
soil at the same confining pressure, using two correc- Figure 16a and b shows that the exponent nG is
tion terms; the first one is the void ratio of the clean higher for soil-rubber mixtures having well graded
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Fig. 20 Effect of rubber percentage on the small-strain damping ratio at a mean confining pressure equal to 100 kPa of soil-rubber
mixtures of a D50,s D50,r b D50,s D50,r c D50,s & D50,r
Equation 13a13c give the analytical expressions, 100 kPa, Dmin,soil,100 is the corresponding damping
respectively: ratio of the pure soil and pr is the percentage of rubber
D50;s D50;r by mixture weight. Dmin,mix,100, Dmin,soil,100 and pr are
Dmin;mix;100 Dmin;soil;100 0:1004 pr 1 given in percentile scale (%).
Finally, the small-strain damping ratio of a granular
13a
soil-rubber mixture at any given confining pressure and
D50;s D50;r content of rubber, may be estimated from Eq. 14, as a
Dmin;mix;100 Dmin;soil;100 0:1487 pr 1 function of mean confining pressure, percentage of
13b rubber by mixture weight, the ratio D50,s/D50,r and the
initial small-strain damping ratio of the clean soil at
D50;s D50;r 100 kPa: n
Dmin;mix;100 Dmin;soil;100 0:3683 pr 1 Dmin;mix Dmin;soil;100 AD a pr b r0m D
13c 14
Dmin,mix,100 is the small-strain damping ratio of the where, Dmin,soil,100 is approximately 0.58% of the
soil-rubber mixtures at a mean confining pressure of average value for the clean granular soils of this study,
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Foose GJ, Benson CH, Bosscher PJ (1996) Sand reinforced with
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