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Introduction to Sensors & Transducers: Defination and differences

Objectives: After reading this chapter the reader shall know the needs of sensor/ transducer. The reader shall be
able to difference between sensor and transducer, single variable and multivariable sensing. The reader will learn
transducer selection criteria, and its requirements. .

1. INTRODUCTON

1.1 Need for study of Sensors and Transducers:

Sensors and transucers are the the devices which gether information of processes and products parameters on real
time basis. Their use is growing exponentially in common products and processes. Normally the sensor or
transducer is a weak link in a system. Further, the gap between transducers and processing electronics in terms of
reliability, cost, and power is increasing at an alarming rate. Escalating demand for automatic control of processes
needs large transducers. All control need actuators and, if the control is closed-loop, sensors are needed as well.
The development of new materials, techniques, and materials capable of converting one form of energy to another
is the heart of many transducers; need a detailed study of sensors and transducers. Therefore, study of sensors and
transducers is an important area for automation, measurement, control, etc.

Sensors and transducers are important components in measurement, instrumentation, and automation. Their main
function is to collect the information of interested process parameter, or system on real time bases. Today a wider
variety of sensors and Transducer are present in market. It is quite difficult to choose a suitable sensor / Transducr
for the desired application (s). It is, therefore, essential to learn the principle of working of commonly used sensors
and transducers. They play very important role in robotics and plant automation. Sensors in manufacturing are
basically employed to automatically carry out the production operations as well as process monitoring activities.

1.2 Important advantages of sensors / transducer: Sensor technology has the following importantant advantages in
transforming a conventional manufacturing unit into a modern one.

1. Sensors alarm the system operators about the failure of any sub units of manufacturing system. It helps the
operator to reduce the downtime of complete manufacturing system by carrying out the preventive measure.

2. Reduce requirements of skilled and experienced labours.

3. Ultra precision in product quality can be achieved.

2. DEFINITION OF SENSORS:

A sensor is a device/ element which respond to a physical, chemical, biological, etc. conditions / parametric
variation. Thus, basically sensor acts as a detector to change in physical stimulus and turns it into signal which can
be measured or recorded. Any sensor is based on a simple concept that physical property of sensor must altered by
external stimulus. In mercury thermometer, the expansion of mercury detects the rise of temperature by placing
bulb of thermometer in the process of interest. The other examples of sensors are resitance temperature detector
(RTD), strain gause, micrphone, magnetic compass, etc. Sensor is an input transducer, i.e. microphone. It is
preferred that the output of sensor is an electrical quantity and measurand may be a physical quantity, property, or
condition which is to be measured. A sensor is assumed to be linear so that its response yto a stimulus x is
idealised to have the form:

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Y(x) = Ax , where 0 x xmax , and A>0 (1.1)

Actuator is an output transducer

3. DEFINITION OF TRANSDUCERS:

A transducer is one step further to sensor. It is a combination of sensor plus signal conditing functional device.
Transducer can be defined as a device whichconvert one form of energy to another form of energy. The output of
transducer is always meaningful. Examples of transducers are: Thermocouple, Linear variable differential
transformer ( LVDT), etc.Every transducer is also or has a sensor but every sensor need not to be transducer.

Figure 1 shows the basic configuration of a transducer.

Measuring quanity sensor Signal conditioning Meaningful information

4. Difference between Sensor and Transducer

Sensor Transducer

1. The purpose of sensor is to detect or 1. The transducer converter one form of energy

measure and efficiency is not matter to another form of energy. Efficiency is

whether it is 10% or 0.5% provided the intended to convert energy ,therfore, its

measurand is known. efficiency is important though in some cases

it may not be high.

2. Linearity of response defined by 2. Linearity for transducer is much less

plotting the output against input, is likely significance for a transducer.

to be important.

3. The output of sensor may or may not 3. The outputof a transducer is always

Be meaningful. meaningful.

4. A sensor may or may not have a 4. A transducer is always involved

convertion and only senses. For example aconversion i.e transduction.For example

thermometer where the temperature is thermister senses temperature and its

sensed and is directly measured. resistace changes. Singal conditioner is

required to provide useful output.

5. Single Variable vs. Multi-variable Sensing


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Measurement sensing can be classified as mechanical, electrical or analytical. Common mechanical
measurements include pressure, temperature, humidity, flow rate, liquid level, force, velocity, acceleration,
and position to name but a few. Electrical measurements are generally voltage, resistance and current, but
can also include capacitance, inductance, charge, etc. Measurements of analytical properties may include
electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, chromatography, turbidity, density, pH, etc.If a property exists
it can probably be measured.

In single variable sensing, a single property of a body or substance is detected. It is important to note most
measurements cannot be taken directly. For example, temperature is a measurement of heat intensity;
which, in turn, is directly related to the average velocity of the molecules comprising the substance being
measured. Obviously, the direct measurement of molecular velocity is not practical; we must find a
different way to measure temperature. To that end, the temperature transmitter may be designed based
upon a well-known relationship between temperature and the thermal expansion of metal (say brass).
Thus, this unit provides temperature indication by measuring the change in length of the brass tube. This
change in length can be converted to an air pressure. Another example of indirect measurement is that of
fluid flow. One of the most common methods of measuring fluid flow is to detect the pressure difference
across a restriction. This differential pressure has a direct relationship to volume flow rate by means of a
mathematical equation developed by the manufacturer of the device.

Multi-variable sensing is used to provide information regarding properties that also cannot be measured
directly. For example, we may wish to measure the heat flow rate in a boiler for purposes of controlling the
flow of steam to a distillation column. From a course in thermodynamics, we know that heat flow is defined
as:

q m0.x cp x (T2 T1)


where: q - heat flowrate; m- mass flowrate; cp - specific heat; T2 - outlet temperature; T1 - inlet
temperature

The specific heat is a material property that can usually be considered a constant. If it does vary widely
with temperature, this variation is predictable and can also be mathematically defined. If we measure both
temperatures and the mass flow rate of fluid, we can send this information to a central processor. The
processor is programmed with the above equation(s) to provide the controller a value representing heat
flow rate. The controller then responds to this value based on its tuning parameters.

6. Criteria to choose a sensor: The following are certain features that are considered when choosing a sensor.

(i) Type of Sensing: The parameter that is being sensed like temperature or pressure.

(ii) Operating Principle: The principle of operation of the sensor.

(iii) Power Consumption: The power consumed by the sensor will play an important role in defining the total power
of the system.

(iv) Accuracy: The accuracy of the sensor is a key factor in selecting a sensor.

(v) Environmental Conditions: The conditions in which the sensor is being used will be a factor in choosing the
quality of a sensor.

(v) Cost: Depending on the cost of application, a low cost sensor or high cost sensor can be used.

(vi) Resolution and Range: The smallest value that can be sensed and the limit of measurement are important.

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(vi) Calibration and Repeatability: Change of values with time and ability to repeat measurements under similar
conditions

7. Requirements of sensor / transducer:

Basic Requirements of a Sensor or Transducer are :

(i) Range: It indicates the limits of the input in which it can vary. In case of temperature measurement, a
thermocouple can have a range of 25 to 250 0C, or 0 to 200 0C, or -100 to 100 0C, etc. The range in all three cases is
200 0C.

(ii) Accuracy: It is the degree of exactness between actual measurement and true value. Accuracy is expressed as
percentage of full range output. It is measured by the absolute and relative errors.

Absolute error = measurement value True value

Relative error = Absolute error / True value = ( measurement value True value)/ True value

Further, error can be either:

(i) System errors, result from a variety of factors such as: Interfering or modifying variable i.e. temperature, drift
or. changes in chemical structure or mechnical stresses, loading error, attenuation, parallaxetc. Systematic error s
can be corrected with compentation methods, such as feedback, filtering.

(ii) Random errors: Also called noise.Signal that carries no information interfer with the actual signal and distort it.
True random errors (White noise) follow a gaussian distribution. The source of random error is repeatability of the
measurand itself, envirmental noise, transmission noise, etc.

(iii) Sensitivity: Sensitivity is a relationship between change in input physical signal and change in output electrical
signal. It is the ratio of change in output of the sensor to unit change in input value that causes change in output. It
is not time dependence. Such an idealised sensor has no memory and its output instantly tracks the input. In the more
general case it may know the steady state transfer function of the sensor. We can
define the sensitivity as the derivative of the output with respect to the input:
S = y / x . This is a partial derivative. As it can be seen below, the sensor will exhibit sensitivities to other
ambient (e.g. temperature) or operating parameters (e.g. a supply voltage). It is essential to study the sensor with all
other (usually unintended) stimuli held constant. Sensitivity is, in a few words, the ratio of electrical output to signal
input (input transducer), or physical output to electrical input (output transducer). e.g., a temperature sensor may be
quoted as 50 V/K. and a loudspeahker as 90dBspl/W. However, the term sensitivity may also be used in its usual
electronic sense, i.e. the %change of some property of a device (eg gain) as a result of a % change in some parameter,
(eg the ambient temperature). For clarity, we will refer to this as the cross-sensitivity of x on y. The sensitivity is
also called the Gain of the sensor.

(iv) Stability: It is the ability of the sensor to produce the same output for constant input over a period of time.

(v) Repeatability: It is the ability of the sensor to produce same output for different applications with same input
value.

(vi) Response Time: It is the speed of change in output on a stepwise change in input.

(vii) Linearity: It is specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity. Nonlinearity is an indication of deviation of


curve of actual measurement from the curve of ideal measurement.

(viii) Ruggedness: It is a measure of the durability when the sensor is used under extreme operating conditions.
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(ix) Hysteresis: The hysteresis is defined as the maximum difference in output at any measurable value within the
sensors specified range when approaching the point first with increasing and then with decreasing the input
parameter. Hysteresis is a characteristic that a transducer has in being unable to repeat its functionality faithfully
when used in the opposite direction of operation.

The most important requirements of transducers are:

Smaller in size and weight.


Highsensitivity.
Ability to withstand environmental conditions.
Low cost.

8. Advantages of Electrical Transducers:

In physical process mostly quantity to be measured are non electrical. Such as temperature, pressure, displacement,
humidity, fluid flow speed, etc., but these quantities cannot be measured directly. Hence such quantities are
required to be sensed and changed into some other form for easy measurement. Electrical quantities such as
current, voltage, resistance, inductance, capacantance, frequency, etc. can be conveniently measured, transferred
and stored, and therefore, for measurement of non electrical quantities these are to be converted into electrical
quantities first and then measured. The function of converting non electrical quantity into electrical one is
accomplished by a device called the electrical transducer. Basicall an electrical ransducer is a sensing device by
which a physical, mechanical, or optical quantity to be measured is transformed directly, with a suitable
mechanism, into electrical signal (voltage, current, frequency). The generation of the signal is based on electrical
effect which may be resistive, inductive, capactive, etc. in nature. Input versus output energy reltionship takes a
definite reproduceable functioin. The output to input and output to time behavior is predictable to a known degree
of accuracy, sensitivity, and response, with the specified environmental conditions.

The Electrical output of transducers has numerous advantages; some of them are enumerated bellowo:

1. Friction effect is reduced to the minimum possible.

2. Mass- inertia effects are reduced to the minimum possible.

3. Very small power is required for controlling the electrical or electronic system.

4. The electrical output can be amplified to any desired level.

5. The output can be indicated and recorded remotely at a distace from the sensing medium. Further more than
one indicator can be actuated simultaneously.

6. The output can be modified as per requirements of the indicating or controlling equipment. The signal magnitude
can be related in terms of the current or voltage. The analog signal information can be converted into frequency or
pulse informations. The same output can beconverted into a digital format or display, print out or on-line
computation. As the output can be modified, modulated or amplified easily as per requirement, so the output signal
can be easily adapted for recording on any suitable multichannel recording oscillograph which can cater to a
number of electrical transducers simultaneously.

7. The signals can be conditioned or mixed for obtaining any combination with outputs of similar transducers or
control signals as in an data computer or adaptive control systems.

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8. Enabled to miniaturization of systems

9. The contour design and dimentions can be so chosen as not to disturb the quantity under measurement
phenomena, as in case of turbulence measurements.

9. Calibration of Sensors /Transducers:

There are as many definitions of calibration as there are methods. According to ISAs The Automation,
Systems, and Instrumentation Dictionary, the word calibration is defined as a test during which known
values of measurand are applied to the transducer and corresponding output readings are recorded
under specified conditions. The definition includes the capability to adjust the instrument to zero and to
set the desired span. An interpretation of the definition would say that a calibration is a comparison of
measuring transducer output to a standard instrument of higher accuracy to detect, correlate, adjust,
rectify and document the accuracy of the transducer output being compared. Typically, calibration of a
transducer is checked at several points throughout the calibration range of the instrument. The calibration
range is defined as the region between the limits within which a quantity is measured, received or
transmitted.
Span is defined as the algebraic difference between the upper and lower range values.
According to ISAs The Automation, Systems, and Instrumentation Dictionary,
the word calibration is defined as a test during which known values of
measurand are applied to the transducer and corresponding output
readings are recorded under specified conditions. The definition includes
the capability to adjust the instrument to zero and to set the desired span.
1.2 CALIBRATION CHARACTERISTICS
Calibration Tolerance: Every calibration should be performed to a specified
tolerance. The terms tolerance and accuracy are often used incorrectly. In
ISAs The Automation, Systems, and Instrumentation Dictionary, the
definitions for each are as follows:
Accuracy: The ratio of the error to the full scale output or the ratio of the
error to the output, expressed in percent span or percent reading,
respectively.
Tolerance: Permissible deviation from a specified value; may be expressed
in measurement units, percent of span, or percent of reading.
A good rule of thumb is to ensure an accuracy ratio of 4:1 when performing
calibrations. This means the instrument or standard used should be four
times more accurate than the instrument being checked.
Traceability: All calibrations should be performed traceable to a nationally
or internationally recognized standard. For example, in India NPL
maintains the nationally recognized standards.

1.3 WHY IS CALIBRATION REQUIRED?


It makes sense that calibration is required for a new instrument. We
want to make sure the instrument is providing accurate indication or
output signal when it is installed. But why cant we just leave it alone as
long as the instrument is operating properly and continues to provide the
indication we expect? Instrument error can occur due to a variety of factors: drift,
environment, electrical supply, addition of components to the output
loop, process changes, etc. Since a calibration is performed by comparing
or applying a known signal to the instrument under test, errors are
detected by performing a calibration.

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Calibration is the relationship between the physical measurement variable (x) and the signal output variable (Y). A
sensor is calibrated by applying a number of known physical inputs and recording the response of the sensor /
system.

Signal Output (Y)

Physical input X

Classification of Transducers

Objective: After reading this chapter you shall be able to selecte the transducer as per your requirement. Also you
will be able to define the principle on which it work and its broad application area.

Introduction

The Classification of Transducers is done in many ways. Some of the criteria for the classification are based on their
area of application, method of energy conversion, nature of output signal, according to Electrical principles involved,
electrical parameter used, principle of operation, & typical applications. The transducers can be classified broadly

1. Based on the physical phenomenon,


* Primary transducer
* Secondary transducer

Primary transducer: When the input signal is directly sensed by the transducer and physical phenomenon is converted
into the electrical form directly then such a transducer is called the primary transducer. For example a thermocouple
measure temperature directly in term of electrical voltage.
Secondary transducer: When the input signal is sensed first by some sensor or detector and then its output being of
some form oter than input signal is as input to a transducer for convertion into electrical form, then such a
transducer is called secondary transducer. For example, in case of pressure measurement, bourdon tube is primary
sensor which converts pressure into displacement and then the displacement is converted into an output voltage by an
LVDT. In this LVDT is secondary transducer.

2. Based on the power requirement:,


* Active transducer
* Passive transducer
Passive sensors require power signal from an external source. This signal is called an excitation signal, and based on
this excitation signal the sensor produces output. Strain gauge, RTD, thermister, photoconductor, etc. are examples
of passive sensor. It is a pressure sensitive resistive bridge network and doesnt produce the output electrical signal
on its own. The amount of force applied can be measured by relating it to the resistance of the network. The
resistance can be measured by passing current through it. Current acts as the excitation signal.

Activee sensors directly produce the output in electrical signal in response to the input stimulus. All the power
required by a passive sensor is obtained from the measurand. A thermocouple , photovoltaic, solar cells,
piezoelectric crystals,Electromagnetic, chemical, etc.
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3. Based on the type of output:
* Analog transducer
* Digital transducer

Analogue sensor: produces continuously varying output signals over a range of values. Usually the output signal is
voltage and this output signal is proportional to the measurand. The quantity that is being measured like speed,
temperature, pressure, strain, etc. are all continuous in nature and hence they are analogue quantities. A Cadmium
Sulfide Cell (CdS Cell) which is used to measure the intensity of light is an analogue sensor. The resistance of a CdS
cell varies according to the intensity of the light incident on it. When connected to a voltage divider network, the
change in resistance can be observed through varying output voltage.

A thermocouple or a thermometer is an analog sensor. The following setup is used to measure the temperature of
the liquid in the container using a thermocouple. The output of an analogue sensor tends to change smoothly and
continuously over time. Hence the response time and accuracy of circuits employing analogue sensors is slow and
less. In order to use these signals in a microcontroller based system, Analog to Digital converters can be used.

Analogue sensors generally require an external power supply and amplification of some form to produce
appropriate output signals. Op Amps are very useful in providing amplification and filtering.

A digital sensor: produces discrete digital signals. The output of a digital sensor has only two states, namely ON
and OFF. ON is logic 1 and OFF is logic 0. A push button switch is the best example of a digital sensor. In this case,
the switch has only two possible states: either it is ON when pushed or it is OFF when released or not pushed.

The following setup uses a light sensor to measure the speed and produces a digital signal.

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In the above setup, the rotating disc is connected to the shaft of a motor and has number of transparent slots. The
light sensor captures the presence or absence of the light and sends logic 1 or logic 0 signal accordingly to the
counter. The counter displays the speed of the disc. The accuracy can be increased by increasing the transparent
slots on the disc as it allows more counts over the same amount of time.

In general, the accuracy of a digital sensor is high when compared to an analogue sensor. The accuracy depends on
the number of bits that are used to represent the measurand. Higher the number of bits, the greater is the
accuracy.

4. Based on the electrical phenomenon used:


* Resistive transducer
* Capacitive transducer
* Inductive transducer
* Photoelectric transducer
* Photovoltaic transducer
Tthere may be changes in resistance, capacitance and induction, which in turn change the output voltage
or curren
Resistance transducer: here, the measurand is converted into a change in resistance. A resistance of
any metal conductor is given by the expression ( R=.l/a) where p is the resistive of the material of
conductor in ohm-m, l is the length of conductor in metres, and a is the cross sectional area of conductor
in m2. Input signal/ variable to the transducer causes variation in resistances by changing any one of the
quantities ,.l, a.

Capacitive Transduction: Here, the measurand is converted into a change in capacitance. A change in
capacitance occurs either by changing the distance between the two plates or by changing the dielectric.
or Area

In inductive transduction, the measurand is converted into a change in the self inductance of a single coil.
It is achieved by displacing the core of the coil that is attached to a mechanical sensing element.

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT is the ejection of electrons from a metal or semiconductor surface when
illuminated by light or any radiation of suitable wavelength. A photoelectric transducertypically
converts(transduces) the energy in a photon (photo-) to motion of an electron (-electric). Hence a
photodetector is a form of photoelectric transducer. It converts a light beam into a usable electric signal. As
shown in the fig, light strikes the photo emissive cathode and releases electrons, which are attracted towards the
anode, thereby producing an electric current in the circuit. The cathode & the anode are enclosed in a glass or

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quartz envelope, which is either evacuated or filled with an inert gas. The photo electric sensitivity is given by; I=s*f
where I=Photoelectric current, s=sensitivity, f= illumination of the cathode. The response of the photoelectric tube
to different wavelengths is influenced by (i) The transmission characteristics of the glass tube envelope and (ii)
Photo emissive characteristics of the cathode material
Photoelectric tubes are useful for counting purposes through
periodic interruption of a light source

Photovoltaic Transduction: In photovoltaic transduction


the measurand is converted to voltage generated when the junction between dissimilar material is
illuminated.

5. Based on the non-electrical phenomenon Classification of transducer,


* Linear displacement
* Rotary displacement
Non-electrical phenomenon based linear displacement transducer is a device which converts one form of
non electrical parameter to another form of non electrical parameter. For example, Laser transducer
converts light into displacement, position,etc. Magnetostrictive transducer detects harsh duty hydraulic
cylinder piston position, Ultra sonic displacement transducer detects the distace and highly linear.

Rotary displacement non electrical phenomenon transducer is a device which converts

6. Based on the transduction phenomenon,


*Transducer
*Inverse transducer.
Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)
Transducer: Transducer is a device which converts non electrical quantity to electrical quantity. LVDT
convert distance into electrical voltage.

Inverse Transducer: Inverse transducers is a device which converts electrical quantity to a non electrical
quantity. A piezoelectric crystal acts as an inverse transducer because when a voltage is applied across its
surfaces, it changes its dimensions causing a mechanical displacement.

7. Based on the stimulus:

The stimulus that is being sensed is an important factor in this classification. Some of the stimuli are:

Acoustic: Wave, spectrum and wave velocity.

Electric: Current, charge, potential, electric field, permittivity and conductivity.

Magnetic: Magnetic field, magnetic flux and permeability.

Thermal: Temperature, specific heat and thermal conductivity.

Mechanical: Position, acceleration, force, pressure, stress, strain, mass, density, momentum, torque, shape,
orientation, roughness, stiffness, compliance, crystallinity and structural.

Optical: Wave, wave velocity, refractive index, reflectivity, absorption and emissivity.
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8. Based on the applications of sensors: Their classification can be made as follows.

I. Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors

Resistive Element, Potentiometer, Capacitive Elements, Strain Gauged Element, Inductive Proximity Sensors, Eddy
Current Proximity Sensors, Differential Transformers, Optical Encoders, Hall Effect Sensors, Pneumatic Sensors,
Proximity Switches, Rotary Encoders

II. Temperature Sensors

Thermistors, Thermocouple, Bimetallic Strips, Resistance Temperature Detectors, Thermostat

III. Light Sensors

Photo Diode, Phototransistor, Light Dependent Resistor,

IV. Velocity and Motion

Pyroelectric Sensors, Tachogenerator, Incremental encoder

V. Fluid Pressure

Diaphragm Pressure Gauge, Tactile Sensor, Piezoelectric Sensors, Capsules, Bellows, Pressure Tubes

VI. Liquid Flow and Level

Turbine Meter, Orifice Plate and Venturi Tube

VII. IR Sensor

Infrared Transmitter and Receiver Pair

VIII. Force

Strain Gauge , Load Cell

IX. Touch Sensors

Resistive Touch Sensor, Capacitive Touch Sensors

X. UV Sensors

Ultraviolet Light Detector

Photo Stability Sensors

UV Photo Tubes

Germicidal UV Detectors

Static and Dynamic Characteristics of transducers

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Objective: After reading this chapter you shall be able to define the static and Dynamic Characteristics of
transducers. The differences between accuracy and precision are pointed out. Sensitivity, hystersis, and transfer
function are defined. After studying this unit, you should be able to understand the nature of errors and their
sources in the measurement, know accuracy and precision in the measurement, and explain the various methods of
analysis of the errors.

Important terms with respect to Transducer:


There are two different terms which should be considered in the transducer, they are static
terms and dynamic terms.

Static Terms:

Range:

A transducer is calibrated to read values of physical variable being measured between two
values. One is the higher calibration value Hc and the other is the lower calibration value Lc.
This region between which the transducer is to operate is called range.
Range = Lc to Hc.
We can say that the range of the transducer (thermometer) is 0'C to 100'C.
Span:

Span is the algebraic difference between the higher calibration value and the lower
calibration value.Span = Hc to Lc. Example: if the range of the transducer is 100'c to 150'c,
its span is

150'-100' = 50'c.

Drift: if an transducer does not reproduce the same reading at different times of
measurement for the same input signal, it is said to have drift. It a transducer has perfect
reproducibility, it is said to have no drift.

Calibration:

A known input is given to the measurement system and the systems output is noted. if the
systems output deviates with respect to the given known input, corrections are made in the
transducer so that the output matches the input. This process is called calibration.

Hysteresis:

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All the energy put into the stressed component when loaded is not recovered upon
unloading. Hence the output of a measurement system will partly depend on its previous
input signal and this is called as hysteresis.
Dead Zone:

Dead zone is the largest change in the physical variable to which the transducer doesnt
respond. That is, the region upto which the transducer doesnt respond for an input is called
the deadzone.

Sensitivity:

Sensitivity = change in the output signal/change in the input signal.


Threshold Value:

The minimum value of input signal that is required to make a change or start from zero is
called as threshold value.

Resolution:

The minimum value of the input signal required to cause an appreciable change or an
increment in the output is called resolution.

Back lash:

It is the maximum distance through which one part of the transducer may be moved without
disturbing the other part.

Dynamic Terms:

Dynamic Measurement

Dynamic Measurement means that the measuring system (transducer ) is required to


measure an input which is varying with time.

Speed of Response or Responsiveness

The speed of response of transducer is defined as the quickness with which an it responds to
a change in the output signal.

Measuring Lag:

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It is delay in the response of an transducer to a change in the input signal.

Fidelity

It is the ability of a measurement system to reproduce the output in the same form as the
input.Example: if the input to the system is a sine wave, the system is said to have 100%
fidelity if the output also is a sine wave.

Dynamic error:

The difference between the indicated quantity and the true value of the time varying quantity
is called the dynamic error.

Over Shoot:

A moving part of an instrumrnt (for example pointer) will not assume its final deflection
position due to its mass and inertia. It usually moves beyond the steady state. The
maximum amount by which the moving parts moves beyond the stedy state is called the
over shoot.

Frequency Response:

It is defined as the maximum frequency of the measured variable that the measurement
system is capable of following without error.These are the must known important terms with
respect to Instrumentation.

Introduction:

Characteristics are the important cretria for selection, design, and application use of transducers. In measurement
system, transducer is the input device with the critical function of transforming some some physical quantity to a
proportional electrical signal. The first step in design and application use is to define the nature of quanty under
measurement and know the static and dynamic characteristics. The type of transducer selected must be compatible
with the type and range of the quantity to be measured and the out put device. In case one or more transducer
principles are capable of generating a satisfactory signal, it is better to employ a commercially available transducer.
The characteristics to be considered in determining the suitability of transducer ar as follow:

(i) Static characteristics,

(ii) Dynamic characteristics, discussed in the folloing sections.

2. Static and Dynamic Characteristics

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2.1 Static Characteristics:

The properties of the sensor / tranducer after all transient effects have settled to their final or steady state is called
static characteristics. These characteristics are defined in terms of:

2.1.1 Accuracy,

2.1 2 Discrimination,

2.1.3 Precision,

2.1.4 Linearity errors,

2.1 5 Drift,

2.1.6 Sensitivity,

2.1 7 Linearity

2.1.8 Hysteresis

2.1.1 Accuracy: It is the conformity of a measured value to an accepted standard or true value. The accuracy
defines the limits that the errors will not exceed when operated in the standard conditions. Therefore, it is
measured in error terms.

True Value: It is the value defined and computed by physical parameters of process / object
as per standard, physical condition, and traceability.
It is not possible to determine the true of quantity by experiment means. True value may be
defined as the average value of an infinite number of measured values when average
deviation due to various contributing factor will approach to zero. ( Why true value cannot be
defined by experiment?).

Measured Value: It may be defined as the approximated value of true value. It can be
found out by taking means of several measured readings during an experiment, by applying
suitable approximations on physical conditions. Now we are in a position to define static
error.
Static error: is defined as the difference of the measured value and the true value of the
quantity. Mathematically we can write an expression of error as,

e = Am - At where, e is the static error Am is measured value and At is true value.

It may be noted that the absolute value of error cannot be determined as due to the fact that
the true value of quantity cannot be determined accurately. The measurement of a quantity is based
on some fundamental standards. These fundamental standards are perfectly accurate, while others are derived
from these. These derived standards are not perfectly accurate in spite of all precautions. In general, measurement
of any quantity is done by comparing with derived standards, which themselves are not perfectly accurate. So, the
error in the measurement is not only due to error in methods but also due to standards (derived) not being
perfectly accurate. Thus, the measurement with 100% accuracy is not possible with any method. ( Why error with
100 accuracy is not possible with any methods?).

Limiting Errors or Guarantee Errors

15
The concept of guarantee errors can better clear if we study this kind of error by considering
one example. Suppose there is a manufacturer who manufactures an ammeter, he claims
that the error in the ammeter is not greater the limit he sets. This limit of error is known as
limiting errors or guarantee error.

Relative Error or Fractional Error


It is defined as the ratio of the error and the specified magnitude of the quantity.
Mathematically we write as,

eR = e/ A
Where, dA is the error (e) and A is the magnitude.
Computing resultant limiting error: Under the following cases: (a) By taking the sum of
two quantities: Let us consider two measured quantities a1 and a2. The sum of these two
quantities can be represented by A. Thus we can write A = a1 + a2. Now the relative
incremental value of this function can be calculated as

Separating the each term as shown below and by multiplying and dividing a1 with the first
term and a2 with the second term we have

From the above equation we can see that the resultant limiting error is equal to the sum of
products formed by multiplying the individual relative limiting errors by the ratio of each
term to the function. Same procedure can be applied to calculate the resultant limiting error
due to summation of more than two quantities. In order to calculate the resultant limiting
error due to difference of the two quantities just change the addition sign with subtraction
and rest procedure is same. (b) By taking the product of two quantities: Let us consider two
quantities a1 and a2. In this case the product of the two quantities are expressed as A =
a1.a2. Now taking log both sides and differentiating with respect to A we have resultant
limiting errors as

From this equation we can see that the resultant error is summation of relative errors in
measurement of terms. Similarly we can calculate the resultant limiting error for power
factor. Hence the relative error would be n times in this case. The maximum possible error
occurs when da1/ a1 is positive and da2/ a2 is negative or vice versa. Therefore, relative error
is given by the expression
de/e = {da1/ a1 + da2/ a2 }

Types of Errors
Basically there are three types of errors that may arise from the source:

Gross Errors
This category of errors includes all the human mistakes while reading, and recording.
Mistakes in calculating the errors also come under this category. For example while taking
the reading from the meter of the instrument he may read 21 as 31. All these types of error
are come under this category. Gross errors can be avoided by using two suitable measures
and they are written below:
1. A proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data. Also calculation of error
should be done carefully and accurately.
16
2. By repeating the number of experimenters, gross errors can be reduced. If each
experimenter takes different reading at different points, then by taking average of more
readings, it can be reduced.

Systematic Errors
In order to understand these kinds of errors, let us categorize the systematic errors as:

Transducers Errors
These errors may be due to wrong construction, calibration of the transducers. These types
of error may be arises due to friction or may be due to hysteresis. These types of errors also
include the loading effect and misuse of the instruments. Misuse of the instruments results in
the failure to adjust the zero of instruments. In order to minimize the instrumentaion errors
in measurement various correction factors must be applied and in extreme condition
instrument must be re-calibrated carefully.

Environmental Errors
This type of error arises due to conditions external to instrument. External condition includes
temperature, pressure, humidity or it may include external magnetic field. Following are the
steps that one must follow in order to minimize the environmental errors:
Try to maintain the temperature and humidity of the laboratory constant by making some
arrangements.
Ensure that there should not be any external magnetic or electrostatic field around the
instrument.

Observational Errors
As the name suggests these types of errors are due wrong observations. The wrong
observations may be due to PARALLAX. In order to minimize the PARALLAX error highly
accurate meters are required, provided with mirrored scales.

Random Errors
After calculating all systematic errors, it is found that there are still some errors in
measurement are left. These errors are known as random errors. Some of the reasons of the
appearance of these errors are known but still some reasons are unknown. Hence we cannot
fully eliminate these kinds of error.
Resolution: The smallest difference between measured values that can be discriminated is defined as resolution.
For digital display, it corresponds to the last stable value.

Calibration: A transducer gives a response that is measured, but the calibration converts the the response to a
measurement of the propertyof interest. For a liquid glass thermometer, the response is the height of liquid,
calibration by measurement with standards converts this to temperature.

Dead band:

2.1.2 Discrimination: Discrimination is the minimal change of the input necessary to produce a detectable change at
the output. Discrimination is also called as resolution. When the input increment is from zero, it is calle
thrusthold.

2.1.3 Precision: The capability of transducer / sensor to give the same reading when repeatitivelly measuring the
same parameter under the same prescribed conditions.
17
Precision implies agreement between successive readings, may not closeness to the true value.

Precision is related to variance of a set of measurements. Precision is a necessary but not sufficient condition for
accuracy.

Two terms closely related to precision. (i) Repeatability, and (ii) Reproducibility.

(i) Repeatability: It the precision of a set of measurement taken over a short time interval.

(ii) Reproducibility is the precision of a set of measurement but taken over a long time interval or performed by
different operators or in different laboratories.

Difference between Accuracy and precision


In layman's terms, accuracy and precision are often used interchangeably. In actuality, they have entirely
different meanings. Accuracy is defined as the error between the measured value and the true value of the
process variable. It is also referred to as conformity or linearity. Figure 28(a) is a graphic depiction of
accuracy. Precision refers to how repeatable a measurement is. As such, it is often referred to as
repeatability.

a) Conformity b) Repeatability
Figure 1.: Conformity and repeatability of an analog signal

A measurement may be precise, but not accurate. The Figure above illustrates the difference. Assume a
hunter target is shooting. The goal is to hit the target in the center. Target 'a' illustrates the hunters aim is
more or less 'on target'. But the shots are not closely grouped, indicating the hunter's aim may be accurate
but not precise (repeatable). On the other hand, target 'b' in the graphic illustrates the hunter's aim is off
center. However, all shots are closely grouped, thus the hunter's aim is precise (repeatable), but not
accurate. Target's 'd' and 'e' show the same results, but with a stray shot. This would be considered
random error and is often ignored when defining an accuracy specification. Although we desire both a high
degree of precision and accuracy for sensors installed in a control loop, precision is more important than
accuracy. If the measurement capability of the sensor/transmitter is very repeatable, the control system will
respond in a predictable manner, even if it is not accurate. Any loss of accuracy may be compensated
artificially by adjusting the manual reset or the set point of the controller.

Calculating Accuracy and Precision


Accuracy and precision may be expressed in a myriad of ways. The most
common ways are:
In Engineering Units
Percent of Reading
Percent of Span

18
Percent of Full Scale
Irrespective of how accuracy and precision are expressed, the basic calculation is the same. Accuracy is a
statistical calculation comparing the average of a statistically significant population to the true
measurement. Precision is also a statistical calculation represented by the coefficient of variance. An
example is in order.
Assume a room sensor/transmitter is rated to output a 4 - 20 ma signal over a sensing range of 60 0F - 85
0F. The sensor is used to measure the temperature of a body known to be at 76 0F. The test involves two

groups of ten readings. In the first group, the sensor starts at a temperature above 76 0F and is allowed to
equalize. In the second group, the sensor is at a temperature below 76 0F and is allowed to equalize.
Table 4 also tabulates the calculated average of each series of readings.
To express the accuracy in engineering units, one could state the sensor is accurate to within +1/- 1.2 0F.
Temperature Decreasing Temperature Increasing
77 74
76 74
77 76
78 75
77 75.5
76.5 74.5
77.5 75
77 76
78 74
76 74.5
Ave = 77 Ave = 74.8
Table 4: Test data for a 60-85 F room sensor measuring a body at 76 0F
0

The calculated error for this sensor as temperature is decreasing is:

% error = {(x- - x) / x} x100


% error = {(74.8 -76) / 76x 100 = 1.3%

The calculated error for this sensor as temperature is increasing is:


% error = {(77 -76) / 76x 100 = - 1.6%

The accuracy for this sensor could be stated as +1.3/-1.6 % of reading.


To express the percent error in terms of sensor span, one would use the same procedure as above except
the divisor would be the span of the sensor. The range is 60 oF - 85 oF and the span is 25 oF. Thus the
accuracy would be +4/-4.8 % of span.
Finally, accuracy can be expressed in terms of fullscale reading. Since full-scale
reading is 85 oF, the accuracy specification would be +1.1/-1.4 % of full-scale
reading.
The calculation of precision involves the calculation of the coefficient of variance.This
calculation is performed as follows:

Temperature Decreasing
Reading (x) x x - x x -) 2
77 0 0
76 -1 1
77 0 0
78 1 1
77 0 0
76.5 0.5 0.25
77.5 -0.5 0.25
77 0 0
78 1 1

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76 -1 1
x- 77 x x-) 2 4.5
Table : Calculation of precision for 60-85 oF sensor on decreasing temperature

Coeff of Var = StdDev / x


StdDev = (Variance)1/2

Variance = x x-) 2 / (n-1)} , where n sample size

Referring to Table 5, we can finish the calculation of precision as follows:


Variance = 4.5 / (10-1) = 0.5
StdDev = (0.5)1/2 = 0.707
Coeff of Var x = (0.707 / 77)x 100 = 0.9
In a similar fashion, the precision for this sensor on increasing temperature can be shown to equal 1.0 %.
Thus the precision of this sensor is +0.9/-1.0 %.

Temperature Increasing

Reading (x) x x- (x-x-)2

74 -0.8 0.64
74 -0.8 0.64
76 1.2 1.44
75 0.2 0.04
75. 5 0.7 0.49
74.5 -0.3 0.09
75 0.2 0.04
76 1.2 1.44
74 -0.8 0.64
74.5 -0.3 0.09
x 74.8 2 x x 5.55
Table 6: Calculation of precision for 60-85 oF sensor on increasing
Temperature

2.1.4 Linearity errors: The deviation of the transducer output for varying input from straight line

2.1.5 Drift: The signal level may vary from its set zero value when the sensor works. This introduces an error into the
measurement equal to the amount of variation, or drift as it is usually termed. Zero drift may result from changes of
temperature, electronics stabilizing, or aging of the transducer or electronic components.

20
2.1.6 Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in magnitude of the output to the change in the input after steady state
has been reached is called sensitivity of transducer / sensor. It is also defined as change in output to one present
change in input stimulus. Strong nonlinearity can lead to very high sensitivity. Mathematically, sensitivity is
calculated as:
sensitivity = Change in output signal / Change in input signal
For example, assume we have a sensor /transmitter rated for 50 0F to 1500F. The transmitter outputs a 4
ma to 20 ma signal. Determine the sensitivity of the sensor /transmitter.

sensitivity = (20 4 ma ) / (150 - 500 F) = 0.16 ma / 0F

This means the transmitter output will increase by 0.16 ma for every 1 0F increase in
temperature. So how does one use this fact to predict the output of a transmitter given a temperature?
Assume a properly calibrated sensor/transmitter. If we know the sensor is exposed to a temperature of 96
oF, we can determine as following:
At 50 0F, the transmitter outputs 4 ma .
From 50 0F to 96 0F, there is a 46 0F change in the input to the sensor
460 F x 0.16ma/ 0F 7.36 ma This represents the change in output signal from the
transmitter
Since the output at 50 0F is 4 ma, then at 96 0F, we will have 4 + 7.36 = 11.36 ma total output signal.
The process above is independent of the signals measured.

As another example, assume a pneumatic static pressure transmitter with an application range of -0.25 in
w.g. to 1.75 in w.g. The sensitivity of this transmitter is:

Sensitivity = (15 3psi) / (1.75 + 0.25in w.g.) = 6 psi in w.g.

If we wish to predict the output at a pressure reading of 0.45 in w.g., we would do the
following:
At -0.25 in w.g., the transmitter outputs 3 psi
From -0.25 in w.g. To 0.45 in w.g. is a 0.70 in w.g. change in the input to the sensor
0.70in w.g.x 6 psi / in w.g. = 4.2 psi . This represents the change in output signal
Since the output at -0.25 in w.g. is 3 psi, then at 0.45 in w.g., we will have 4.2 + 3 = 7.2 psi
total output signal.
The equation of a sensor
Sometimes, it is appropriate to write the defining equation for a sensor. This is useful when calibrating
sensor /transmitters and is essential when programming general purpose digital controllers. Fortunately,
sensor/transmitters are linear and can be defined with the equation for a straight line, y mx b . When
applied, it can be written in a more descriptive form as:
output sensitivity input offset
For example, lets assume a flow sensor/transmitter capable of sensing a flow rate from 0 to 100 gpm. The
sensor/transmitter outputs a signal of 2 to 10 volts over the sensing range. Write the equation for this unit.
We can define sensitivity as: volts gpm volts/ gpm

Now we need to find offset. We can do this by writing the equation around a known
point. In this case, we know the transmitter outputs 2 volts when flow rate is 0 gpm. We also know the
output is 10 volts when the flow rate is 100 gpm. We can use either of these points to calculate offset. Both
calculations are shown below.

2 volts = 0.08volts/ gpm x 0 gpm +offset ( offset = 2 volts)

21
10volt = 0.08volts gpm x 0 gpm +offst ( offset = 2 volts)
Regardless of which point you choose to determine the value of the offset, the final
equation is: output = 0.08 volts /gpm input = 2 volts
Now it's a simple matter of substituting a given gpm flow rate for the input variable to
calculate the expected output signal. For example, to determine the output of the
transmitter at a flow rate of 56 gpm, we can write:
output = 0.08 volts/ gpm x 56 gpm + 2volts = 6.48volts
Notice this is identical to what we did above. It is just a more formal way of handling the same thing.

2.1.7 Linearity: Closeness of calibration curve to a specified straight line.

Monotonicity: a monotonicity curve is one in which the dependent variable always increases or decrease as the
independent variable increases.;

2.1.8 Hysteresis: Hysteris can occur in a number of situations; some are inherant in the sensor / transducer and
other due to defects in the sensor/ transducer and should be avoided.It refers to the characteristic that a transducer
is being unable to repeat faithfully, in the opposite direction of operation, the data that have been recorded in one
direction

A linear sensor with memory will exhibit an apparently hysteretic behaviour if a stimulus of a high enough frequency
(typically higher than the first characteristic frequency, pole or zero) is applied to it. True hysteresis, as encountered
in magnetics, arises when the second order kernel has a very long time constant in the second order kernel. Hysteresis
is not necessarily a complication. It may be used to provide noise immunity in threshold sensing devices. An
intentionally hysteretic voltage sensor is the Schmitt Trigger used extensively to combat noise in timer or counter
instruments.

Calibration

If a meaningful measurement is to be made, it is necessary to measure the output of a sensor in response to an


accurately known input. This process is known as calibration, and the devices that produce the input are described as
calibration standards.

Span (input)

A dynamic range of stimuli which may be converted by a sensor id called a span or an input full scale (FS). It
represents the highest possible input value which can be applied to the sensor without causing unacceptably large
inaccuracy (shown in Figure 3).

22
Full Scale Output

Full scale output (FSO) is the algebraic difference between the electrical output signals measured with maximum
input stimulus and the lowest input stimulus applied. This must include all deviations from the ideal transfer function.
For instance, the FSO output in Figure 3 is represented by SFS.

2.2 Dynamic Characteristics:

In any sensor, the response due to a given input takes some time for its excursion from the initial to final steady
state condition. This period is known as trasient period. The study of output response of sensor / transducer during
this period is called dynamic characteristics. In general, the mathematical represent of dynamic response of sensor
/ transducer can be written in the differential equation form as below:

Dx / dt = X0 f ( x, t )

The dynamic characteristic of a sensor is essential due to the possibility of storage of energy in certain elements of
transducer. Generally the performance of sensors / transducers can be studied by considering the model of sensor /
transducer as:

2.2.1 Zero order system,

2.2 2 First order system, and

2.2.3 Second order system.

2.2.1 Zero order Characteristics of Sensor / Transducer: Zero order Characteristics is the constant relation
between input and output of transducer. This constant is termed as gain of the transducer. Let y(t) and x(t) are
output and input of the transducer, then:

Y(t) = k.x(t) Y(s) / X(s) = K

23
Zero order is the desirable response of a sensor. It has no delay, but have infinite banwidth. The sensor only
changes the amplitude of the input signal. Zero order system donot include energy storing elements. Example of a
zero order Sensor is potentiometer, used to measure linear and rotary displacements.

Vcc X(s)

Y(s)

2.2.2 First Order Sensor: In first order sensor, there is an element that store energy and another one that dissipate
it. The relation between input x(t) and the output y(t) is described by a differential equation that takes the form:

a1(dy(t)/ dt) + a0 y(t) = x(t)

or Y(s) / X(s) = K / ( 1 + S), where K = 1 / a0 and = a1/ a0

Conducting frequency 0 = 1/

Second Order Sensor: In second order system, there are two energy storing and one energy dissipating
element. The relation between input x(t) and the output y(t) is described by a differential equation that takes the
form:

24
a2{ d2 y(t) / dt2 } + a1(dy(t)/ dt) + a0 y(t) = x(t)

or Y(s) / X(s) = [ K n2/(S2 + 2 n S + n2 )]

where, k - static sensitivity = 1 / a0,

-Damping coefficient of sensor = { a1 / ( sqrt (a0.a2))} , and

n natural frequency of of sensor = sqrt (a0 /a2)

In second order sensor systen the sensor input impedance should be high for reducing the
error.

Characterization of Transducer

Introduction: In the laboratory the atmosphere is relatively free from contaminants, the temperature is relatively
stable, the area is free from vibration, and personnel are specialized in handling the equipment they are using. The
industrial measure is often made under reverse conditions. The produced signal must be capable of transmission to
recording equipment which may be a considerable distance away. The wiring between the two may be induced much
electrical noise. Thus, it is necessary to study electrical, mechanical, and thermal characterizations of transducers.
Though characterizations are of various form, here, we shall study three important characterizations only.

5.1 Electrical Characterization,

5.2 characterizations, and

5.3 Thermal Characterization

Electrical Characterization: The study of sensors by means of their static and dynamic characteristic is no way
complete. The quality of sensor / transducer is greatly affected by electrical parameter as such input / output
impedance, break down voltage and fields, leakage currents, noise, cross talk, bias, etc. For example, to prevent
loosing of contact, the wiper in a potentiometer, resistive element, it is necessary for the wiper to exert a force on
it, if it is desired to measure the movement of wiper. To overcome the friction between the wiper and resistive
element, some energy shall be required. It turns out that neither the static nor the dynamic characterics of sensors
describe the real behaviour. A certain amount of power from the measured varible is taken by transducer. This
extraction of a certain amount of power from the measured variable is said a loading error. The concept of input
impedance allows determining when there will be a loading error.

Loading error: Consider a sensor / transducer, say a thermocouple, with out put impedance zo connected in series
with a Thevenin source of voltage. Let E0 be open terminal voltage as shown in fig. below. When a measuring or
recording device is connected to the terminals, the output voltage under this becomes

E0 = EL ( 1 + Z0 / Zi ) and actul voltage measured = EL = E0 / ( 1 + Z0 / Zi )

Thus, the measured voltage is modified both in magnitude and phase. Inorder that original signal remain
unchanged, the input impedance Zi of measuring device should be infinite or the the value of output impedance Z0
should be zero. To meet these conditions, it is compromise that input impedance shall be very high while output
impedance shall be low. Thus, for voltage sensitive sensors input impedance should be very high while for current
sensitivity input impedance of measuring device to output impedance should be very low.

25
Breakdown of insulting part of sensor is very critical as the health of the system depends on it. For metal-insulator
metal (MIM) or for metal-insulator semiconductor (MIS) structure, the breakdown of insulating film is studied by
the system shown in fig. Three differen types of breakdown are interest for such film; (i) dielectric strength, (ii)
wear out, and (iii) current induced breakdown. The three case studies ar shown below .

Breakdown generally implies a sudden or avalance change in voltage or current voltage dropping to a neglible
value and current rising to a very high value. Break down may be extrinsic or intrinsic though the mechanism in
either case is basically the same. There occurs a high local field in material which may be defect-induced which then
is called extrinsic. However, if this is high field induced, it is called intrinsic type. In latter case, the high field induces
microvoids to generate defects leading it to behave as evtrinsic type.

Leakage current measurement specifies the sensor quality, specially its insulting quality as also the quality of p-n
junctions wherever it exits.

Noise comes from electromagnetic interference, ac magnetic fluction, 50 Hz supply pick up, mechnical or acoustic
vibration, or photon-induced output. Sensors are to be characterized for noise testing for immunity to such noise.

In multichannel or array sensors, crosstalk may occur due to overlapping of signals between the two adjucent
transducer elements. It may, however, occure in a single transducer system because of inductive or capacitive
coupling or coupling through the common voltage source during transduction inside the element. It is measured
using correlation techniques.

5.2. Mechanical Characterization:

It describes the withstnd capability of Sensor / Transducer due to mechanical forces tolerance behaviour such as

vibration, tortional stress, elasticity, size of mateial, viscocity, hardness, phase concentration, etc. The failure rate

due to each mechanical parameters can be estimated or determine expermentally. The failure rate can also be

computed from bath curve. Thus, mechanical characterization provides the reliability of sensor / transducer.

Reliability is the probability of availability. Availability of a system can be is calculated as given by equation (5.1):


= + 100 (5.1)

The availability of a transducer is also influenced by the reliability of control software programs in case of intelligent

transducer. However, softwares are not subjected to the same probabilities and failures that are common to hardware.

The parameters used for calculating the availability are based on the mean time between failure (MTBF) and the

mean time to repair (MTTR) of transducer. Thus, availability of a system is given by equation (21):

= +

(i) Mechanical Hysteresis


The dependence of the strain not only on the instantaneous value of the stress but also on the previous history of
stress. Effect depends on the raw material used, aging, etc.
26
(ii) Viscous Flow or Creep
Effect due to viscous flow in the material of the sensing element. Magnitude increases with increasing load and
temperature. Materials with low melting point show larger creep values.
(iii) Elastic after Effect
A continued deformation when the load is applied and kept constant. This effect decreases with time. Like creep,
there is a similar relaxation towards the original position when the load is removed. Virtually no deformation is
observed.

Hardness is the resistance to plastic deformation (e.g., a local dent or scratch). Thus, it is a measure of plastic
deformation, as is the tensile strength

Mechanical Properties of Metals

1. Introduction

Often materials are subject to forces (loads) when they are used. Mechanical engineers calculate those
forces and material scientists how materials deform (elongate, compress, twist) or break as a function
of applied load, time, temperature, and other conditions.

Materials scientists learn about these mechanical properties by testing materials. Results from the tests
depend on the size and shape of material to be tested (specimen), how it is held, and the way of
performing the test. That is why we use common procedures, or standards, which are published by the
ASTM.

2. Concepts of Stress and Strain

To compare specimens of different sizes, the load is calculated per unit area, also called normalization
to the area. Force divided by area is called stress. In tension and compression tests, the relevant area is
that perpendicular to the force. In shear or torsion tests, the area is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

= F/A0 tensile or compressive stress

= F/A0 shear stress

The unit is the Megapascal = 106 Newtons/m2.

There is a change in dimensions, or deformation elongation, L as a result of a tensile or compressive


stress. To enable comparison with specimens of different length, the elongation is also normalized, this
time to the length L. This is called strain, .

= L/L

The change in dimensions is the reason we use A0 to indicate the initial area since it changes during
deformation. One could divide force by the actual area, this is called true stress (see Sec. 6.7).

For torsional or shear stresses, the deformation is the angle of twist, Fig. 6.1) and the shear strain is
given by:

= tg

3. StressStrain Behavior

Elastic deformation. When the stress is removed, the material returns to the dimension it had before
the load was applied. Valid for small strains (except the case of rubbers).
27
Deformation is reversible, non permanent

Plastic deformation. When the stress is removed, the material does not return to its previous
dimension but there is a permanent, irreversible deformation.

In tensile tests, if the deformation is elastic, the stress-strain relationship is called Hooke's law:

= E

That is, E is the slope of the stress-strain curve. E is Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity. In some
cases, the relationship is not linear so that E can be defined alternatively as the local slope:

E = d/d

Shear stresses produce strains according to:

= G

where G is the shear modulus.

Elastic moduli measure the stiffness of the material. They are related to the second derivative of the
interatomic potential, or the first derivative of the force vs. internuclear distance (Fig. 6.6). By
examining these curves we can tell which material has a higher modulus. Due to thermal vibrations the
elastic modulus decreases with temperature. E is large for ceramics (stronger ionic bond) and small for
polymers (weak covalent bond). Since the interatomic distances depend on direction in the crystal, E
depends on direction (i.e., it is anisotropic) for single crystals. For randomly oriented policrystals, E is
isotropic.

4. Anelasticity

Here the behavior is elastic but not the stress-strain curve is not immediately reversible. It takes a
while for the strain to return to zero. The effect is normally small for metals but can be significant for
polymers.

5. Elastic Properties of Materials

Materials subject to tension shrink laterally. Those subject to compression, bulge. The ratio of lateral
and axial strains is called the Poisson's ratio .

= lateral/axial

The elastic modulus, shear modulus and Poisson's ratio are related by E = 2G(1+)

6. Tensile Properties

Yield point. If the stress is too large, the strain deviates from being proportional to the stress. The
point at which this happens is the yield point because there the material yields, deforming permanently
(plastically).

Yield stress. Hooke's law is not valid beyond the yield point. The stress at the yield point is called
yield stress, and is an important measure of the mechanical properties of materials. In practice, the
yield stress is chosen as that causing a permanent strain of 0.002 (strain offset, Fig. 6.9.)

The yield stress measures the resistance to plastic deformation.

28
The reason for plastic deformation, in normal materials, is not that the atomic bond is stretched beyond
repair, but the motion of dislocations, which involves breaking and reforming bonds.

Plastic deformation is caused by the motion of dislocations.

Tensile strength. When stress continues in the plastic regime, the stress-strain passes through a
maximum, called the tensile strength (TS) , and then falls as the material starts to develop a neck and
it finally breaks at the fracture point (Fig. 6.10).

Note that it is called strength, not stress, but the units are the same, MPa.

For structural applications, the yield stress is usually a more important property than the tensile
strength, since once the it is passed, the structure has deformed beyond acceptable limits.

Ductility. The ability to deform before braking. It is the opposite of brittleness. Ductility can be given
either as percent maximum elongation max or maximum area reduction.

%EL = max x 100 %

%AR = (A0 - Af)/A0

These are measured after fracture (repositioning the two pieces back together).

Resilience. Capacity to absorb energy elastically. The energy per unit volume is the

area under the strain-stress curve in the elastic region.

Toughness. Ability to absorb energy up to fracture. The energy per unit volume is the total area under
the strain-stress curve. It is measured by an impact test (Ch. 8).

7. True Stress and Strain

When one applies a constant tensile force the material will break after reaching the tensile strength.
The material starts necking (the transverse area decreases) but the stress cannot increase beyond TS.
The ratio of the force to the initial area, what we normally do, is called the engineering stress. If the
ratio is to the actual area (that changes with stress) one obtains the true stress.

8. Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation

If a material is taken beyond the yield point (it is deformed plastically) and the stress is then released,
the material ends up with a permanent strain. If the stress is reapplied, the material again responds
elastically at the beginning up to a new yield point that is higher than the original yield point (strain
hardening, Ch. 7.10). The amount of elastic strain that it will take before reaching the yield point is
called elastic strain recovery (Fig. 6. 16).

9. Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation

Compressive and shear stresses give similar behavior to tensile stresses, but in the case of compressive
stresses there is no maximum in the curve, since no necking occurs.

10. Hardness

Hardness is the resistance to plastic deformation (e.g., a local dent or scratch). Thus, it is a measure of
plastic deformation, as is the tensile strength, so they are well correlated. Historically, it was measured

29
on an empirically scale, determined by the ability of a material to scratch another, diamond being the
hardest and talc the softer. Now we use standard tests, where a ball, or point is pressed into a material
and the size of the dent is measured. There are a few different hardness tests: Rockwell, Brinell,
Vickers, etc. They are popular because they are easy and non-destructive (except for the small dent).

11. Variability of Material Properties

Tests do not produce exactly the same result because of variations in the test equipment, procedures,
operator bias, specimen fabrication, etc. But, even if all those parameters are controlled within strict
limits, a variation remains in the materials, due to uncontrolled variations during fabrication, non
homogenous composition and structure, etc. The measured mechanical properties will show scatter,
which is often distributed in a Gaussian curve (bell-shaped), that is characterized by the mean value
and the standard deviation (width).

12. Design/Safety Factors

To take into account variability of properties, designers use, instead of an average value of, say, the tensile strength,
the probability that the yield strength is above the minimum value tolerable. This leads to the use of a safety factor N
> 1 (typ. 1.2 - 4). Thus, a working value for the tensile strength would be W =TS / N

12.3 Thermal Characterization:

Thermal characterization is an important feature of sensor / transducer. It raises the thermal stress in the
transducer / sensor. These results a fraction of input energy is lost in increasing the internal temperature of sensor /
transducer. This further derates the capacity of sensor. Also, thermal stresses may carray out failure of the sensor
or introduce error in the performance of sensor.

13. Bath Curve of Sensor / Transducer:

A plot of the failure rate over time for most sensor / transducer yields a curve that looks like a drawing of a
bathtub. Thus,the transducer / sensor failure rate can be represented by graphically in three parts against time.
The 1st part define the initial part,a decreasing failure rate, known as early failure / or infant morality. Transducer
failure during during 100 days or defined time is considered for this part. Failures of transducer / sensor during
infant morality period is highly undesirable and always are faulty design or manufactured defect.

The 2nd part of the bath curve is called normal life failure.. During this phase, the failure of sensors / transducers are
normally due to random exceed of stress strength. Transducers normal life / useful life is limited by shortest lived
component.

The third part of bath curve is called end of life. During this period, failure increases due to aging and wear out, or
constant stresses. These three parts represents the shape of bath curve is generally used to study the reliability of
transducer.

30
Fig. Bath Curve of Senso / Transducer

Example: A thermocouple open circuit voltage is 6.0 millivolt . It is measured with millivoltmeter whose sensitivity
is 2000ohm/ volt. The output resistance of thermocouple is 10 killo ohm.

Different Sensors: Mechanical & Electromechanical

Mechanical Transducers:
The mechanical transducers are the mechanical elements that are used for converting one form of energy
into other form that can be measured easily. For example: Elastic Members ( Diaphragms, Bellows), Thermal (
Thermocouple, Bimetallic), Mass (Manometer, Seismic mass), Hydropneumatic Static ( Float, Hydrometer)
Dynamic (. Orifice, Venturi, Pitot tube).etc.
1) Bellows: These are the elastic elements that convert the air pressure into displacement, and it is
commonly used for the measurement of pressure

2) Bourdon tube: This elastic tube converts air pressure to the rotary motion of the pointer used to indicate the
pressure.

3) Spring: The spring tend to expand when force is applied to them, thus they are used for the measurement of force.
4) Proving rings: Like the springs the proving rings also convert applied force to the displacement.
5) Diaphragm: It converts applied pressure to the displacement.
6) Manometer: The manometer converts the applied pressure into variable displacement of the liquid within it
enabling to measure the pressure.

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7) Thermocouple: Thermocouple is the devise that produces electric current when one of its end is heated. The
current produce by the devise can be measured, which can be calibrated against the temperature enabling us to
measure the temperature of the body.
8) Bimetals: These are the bimetallic strips comprising of two different metals having different coefficient of thermal
expansion, joint together. When the strip is heated one metal expands lesser while the other metal expands more
leading to the deflection of the bimetallic strip, which is converted into the rotary motion of the pointer that indicates
the temperature.
9) Hydropneumatic transducers: These include devices like orifice, venturi, pitot tube, vanes and turbines that are
used for measurement of pressure, velocity, flow rate and force of water.
Apart from the mechanical transducers mentioned above there are many others like seismic mass, pendulum scale,
float etc. Most of the mechanical transducers are used as the primary transducers, meaning the initial input is applied
to them, while the output obtained from them can be used directly to measure the quantity or it can be given as input
to the secondary transducer, which are mostly of electrical type
Pressure is sensed by mechanical elements such as plates, shells, ands that are designed and constructed to deflect
when pressure is applied. This is the basic mechanism converting pressure to physical movement.

32
Electromechanical Transducer:
A device which converts electrical energy or signals into mechanical energy or signals and vice versa is
called electromechnical transducer.. For instance, an electric motor, an electric generator.
.
(electro mechanical output devices are generically called actuators). Electromechanical
(electromechanical output devices are generically called actuators):

Accelerometers
Air flow sensors
Electroactive polymers
Rotary motors, linear motors
Galvanometers
Linear variable differential transformers or rotary variably differential transformers
Load cells converts force to mV/V electrical signal using strain gauges
Microelectromechanical systems
Potentiometers (when used for measuring position)
Pressure sensors
String potentiometers
Tactile sensors
Vibration powered generators

33
Electromechanical transducer, any type of device that either converts an electrical signal into sound
waves (as in a loudspeaker) or converts a sound wave into an electrical signal (as in the
microphone).

Electromechanical Transducer:
a device for converting mechanical motion (vibrations) into variations of an electric cccurrent or vo
ltage (electric signals) andvice versa.
A transducer for receiving waves from an electric system and delivering waves to a mechanical system, or
vice versa.Also known as electromagnetic transducer.

Electromechanical transducers are used primarily as actuating mechanisms in automatic control s


ystems and assensors of mechanical motion in automation and measurement technology. They ma
y be classified according to theconversion principle used as resistive, electromagnetic, magnetoel
ectric, and electrostatic types; they may also be classifiedaccording to the type of output signal as
analogue and digital types (with analogue and discrete output signals, respectively).
Electromechanical transducers are evaluated with respect to their static and dynamic characteristics, the s
ensitivity (ortransfer ratio) E = y/x (where y is the change in the output quantity y when the input quanti
ty x is changed by x), theoperating frequency range of the output signal, the static error of the signal, and
the static error of conversion. Examples ofelectromechanical transducers are the measuring mechanism o
f a permanent-magnet instrument, a loudspeaker, amicrophone, and a piezoelectric transducer.
Most microphones use either an electromagnetic or an electrostatic technique to convert sound waves into electrical
signals. The dynamic microphone is constructed with a small magnet that oscillates inside a coil attached to the
diaphragm. When a sound wave causes the diaphragm of the microphone to vibrate, the relative motion of the magnet
and coil creates an electrical signal by magnetic induction. Either a moving-coil or a moving-magnet system may be
employed, depending on which element is connected to the moving diaphragm; the moving coil is used more often.
The dynamic microphone is rugged and has reasonably good linearity, so that high-quality models are useful in
recording. Because a moving-coil microphone and a moving-coil loudspeaker are very similar, intercoms are often
made with the same element serving both functions.
34
The electrostatic or condenser microphone is constructed with the diaphragm as one plate of a parallel-
plate capacitor. The most popular form of this type of microphone is the electret condenser microphone, in which the
plates are given a permanent electrical charge. When a sound wave causes the charged diaphragm plate to vibrate, the
voltage across the plates changes, creating a signal that can be amplified and transmitted to the recording device.
An amplifier is often mounted in the microphone, so this type of microphone requires the use of a battery to power
the amplifier. Because the diaphragm of a condenser microphone can be very light, compared with the more massive
dynamic microphone, it is able to respond faster and at higher frequencies. Consequently, condenser microphones
generally have better linearity and a greater frequency range than dynamic microphones.
The crystal microphone uses a piezoelectric crystal as its transducer. Piezoelectric crystals are durable and cheap, and
they have relatively large electrical output; for this reason, they are often used in telephones and portable sound
systems. They do not have very good linearity and so are inadequate for quality sound recording.
The ribbon microphone is unique in that it responds to the air velocity of the sound wave, not to the pressure
variation. Because ribbon microphones are very sensitive, they cannot be used where they will suffer mechanical
shocks. Ribbon microphones are bidirectional and can be used to pick up sounds coming from both sides of the
microphone equally well.

Electromagnetic speakers
Most loudspeakers are of the electromagnetic, or dynamic, variety, in which a voice coil moves in the gap of a
permanent magnet when a time-varying current flows through the coil. The magnet is generally in the shape of a W
or a ring. The diaphragm, or cone, of such a loudspeaker moves with the coil, converting the electric current in the
coil into a pressure wave. A lit candle placed in front of a loudspeaker cone that is oscillating at about 10 hertz can
render the sound wave visible, as the flame vibrates back and forth longitudinally with the air.

35
As is the case with microphones, loudspeakers are evaluated largely on their frequency linearity. In order to achieve
good frequency response at low frequencies, it is necessary to use a rather large cone; however, owing to the
relatively large mass of the loudspeaker coil and cone, it is difficult to achieve good response at high frequencies
with the same loudspeaker. Response can be improved by using rather large magnets, but these make a good
loudspeaker rather heavy. In addition, the suspension of the coil in the magnet gap is critical, because it must
provide for both rapid response and quick damping to its equilibrium position when the signal ceases. Each
loudspeaker has a frequency at which it resonates most readily. For large loudspeakers this resonant frequency is
useful in enhancing the bass response of the system.
Electromechanical pressure
sensors convert the applied pressure to an electrical signal. A wide variety
of materials and technologies has been used in these devices, resulting
in performance vs. cost tradeoffs and suitability for applications. The
electrical output signal also provides a variety of choices for various
applications.
Sensor Effects. A pressure sensor may be modeled as:
VOUT = kO + k1P (13)
where:
kO = offset
k1 = pressure sensitivity in V/pressure unit
A sensor will typically exhibit temperature coefficients of offset
(also called null shift) and sensitivity (see Figures 10 and 11).
Linearity refers to deviations from the ideal straight line described
by Equation (13). One way to measure linearity is to use the least
squares
method, which gives a best fit straight line (see Figure 12).
Repeatability refers to the sensor's ability to produce the same
output with consecutive applications of the same pressure (see Figure
13).
Hysteresis refers to the ability of the sensor to give the same
output when the same increasing and then decreasing pressures are Figure 11. The sensitivity of a pressure
applied sensor is also affected by temperature.
consecutively (see Figure 14).
Temperature hysteresis refers to the ability of the sensor to
give the same output at a given temperature before and after a temperature
cycle. Repeatability and hysteresis effects are not easily compensated and

Figure 12. The least squares


method can be used to measure
a pressure
sensor's linearity.

Figure 13. Repeatability refers to


the ability of a pressure sensor to
36
are indicators of the basic stability of the device.
provide the same output with
Gauge factor is a measure of the sensitivity of a sensor. It is successive applications of the
defined as the ratio of the change in an electrical transduction parameter same pressure.
over the full range of pressure to the value of that parameter at zero pressure.
Thus, the gauge factor of a resistive sensor is:
R/R (14)
where:
R = base resistance
R = resistance change with full-scale pressure, for example

Figure 14. Hysteresis is a


sensor's ability to give the same
output at
a given temperature before and
after a temperature cycle.

Potentiometer and Strain Gauge

4.1 Potentiometers
An often-used position sensor is the potentiometer. It is motion type resitive transducer. The potentiometer is
composed of a resistor and a contact slider that allows position or displacement to be made proportional to resistance.
There are linear and rotary potentiometers depending on whether the displacement to be measured is linear or
angular. Potentiometers are quite inexpensive, very rugged, and easy to use. However, they are not as accurate as
some other position transducers. They can be used for linear as well as angular displacement measurement, as shown
in Fig. 1. They are the resistive type of transducers and the output voltage is proportional to the displacement and is
given by:
e0 = (xi / xt ).E
where xi is the input displacement, xt is the total displacement and E is the supply voltage. The major problem with
potentiometers is the contact problem resulting out of wear and tear between the moving and the fixed parts. As a
result, though simple, application of potentiometers is limited.

37
Error due to loading in potentiometer:

Let us consider a dc source is connected across fixed terminals AB and Rt is the resistance of uniform wire wound
potentiometer whose total length lt. Then,

Resistance per unit length of potentiometer = Rt / lt V0 / Vi

Resistance between BC, RBC = (Rt / lt ). li = Rt (li / lt ) 1-----------

Current drawn through the voltage source, I = Vi / Rt

V0 = RBC .i = Rt (li / lt ) . Vi / Rt = (li / lt ). Vi ( when no meter is connected) 1 li / lt

When the output device meter is connected at the output terminals pf potentiometer, let Rm is the resistance
meter. Now,

Output resistance of potentiometer = Rt (li / lt ).Rm / {Rt (li / lt )+Rm}

= KRt Rm / {KRt +Rm}, where K = li / lt

Now, the total resistance seen by the source, R = Rt (1-K) + KRt Rm / {KRt +Rm}

= {K Rt2 (1-K) + Rt .Rm } /(KRt +Rm)

Now, Current drawn through the voltage source, I = Vi / R = {Vi (KRt +Rm)} / {K Rt2 (1-K) + Rt .Rm}

The output voltage under output device connected, V0 = i.K Rt Rm / (K Rt +Rm )

= Vi K / { K(1-K).(Rt/Rm) +1}

The ratio of output to input voltage under load conditions is,

V0 / Vi = K / { K(1-K).(Rt/Rm) +1}

Error = output when load connected output load not connected

= - Vi [ K2 (K-1) / { K(1-K)+(Rm/Rt)}]

error
38
K = li / lt

Strain Gage: Basics


Conside strain stretchs a thin wire (~25 m). Its length increases and its diameter decreases. This results
in increasing resistance of the wire. This can be used to measure extremely small displacements of the
order of nanometers.
For a rectangular wire
Rline = L/.A = L/A, where A = w.t, where, w=width and t= thickness
= conductivity, and = resistivity
Thus, R/R = L/L A/A + /

For a strained thin wire


R/R = L/L A/A + /

A = (D/2)2, for circular wire L


Poissons ratio, :relates change in diameter D to change in
length L
D/D / L/L = ; Thus, R/R = (1+2) L/L + /
dimensional effect piezoresistive effect
Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials

G = (R/R) /( L/L)= (1+2) + ( / )/ (L/L)

Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials

Strain Gage: Materials


material gage factor, G TCR (10-5)
Ni80 Cr20 2.1 - 2.6 10
Pt92 W8 3.6 4.4 24
Silicon (n type) -100 to -140 70 to 700
Germanium (p type) 102
TCR = temperature coefficient of resistivity (C-1)
G for semiconductor materials ~ 50-70 x that of metals
due to stronger piezoresistive effect, semiconductors have much higher TCR and requires temperature
compensation in strain gage.
Strain Gage
Unbonded strain gage: In unbondedstrain gage, end points are anchored but material between end
points is unbonded. It is used for measuring diaphragm pressure, strain etc. For example, strain gage is
unbonded dummy.

Bonded strain gage: material is cemented to strained surface. Bonded strain gage are (a) resistive
wire,(b) foil type, (c) helical wire
temperature compensation

39
At Balanced bridge Vout = 0,

occurs when R1/R2 = R4/R3, which is also R1/R4 = R2/R3 It implies that mid-node voltages must be
equal.
Single element sensor
R3 = Ro (1+x), x = factional change in resistance of sensor
if R1 = R4 Vout- = VCC/2
if R2 = Ro V ou t+ = VCC (Ro(1+x) / Ro(2+x))
Vout- = VCC/(2+x), Vout+ = VCC((1+x) /(2+x)) VCC (x/(2+x))
Vout+ increases as x increases
Vout+ = VCC/2 when x=0, =VCC when x= infinity
Vout- is same, only Vout+ increases with x
Vout = VCC ((1+x)/(2+x) 1/2)
Two element (half bridge)
R1 & R3 increases/decrease together
if R2=R4=Ro and R1=R3=Ro(1+x)
Vout- = VCC/(2+x), Vout+ = VCC((1+x) / (2+x)) Vout = VCC (x/(2+x))
increasing positive values of x cause Vout to become more positive

Two element (half bridge); alternative


R1=R4, R3 increases when R2 decreases (and visa versa)
if R1=R4=Ro R3=Ro(1+x) and R2=Ro(1-x)
Vout- = VCC/2
Vout+ = VCC ((1+x)/2)
Vout = VCC ((1+x)/2 1/2)
increasing positive values of x cause Vout to become more positive
Four element full bridge
R1 & R3 increases/decrease together
R2 & R4 decrease/increase together
change opposite of R1 & R3
if R1=R3=Ro(1+x) and R2=R4=Ro(1-x)
Vout+ = ??
Vout- = ??
Vout = ??

Semiconductor Strain Gage


Semiconductors:
make highly sensitive strain gages
have higher gage factors than metals/alloys
more temperature sensitive than metals/alloys
less linear than metals/alloys
Semiconductor strain gage option:
bulk semiconductor material
p-type: positive gage factor
n-type: negative gage factor
lightly doped material gives higsh gage factor
diffused/doped semiconductor
Integrated planer multi-element strain gage:

40
Example: diaphragm pressure sensor
strain gage (resistors) integrated into the surface
when pressure is applied, diaphragm bends
outer strain gages stretch and inner gages compress
Wheatstone bridge configuration
high sensitivity & good temperature compensation

Cantilever-beam force sensor


2 piezoresistors in top and two in bottom of a semiconductor beam
when force F is applied
R1 & R3 (on top) are compressed
R2 & R4 (on bottom) are stretched
can be read out with Wheatstone bridge

41
14.3 Inductive Transducer:

Inductance is the feature of flux which opposes the building / decaying of current instantaneously. Inductance is
caterized in to (i) Self inductace, and (ii) mutal inductance. Thus, inductive transducers operate on one of the
following three principles.

(i) Variation of self inductance of the coil,

(ii) Variation of mutal inductance of the coil, and

(iii) eddy current generation.

(i) Working principle of self inductance transducer: The self inductance of coil is given by equn.

L = N2 / S , S = reluctance of flux path = l / .A = N2 G (1)

Where N is the number of turns on the coil, l is the mean length of magnetic path, and A is area of cross section of
magnetic path and is the permeability of the magnetic material. A/l is call ed the geometric form factor, G.

Eqn. (1) shows that the self inductance of coil can be varied by varying the number of turns on the coil, the
permeability of magnetic materials or by changing the geometrical configyration of magnetic circuit. It is usually
used for measurement of displacement, by varying N, , or G.

Varation of Permeability Ferromagnetic type:

The self inductance, L = N2 G. This eqn. shows that self inductance is directly propotional to permeability, .The
variation in permeability of ferromagnetic material type sensor changes the self inductance. Such a transducer has a
coil wound on a former ( non-conductive tube) and an iron core, to which the movable element is attached, moves
inside the coil. When the iron core, is completely inside the coil, self inductance of the coil is maximum because of
increased value of flux. As the iron core moves out, reluctance of the magnetic circuit increases causing decrease in
flux which results in decrease in self inductance, L of coil.

Coil (L)

Former _ Iron Core

Displacement

Output

Electromagnetic Type Variation of reluctance of magnetic circuit:

42
The inductance, L = N2 /S . Variable reluctance type inductive transducer for measurement of linear displacement is
shown in fig. below:

It consistance a electromagnet, iron piece, and coil. The distance between iron piece and electromagnet varies by
displacement of iron piece. This displacement varies the length of magnetic path.

EDDY CURRENT TRANSDUCER:

Eddy-Current sensors operate with magnetic fields. The driver creates an


alternating current in the sensing coil in the end of the probe. This creates an
alternating magnetic field with induces small currents in the target material;
these currents are called eddy currents. The eddy currents create an opposing
magnetic field which resists the field being generated by the probe coil. The
interaction of the magnetic fields is dependent on the distance between the
probe and the target. As the distance changes, the electronics sense the
change in the field interaction and produce a voltage output which is
proportional to the change in distance between the probe and target. The target surface must be at least
three times larger than the probe diameter for normal, calibrated operation; otherwise, special calibration
my be required.

Eddy-Current sensors are noncontact devices capable of high-resolution measurement of the position
and/or change of position of any conductive target. Eddy-Current sensors are also called inductive
sensors, but generally "eddy current" refers to precision displacement instruments (or nondestructive
testing probes) and "inductive" refers to inexpensive proximity switches. High resolution and tolerance of
dirty environments make eddy-current sensors indispensable in today's modern industrial operations.

High-Performance Sensors

It is important to distinguish between "high-performance" eddy-current sensors and inexpensive inductive


sensors. Simple inductive sensors, such as those used in inexpensive proximity switches, are
comparatively crude devices allowing them to carry a low price. Proximity type sensors are tremendously
useful in automation applications and many commercially available models and are well made for their
intended applications, but they are not suited to precision metrology applications.

In contrast, eddy-current sensors for use in precision displacement measurement and metrology
applications use complex electronic designs to execute complex mathematical algorithms. Unlike
inexpensive sensors, these high-performance sensors have outputs which are very linear, stable with
temperature, and able to resolve incredibly small changes in target position resulting in high resolution
measurements.

Eddy-Current Sensor Advantages

Compared to other noncontact sensing technologies such as optical, laser, and capacitive, high-
performance eddy-current sensors have some distinct advantages.

43
Tolerance of dirty environments
Not sensitive to material in the gap between the probe and target
Less expensive and much smaller than laser interferometers
Less expensive than capacitive sensors

Eddy-Current sensors are not a good choice in these conditions:

Extremely high resolution (capacitive sensors are ideal)


Large gap between sensor and target is required (optical and laser are better)

Visit the Eddy-Current vs. Capacitive Sensors page for a more detailed comparison between these two
technologies.

Applications

Eddy-Current sensors are useful in any application requiring the measurement or monitoring of the position
of a conductive target, especially in a dirty environment.

Position Measurement/Sensing

Eddy-Current sensors are basically position measuring devices. Their outputs always
indicate the size of the gap between the sensor's probe and the target. When the
probe is stationary, any changes in the output are directly interpreted as changes in
position of the target. This is useful in:

Automation requiring precise location


Machine tool monitoring
Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
Precision stage positioning

Dynamic Motion

Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a vibrating


element, requires some form of noncontact measurement. Eddy-Current sensors are
useful whether the environment is clean or dirty and the motions are relatively small.
Lion Precision eddy-current sensors also have high frequency response (up to
80 kHz) to accommodate high-speed motion.

Drive shaft monitoring


Vibration measurements

Transformer type and Electromagnetic Transducer

Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) Transformer type

44
Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) are used to measure displacement. LVDTs operate on the
principle of a transformer. As shown in Figure 2, an LVDT consists of a coil assembly and a core. The coil
assembly is typically mounted to a stationary form, while the core is secured to the object whose position is
being measured. The coil assembly consists of three coils of wire wound on the hollow form. A core of
permeable material can slide freely through the center of the form. The inner coil is the primary, which is
excited by an AC source as shown. Magnetic flux produced by the primary is coupled to the two secondary
coils, inducing an AC voltage in each coil.

The main advantage of the LVDT transducer over other types of displacement transducer is the high
degree of robustness. Because there is no physical contact across the sensing element, there is no wear
in the sensing element.

Because the device relies on the coupling of magnetic flux, an LVDT can have infinite resolution. Therefore
the smallest fraction of movement can be detected by suitable signal conditioning hardware, and the
resolution of the transducer is solely determined by the resolution of the data acquisition system.
An LVDT measures displacement by associating a specific signal value for any given position of the core.
This association of a signal value to a position occurs through electromagnetic coupling of an AC excitation
signal on the primary winding to the core and back to the secondary windings. The position of the core
determines how tightly the signal of the primary coil is coupled to each of the secondary coils. The two
secondary coils are series-opposed, which means wound in series but in opposite directions. This results
in the two signals on each secondary being 180 deg out of phase. Therefore phase of the output signal
determines direction and its amplitude, distance.

Figure 3 depicts a cross-sectional view of an LVDT. The core causes the magnetic field generated by the
primary winding to be coupled to the secondaries. When the core is centered perfectly between both
secondaries and the primary, as shown, the voltage induced in each secondary is equal in amplitude and
180 deg out of phase. Thus the LVDT output (for the series-opposed connection shown in this case) is
zero because the voltages cancel each other.

Figure 3. Cross-Sectional View of LVDT Core and Windings

Displacing the core to the left (Figure 4) causes the first secondary to be more strongly coupled to the
primary than the second secondary. The resulting higher voltage of the first secondary in relation to the
second secondary causes an output voltage that is in phase with the primary voltage.

45
Figure 4. Coupling to First Secondary Caused by Associated Core Displacement

Likewise, displacing the core to the right causes the second secondary to be more strongly coupled to the
primary than the first secondary. The greater voltage of the second secondary causes an output voltage to
be out of phase with the primary voltage.

Figure 5. Coupling to Second Secondary Caused by Associated Core Displacement

To summarize, The LVDT closely models an ideal zeroth-order displacement sensor structure at low
frequency, where the output is a direct and linear function of the input. It is a variable-reluctance device,
where a primary center coil establishes a magnetic flux that is coupled through a center core (mobile
armature) to a symmetrically wound secondary coil on either side of the primary. Thus, by measurement of
the voltage amplitude and phase, one can determine the extent of the core motion and the direction, that
is, the displacement.[1] Figure 6 shows the linearity of the device within a range of core displacement.
Note that the output is not linear as the core travels near the boundaries of its range. This is because less
magnetic flux is coupled to the core from the primary. However, because LVDTs have excellent
repeatability, nonlinearity near the boundaries of the range of the device can be predicted by a table or
polynomial curve-fitting function, thus extending the range of the device.

46
Figure 6: Proportionally Linear LVDT Response to Core Displacement
ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSDUCER:

Capacitive Sensors :
A capacitor is a device which have two electrodes separated by a dielectric and carry equal but opposite charges.
Thus capacitore can store. In the uncharged state, the charge on either one of the conductors in the capacitor is
zero. During the charging process, a charge Q is moved from one conductor to the other one, giving one conductor
a charge +Q , and the other one a Q charge . A potential difference is created, with the positively charged
conductor at a higher potential than the negatively charged conductor. Note that whether charged or uncharged,
the net charge on the capacitor as a whole is zero.
The simplest example of a capacitor consists of two conducting plates of area A , which are parallel to each other,
and separated by a distance d, as shown in Figure X.1. Figure X.2, shows that the amount of charge Q stored in a
capacitor is linearly proportional to , the electric potential difference between the plates. The SI unit of capacitance
is the farad (F. Figure 5.1.3(a) shows the symbol which is used to represent capacitors in circuits. For a polarized
fixed capacitor which has a definite polarity, Figure 5.1.3(b) is sometimes used. (a) (b) Figure 5.1.3 Capacitor
symbols.

Capacitance of two parallel plates

The most common capacitor consists of two parallel plates. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
depends on the area of the plates A and their separation d. According to Gauss's law, the electric field
between the two plates is:

Since the capacitance is defined by one can see that capacitance is:

Thus you get the most capacitance when the plates are large and close together. A large capacitance
means that the capacitor stores a large amount of charge.

If a dielectric material is inserted between the plates, the microscopic dipole moments of the material will
shield the charges on the plates and alter the relation. Materials have a permeability which is given by
the relative permeability , =0. The capacitance is thus given by:

47
The energy stored in capacitor U is given by

Coaxial cylinders capacitor,C:

C = 2or L / ln b awhere L is the length of coaxial cylinder, a and b are the radius of inner and outer
coaxial cylinder respectively.

Effect of fringing flux


If the plates are close compared to the plate spacing, the calculation in Fig. 1 is accurate. But as the plate
spacing increases relative to area, more flux lines connect from the edges and backs of the plates and the
measured capacitance can be much larger than calculated.
All materials have a relative permeability, , greater than unity, so the capacitance can be
increased by inserting a dielectric. Sometimes, is referred to as the dielectric constant of
the material. The electric field causes some fraction of the dipoles in the material to orient
them selves along the E-field as opposed to the usual random orientation. This, effectively,
appears as if negative charge is lined up against the positive plate, and positve charge
against the negative plate. In the figure to the right, the blue material is the dielectric.
Effect of fringing flux
If the plates are close compared to the plate spacing, the calculation in Fig. 1 is accurate.
But as the plate spacing increases relative to area, more flux lines connect from the edges
and backs of the plates and the measured capacitance can be much larger than
calculated.

Equivalent circuit:

An ideal dielectric has a zero conductivity. This means that the electrical circuit of the element with this dielectric is
pure capacitance, which does not dissipate any real power. The reactive power of capacitor is, Qr = CV 2 ,
where angular frequency, rad/s ; Qr = reactive power
And its impedance is, Zc = 1/ j C

A real dielectric between the capacitor plates contributes to losses. The power dissipated in the capacitor: P VI
cos, cos = power factor , = power factor angle, I= current through capacitor , and V= voltage applied to the
capacitor
The losses are also evaluated in terms of phase angle

Capacitors Equivalent Circuit


cossin= tan ; usually is very mall. The actual element carrying the real dielectric can be regarded
with a perfect capacitor Cs or Cp with the series or parallel resistances.
Rs = cos/Cs ; Rp = 1/CpCos;For pure / ideal capacitor: =90o

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Relationships for the two equivalent circuits of real capacitors:

Cs= Cp{ 1+ tan2), Rs = Rp / {1+1/ tan2)

For Real capacitor, its impedance,

Z = R jX, where X = capacitive reactance X for parallel capacitor , X = 1 / C

The equivalent circuit of a capacitor can be approximated by this circuit, with small series resistance and
inductance neglected for our high-impedance uses. Good capacitor dielectrics have a very large shunt
resistance; polypropylene capacitors have an RC product of over 300 hours. Other materials have a much
smaller shunt resistance, sometimes reaching 5-10% of the impedance of the capacitor. Although the
dielectric constant K of most materials is stable, the shunt resistance or its equivalent, loss tangent, may
show considerable variation with material properties or with frequency. As an example, dry leather has a
loss tangent of 0.045, but with a relative humidity of 15% the loss tangent increases to 1.4--possibly a
good hygrometer. Aviation gas at 100 octane exhibits a loss tangent at 1 kHz of 0.0001, but at 91 octane
loss tangent increases to 0.0004. Water has a high K (80) and a loss tangent which peaks at low
frequencies and again at 1010 Hz. With this high dielectric activity, the loss tangent or the dielectric
constant of water can be used to detect the moisture content of materials. Another characteristic of
capacitor dielectrics which may have some use in detecting material properties is dielectric absorption. It is
measured by charging a capacitor, discharging for 10 s, and measuring the charge which reappears after
15 min. A relatively low-quality dielectric like metallized paper has a dielectric absorption of 10%.

Signal conditioning:
Signal conditioning circuits convert capacitance variations into a voltage, frequency, or pulse
width modulation. Very simple circuits can be used, but simple circuits may be affected by leakage or stray
capacitance, and may not be suitable for applications with very small capacitance sense electrodes.

5.1 Excitation frequency


The excitation frequency should be reasonably high so that electrode impedance is as low as possible.
Typical electrode impedance is 1-100M ohms. Ideally, the excitation frequency will be high enough to
reject coupling to power waveforms and also high enough so that the overall sensor frequency response
is adequate; about 50 kHz is usually acceptably high. The frequency should also be low enough for easy
circuit design, CMOS switches work well at 100 kHz and below. Excitation waveshape is usually square or
trapezoidal, but a triangle waveform can be used to allow a simpler amplifier with resistive feedback and a
sine wave offers better accuracy at high frequency. Square wave excitation produces an output bandwidth
which can be higher than the excitation frequency by 10x or more, other waveshapes usually result in an
output bandwidth 2x or 3x lower than the excitation frequency. Sensors excited with a continuous wave
signal usually use synchronous demodulators. This demodulator type offers high precision and good
rejection of out-of-band interference.

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Capacitive sensors can directly sense a variety of thingsmotion, chemical composition, electric field, and
indirectly, sense many other variables which can be converted into motion or dielectric constant, such as
pressure, acceleration, fluid level, and fluid composition.
They are built with conductive sensing electrodes in a dielectric, with excitation voltages on the order of
five volts and detection circuits which turn a capacitance variation into a voltage, frequency, or pulse width
variation. The range of application of capacitive sensors is extraordinary.

Motion detectors can detect 10-14 m displacements with good stability, high speed,
and wide extremes of environment, and capacitive sensors with large electrodes
can detect an automobile and measure its speed.
Capacitive technology is displacing piezoresistance in silicon implementation of
accelerometers and pressure sensors, and innovative applications like fingerprint
detectors, and infrared detectors are appearing on silicon with sensor dimensions
in the microns and electrode capacitance of 10 fF, with resolution to 5 aF (10-18 F).
Capacitive sensors in oil refineries measure the percent of water in oil, and sensors
in grain storage facilities measure the moisture content of wheat
In the home, cost-effective capacitive sensors operate soft-touch dimmer switches
and help the home craftsman with wall stud sensors and digital construction levels
Laptop computers use capacitive sensors for two-dimensional cursor control, and
transparent capacitive sensors on computer monitors are found in retail kiosks
The first reference to capacitive sensors is found in Nature, 1907, but the penetration today is only a few
percent of all sensor types. This is surprising, with the technologys low cost and stability and its simple
conditioning circuits--often, the offset and gain adjustments needed for most sensor types are not required,
as the raw output span of the signal on the capacitive sense electrodes can be nearly to the supply rails.
These advantages are attracting many converts. An often-heard objection to capacitive sensor technology
is that it is sensitive to humidity and needs unstable, high impedance circuits. In fact, as the dielectric
constant of humid air is only a few ppm higher than dry air, humidity itself isnt a problem. Very high
impedance circuits are needed, but with proper circuit design and proper printed circuit board layout,
capacitive sensors are as rugged as any other sensor type. They cant tolerate immersion or condensing
humidity, but few circuits can. The design process usually follows these steps
Design electrode plates to measure the desired variable. Maximize capacitance
with large-area, close-spaced plates
Surround this sensor with appropriate guard or shield electrodes to handle stray
capacitance and crosstalk from other circuits
Calculate sensor capacitance, stray capacitance and output signal swing
Specify transfer function, like Eo = C (area-linear), Eo = 1/C (spacing-linear). Use
two balanced capacitors for high accuracy, with a transfer function like C1/C2 or
(C1-C2)/(C1+C2)
Choose an excitation frequency high enough for low noise. As excitation frequency
increases, external and circuit-generated noise decreases
Design circuit to meet accuracy specifications and provide immunity to environmental
challenges
1.1 Applications
Capacitive sensors have a wide variety of uses. Some are
Flow--Many types of flow meters convert flow to pressure or displacement, using
an orifice for volume flow or Coriolis effect force for mass flow. Capacitive sensors
can then measure the displacement.
Pressure--A diaphragm with stable deflection properties can measure pressure
with a spacing-sensitive detector.
Liquid level --Capacitive liquid level detectors sense the liquid level in a reservoir
by measuring changes in capacitance between conducting plates which are
immersed in the liquid, or applied to the outside of a non-conducting tank.
Spacing--If a metal object is near a capacitor electrode, the mutual capacitance is
a very sensitive measure of spacing.
Scanned multiplate sensor--The single-plate spacing measurement can be
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extended to contour measurement by using many plates, each separately
addressed. Both conductive and dielectric surfaces can be measured.
Thickness measurement--Two plates in contact with an insulator will measure the
insulator thickness if its dielectric constant is known, or the dielectric constant if the
thickness is known.
Ice detector--Airplane wing icing can be detected using insulated metal strips in
wing leading edges.
Shaft angle or linear position--Capacitive sensors can measure angle or position
with a multiplate scheme giving high accuracy and digital output, or with an analog
output with less absolute accuracy but faster response and simpler circuitry.
Lamp dimmer switch--The common metal-plate soft-touch lamp dimmer uses 60
Hz excitation and senses the capacitance to a human body.
Keyswitch--Capacitive keyswitches use the shielding effect of a nearby finger or a
moving conductive plunger to interrupt the coupling between two small plates.
Limit switch--Limit switches can detect the proximity of a metal machine component
as an increase in capacitance, or the proximity of a plastic component by virtue of its increased dielectric
constant over air.
X-Y tablet--Capacitive graphic input tablets of different sizes can replace the computer
mouse as an x-y coordinate input device. Finger-touch-sensitive, z-axis-sensitive
and stylus-activated devices are available.
Accelerometers--Analog Devices has introduced integrated accelerometer ICs
with a sensitivity of 1.5g. With this sensitivity, the device can be used as a tiltmeter.

Parallel capacitor with Varying permittivity:

For each segment of the capacitor


Qi = Ci V = I Ai V/ d

Total charge, Q = (1 A1 + 2 A2 ) V / d
Comparing with Q = A V/ d, the effective permittivity,

Capacitive transducer in which the permittivity varies spatially

eff = (1 A1 + 2 A2 ) / A = {1 y + 2 (1-y)} / l
The voltage constitutive equation is

V = Qd / {1 y + 2 (1-y)} w
The thickness of a dielectric film can be measured by pulling it between two plates of the capacitor.

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1. Fil ; 2,3: plates

If 1>> 0,

Large Displacements and Level Sensors

1. Dielectric element, 2 and 3 are plates

Sensitivity,
Liquid level sensor Varying Permittivity :
The elementary capacitor C with two circular imaginary electrodes at radius r,
separation dr from each other, and length L

Therefore the capacitance between the electrodes with radii R1 and an


With liquid level h, the overall transfer function for the level sensor will be:

(1)
Eqn. (1)

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Thus for small gap,

Sensitivity of C to a change of h will be:

We can modify the above results for measuring large displacement of a moving rotor element

Electrostatic Transducer
An electrostatic transducer consisting of a fixed electrode and a movable electrode charged
electrostatically in opposite polarity; motionof the movable electrode changes the capacitance between the
electrodes and thereby makes the applied voltage change in proportion to the amplitude of the electrode's
motion. An electrostatic transducer has three electrodes. The two outer ones are static, that
means fixed, the third, middle is free in movement. Due to the ve charged outer
electrodes, the middle electrode is charged positive (BIAS). So without any signal voltage
the middle electrode is idle, because it is attracted from both sides with exact the same force
(left picture). Now if you overlay a signal voltage on the outer negative electrodes (right
picture), the middle electrode is moved to the left or right side, depending on the polarity
and amount of the signal voltage

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.

The advantage of such a transducer: The moving force acts homogeneous over the complete
diaphragm and not from one point in the middle of the membrane like a dynamic transducer
works. Partial vibrations are not generated, that means the transducer works with low
distortion. Using a very thin diaphragm there are only very little masses moved, and that
leads to an excellent reproduction of impulses.

But now lets look a little bit closer on the relations, shown in the simplified picture above.
The diaphragm means a capacitor, related on the two static electrodes that can be calculated
as follows:

Depending from the position of the diaphragm the effective capacity will increase when the
diaphragm is moved towards one of the electrodes. The effective capacity can be a multiple
of the quiescent capacity when the diaphragm aproaches very close to one of the electrodes.
Because of the relation

Q=CU

a current will flow from or to the diaphragm during movement. Interesting to see are the
forces that act on the diaphragm. They can be calculated as follows:

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You will realize that there is no linear relation between force and change of distance of the
diaphragm. The reason for this nonlinearity is the flow of charge carrier during change of
capacity. So this is the reason why this concept is not practicable for transducers with large
amplitudes.

It will look completely different if you place a high impedance resistor in the circuit of the
diaphragm. It will supress the change of charge carrier during capacity change when the
diaphragm is moved, and that means:

Q = CONSTANT

The voltage between stator and diaphragm now changes as follows:

The voltage of the diaphragm now changes proportional to the distance and that means a
constant electric field strength, independent from the amplitude of the diaphragm.

If you now calculate the force, acting on the diaphragm you will receive a value that is
proportional to the signal voltage and depends no longer from the distance of the diaphragm.

The relations of the capacities have also changed basicly. The effective capacity has changed
from parallel to serial and is now constant.

An other advantage of this concept is the reduced risk of collapse that can happen at large
amplitudes when the diaphragm approaches to near to the stators. With a constant electric
field strength the voltage is proportional to the distance and will be zero when the diaphragm
drops the stator.

This concept is nowadays applied to all high end electrostatic transducers both loudspeakers
and headphones. With such linear relations it is possible to receive distortion levels far under
1%.

used symbols

CPARALLEL effective capacity for parallel capacitors


CREIHE effective capacity for serial capacitors
C capacity
55
UMEMBRANE voltage between diaphragm and stator
USIGNAL signal voltage
UBIAS BIAS voltage
U Voltage
Q charge
PIE
A area
ZOE
E field strength LEC
F force TRI
C
d distance TRA
d change of distance NSD
UCE
dielectric constant R:

Piezoele

Piezo Electric Transducer


A piezo electric transducer transducer is one in whch an electric potential appears across certain surfaces of a crystal
if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by the application of of a mechnical force. This potential is produced by
the displacement of charges. The effect is reversible, i.e. if a varying potential is applied to the proper axis of crystal,
it will change the dimensions of the crystal. THIS effect is called piezo electric effect. Elements possese piezo
electric quality are called as piezo resistive elements.

A piezoelectric crystal transducer/sensor is an active sensor and it does not need the help of an external
power as it is self-generating. A quartz crystal is a piezoelectric material that can generate a voltage
proportional to the stress applied upon it. For the application, a natural quartz crystal has to be cut in the
shape of a thin plate of rectangular or oval shape of uniform thickness. Each crystal has three sets of axes
Optical axes, three electrical axes OX1, OX2, and OX3 with 120 degree with each other, and three
mechanical axes OY1,OY2 and OY3 also at 120 degree with each other. The mechanical axes will be at
right angles to the electrical axes. Some of the parameters that decide the nature of the crystal for the
application are

Angle at which the wafer is cut from natural quartz crystal

Plate thickness

Dimension of the plate

Means of mounting

If an electric stress is applied in the directions of an electric axis (X-axis), a mechanical strain is
produced in the direction of the Y-axis, which is perpendicular to the relevant X-axis. Similarly, if a
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mechanical strain is given along the Y-axis, electrical charges will be produced on the faces of the
crystal, perpendicular to the X-axis which is at right angles to the Y-axis.
Some of the materials that inherit piezo-electric effect are quartz crystal, Rochelle salt, barium
titanate, and so on. The main advantages of these crystals are that they have high mechanical and
thermal state capability, capability of withstanding high order of strain, low leakage, and good
frequency response, and so on.

Piezoelectric Transducer can measure pressure in the same way a force or an acceleration can be measured. For low
pressure measurement, possible vibration of the amount should be compensated for. The pressure measuring quartz
disc stack faces the pressure through a diaphragm and on the other side of this stack, the compensating mass
followed by a compensating quartz.

Applications

1. Due to its excellent frequency response, it is normally used as an accelerometer, where the output is in the
order of (1-30) mV per gravity of acceleration.

2. The device is usually designed for use as a pre-tensional bolt so that both tensional and compression force
measurements can be made.

3. Can be used for measuring force, pressure and displacement in terms of voltage.

Advantages

1. Very high frequency response.

2. Self generating, so no need of external source.

3. Simple to use as they have small dimensions and large measuring range.

4. Barium titanate and quartz can be made in any desired shape and form. It also has a large dielectric
constant. The crystal axis is selectable by orienting the direction of orientation.

Disadvantages

1. It is not suitable for measurement in static condition.

2. Since the device operates with the small electric charge, they need high impedance cable for electrical
interface.

3. The output may vary according to the temperature variation of the crystal.

4. The relative humidity rises above 85% or falls below 35%, its output will be affected. If so, it has to be
coated with wax or polymer material.

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The induced charge Q is given by:

Q = d .F, where d = charge sensitivity of the crystal, ( C/N It is constant for a given crystal)

F = applied force given in newton.

The force F causes a change in thickness of the crystal. We know

( Young modulouse= stress / strain). Therefore, E = F/A / ( t /t ) = F t/ (A t)

F = AE t / t, and Q = dAE(t / t )

The charge at the electrodes give rise to an output voltage E0.

Voltage E0 = Q / Cp , where Cp is the capacitance between electrodes.( Cp = r 0 A/ t ).

Therefore, E = Q / Cp = d F / (r 0 A/ t = {d t / (r 0 ) } F/ A

But F/A = P pressure or stress in N/M2.

Therefore, E0 becomes

E0 = d t P / r 0.= gtP , where g = d /r 0. g is called voltage sensitivity of the crystal.

From the above eeqns. We get, g = E0 / Tp = ( E0/t) / P

But E0/t = electric field strength, V/m

Let, e = E0/t , then g = electric field / stress = e/ P

The values of crystal voltage sensitivity, permittivity, and charge sensitivity for barium titanate and quartz
crystal is given below;

Material Voltage Sensitivity Permittivity Charge sensitivity E

Barium titanate 12x10-3 12.5x10-9 150 12x1010 N/m

Quartz crystal 50x10-3 40.6x10-12 2 8.6x106N/m

Equivalent circuit diagram of Piezo electric crystal

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:

Modes of operation of Piezo electric Transducers:

The Piezo electric Transducers are used in many modes. These modes are:

(i) Thickness shear,

(ii) Face shear,

(iii) Thickness expansion, and

(iv) Transverse expansion.


Features of Piezo electric Crystal:

certain crystal produces an electrical charge when an external force is applied to certain crystalline materials
Potential difference appear across the opposite faces of the material as a result of dimention changes when a
mechanical force is applied to t. It is is called piezoelectric effect and such material is called piezo electric material.
The effect is reversible also. It is used for the measurement of dynamic pressure, force, shock, vibratory motion. It
can also be used for generating high voltage, low current electric power, used in spark ignition engine and
electrostatic dust filter, non-destructructive test equiment, pumps for inject printer. The piezoelectric effect
produces an opposed accumulation of charged particles on the crystal. This charge is proportional to applied force
or stress. A force applied to a quartz crystal lattice structure alters alignment of positive and negative ions, which
results in an accumulation of these charged ions on opposed surfaces. These charged ions accumulate on an
electrode that is ultimately conditioned by electronic circuit. Over its specified frequency range, this structure
approximately obeys Newton's law of motion, F=ma. Therefore, the total amount of accumulated charge is
proportional to the applied force. Electrodes collect and wires transmit the charge to a signal conditioner. Figure
below shows the charge accumalation process when a force is applied on crystal.

59
Piezoelectric transducer consists of quartz crystal which is made from silicon and oxygen
arranged in crystalline structure (SiO2). Generally, unit cell (basic repeating unit) of all
crystal is symmetrical but in piezoelectric quartz crystal it is not. Piezoelectric crystals are
electrically neutral. The atoms inside them may not be symmetrically arranged but their
electrical charges are balanced means positive charges cancel out negative charge. The
quartz crystal has unique property of generating electrical polarity when mechanical stress
applied on it along certain plane. Basically, There are two types of stress. One is compressive
stress and other is tensile stress.

When there is unstressed


quartz no charges induce on it. In case of compressive stress, positive charges are induced
in one side and negative charges are induced in opposite side. The crystal size gets thinner
and longer due to compressive stress. In case of tensile stress, charges are induced in
reverse as compare to compressive stress and quartz crystal gets shorter and fatter.

Crystal 2O(-4)
Electrode of area A Si(+4) Si(+4)

Out put 2O(-4) 2O(-4)


Si(+4)
Fig. When no force is applied, Neutral structure of crystal
F.
Crystal 2o(-4)
Electrode of area A si(+4) si(+4)
F
2o(-4) 2o(-4)
Out put si(+4)

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When force F is applied and change in dimention of crystal

The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface charges are proportional to the magnitude and direction of the
applied force,F.
Q = d.f; where d is the crystal carge density in coulombs per newton (C/N)
Stress/ Strain = Young Modulus, ( F/A) /

It is self-generating transducer. It does not require electric voltage source for operation. The
electric voltage produced by piezoelectric transduce is linearly varies to applied stress or
force.Piezoelectric transducer has high sensitivity. So, it acts as sensor and used in
accelero meter due to its excellent frequency of response. The piezoelectric effect is used in
many application that involve production and detection of sound, electronic frequency
generation. It acts as ignition source for cigarette lighter and used in sonar, microphone,
force, pressure and displacement measurement
Application of Piezoelectric Materials?
1. In microphones, the sound pressure is converted into electric signal and this signal is
ultimately amplified to produce louder sound.
2. Automobile seat belts lock in response to a rapid deceleration is also done by piezoelectric
material.
3. It is also used in medical diagnostics.
4. It is used in electric lighter used in kitchens. Pressure made on piezoelectric sensor creates
an electric signal which ultimately causes flash to fire up.
5. They are used for studying high speed shock waves and blast waves.
6. Used in fertility treatment.
7. Used in Inkjet printers
8. It is also used in restaurants or airports where when a person steps near the door and the
door opens automatically. In this the concept used is when person is near the door a
pressure is exerted persons weight on the sensors due to which the electric effect is
produced and the door opens automatically.
Examples of Piezoelectric Material
The materials are :

1. Barium Titanate.
2. Lead zirconate titanate (PZT).
3. Rochelle salt.
The Piezoelectric Ultrasonic Transducer
It produces frequencies which are far above than that which can be hear by human ear. It
expands and contracts rapidly when subjected to any voltage. It is typically used in vaccum
cleaner.

Piezo Buzzer
Buzzer is anything which produces sound. They are driven by oscillating electronic circuit.

Advantages of Piezoelectric Transducer


1. No need of external force.
2. Easy to handle and use as it has small dimensions.
3. High frequency response it means the parameters change very rapidly.

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Disadvantages of Piezoelectric Transducer
1. It is not suitable for measurement in static condition.
2. It is affected by temperatures .
3. Output is low so some external circuit is attached to it.
4. It is very difficult to give desired shape to this material and also desired strength.

Introduction to PZT transducer:

PZT is chemically lead zirconate titanate (Pb[Zr(x)Ti(1-x)]O3) perovskite crystal structure, is one of
most widely used, synatetic piezoelectric ceramic materials. Each unit of PZT consists of a small
tetravalent metal ion usually titanium or zirconium, in a lattice of large divalent metal ions. The large
divalent metal ion is usually Lead. Under conditions that confer a tetragonal or rhombohedral symmetry
on the PZT crystals, each crystal has a dipole moment. PZT materials are piezoelectric materials exhibit
a unique range of properties. In a basic sense, if a piezoelectric material is deformed, an electric charge
is generated in what is known as the piezoelectric effect. The opposite of this phenomenon also holds
true: If an electric field is applied to a piezoelectric material, deformation occurs in what is known as
the inverse piezoelectric effect. The dielectric constant of PZT can range from 300 to 3850, depending upon
orientation and doping.

PZT, lead zirconate titanate, is the most commonly used piezo ceramic today. In general, piezo
ceramics are the preferred choice because they are physically strong, chemically inert and relatively
inexpensive to manufacture. Plus, they can be easily tailored to meet the requirements of a specific
purpose. PZT ceramic is reversed because it has an even greater sensitivity and higher operating
temperature than other piezo ceramics.

PZT is a metallic oxide based piezoelectric material developed by scientists at the Tokyo Institute of
Technology around 1952. In comparison to the previously discovered metallic oxide based piezoelectric
material Barium Titanate (BaTiO3), PZT materials exhibit greater sensitivity and have a higher operating
temperature.

PZT materials are manufactured from high purity precursors, with properties optimized for specific
applications by adjusting the zirconia:titania ratio, and/or by including secondary materials.

How is PZT Manufactured?

Figure 1:

The process of manufacturing PZT powders consists of six distinct unit operations (See Figure 1). Once
each material is selected and approved for use, it is precisely weighed, according to the formulation
being manufactured, and transferred to wet mills. These ingredients are wet-milled together in their
proper proportions to achieve a uniform particle size distribution. Precise control over particle size
distribution is necessary to ensure appropriate material activity during the calcination. Following the
wet milling process, the product is dried and prepared for calcining. The product must be calcined in
high-purity crucibles to guarantee no chemical contaminants are present in the final product. The
calcining operation is carried out in air at about 1000C, where the desired PZT phase is formed. The
major ingredient in PZT material is lead oxide, which is a hazardous material with a relatively high
vapor pressure at calcining temperatures. Therefore, it is possible to alter the desired composition by
allowing too much lead to evaporate during the firing operations. Proprietary measures are employed to
ensure lead loss is not a factor.
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After calcining, the PZT powder is returned to the mill to ensure homogeneity and to prepare the
material for the addition of an organic binding agent. The binder-containing slurry is then fed to a spray
dryer, where water is evaporated. A successful spray drying operation requires experienced operators
who can regulate the temperatures within the unit in accordance with the solids content of the slurry
material, as well as the volume of slurry entering the dryer. The purpose of spray drying the PZT powder
material is to provide a free-flowing product in the form of binder-containing hollow spheres with a
narrow particle size distribution. The morphology of the PZT material is crucial to consistently fill die
cavities in the dry pressing process when manufacturing piezoelectric ceramics. The uniform PZT
spheres of appropriate particle size distribution allow for air escapement throughout the compaction
process, yielding lamination-free green ceramic shapes.

PZT Ceramic Applications

PZT ceramic is used in a wide variety of applications. Soft (sensor) PZT ceramic powders are typically
used when high coupling and/or high charge sensitivity are important, such as in flow or level sensors;
ultrasonic nondestructive testing/evaluation (NDT/NDE) applications; or for accurate inspections of
automotive, structural or aerospace products. Material characteristics include a high dielectric
constant; high coupling; high charge sensitivity; high density with a fine grain structure; a high Curie
point; and a clean, noise-free frequency response.

Hard (high power) PZT ceramic powders are used when high power characteristics are required,
including applications such as the generation of ultrasonic or high-voltage energy in ultrasonic cleaners,
sonar devices, etc. Important powder characteristics include a high piezoelectric charge constant (d33);
a higher mechanical quality factor that reduces mechanical loss and enables a lower operating
temperature; a low dissipation factor that ensures cooler, more economical operation; high dielectric
stability; and low mechanical loss under demanding conditions.

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