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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 GENERAL
Cheok and Lew (1993) tested eight 1/3-scale model precast beam to
column interior connections under cyclic loading. In general, the precast
concrete specimens had higher storey drifts at failure and higher initial
stiffness than monolithic specimens. The measured maximum concrete
strengths exceeded the calculated values and performed as well as monolithic
specimens in most cases. The cumulative energy dissipated to failure by
precast specimens was greater than that of monolithic specimens.
Figure 2.1 Perspective View of Type A Connection (Loo and Yao, 1995)
Figure 2.2 Perspective View of Type B Connection (Loo and Yao, 1995)
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while the other was an interior joint of a one-way prestressed concrete frame.
The test specimens were designed with gradually reduced beam and joint
shear reinforcement compared with equivalent monolithic joints, but with
special spiral confinement of the beam plastic hinge regions. Both
subassemblages performed well, with only minor damage upto drift ratios of 3
percent. It was concluded that satisfactory seismic performance can be
expected from well designed ungrouted precast, post-tensioned concrete
frames.
Khaloo and Parastesh (2003) studied four types 2/5 scale model
precast connection and one monolithic concrete beam-column connections. In
the precast specimen, the load was transferred in the spliced reinforcement by
a combination of lap splicing and end anchorage of bars. The end portions of
the beams were designed in the form of a channel that sat on the column
bearing area and carried the shear stresses due to the slab. Then the
connection length region is grouted to form the monolithic connection. The
main variables of this study were the level of axial load of the column,
spacing of beam stirrup in the connection length region, gravity load on the beam
and use of steel fibre in grout of the connection region. The authors concluded
that all the specimens were capable of providing strength, ductility, and storey
drift and energy dissipation comparable with that of reference specimen. A
reduction in the axial load, the use of steel fibre region in grout of the
connection length region significantly increased the ductility, storey drift,
strength and energy absorption of the precast connection. The presence
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with frames only system for resisting lateral loads. As a result, the frame
system could be designed for limited ductility.
Joint shear deformation was less in the test units with outside anchorage than
in test units with inside anchorage. Damage to the beam to column joint
assemblages and the decay of the maximum capacities of the test units were
due not only to joint shear failure but also to anchorage deterioration of the
prestressing steel.
column. Each T-section had three holes to allow for the passing of the column
longitudinal bars. Four No.7 standard 90 degree hooks were welded to the T-
sections to provide adequate anchorage of the plate within the joint. The beam
end included two large single angles to which longitudinal reinforcement was
welded. The beam angles were welded to column section with fillet welds
over full width of the beam. Specimen PR1 differed from P1, as additional
intermediate reinforcement in the form of U-shaped No.6 bars was used. For
specimens P2 and PR2 the connection was similar to that of specimen P1 and
PR1. The only change made was that on the lower side a straight plate which
extended from the column face was utilized instead of a T-section. It was
concluded that precast concrete specimens performed similarly to that of
monolithically cast concrete connection. The precast column was strong
enough to force a plastic hinge away from the column face. The critical part
of the precast connections was the welded beam bars as they initiated the
failure of specimens. It was also observed that the intermediate reinforcing
bars in the precast concrete specimens had less effect on the capacity of the
specimen early in the test, however as the test progressed, these bars
contributed to the specimen capacity.
Ersoy and Tankut (1993) tested precast concrete beams with dry
joints designed for multistory buildings located in a seismic area under
reversed cyclic loading. The original beam consisted of two steel plates one at
top, the other at the bottom, welded to the anchored steel plates in the column
bracket and the beam. The design was later revised by adding side plates. The
main variables were presence of side plates and joint width. The authors
concluded that the joint width is an important parameter and therefore
tolerances should be checked carefully during erection. The strength, stiffness
and energy dissipation of the member with side plates were comparable to
those of monolithic member.
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b) Pretensioned Connection
c) TCY-Gap Connection
d) TCY Connection
drift at a constant rate. The experiments showed that the structure with shear
walls showed increased lateral stiffness and lateral load resisting capacity and
provided an effective diaphragm for the structure.
connection types under the same loading pattern and test configuration were
compared. Comparisons of performance parameters, such as energy
dissipation and ease of fabrication, revealed that the modified bolted
connections may be suitable for use in high seismic zones.
seismic loading, but a lower state of stress level can be achieved in precast
concrete construction with an increase in plate thickness of the hybrid
connection. The hybrid connection with a strong column-weak beam system,
an axial load between zero and 0.2fc Ag enhances performance. For the
connections with a weak column-strong beam system, the axial load ranging
from zero to 0.1 fcAg, where fc and Ag are cylinder compressive strength and
gross area of column respectively. The increase in plate thickness, the hybrid
connection was capable of carrying the required storey shears and the energy
dissipation of the joint increases. The Finite Element analysis and
experimental results were found to be good agreement.
and reducing the joint core deformation under reversed cyclic loading. The
Finite Element analysis results compared well with the experimental results.
loss, the time dependent prestress loss, and the loss of tensile stress in the
concrete as a result of concrete rupture were applied as single loading
increments. The results for the reinforced and prestressed beam showed that
deflections computed using the finite element model compared well with the
experimental results.
mesh for the surrounding concrete medium. For formulating the model for
post-tensioned beam LINK8 element was used for the post-tensioning cables,
with the remaining internal reinforcing bar modeled using distributed smeared
stiffness approach. The numerical model predicted well the nonlinear load-
deflection response of the beams upto failure. The finite element model predicted
the crack pattern similar to the test beam. It was concluded that for capturing the
flexural modes of failure of reinforced concrete systems, the smeared crack
model was an approximate numerical model.
reinforcement ratios and strengthened with FRP at the bottom are not
influenced by the length of the beam significantly. The beams with high
reinforcement ratios and strengthened with FRP at the bottom had more
cracks at the central region than those with low reinforcement ratios. With
the same FRP layers, the ultimate strengths and the numbers of cracks of the
beams strengthened by FRP on both sides were much less than those
strengthened by FRP at the bottom.
model compared well with the experimental data. The failure mechanism of
the reinforced and prestressed concrete beam was modeled well and the
failure load was close to the experimental results.
The maximum difference in ultimate loads for all cases is 7.8%. The final
loads for the finite element models are the last applied load step before the
solution diverges due to numerous cracks and large deflections.
place in the embedded steel member. The analytical model has been used to
prepare a series of non-dimensionalized design curves for connections with or
without additional welded reinforcement.
the reinforcement were modeled using nonlinear spring model. The exterior
beam-column joints, the end supports of the top and bottom columns were
fixed and monotonic concentrated load was applied to the tip of the beam.
Finer meshes were chosen for the connection region due to the probability of
stress concentration and more cracking. To perform the nonlinear analysis, the
load was applied step by step and the modified Newton Raphson method was
used for the solution. The effects of debonding of FRP laminates in FE
analysis were eliminated by limiting the maximum strain in FRP laminates.
The results of the numerical analysis were found to compare well with the
experimental results.
Pirmoz and Danesh (2009) studied the effect of the seat angle
stiffness on moment-rotation response of the bolted top-seat angle
connections using finite element method ANSYS. All components of the
connection such as the beam, column, angles and bolts head are modelled
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using eight noded SOLID45 elements and bolt shanks are modelled using
SOLID64 elements, which can apply a thermal gradient on it to pretension the
bolts. The effect of interactions between components, such as slippage of
bolts and frictional forces, are modelled using surface contact algorithm. ANSYS
can model contact problems using contact pair elements CONTA174 and
TARGE170, which pair together in such a way that no penetration occurs during
the loading process. Thus the effect of adjacent surface interactions, including
angle-beam flange, angle/beam flange-bolt head/nut, bolt hole-bolt shank and
effect of friction, are modelled using the mentioned contact elements. Bolt
heads and nuts were modelled as hexagons, and were similar to their actual
shape. To consider the frictional forces, Coulombs coefficient was assumed
to be 0.25, which had better agreement with test results. The FE method cannot
model the fracture or cracking of the material because two elements cannot
be separated and thus the material fracture is not considered. In the finite
element analysis the difference between test data and numerical models grows
in nonlinear portion of curves. A major cause is the nonlinear constitutive laws
for materials, especially for situations where only uniaxial values of the stress-
strain curves were available.
bonded Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) using carbon fibre with a new
technique called strip wrapping technique was a promising and a viable
solution towards enhancing the strength and stiffness characteristics of the
beam-column joints.
Dere and Dede (2011) studied the failure behavior and crack
formation of a reinforced concrete frame under monotonic and reversed cyclic
lateral loading by three dimensional nonlinear finite element analysis using
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truss elements. A perfect bond was assumed between the brick element and
truss element. The nonlinear behavior of concrete in compression was
simulated by an elastio-plastic work-hardening model and in tension a
suitable post-cracking model based on tension stiffening and shear retention
models were employed. The steel was simulated using an elastic-full plastic
model. The validity of the theoretical formulations and the program used was
verified through comparison with available experimental data and the
agreement had proven to be good.
ranges from 0 to 1.0, with 0 representing smooth crack and 1.0 representing
rough crack. The shear transfer coefficient used for this study was equal to
0.2. The shear transfer coefficient for a closed crack was taken as 1.0. The
externally bonded steel plates were modeled as SOLID45 element. A layered
solid element, SOLID46 was used to model FRP composites. From
verification against the experimental data it was concluded that the finite
element program can be used to simulate the whole load deformation curve,
the elastic part, the initiation of cracking, shear cracks and crushing fairly
well.
2.3 SUMMARY