The term, pragmatics is derived from Greek word pragma, meaning action and action is defined as an

intentional behavior. The scholars and researchers in language across the globe interpreted the term 'pragmatics'
in the practical sense of the word. Charles Morris (1938) very methodically studied pragmatics for the first time.
According to him, there is a fundamental difference between semantics and pragmatics, in the sense that the
relations of signs to interpreters are studied in pragmatics and the relations of signs to objects are studied in
semantics. However, pragmatics reemerged in 1962 with the advent theory of speech acts in the posthumously
published book, How to Do Things with Words, of the British philosopher of language, J L Austin. Austin
initiated the theory of speech acts and his disciple, J R Searle (1969) codified it systematically.

What is Speech Act?

The British philosopher J L Austin was the first to draw an attention to the many functions performed by various
kinds of utterances in his book How To Do Things With Words (1962). He pointed out that numerous
utterances do not communicate information, but are equivalent to action. Austin (1962) defined a speech act as
an act of uttering a certain sentence in a given context for a determined purpose i.e. an act of communication.
He believed that when people speak, they not only articulate meaningful sounds but also perform actions of
numerous types like stating, ordering, proposing, requesting, greeting, etc. It is necessary for human beings to
understand and to be understood. Therefore, speech acts are the basic acts in any human communication.
Following are some of the important definitions of speech act:

a. Speaking a language is performing speech acts, acts such as making

statement, giving commands, asking questions, making promises and so on.
(Searle, 1969)
b. Speech acts are actions performed via utterances. (Yule, 1996)
c. Speech act theory says that language is used not only to describe things but
also to do things as well. (Kempson, 2001)
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Searles Typology of Speech Acts
J R Searle (1969) systematized and codified the five major types of speech acts that J L Austin (1962) had
proposed in his posthumously published book How to Do Things with Words (1962). Austin was much
criticized for the overlaps in classification of speech acts by his contemporaries. However, much of Searles
work (1969) embarks on, where Austin had left off it. In this matter, some argue that Searle is not altogether
successful in systemization. Levinson (1983:238) says that his classification of speech acts is less clear
than Austins original. Nevertheless, his later work is more comprehensive. He classified speech acts into five
different categories i.e. assertives, (commissives, directives,) declaratives, and expressives.
A] Assertive Speech Acts
The illocutionary point of assertive speech acts is to present truthful representations of
facts. Assertive speech acts have a word-to-world direction of fit. An utterance "It is too
dark." achieves success of fit, if it is really dark.
B] Commissive Speech Acts
The illocutionary point of commissive speech acts is to assume commitments to carry out
a certain course of action. Commissive speech acts have a world-to-word direction of fit.
An utterance "I will lend you hundred rupees." achieves success of fit, if the speaker
lends the listener hundred rupees.
C] Expressive Speech Acts
The illocutionary point of expressive speech acts is to communicate attitudes of their
performers about certain facts. Expressive speech acts have a null or empty direction of
fit. An utterance "Congratulation!" presupposes that the addressee has succeeded in
doing something. However, the conveying of congratulations relates not to reality but to
an attitude of the speaker.
D] Directive Speech Acts
The illocutionary point of directive speech acts is to get someone else to carry out a
certain course of action. Directive speech acts, too, have a world-to-word direction of fit.
An utterance "Sit down!" achieves success of fit, if the listener really sits down
E] Declarative Speech Acts
The illocutionary point of declarative speech acts is to bring a change in circumstances.
An utterance "I name this road Abdul Kalam Road." achieves success of fit, if the
authorized person following appropriate procedure utters the above utterance, the road
will named after Abdul Kalam.