CHAPTER: 1

POWER TRANSFORMER

1.1 Introduction

As the soul keeps the body alive same is the case of transformer for the electrical
system. It is used to provide electrical energy from one to another circuit. Magnetic field is

1
induced when primary current is changed and as a result secondary current is also changed. If
we connect the load then energy can further be transferred. The secondary current can be
determined by primary current if we know the turn ratio of transformer. By increasing Ns one can
[8]
step up the voltage and stepped down by decreasing Ns.

Figure 1.1: Working principle of Transformer

1.2 Efficiency

2
 Transformer is one of the most effective devices. Its efficiency is up to 99%. They come
[9]
in different sizes. No matter what the range is the basic principle is same in every transformer.

1.3 Applications

Transformers are widely used to step down voltages to a suitable level. They isolate the
user from the main power supply. Signal and audio transformers are also used in applications
like microphones and record player cartridges. Two way communications on telephone lines is
just because of audio transformers, also the isolation between external cables and internal
. [8]
circuits is a big feature of them

1.4 Working Principle

Two basic principles are used in the transformer: magnetic field due to electric current
(electromagnetism) and voltage due to changing magnetic field (electromagnetic induction). If a
load is connected the energy is further transferred. Ideally a transformer should transfer energy
[8]
completely with full efficiency.

Power at primary side (IPVP) = Power at secondary side (ISVS)

Giving the ideal transformer equation.

1.5 Types

3
 Transformers come in all shapes and sizes for example balun transformer that is of the
size of a palm while weight of EHV power transformer is several metric tons.

[8]
Different types of transformers that are used in the industry are:

Generator transformer
Power transformer
Distribution Pole-mounted transformer
Grounding transformer
Regulating transformer
Welding transformer
Convertor transformer
Instrument transformer

Over-current protection in the form of fuses may be the only protection provided to a
small 50KVA, 11kv/400 distribution transformer. Different transformers need different protection
backups.

1.6 Coolant

Windings of the transformer can be damaged due to overheating. In small transformers

the temperature is not high while in power transformers the temperature is very high due
to the large value of KVA. This high temperature can be cooled by some cooling devices
such as fans. In some power transformers we use transformer oil to cool and isolate the
windings.

1.7 Transformer Heating

One should consider two losses while designing the thermal model of power transformers.
These losses increased the temperature of transformer.
No load losses
Load losses

1.7.1 No Load Losses

4
 No load losses are due to hysteresis losses and eddy current loss. These losses occur
while energizing the transformer. The voltage used for exciting the transformer determined how
much hysteresis loss and eddy current loss are produced in it.

1.7.2 Load Losses

The main cause of transformer heating is load losses. It includes copper losses and
stray losses. The copper losses are due to winding eddy current loss and direct current
resistance losses. Load current and the oil temperature determined the amount of loss in
transformer.

1.8 Cooling of transformer

The transformer is cooled by transferring the heat of core and windings to the insulating
oil. The transfer of heat to external radiator is done by circulating the oil. The cooling surface
area of the transformer is increased by radiator. Radiators efficiency can also be increased by
using pumps, which increase the flow of oil. There are two types of transformer on the basis of
their oil flow
Directive flow transformer
Non directive flow transformer
In high power transformers, where temperature is very high, forced air cooling is used. In this
cooling method the air is blown over the surface of radiators using fans. By this method the
radiators efficiency is doubled.

1.8.1 Impact of Oil Temperature on Transformers

The insulating oil temperature is increased when the load increases. The loading should be in
the range mentioned above the name plate of transformer to avoid danger. Every transformer is
designed according to the maximum oil temperature above the normal temperature. So the
protection of transformer is done by making right choice of oil temperature. It provides us which
[5]
sensitivity of the transformer

CHAPTER: 2

5
IMPORTANCE OF
PROTECTION

2.1 Introduction

The modern society of today is heavily depending upon continuity and reliability of
electricity. Computer and telecommunication networks, railway networks, banking and post

6
offices networks, continuous process industries and life support systems are all those systems
which cannot work without a reliable source of electrical energy. On the other hand millions of
users whose life and carrier will totally be disturbed if they get no electricity. So we need a 24
hour power supply to live in this age but its not possible so we will have made a compromise.
We need power systems that are well protected for the coming future. Today it is a different
scenario because as the number of electrical companies is increasing the number of consumers
are increasing on double rate, so power is getting limited. The power requirements of users are
increasing and companies are not able to cop with it. So every company is trying to provide the
best of it for its survival in future. Whatever is done we cannot eliminate fault from our systems.
We can only provide compensation in case of faults.

[1]
Figure 2.1: Power infrastructure

2.2 Characteristics of Protection Schemes

We use better and better protection schemes whose characteristics give us best results.

7
2.2.1 Sensitivity

Sensitivity is a major issue. A system should be active enough to respond to any fault
that occurs. If a system is much sensitive it will detect minor changes as well.

2.2.2 Selectivity

Selectivity is another very important property. A protective system should be very

selective to detect and isolate the faults. So a protective system should zero-in on the faulty
elements and isolate them, thus causing minimum interruption to the system.

2.2.3 Speed

The third important property is speed because a system should be fast enough to
remove faults as quickly as possible in order to retain stability. Time is money especially in case
of power systems. It should be remembered that speed and accuracy do have an inverse
relationship between them. A high speed system is not accurate enough that is why it has lesser
amount of information at its disposal than a slow speed system. It is the job of an engineer to
provide a balance between both these things.

2.2.4 Reliability and Dependency

Reliability and Dependency is the fourth important property. If a system is protective but
not reliable then it is useless. Just using good engineering judgment can lead us to a reliable
system. Systems which are simple are more reliable and majority in them are those having
locally available information. One should not depend much on remote systems. As already
mentioned we cannot reduce faults, so to enhance the protection and dependability of the
protective system we need backup systems.

2.3 Components of Protection Schemes

8
 We want a stable power system so we only isolate the faulty components5, leaving the
rest of the circuit as it is. So we apply a very pragmatic approach to deal with the faults. That is
why we use well-established technologies.

Protection systems have normally five components: [2]

1. Current Transformers and Potential Transformers

2. Relays
3. Circuit breakers for sensing short circuit currents
4. D.C Batteries
5. Channels for communication

2.3.1 Current Transformer

A Current Transformer (CT) is a type of transformer used to supply current to secondary

windings w.r.t Alternating Current A.C in primary. These transformers are used in industries to
measure large current values without taking into account the voltage. So a CT is simply used for
isolation.

Figure 2.2: current transformer [17]

9
1) Design

According to the requirement of the client, two standards for current transformer were
developed. CT has enwrapped wire several times around the ring made up of silicon. The
current measurement of any circuit is done by passing that silicon ring over the circuit. The CT is
a constant-current series device. Primary circuit is not really affected by a CT while the
secondary current is 1 to 5 amperes. For example, a 2000:2 means there is current of 2A
flowing in secondary windings when the primary windings current is 2000A. [3]

2) Usage

A CT is mostly used to measure and monitor the current values. The CT is usually
described by the ratio of primary current to the secondary current. CTs can be used as
protection devices.

3) Safety Precautions

It should be kept in mind that when current is flowing in the transformer load should be
connected to the secondary side.

5) Accuracy

Current Transformers accuracy relies upon various factors:

Burden: Main burden of CT is resistive load

Rating factor: Maximum primary current is determined by multiplying full load current of
Current Transformer by a factor known as rating factor
Load: An Ampere meter is connected across its secondary
Temperature: Atmospheric effects

2.3.2 Potential Transformer (PT)

10
 Voltage in electric circuits is measured through voltage and potential transformers.
These transformers mainly step down the voltage levels to a desired point. The voltage is
proportional in both primary and secondary but the difference comes in the phase (angle) which
is mainly zero. A low voltage transformer converts line voltage of 120 VAC to low voltage of 12
VAC. We can then use this low voltage to power up smaller instruments. A dimmer is also used
with the transformer. A low voltage lighting transformer converts 120 V currents to a safe and
[5]
energy efficient 12 V current for many outdoor lighting applications.

1) Types

There are several types of Potential Transformers. Three types are mainly used which
are as follows:

High voltage transformers

Medium voltage transformers

Low voltage transformers

By changing the ratio between primary and secondary coils, we can get variable voltage. A
constant voltage transformer maintains constant output voltages for variations up to 20% in the
input voltages. When a voltage regulator is added then voltage ratio can be adjusted.

2) Selection

For the selection of single-phase or three-phase transformers we first need to know

about these factors:

Configuration

Frequency

Maximum primary and secondary voltage ratings

Maximum power rating

The size and cost of a transformer increases with the KVA rating.

11
3) Accuracy of Potential Transformer
The ratio and phase-angle inaccuracies of potential transformer are so small that they can be
neglected for protective-relaying purposes. The thermal VA rating corresponds to the full-load
rating of a power transformer. For metering purposes this voltage is kept higher than the VA
ratings. The equivalent-circuit impedances of potential transformers are comparable to those of
distribution transformers. The "burden" is the total external VA load on the secondary at rated
secondary voltage.

2.3.3 Relays
Relay is an electromechanical switch made up of an electromagnet and a set of
contacts. They are usually hidden and mostly used in computers for Boolean gates. The
purpose to use a relay is small amount of power consumption which is good for low-power
electronic circuits. Relays are quite common in home appliances where there is an electronic
control turning on something
There are four parts in every relay:
Electromagnet
Armature that can be attracted toward the electromagnet
Spring
Set of electrical contacts

2.3.5 Circuit Breaker

An electrical switch used to protect electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or
short circuit is called circuit breaker. It is not like a fuse which is replaced after every overshoot.
They are available in different large and small sizes.
A circuit breaker should detect every smallest fault. For large currents pilot devices are also
used with the circuit breakers to start the trip opening mechanism. To start the trip operation
separate battery is used. If a fault is detected contacts are opened.

2.4 Causes of Faults

12
 A faulty current is a current produced due to faults in the circuits such as short circuit or
low impedance fault. The device used for protection of a circuit should be operated in very short
time. For this purpose the value of fault current should be high. The device must have ability to
handle fault current. It should be capable of removing arcs resulting from current surges with
outwearing damaged.

There are three types of fault current:

Phase to neutral

Phase to phase

Phase to earth

Failure of installation cause shunt faults. The breaking of insulation can be due to overvoltage or
weakening of contacts having factors given as follows:

Ageing ,Temperature, Rain , Hail ,Snow

Chemical pollution, Foreign objects & Other causes

2.4.1 Probability of Different Faults

Faults may be classified as:
Ground faults
Phase faults
All those faults which contain only one phase conductor are ground faults where all those
faults which involve two phase conductors are phase faults. A fault is severe when expressed
in term of magnitude of fault current and hence its potential for causing damage. In the power
system the three phase fault is the most severe while the line to ground fault is the least severe.
[7]

Table 2.1: Fault statistics with reference to power system elements

Power system element Probability of faults (%)

13
 Overhead lines 50
Underground lines 9
Transformers 10
Generators 7
Switchgear 12
CT and PT relays 12

2.5 Types of Protection

Our major challenge is protection of power Transformers using relays because they are
very expensive. Faults in power transformers are not economical.
There are several types of protections which have must be provided before installing of any
Power transformer.

2.5.1 Over Current Protection

An over current relay is used to do the protection job. This type of protection does the following
jobs:

Instantaneous tripping in high-voltage side faults

Delayed tripping in low-voltage side faults

Inrush current (switching current surge) has to be taken into account for its proper
Function

2.5.2 Earth Fault Protection

In an earthed network the schemes we employ have following properties:

Over current relaying

Measurement and time delay of the neutral point current

Differential current relay

Neutral isolated network; measurement of zero-sequence voltage

2.5.3 Winding and Inter-turn Fault Protection

14
 An interterm short circuit is developed when high current flows through the windings
which cause faults. Buchholz gas relay detects the windings and inter-turn faults and also deals
with the insulation failures.

2.5.4 Transformer Over-Excitation

As the frequency is raised the magnetization current of the transformer also increases.
The core will get saturated and excitation current will rise and further frequency harmonics will
increase.

2.5.5 Overload Protection

This protection is done with the measurement of the oil temperature and also checking
and noting the time delay with respect to the temperature rise of the winding.

2.5.6 Differential Protection

Differential protection can be applied on the physical terminals of the transformer. It
compares the current on both the sides and if there is a difference it breaks the circuit. This is
done keeping in mind the principles of the transformer. Differential protection is able to detect
the fault in the entire zone allocated to it.

CHAPTER: 3

15
 MICROCONTROLLER

3.1 Introduction:
A compact stand alone computer suitable for control applications is microcontroller.
Processor, I /O interfaces, Random Access Memory (RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM) all are
present on single chip of silicon. Time taken by it to read or write instruction is very small.
Microprocessors are very important part of products in our everyday life such as TVs, cars,
radios, home applications. It is core part of computers. It makes only 2% of all semiconductor
market. 30% of Worlds semiconductor sales come from microprocessors, microcontrollers and
programmable peripheral chips. There are different types of Microcontrollers available in market
[12]
e.g. 4-bit, 8-bit, 16-bit.8-bit microcontroller is best selling controller.

16
 [13]
Figure 3.1: Block diagram of microcontroller

There are also 32-bit microprocessors. It includes several embedded processors such
as Power PC, MIPS, and ARM chips. Embedded systems use approximately about 98% of
microprocessor. They are expensive and used in very large volume
Microcontroller is defined as computer on chip. Single IC contains all necessary parts. You just
need to power it up and it start executing the programme stored in it. It has CPU core,
ROM/EEPROM /FLASH, and RAM. It has ability to limit the capabilities of CPU itself allowing
complete computer on single silicone chip. Controllers are used in application where processing
power is not so important. For example, controlling a remote control device with the smallest
microcontroller. Microcontrollers are used in many electronic devices now days.
Data logging is a special feature of microcontroller. This feature also enables to monitor many
atmospheric parameters. They are very small sizes and easy to use. There power requirement
is very low.

3.2 PIC Microcontrollers

Very important microcontrollers are PIC microcontrollers. They are very easy to program.
PIC is the name of Microchip microcontroller (MCU) family, consisting of microprocessor, I/O
ports, timers, counters wide range of chip sizes (from 8-pin up), great availability of compilers
and source code and easy programming. Flash type devices are reprogrammable in-circuit. A
wide range of simple programmer hardware and software is downloadable from the net.

17
 [14]
Figure 3.2: PIC Microcontrollers architecture

PIC microcontroller enables us to do things which one cannot do with discrete logic. It may not
replace processors but this inexpensive, small size chip is right selection for many projects.

3.2.1 Why PIC 16F877A?

PIC microcontrollers from Microchip are very popular microcontrollers. PIC microcontrollers are
easy to program and they have built in A/D Converters.

18
 [15]
Figure 3.3:PIC16F877A pin configuration

3.2.2 A PIC Microcontroller Introduction

A PIC microcontroller is a processor with built in memory and RAM and you can use it to
control your projects

19
 [16]
Figure 3.4: Structure of PIC16F877A with peripherals

3.2.3 Features
PIC microcontroller is a processor with following features:
Internal EEROM
FLASH memory
Timers
Analog comparator
RAM

1) Programming
As PIC microcontroller use flash memory, you can re-program it. This is one of the
powerful features of PIC microcontroller. PIC microcontroller has built in ICSP serial interface for
programming and you can do programming even it is plugged in to circuit.

20
2) Input / Output - I/O
A PIC Microcontroller can control outputs and react to inputs. One can drive LCD or
seven segment display by using PIC microcontroller. By considering frequency counter and
discrete web design you will find microcontroller design efficiency over discrete design. Now it
has built in A/D converter so you can easily read analog signal.

[13]
Table 3.1: PIC Microcontroller Features

PIC
PIC microcontroller
microcontroller
feature description
Feature
Flash memory Re-programmable program storage.
RAM Memory storage for variables.
Long term stable memory: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read
EEPROM
Only Memory.
I/O ports High current Input/output ports (with pin direction change).
Timers/Counters Typically 3.
USART Built in RS232 protocol (only needs level translator chip).
Comparator An analogue comparator and internal voltage reference.
A/D Analog to digital converter.
PSP Parallel Slave Port (for 8 bit microprocessor systems).
LCD LCD interface.
Special features ICSP,WDT,BOR,POR,PWRT,OST,SLEEP
ICSP Simple programming using In Circuit Serial Programming.

CHAPTER: 4

21
 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

4.1 Project Aims

This project aims at providing protection against internal faults, over & under
current, over & under voltage and thermal overshoot using microcontroller based relay. For past
few year and till now solid state and electromechanical relays are using for protection. Due to
the advancements in digital technology and reduction in hardware prices, researchers have
been working on relays using microprocessor. Now digital relays are available in market and are
being used for power system protection. Digital relays are reliable and cost effective devices.
Sophisticated signal processing functions are performed by numerical relays. It also enables the
relay designer to enhance the relay performance and used protection principles. It facilitates
secure, faster and dependable protection for power transformers. It have used inrush restraint
algorithm for protection of power transformers. These algorithms consider a ratio between the
phases of the second and the fundamental frequency components of the differential signal.

22
In our research, the major topic of concern is microcontroller based relay for power
transformer protection and its hardware and software implementation. The percentage
differential protection which includes over current protection, external faults and over & under
voltage protection has been carried out in this project. In first quarter of primary current wave,
the method of rate of change of primary current w.r.t time has been adopted to discriminate the
internal current from inrush. Because magnetizing inrush current wave has high di/dt as
compared with di/dt of internal current wave. Block diagram of project is given below.

4.2 Components & Accessories

Following are the components relating to this project:
Transformer
Microcontroller 16F877A
LM 358
12V DC Relay
Opto-coupler
Diodes & Resistors
Contactor
Current Transformer
Temperature sensor LM35
Buzzer
LED

23
 Capacitors
Cooling Fan
220/12 Volt Supply
Load (Lamps)

4.3 Various circuits

We have used many circuits in our project. That is why we are able to protect the transformer
from damaging.

4.3.1 Voltage measuring circuit

In this voltage measuring circuit we use step down transformer of turn ratio
20:1. The output voltage is in analog form so we convert it into DC by using bridge rectifier. The
output of the bridge rectifier is not pure DC. We convert this pulsating DC into pure DC by using
capacitor in parallel with bridge rectifier. Now we use voltage divider to get the desired value of
voltage. This desired voltage is fed to A/D of microcontroller. By doing this we get the digital
value of input voltage. We have used two voltage measuring circuits in our project. The voltage
measuring circuit is shown in figure 4.1 below.

24
 Figure 4.1 Voltage measuring circuit

4.3.2 Relay circuit

Relay is a device used for switching purposes. We have used five relays in
our project. Three relays are use for Tap changing of Transformer. One relay is used for LM35
and one is used for fan. Relays cannot be used with Opto-couplers. The number of Opto-
couplers is same as the number of relays.
Opto-coupler is a low voltage device. It operates at 5V and it is used as control circuit in our
project. It is not an expensive device but the reliability of protection is totally depending upon its
operation. So it is necessary that there is isolation of control circuit from power circuit which is
operating at 220V and 110V in this case
Opto-coupler is used to provide isolation of control circuit from power circuit. It consists of photo
sensing NPN type transistor and an LED. When there is error the microcontroller gives signal to
output pin and LED of Opto-Coupler start glowing. This light falls on base of NPN transistor. As

25
NPN transistor is light sensitive, its base emitter junction will be forward biased due to light
falling on its base and transistor will then operates the relay. It is more beneficial to used pulse
train to operate the relay then pulse generator to trip the coil.
If collector and base terminal of NPN transistor in Opto-Coupler meets some fault, the high
voltage will not reach the control circuit, as there is no physical connection between power
circuit and control circuit. The only connection between them is LED light which is on falling
transistor base will operate the relay. In this way, the control circuit is protected from the high
voltage of power circuit.

Figure 4.2 Microcontroller, Opto-coupler & Relays Connections

4.3.3 Power supply circuit

We are available with high voltage 220V. That is too high for our circuit, thats
why we use step down transformer of ratio 20:1. The output voltage is in analog form so we
convert it into DC by using bridge rectifier. The output of the bridge rectifier is not pure DC. We
convert this pulsating DC into pure DC by using capacitor in parallel with bridge rectifier. We
need two values of voltages 12V and 5V.12V for operating relays and 5V for microcontroller,
buzzer circuit and current measuring circuit.12V is the output of the bridge rectifier. To convert it
into 5V we use voltage regulator 7805.

26
 Figure 4.3 Power supply circuit

4.3.4 Current measuring circuit

The load current is measured using CT. The CT step down the high load
current. The value of current after stepping down is very small in the range of milli Amperes.
This current is then amplified by using op-amp (LM 358). This IC has dual built in op-amps. The
output of LM 358 is fed to A/D of microcontroller through Pin 5. In this way we can monitor the
high value of load current. The current measuring circuit is shown in figure 4.4.

27
 Figure 4.4 current measuring circuit

4.3.5 Buzzer circuit

We use buzzer in our project, so that when there is a fault it starts buzzing.
In this way one can be aware of the transformer condition. The voltage to operate buzzer circuit
is coming from microcontroller through Pin 23. Buzzer circuit is shown in figure 4.5.

28
 Figure 4.5 buzzer circuit

4.3.6 Temperature Sensor circuit

The purpose of temperature sensor is to sense the temperature and
generate the voltages accordingly. This voltage is send to microcontroller so that we can
measure the temperature. We have used LM35 for temperature sensing. The output of LM35 is
fed to microcontroller through Pin 2. The circuit diagram is shown in figure 4.6.

29
 Figure 4.6 Temperature sensing circuit

4.3.7 LCD circuit

LCD is used to monitor all values of voltages and current. It is also used to
display messages such as over and under voltage, over load current and temperature. Its
connections with microcontroller are shown in figure 4.6.

30
 Figure 4.7 LCD circuit

4.4 Protections
Input pins 2 and 3 (RA0 and RA1) of microcontroller will provide the output
across the capacitor. Transformer protection against overload, internal faults, such as inter-turn

31
faults, windings to core faults etc. and thermal overload is done by programming PIC
microcontroller 16F877A.

4.4.1 Overload or Over-Current Protection

First our topic of concern is over current or overload protection. Design of
transformer is done in such a way that it gives the value of current within specified limit so that
there is no damage. It is the job of microcontroller to continuously monitor the status of load
current of primary side of transformer. When the value of current is within range of the designed
value, the microcontroller will do nothing and transformer will work normally. When the value of
current is out of range the microcontroller will interrupt circuit to trip down by sending trip signal.
This signal operates the relay and energizes the contactor coil. This will cut down the supply
from transformer. In this way transformer is protected from over current.

4.4.2 Over and under voltage Protection

Secondly our topic of concern is over and under voltage protection. Design
of transformer is done in such a way that it gives the value of voltage within specified limit so
that there is no damage. It is the job of microcontroller to continuously monitor the status of the
voltage of primary side of transformer. When the value of voltage is within range of the designed
value, the microcontroller will do nothing and transformer will work normally. When the value of
voltage is out of range the microcontroller will interrupt circuit to trip down by sending trip signal.
This signal operates the relay and energizes the contactor coil. This will cut down the supply
from transformer. In this way transformer is protected from over and under voltage.
4.4.3 Internal Faults
Third topic of our concern is protection against the internal faults. This is
called differential protection. In this protection method the amount of current at the input and
output of transformer is measured. Transformers secondary and primary current is continuously
checked by the microcontroller. Microcontroller then calculates their difference. If this difference
is less than or equal to the present value then microcontroller do nothing. If this difference is
greater than the present value then microcontroller will operate the relay by sending signal to it.
It then energizes its contactor coil. The Not Connected (NC) of contactor becomes open. In this
way transformer is protected against internal faults.

4.4.4 Thermal Overloading

The fourth type of protection provided to the transformer is against thermal
overloading. The temperature rise is due to the over loading of transformer or due to internal or
increase in temperature of atmosphere. The transformer may damage if the temperature

32
increases from its safety limits. We have divided this protection in two steps. The temperature of
transformer is continuously fed to the microcontroller through heat sensor LM35.In the first step
of thermal overload protection, if temperature of the transformer exceeds from first preset value
the microcontroller sends the signal to LED/Buzzer. The LED/Buzzer will show that the
temperature has crossed the first limit and some preventive action must be taken (like start of
cooling fan).If the temperature further increases and crosses the second preset value
microcontroller senses this and sends the signal to the relay to operate. The relay in turn
energizes its contactor coil. The NC of contactor becomes open. In this way transformer is
protected against thermal overloading.

4.5 Complete Diagram

The complete diagram showing complete description of our project is shown below.

33
Figure 4.8 Complete Circuit Diagram of Project

34
 CONCLUSION

In this modern age the protection of electrical system has been a challenging problem for all
protection engineers. The transformation from analog world to digital world has created vast

35
scope of study for all protection engineers and has moved to more economical techniques for
implementation as well.
With advancement of microchips we were also attracted towards protection of transformer using
microcontroller. Here we have chosen PIC microcontroller 16F877A due to its special features
like reprogram ability, built in Analog to digital convertor (A/D). The transformer is backbone of
every electrical power system. The various application of transformer has lead to its wide usage
including substations to mini house household appliances. Thus protection has been
compulsion.
In this project, microcontroller based protection system of transformer has been designed and
explained. The main purpose of this project is to provide protection against different faulty
conditions in transformer which are given below
Internal Faults
Short circuit
Overloading
Overheating
Over voltage
Under voltage

ABBRIVATION AND ACRONYMS

36
Accuracy: Correctness of an instrument
Analog Filters: Filters for Analog Signals
A/D Converters: Analog to Digital Converters
AC: Alternating Current
C
CT: Current Transformer
Circuit Breaker: An automatically-operated electrical switch
CISC: Complex Instruction Set Computer
CMOS: Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
D
Differential Protection: Protection using difference of two quantities.
DGA: Digital Gas Analysis
DC: Direct Current
E
EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
I
IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
ICSP: In Circuit Serial Programming

L
LCD: Liquid Crystal Display
O
OTP: One Time Programmable
P
PT: Potential Transformer
R
Relay: A simple electromechanical switch
RISC: Reduced Instruction Set Computer
RAM: Random Access Memory
ROM: Read Only Memory
S
SPI: Serial Peripheral Interface
SCI: Serial Communication Interface

37
U
UART: Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter
USART: Universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter

REFERENCES

[1] http://intelligrid.epri.com/architecture/images/Power_Infrastructure_Relies_On_Information.jpg

38
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_system_protection

[3] http://www.esacademy.com

[4] http://www.sayedsaad.com/Protection/files/VT_CT/1_VT_CT_files/image006.jpg

[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer_oil

[6] http://www.mikeholt.com/mojonewsarchive/EESHTML/HTML/ElectricalCircuitBre

akers~20030621.htm

[7] http://www.electricity-today.com/et/june99/trans.html

[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/working of transformer

[9] http://electronicslink.net/s/power_transformer_design

[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_system_protection#Types_of_protection

[11] http://www.electricalpowertransformer.com

[12] http://www.best-microcontroller-projects.com/pic-microcontroller.html

[13] http://www.mytutorialcafe.com/image/intro1.gif [14]

http://www.pictutorials.com/microcontroller_architectur.gif

[15] http://electricly.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/pic-16F877-Pin-out-e1294033814646.png

[16] http://digsys.upc.es/sed//SED/unitats/unitat_2_10/img/imgtimerB.gif

[17]http://www.freepatentsonline.com/6617839-0-large.jpg

APPENDIX
Code:

#include <16F877.h>

39
#device adc=10
#use delay (clock = 4000000)
#fuses BROWNOUT, HS, NOWDT, NOLVP, PUT
#byte ADCON0 = 0X1F
#byte ADCON1 = 0X9F
#byte PORTB = 0x06
#byte PORTD = 0x08
#bit RS = PORTD.6
#bit EN = PORTD.7
#define BUZZER PIN_C4
#define RLY_FAN PIN_C5
#define RLY_240V PIN_C6
#define RLY_220V PIN_C7
#define RLY_200V PIN_D4
#define RLY_SHUT PIN_D5
#define SW1 PIN_E0
#define SW2 PIN_E1
#define SW3 PIN_E2
void lcd_ini (void);
void lcd_data (char);
void lcd_com (char);
void process_temp(void);
void process_voltage(void);
void process_current(void);
void OV_SHUT_DOWN(void);
void UV_SHUT_DOWN(void);
void OL_SHUT_DOWN(void);
void OT_SHUT_DOWN(void);
void BCD (void);
void display_temp (void);
void display_volt (void);
void display_current (void);
void settings(void);
void display_vs(void);
void display_is(void);
void display_ts(void);
unsigned int count, count1, digit1, digit2, digit3 ;
unsigned int32 adc_value, P1_VOLTAGE ;

40
unsigned int32 TEMPERATURE, P1_CURRENT;
unsigned int32 OV, UV, OL, T;
void main()

{ set_tris_a(0b11111111);
set_tris_e(0b11111111);
set_tris_b(0b00000000);
set_tris_c(0b00000000);
set_tris_d(0b00000000);
output_b(0x00);
output_c(0x00);
output_d(0x00);
ADCON0 = 0B10000001 ;
ADCON1 = 0B11000010 ;
output_high(RLY_SHUT);
output_low(BUZZER);
OV =2450; UV = 1700; OL = 120; T = 400;
lcd_ini();
delay_ms(1000);
while(1)
{
process_voltage();
process_current();
process_temp();
if (input (SW1) == 0 )
settings();
delay_ms(500);
}
}
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
void process_voltage (void)
{ set_adc_channel(1); //INPUT voltage
delay_ms(25);
adc_value = read_adc();
adc_value = adc_value*5000/1023;
P1_VOLTAGE = adc_value;
BCD();
lcd_com(0x80);

41
 lcd_data('I');
lcd_data('N');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data(' ');
display_volt();
///////////////////////
set_adc_channel(2); //out voltage
delay_ms(25);
adc_value = read_adc();
adc_value = adc_value*5000/1023;
BCD();
lcd_com(0xC0); // set lcd cursor on line2 col1
lcd_data('O');
lcd_data('U');
lcd_data('T');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data(' ');
display_volt();
////////////////////////
if (P1_VOLTAGE > 1700 && P1_VOLTAGE < 1800 ) // 180v tapping
{output_low(RLY_200V); output_low(RLY_220V); output_low(RLY_240V);}
else if (P1_VOLTAGE> 1800 && P1_VOLTAGE <2000) // 200v tapping
{output_high(RLY_200V); output_low(RLY_220V); output_low(RLY_240V);}
else if (P1_VOLTAGE > 2000 && P1_VOLTAGE < 2200) // 220v tapping
{output_high(RLY_200V); output_high(RLY_220V); output_low(RLY_240V);}
else if (P1_VOLTAGE > 2200 && P1_VOLTAGE < 2400) // 240v tapping
{output_high(RLY_200V); output_high(RLY_220V); output_high(RLY_240V);}
if (P1_VOLTAGE < UV ) UV_SHUT_DOWN();
else if (P1_VOLTAGE > OV ) OV_SHUT_DOWN();
}
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
void process_current (void)
{ set_adc_channel(3); //P1 voltage

42
 delay_ms(25);
adc_value = read_adc();
adc_value = adc_value*5000/1023;
P1_CURRENT = adc_value;
BCD();
lcd_com(0x90); // set lcd cursor on line3 col1
lcd_data('I');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data('L');
lcd_data('O');
lcd_data('A');
lcd_data('D');
lcd_data(' ');
display_current();
///////////////////////
if (P1_CURRENT > OL )
OL_SHUT_DOWN();
}
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
void process_temp (void)
{ set_adc_channel(0);
delay_ms(25);
adc_value = read_adc();
adc_value = adc_value*5000/1023;
TEMPERATURE = adc_value;
BCD();
lcd_com(0xD0); //set lcd cursor on line4 col1
lcd_data('T');
lcd_data('E');
lcd_data('M');
lcd_data('P');
lcd_data(' ');
display_temp();
if ( TEMPERATURE > T ) OUTPUT_HIGH(RLY_FAN);
else if (TEMPERATURE < (T-1)) OUTPUT_LOW(RLY_FAN);
}
///////// settings //////////////////////////////
void settings()

43
{ lcd_com(0x01); // clear lcd
delay_ms(100);
lcd_data('S');
lcd_data('E');
lcd_data('T');
lcd_data('T');
lcd_data('I');
lcd_data('N');
lcd_data('G');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data('M');
lcd_data('O');
lcd_data('D');
lcd_data('E');

while (!input (SW1));

delay_ms(100);
lcd_com(0xC0);
lcd_data('U');
lcd_data('N');
lcd_data('D');
lcd_data('E');
lcd_data('R');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data('V');
lcd_data('O');
lcd_data('L');
lcd_data('T');
lcd_data('A');
lcd_data('G');
lcd_data('E');
adc_value = UV;
while (input (SW1))
{ display_vs();
if (input (SW2) == 0)
{ adc_value = adc_value + 10;
display_vs();

44
 delay_ms(500);
}
if (input (SW3) == 0)
{ adc_value = adc_value - 10;
display_vs();
delay_ms(500);
}
}
UV = adc_value ;
/////////////////////////////
while (!input (SW1));
delay_ms(100);
lcd_com(0xC0);
lcd_data('O');
lcd_data('V');
lcd_data('E');
lcd_data('R');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data('V');
lcd_data('O');
lcd_data('L');
lcd_data('T');
lcd_data('A');
lcd_data('G');
lcd_data('E');
adc_value = OV;
while (input (SW1))
{ display_vs();
if (input (SW2) == 0)
{ adc_value = adc_value + 10;
display_vs();
delay_ms(500);
}
if (input (SW3) == 0)
{ adc_value = adc_value - 10;
display_vs();
delay_ms(500);
}

45
 }
OV = adc_value ;
/////////////////////////////
while (!input (SW1));
delay_ms(100);
lcd_com(0xC0);
lcd_data('O');
lcd_data('V');
lcd_data('E');
lcd_data('R');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data('C');
lcd_data('U');
lcd_data('R');
lcd_data('R');
lcd_data('E');
lcd_data('N');
lcd_data('T');
adc_value = OL;
while (input (SW1))
{ display_is();
if (input (SW2) == 0)
{ adc_value = adc_value + 10;
display_is();
delay_ms(500);
}
if (input (SW3) == 0)
{ adc_value = adc_value - 10;
display_is();
delay_ms(500);
}
}

OL = adc_value ;
/////////////////////////////
while (!input (SW1));
delay_ms(100);
lcd_com(0xC0);

46
 lcd_data('T');
lcd_data('E');
lcd_data('M');
lcd_data('P');
lcd_data('E');
lcd_data('R');
lcd_data('A');
lcd_data('T');
lcd_data('U');
lcd_data('R');
lcd_data('E');
adc_value = T;
while (input (SW1))
{ display_ts();
if (input (SW2) == 0)
{ adc_value = adc_value + 10;
display_ts();
delay_ms(500);
}
if (input (SW3) == 0)
{ adc_value = adc_value - 10;
display_ts();
delay_ms(500);
}
}

T = adc_value ;
lcd_com(0x01);
delay_ms(100);
}
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
void display_vs()
{ lcd_com(0x90);
BCD();
display_volt();
}
///////////////////
void display_is()

47
{ lcd_com(0x90);
BCD();
display_current();
}
///////////////////
void display_ts()
{ lcd_com(0x90);
BCD();
display_temp();
}
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
void display_volt (void)
{ lcd_data(digit3+0x30);
lcd_data(digit2+0x30);
lcd_data(digit1+0x30);
lcd_data('V');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data(' ');

void display_current()
{ lcd_data (digit2+0x30);
lcd_data('.');
lcd_data (digit1+0x30);
lcd_data('A');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data(' ');
}

void display_temp()
{ lcd_data (digit2+0x30);
lcd_data (digit1+0x30);
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data('C');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data(' ');

48
}

/////////////////////////////////////////////////

void BCD (void)

{ digit3 = adc_value/1000 ;
digit2 = (adc_value/100) % 10 ;
digit1 = (adc_value/10) % 10 ;
}

/////////////////////////////////////////////////

void OV_SHUT_DOWN(void)
{ lcd_com(0X01);
output_low(RLY_SHUT);

delay_ms(200);

lcd_data('O');
lcd_data('V');
lcd_data('E');
lcd_data('R');

lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data('V');
lcd_data('O');
lcd_data('L');
lcd_data('T');
lcd_data('A');
lcd_data('G');
lcd_data('E');

while(1)
{ output_toggle(BUZZER);
delay_ms(500);
}
}

49
/////////////////////////////////////////////////

void UV_SHUT_DOWN(void)
{ lcd_com(0X01);
output_low(RLY_SHUT);

delay_ms(200);

lcd_data('U');
lcd_data('N');
lcd_data('D');
lcd_data('E');
lcd_data('R');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data('V');
lcd_data('O');
lcd_data('L');
lcd_data('T');
lcd_data('A');
lcd_data('G');
lcd_data('E');

while(1)
{ output_toggle(BUZZER);
delay_ms(500);
}
}

/////////////////////////////////////////////////

void OL_SHUT_DOWN(void)
{ lcd_com(0X01);
output_low(RLY_SHUT);

delay_ms(200);

lcd_data('O');

50
 lcd_data('V');
lcd_data('E');
lcd_data('R');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data('L');
lcd_data('O');
lcd_data('A');
lcd_data('D');

while(1)
{ output_toggle(BUZZER);
delay_ms(500);
}
}

/////////////////////////////////////////////////

void OT_SHUT_DOWN(void)
{ lcd_com(0X01);
output_low(RLY_SHUT);

delay_ms(200);

lcd_data('O');
lcd_data('V');
lcd_data('E');
lcd_data('R');
lcd_data(' ');
lcd_data('T');
lcd_data('E');
lcd_data('M');
lcd_data('P');

while(1)
{ output_toggle(BUZZER);
delay_ms(500);
}
}

51
/////////////////////////////////////////////////

void lcd_ini(void)
{ delay_ms(300);
lcd_com(0x38);
lcd_com(0x0C);
lcd_com(0x01);
delay_ms(100);
}

/////////////////////////////////////////////////

void lcd_com(char i)
{ RS = 0;
PORTB = i;
EN = 1;
delay_us(300);
EN =0;
}

/////////////////////////////////////////////////

void lcd_data(char i)
{ RS = 1;
PORTB = i;
EN = 1;
delay_us(300);
EN = 0;
}

52