Abstract:

Mechanical testing shows an important role in finding the

fundamental properties of engineering materials as well as in
generating new materials and in managing the quality of materials for
use in design and construction. If a material is used as a part of an
engineering structure, it is important to know that the material is
strong and rigid enough to overcome the loads that it will experience
in service. As a result, engineers have developed a number of
experimental techniques for mechanical testing of engineering
materials. Tension, compression, bending or torsion loading is the
techniques used for mechanical testing. The most common type of test
used to measure the mechanical properties of a material is the Tension
Test. Tension test is widely used to provide basic information on the
strength of materials and is an acceptance test for the specification of
materials. The major parameters that describe the stress-strain curve
obtained during the tension test are the tensile strength (UTS), yield
strength or yield point ( elastic modulus (E), percent elongation ( y),
L%) and the reduction in area (RA%). Toughness, Resilience, Poissons
ratio ( ) can also be found by the use of this testing technique. In this
paper, it is decided to do a tension test of Mild Steel using Abaqus CAE
software.

Introduction
The tensile test is an engineering procedure used to
characterize elastic and plastic deformations related to the
mechanical behaviour of materials. Due to the non-uniform
stress and strain existing at the neck of axial deformation, it
has been recognized that significant changes in the geometric
configuration of the specimen must be considered in order to
describe the material response during the deformation
process up to the fracture stage.
Although in the engineering applications, the design of
structural parts is restricted to the elastic deformation of the
materials involved, the knowledge of their behaviour beyond
the elastic limit is significant since plastic effects with usually
large deformations take place in the previous manufacturing
procedures such as metal forming (traditionally classified into.
a. bulk-forming operation: forging, drawing,
extrusion and rolling
b. sheet forming operation: deep drawing, magnetic-
pulse forming, tube
Crashworthiness, impact problems, inelastic buckling of thin-
walled structures, superplastic forming, etc are some of the
other important applications of elastoplastic models for
metals [5].
The tension test is one of the most commonly used tests for
evaluating materials. In its simplest form, the tension test is
carried out by holding opposite ends of a test item within the
load frame of a test machine. A tensile force is applied by the
machine, which results in the gradual elongation and eventual
fracture of the test item. During this process, force-extension
data are monitored and recorded. When properly conducted,
the tension test provides force extension data that can
quantitate several important mechanical properties of a
material. These mechanical properties determined from
tension tests are as follows:

Elastic deformation properties, such as the modulus of

elasticity (Young's modulus) and Poisson's ratio

Yield strength and ultimate tensile strength

Ductility properties, such as elongation and reduction in

area

Strain-hardening characteristics
These material characteristics from this test are used for
quality control in production, for ranking performance of
structural materials, for evaluation of newly developed alloys,
and for dealing with the static strength requirements of
design.
The basic principle of the tension test is very simple, but
numerous variables affect results. Usual sources of changes or
variation in mechanical-test results include several factors
involving materials, namely, methodology, human factors,
equipment, and ambient conditions.
In this study, a simulation of a tensile test, which is a
representative material test, is performed using a computer
program (Abaqus CAE). Tensile test using mild steel is
performed and then analysed the stressstrain relationship
using a computer program (Abaqus/CAE).
Figure No (2) : The tested specimen after the test

Theory:

The maximum load is the greatest load that the specimen can
withstand without breaking.
The breaking load is the load at which the specimen breaks.
The Yield Point is the first point at which permanent
deformation of stressed specimen begins to take place. This is
a point on the stress-strain curve at which the increase in strain
is no longer proportional to the increase in stress.
0.1% or 0.2% proof stress: When yield point is not easily
defined based on stress-strain curve an offset yield point is
arbitrary defined. The value for this is commonly set at 0.1 or
0.2% of the strain. High strength steel an aluminium alloy do
not exhibit a yield point so this off set yield point is used on
these kind of materials.
The percentage Elongation is a measurement of the
deformation at the point of final fracture. % elongation is
extent the specimen stretches before it fractures.

Where LO = Original gauge length, LU = Final length after

fracture
The percentage reduction in area after fracture is measured
by fracture ductility. This range from zero for brittle materials
to high values (100%) for ductile material.

Where SO= Original cross section area, SU= Final area after
fracture
l i l o l

Engineering Strain: lo lo
Where, is the engineering strain lo is initial gauge length, and
li is the instantaneous gauge length.

Engineering Stress:

Yield Stress is defined as a stress at which a predetermined

amount of permanent deformation occurs. Prior to the yield
point the material will deform elastically and will return to
its original shape when the applied stress is removed.
Upper Yield Stress is value of stress at the moment when first
decrease in force is observed.
Lower Yield Stress is taken to be yield strength when yield
point elongation is observed this is the lowest value of stress
at yield point.
Breaking Strength is a stress required to break the material. It
is measured in Newton per square millimetres of area.
Tensile (yield) strength is very important value for engineering
structure design. The maximum tensile load sustained
by a specimen during a tension test, divided by the
original cross-sectional area. The maximum
engineering stress sustained. Results are
expressed in Newton per square millimetres of
area.
Youngs Modulus is measures of stiffness of an elastic material
and is a quantity used to characterize material. It is defined as
the ratio of the uniaxial stress over the uniaxial strain. It is
expressed in Pascal (Kilo, Mega, and Giga).
True Stress and Strain:
 If the results of tensile testing are to be used to predict how a
metal will behave under other forms of loading, it is desirable
to plot the data in terms of true stress and true strain. True
stress is defined as
= F/A
where A is the cross-sectional area at the time that the applied
force is F. Up to the point at which necking starts, true strain,
, is defined as
= ln(L/Lo)
This definition arises from taking an increment of true strain,
d, divided by the length, L, at the time,d = dL/L, and
integrating. As long as the deformation is uniform along the
gauge section, the true stress and strain can be calculated from
the engineering quantities. With constant volume and uniform
deformation, LA=LoAo:
Ao/A = L/Lo
Thus according to Eq e = L/Lo, Ao/A = 1+ e. Equation 1 cab be
rewritten as
= (F/Ao)(Ao/A)
and, with substitution for Ao/A and F/Ao, as
= s(1+e)
Substitution of L/Lo = 1 + e into the expression for true strain
gives
 = ln(1 + e)
At very low strains, the differences between true and
engineering stress and strain are very small. It does not really
matter whether Young's modulus is defined in terms of
engineering or true stress strain.

(Eq3)

What is fatigue ?
In materials science, fatigue is the weakening of a material
caused by repeatedly applied loads. It is the progressive and
localized structural damage that occurs when a material is
subjected to cyclic loading. The nominal maximum stress
values that cause such damage may be much less than the
strength of the material typically quoted as the ultimate tensile
stress limit, or the yield stress limit.
Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to repeated
loading and unloading. If the loads are above a certain
threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to form at the stress
concentrators such as the surface, persistent slip bands (PSBs),
interfaces of constituents in the case of composites, and grain
interfaces in the case of metals.[1] Eventually a crack will reach
a critical size, the crack will propagate suddenly, and the
structure will fracture. The shape of the structure will
significantly affect the fatigue life; square holes or sharp
corners will lead to elevated local stresses where fatigue cracks
can initiate. Round holes and smooth transitions or fillets will
therefore increase the fatigue strength of the structure.

Why fatigue test important ?

A fatigue test helps determine a materials ability to withstand
cyclic fatigue loading conditions. By design, a material is
selected to meet or exceed service loads that are anticipated
in fatigue testing applications. Cyclic fatigue tests produce
repeated loading and unloading in tension, compression,
bending, torsion or combinations of these stresses. Fatigue
tests are commonly loaded in tension tension, compression
compression and tension into compression and reverse.
To perform a fatigue test a sample is loaded into a fatigue
tester or fatigue test machine and loaded using the pre-
determined test stress, then unloaded to either zero load or an
opposite load. This cycle of loading and unloading is then
repeated until the end of the test is reached. The test may be
run to a pre-determined number of cycles or until the sample
has failed depending on the parameters of the test.

Purpose of fatigue testing:

Usually the purpose of a fatigue test is to determine the
lifespan that may be expected from a material subjected to
cyclic loading, however fatigue strength and crack resistance
are commonly sought values as well. The fatigue life of a
material is the total number of cycles that a material can be
subjected to under a single loading scheme. A fatigue test is
also used for the determination of the maximum load that a
sample can withstand for a specified number of cycles. All of
these characteristics are extremely important in any industry
where a material is subject to fluctuating instead of constant
forces.

Classification of fatigue :
1. High-cycle fatigue
Historically, most attention has focused on situations that
require more than 104 cycles to failure where stress is low and
deformation is primarily elastic.

2. Low-cycle fatigue
Where the stress is high enough for plastic deformation to
occur, the accounting of the loading in terms of stress is less
useful and the strain in the material offers a simpler and
more accurate description. This type of fatigue is normally
experienced by components which undergo a relatively small
number of straining cycles. Low-cycle fatigue is usually
characterised by the Coffin-Manson relation (published
independently by L. F. Coffin in 1954[25] and S. S. Manson in
1953):[26]

{\displaystyle {\frac {\Delta \varepsilon _{p}}{2}}=\varepsilon

_{f}'(2N)^{c}}
where,

p /2 is the plastic strain amplitude;

f' is an empirical constant known as the fatigue ductility
coefficient, the failure strain for a single reversal;
2N is the number of reversals to failure (N cycles);
c is an empirical constant known as the fatigue ductility
exponent, commonly ranging from 0.5 to 0.7 for metals in
time independent fatigue. Slopes can be considerably steeper
in the presence of creep or environmental interactions.
A similar relationship for materials such as Zirconium is used in
the nuclear industry.[27]

Concept of yield surface :

The yield surface is usually convex and the state of stress of
inside the yield surface is elastic. When the stress state lies on
the surface the material is said to have reached its yield point
and the material is said to have become plastic. Further
deformation of the material causes the stress state to remain
on the yield surface, even though the shape and size of the
surface may change as the plastic deformation evolves. This is
because stress states that lie outside the yield surface are
non-permissible in rate-independent plasticity, though not in
some models of viscoplasticity.

von Mises yield surface :

The von Mises yield criterion is expressed in the principal
stresses as
{\displaystyle {(\sigma _{1}-\sigma _{2})^{2}+(\sigma _{2}-
\sigma _{3})^{2}+(\sigma _{3}-\sigma
_{1})^{2}=2{S_{y}}^{2}}\!} {(\sigma_1 - \sigma_2)^2 +
(\sigma_2 - \sigma_3)^2 + (\sigma_3 - \sigma_1)^2 = 2
{S_y}^2 }\!
where {\displaystyle S_{y}} S_{y} is the yield strength in
uniaxial tension.
Figure 3 shows the von Mises yield surface in the three-
dimensional space of principal stresses. It is a circular cylinder
of infinite length with its axis inclined at equal angles to the
three principal stresses. Figure 4 shows the von Mises yield
surface in two-dimensional space compared with Tresca
Guest criterion. A cross section of the von Mises cylinder on
the plane of {\displaystyle \sigma _{1},\sigma _{2}} \sigma_1,
\sigma_2 produces the elliptical shape of the yield surface.

Kinematic hardening :
The isotropic model implies that, if the yield strength in tension
and compression are initially the same, i.e. the yield surface is
symmetric about the stress axes, they remain equal as the
yield surface develops with plastic strain. In order to model the
Bauschinger effect, and similar responses, where a hardening
in tension will lead to a softening in a subsequent compression,
one can use the kinematic hardening rule. This is where the
yield surface remains the same shape and size but merely
translates in stress space, Fig. 8.6.4.

elastic unloadin elastic

loading plastic deformation
The Instron device is a displacement controlled load frame.
This means that the crosshead is raised or lowered by turning
screws located on either side of the frame. A picture of the
load frame is shown in Figure 1 with parts.
 (A) Crosshead: The horizontal part of the load frame that
moves during a tensile test, or down during a compression
test.

(B) Load Cell: Measurement transducer for the load applied.

The Instron 5582 has a 100 KN load cell.

(C) Specimen Grips: The specimen grips hold the specimen

during the test. These come in many shapes and sizes, but
this lab has threaded grips and clamps.

(D) Upper and Lower Crosshead Limits: Trip switches for the
maximum height the crosshead is allowed to travel during a
test.
 (E) Manual Up/Down Toggle: Moves the crosshead up and
down manually at the users command. The toggle only
works however when the software is loaded on the
computer. Using this button without the software being
loaded may result in the machine locking.

(F) Emergency Stop: Safety switch, pressing will immediately

shut down all machine operations.

The Tensile Specimen

Figure 2 shows a tensile specimen. The grip section (either
threaded or flat dog bone) is where the load frame grabs the
specimen and applies the load. The gauge length is the
constant diameter section in the center of the specimen. This
will always be the thinnest section of the specimen; therefore,
deformation will occur here. The gauge length of the specimen
has a cross-sectional area that the load will be applied across,
generating a stress.

Step 1: Start the Computer and Machine

The order in which the computer and load frame are started is
important.
a) Start the computer first, and log in using an appropriate
IASTATE user ID.
b) After the computer is started up, turn the power on to the
load frame. The power switch is on the right side of the base
near the back.
c) Wait one minute, then log in to the billing software using
your IASTATE user ID. Enter your account number and sample
details, then click OK. This will launch the Instron Bluehill 3
software and take you to the Bluehill 3 homepage.
d) Open an existing test method by clicking on Test and choose
which method you want to use. You must use an existing test
method, you cannot create one as you go along. For creating
a test method, please see the SOP Creating a Test Method in
Bluehill 3".

Step 2: Software Setup

a) Once inside the test method of choice, enter a sample name.
Your sample is the entire body of specimens that you will test.
A specimen is one single item tested such as a dog bone or
threaded specimen.
b) You can either let the data be saved in the default file or
click on browse to specify an output file. For a class, check your
lab manual for a folder specified by your instructor.
c) Click on the Load Cell soft key . In the window that opens,
click the Calibrate button to calibrate the load cell. When the
cell is done calibrating, the screen will blink and options will
again become available. Close the pop-up window. The load
cell needs to be calibrated upon start up at the beginning of
each day.
d) The extensometer is a device for measuring strain more
accurately in your specimen than crosshead displacement. The
extensometer is a transducer with two knife edges attached
that contact the specimen. If you will be using the
extensometer, click on the extensometer soft key . Hold the
extensometer by pressing in the two button-sized round pins.
This will fix the extensometer knife edges at exactly 25mm.
Keep these pressed together and click on the calibrate button.
Keep pressing the buttons together during calibration. When
the screen blinks and options again become available, the
extensometer is calibrated and the pop-up window can be
closed. Now you are ready to load your specimen.
e) From the test page, click on the Method tab. Under the
Specimen menu, enter the specimen dimensions. Measure the
gauge length and gauge diameter of your specimen. It is
recommended to take three measurements of the gauge
diameter up and down the gauge length and take an average.
Click on save (lower right corner) and return to the Test tab.

Step 3: Loading the Specimen

Thread Grips
a) Insert the top specimen grip into the load cell and secure
with the steel pin.
b) Insert the specimen in the top specimen grip. Screw the
specimen into the grip, but leave one thread outside the grip
so that if the specimen breaks near the grips the specimen can
still be removed.
c) Insert the specimen in the lower grip (the lower grip should
not yet be inserted into the load frame). Lift the bottom
specimen grip up and rotate the large nut until the specimen
has one thread outside the grip.
d) Carefully move the crosshead down manually, ensuring that
the bottom of the specimen grip fits within the available hole
on the console until the steel pin can be inserted. Becareful not
to lower the bottom specimen grip too far as this could jam the
grip into the load frame, damaging these items.
e) Slide the steel pin through the hole at the bottom of the
grips, connecting the load frame to the specimen grip. Make
sure to use the steel wire safety clip so that the pin is unable
to violently eject from the load column.
Clamp grips
a) Install both the top clamp grip and the bottom clamp grip
into the load frame with the pins.
b) Insert the specimen in the top grip. Hold the specimen
vertical such that the bottom of the grip section is about 2mm
outside the grip, and tighten the top clamp. Be wary when
tightening to not bend your specimen.
C) Lower the crosshead manually until your specimen is in a
position where the top of the bottom grip section is about
2mm outside of the grip and tighten the bottom clamp. Again,
be careful not to bend your specimen during tightening.
d) Ensure that both clamps are tight.
 Step 4: Equip the Extensometer (optional )
Equipping the extensometer is discussed following.
a) Keeping the extensometer buttons pushed in, with two
fingers, pull the two spring clips back and slide the
extensometer over the gauge length of your specimen.
WARNING! Do NOT drag the knife edges across your specimen,
rather get the extensometer in place then release the spring
clips. Try to keep the body of the extensometer either parallel
or perpendicular to the crosshead.
b) Release the two button-sized push pins.
Step 5: Starting the test
a) Balance the load on the specimen by clicking on the load cell
soft key . Click on balance, wait for the load to show zero (or
close to zero), and click OK.
b) Zero the extension. Click on the extension soft key . Click on
balance, wait for the extension to show zero, and click OK.
c) Balance the extensometer. Click on the extensometer soft
key . Click on balance, and click OK.
d) Start the test by clicking on the green Play button. The
crosshead will move at the rate specified until the end
conditions of the test are met or the test is stopped manually.
If the end-of-test conditions are met, the screen will return to
the beginning-of-test screen.
e) Remove the extensometer from your specimen by pulling
the spring clips back.
f) If the specimen is broken, remove the pieces. If the
specimen is stretched, look at the load reading. Jog the
crosshead from the load frame until the load is close to zero.
You should now be able to unload the specimen.
g) Load the next specimen and begin the next test.
Step 6: Ending the Test
a) When you are finished testing all specimens, click on the
Finish button.
b) A pop-up window will ask if you would like to continue
testing using the same method, click No, and you will be
returned to the Bluehill 3 homepage.
c) Look for and retrieve your data from the appropriate data
file specified at the beginning of the test.
d) If no more tests are being completed, shut down the
software by clicking Exit, and TURN OFF THE POWER TO THE
INSTRON DEVICE. It is vitally important that you do not leave
the Instron powered when it is not in use.
AN OVERVIEW TO ABAQUS CAE:
ABAQUS is a set of finite element analysis modules. The cores
of ABAQUS are the analysis modules, ABAQUS/Standard and
ABAQUS/Explicit, which are complementary and integrated
analysis tools.

ABAQUS/Standard is a general-purpose, finite element

module.

ABAQUS/Explicit is an explicit dynamics finite element

module.

ABAQUS/CAE incorporates the analysis modules into a

Complete ABAQUS Environment for modeling, managing,
and monitoring ABAQUS analysis and visualizing results.
The finite element program used in the FEA room is
ABAQUS/CAE, which is an intuitive and consistent user
interface throughout the system.
A Steps to launch Abaqus
1. Click Start - All programs - ABAQUS 6.13-1 - ABAQUS CAE
Command in Windows System. An ABAQUS Command
window appears in DOS environment.
2. Use general commands in DOS system to move to the
directory on the hard disk. For example, if a file is created in
catalogue C:\Temp named ABAQUS WORK and wanted all
the ABAQUS results be saved in this file, type command CD
C:\Temp\ABAQUS WORK.
3. Run command ABAQUS CAE to enter ABAQUS/CAE user
interface
B Starting a job in Abaqus
After entering main interface of ABAQUS/CAE, there
are several paths to start a job.

Create Model Database to begin a new analysis.

Open Database to open a previously saved model or output

database file.

Run Script to run a file containing ABAQUS/CAE commands.

Start Tutorial helps to begin an introductory tutorial from

the online documentation.
C Exiting Abaqus
When some work is done in the middle of an ABAQUS job
and want to exit, save your finished work as a Model Database
file (*.cae).

Click File Save and input a file name. Normally in this step
the file filter is default to be Model Database (*.cae).

Click File Exit to exit the main interface of ABAQUS/CAE.

Next time you run ABAQUS, open the saved file and continue
with the job.

EXPERIMENTATION DETAILS:
1. Open Abaqus CAE (it takes a minute to load, just be patient)
2. Select Create Model Database
3. In the model tree on the left side of the screen, right click on
PARTS and select CREATE
a. Chose 3D
b. Chose Deformable
c. Chose Extrusion
4. You will now sketch the part
a. Chose the circle shape
b. Enter 0,0 as the starting corner and hit ENTER
c.In the same box you will be prompted for the opposite
corner point of your circle
i.You are re-creating your specimen that you broke in
the tension testing machine, so enter the point as (diameter,
length)
ii. Hit ENTER again
iii.Click the red X and then DONE to say you are
finished sketching the rectangle
iv.You will be prompted for the extrusion depth,
enter in the value you recorded for length. Click OK.
5. Again in the Model Tree on the left, right click on MATERIALS
and select CREATE
 a. At the top of the new box, replace Material-1 with a new
name that you will remember
b. Select MECHANICAL then ELASTICITY then ELASTIC
i. Enter in the value for Youngs Modulus for the
specimen your group tested
ii. Enter in a Poisson Ratio from published values online
iii. Click OK
6. Back to the Model Tree, right click on SECTIONS and choose
CREATE
a. Again name the section something you will remember
b. Chose SOLID
c. Chose HOMOGENEOUS
d. Click CONTINUE
e. Make sure that the material name that you created is in
the drop-down box and then click OK
7. In the Model Tree, click on the + next to ASSEMBLY, right
click on INSTANCES and select CREATE
a. Leaving everything the way it is by default, Click OK
8. In the Model Tree click on the + next to PARTS and again
on the + next to your parts name (Part-1 if you never
changed it )
a. Right click on SECTION ASSIGNMENTS and select CREATE
 b. Move the mouse cursor over the part you created and
left click
c. The part should become highlighted, select DONE at the
bottom of the screen
d. In the box that pops up make sure that the section name
that you created is in the dropdown box and Click OK
9. In the Model Tree right click on BCs and select CREATE
a. Accept all default values and Click CONTINUE
b. Move the mouse cursor over one of the two small faces
of the object
c. Select DONE
d. In the box that pops up Choose PINNED and then Click
OK
10. In the Model Tree right click on STEPS and select CREATE
a. Accept the defaults and select CONTINUE
b. Under NLGEOM select ON
c. Change the TIME PERIOD to 10
d. Click OK
11. In the Model Tree right click on LOADS and select CREATE
a. MECHANICAL should already be selected
b. Change the highlighted text on the right to PRESSURE
 c. Click CONTINUE
d. You will be prompted to choose the face that the
pressure acts on, select the other small face that was not
chosen as the BC face and Click DONE
e. Under magnitude enter a negative value load somewhere
between the two values you used for calculating the Youngs
Modulus (make sure it is negative) and Click OK
12. In the Model Tree under PARTS double click on MESH (the
part should change color, if it doesnt double click again )
a. On the top menu, select SEED and then PART
b. Click OK
c. Also on the top menu select MESH and then PART
d. On the bottom of the screen Click YES
13. Save your file now (if you have made mistakes it often
crashes the program on the next step)00
14. Back in the Model Tree right click on JOBS and select
CREATE
a. Give the job a name you will recognize and select
CONTINUE
b. Accept all the defaults and Click OK
c. Now click on the + beside JOBS, right click on your job
name and select SUBMIT
 d. After a few minutes of processing (you may get errors, but
it should be ok) right click on your job name again and select
RESULTS
e. Once in Results, the icon that is Colored and Bent
f. the top menu click RESULTS and then FIELD OUTPUT
i. Select MAX PRINCIPLE Stress
ii. You are now looking at the stress distribution of the
simulated root at the max pressure
You can watch the tension test through all the time-steps by
selecting the ANIMATE: SCALE FACTOR icon (you may want to
go to the ANIMATION OPTIONS first and slow down the speed
)