Handbook To SSC JE Mechanical-1

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Handbook to
sse Junior Engineer
Recruitment Exam Guide

o Theory with Exercises
o Practice Question Bank
Badboys2
Badboys2
Handbook to
sse Junior Engineer
Recruitment Exam Guide

o Theory with Exercises
o Practice Question Bank
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1. Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials A-I - A-40
2. Theory of Machines & Machine Desig A-4I - A-82
3. Thermal Engineering A-83 - A-135
4. Fluid Mechanics and Machinery A-136 - A-173
5. Production Engineering A-174 - A-220
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SECTION A : MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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lINI) srl'111~NfJrl'IIf)lf )11Irl'I~III1II..S
ENGINEERING MECHANICS
It is the branch of Engineering Science which deals with the principles of mechanics along with their applications to the field
problems.
Engineering Mechanics can be divided into its sub-groups as below
Engineering Mechanics
I
Statics Dynamics
I
Kinematics Kinetics
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Statics deals with forces in terms of their distribution and effect on a body at absolute or relative rest.
Dynamics deals with the study of bodies in motion. Dynamics is further divided into kinematics and kinetics. Kinematics is concerned
with the bodies in motion without taking into account the forces which are responsible for the motion.
kinematics deals with the bodies in motion and its causes.
Force System: A force system may be coplanar/non-coplanar.
In a coplanar force system, all the forces act in the same plane.
In a non-coplanar force system, all the forces act in different planar.
Classification of force system: (For coplanar forces)
Forcel system
J
Coplanar
I Non-coplanar
L
Collinear Concurrent
l
Parallel Non-concurrent
Non-parallel
Concurrent Parallel Non-concurrent

Non-parallel
(Complete classification of force system)
1. Coplanar collinear : In this case, all the forces act in the same plane and also have a common line of action.
(x-y plane)
F3 .'
F2 ./
Fl ." -:
/
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A-2 Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials

2. Coplanar concurrent : In this case all the forces act in Law of parallelogram :
the same plane and meet or intersect at a common point. According to law of parallelogram, if two forces are acting at a
point and may be showed in magnitude and direction by two
(xy plane)
adjacent sides of the parallelogram, then the resultant ofthe two
forces will be shown by the diagonal of the parallelogram in
megnitude and direction.
Let 'PI and 'Q' are two forces acting at the point '0' Here 'PI and' a'
shows the sides ofthe parallelogram and 'R' is the resultant.
3. Coplanar parallel force: All the forces act in a plane and

parallel with each other irrespective of direction.
(x y plane)
L?7 Q
Let a = Angle between the two forces 'PI and 'Q'
a = Angle between resultant 'R' and one of the force
('Q' in this case)
---~F2 = direction of the resultant
then,
---~Fl
Resultant 'R' = ~p2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos a
4. Coplanar non-concurrent, non-parallel: In this case, the Psina

lines of action of these forces act in the same plane but
Angle made by resultant 'R' = Q + P cos a
they are neither parallel nor meet intersect at a common or,
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tan a = ( P sin a J :::::>a=tan -1( P sin a J
(xy plane) Q+pcosa Q+pcosa
Lami's theorem:
According to Lam is theorem, if three forces are acting at a point
and the forces are in equilibrium, then the each ofthe three forces
is directly proportional to the sine ofthe angle between the other
two forces.
Let, P, Q, R = Three forces in equilibrium
a, ~, y = Angles included between three forces P, Q and R

then,
-P-=_g_=~
sma sin B sin y
Moment of a force : It is defined or the product of the
magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance of the
point from the line of action of the force.
z F}
(Non-coplanar concurrent forces)
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Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials A-3

Moment (M) = F x r by the resultant of normal reaction with the limiting force
Couple : Two parallel forces equal in magnitude and of friction with the normal reaction.
opposite in direction and separated by a definite distance are
said to form a couple.
21R F I
w=mg
From fig : tan = : = Il => = tan -1(FIR)

Angle of repose (<X) : When a body rests on an inclined
Action and Reaction: From Newton's third law, for every plane, the angle by which the body is at the verge (just)
action there is a equal and opposite reaction. to start moving in terms as angle of repose.
Inclined plane
with horizontal
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R
Some conceptor/terms of friction:
Friction: Friction may be defined as the resistive force acting Cone of friction : It is defined as the right circular cone
at the surface of contact between two bodies that resist motion with vertex at point of contact of two surfaces and axis
of one body relative to another.
=> Based on the nature of two surfaces in contact, friction in the direction of normal reactions.
in categorised in the following two kinds/types.
(a) Static friction: When two contact surfaces are at
rest, then the force experienced by one surfuce is
termed or static friction.
(b) Dynamic friction : When one of the two contact
bodies starts moving and the other in at rest, the
force experienced by the body in motion is called
dynamic friction.
R
Cone
of friction
F (Frictional for~
~
Methods of reducing friction :
There are many ways to reduce friction some of them are given
Horizontal surface as follows:
w=mg 1. Surfaces ofthe mating parts or contacting surfaces should
From the fig : R = w= mg
P=F be smooth
If, P is less than F, the body will not move. 2. Lubrication is also implemented for reducing friction by
But, if P is increased after a stages achieved by limiting making surfaces smooth
force of friction, the body will start moving. 3. Streamlined shapes should be used because these shapes
Co-efficient of friction (J..t) : It is defined as the ratio of offers least resistance against air flow or water flow.
limiting force of friction (F) to the normal reaction (R)
between two rigid bodies. 4. If the forces are reduced on contacting surfaces, the value
of friction is reduced
F
u -=>F=IlR
> 5. Lesser contact between the mating surfaces also reduces
R the friction.
Angle of friction (<1: It is defined as the angle subtended
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FREE BODY DIAGRAMS Methods of analysis:
(i) Method joints
A free body diagram (FBD) is a simplified representation of
(ii) Method of sections
particle or rigid body that is isolated from it's surroundings, and
(iii) Caraphical method
all applied forces and reactions on the body are put together in a
diagram. These diagrams are the simplest abstraction of the Displacement, Speed, Velocity and Acceleration
external forces and moments acting on a physical object. Displacement: Change of position of a body with respect to a
Creating a free body diagram involves mentally separating the certain fixed reference point is termed as displacement.
system (the portion of the world you are interested in) from its Displacement is a vector quantity.
surroundings (the rest ofthe world) and then drawing a simplified
representation of the system. Speed: Rate of change of displacement with respect to its
All forces acting on a particle, original body must be considered surrounding is called as speed of the body. Since the speed of a
and equally important. Any force not directly applied on the body bodyis irrespectiveof its direction, therefore it is a scalar quantity.
must be excluded. Velocity: The rate of change of position of a bodywith respect to
Let us consider a system of a beam loaded and supported as time is called velocity.Velocityis a vector quantity. In other way
shown in Fig. we can say velocityis the speed of a bodyin a particular direction.
Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity of a body with
respect to time is called acceleration. A negative acceleration is
called retardation.
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

There are three laws of motion known as Newton's laws of
motion.
1. Newton's first law of motion: This law statesthat if a bodyis
in the state of rest it remains in the state of rest and ifit is in
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The free body diagram (FBD) of the above system can be drawn
as in Fig.
motion it remains in the state of motion until the body is
acted upon by some external force.
2. Newton's second law of motion: It statesthattherateofchange
~M of momentum is directlyproportional to the impressed force,
and take place in the same direction, in which the force acts.
Momentum = mv
w d(mv) -
--=F
dt
IF=m~=mal
Beam is subjected to following set of forces after the beam is where In = mass of the body
detached from the supports. v = velocity of the body
(a) Weightofthe beam W acting verticallydownwardsthrough
F = Force
acting on the body
mass centre of the beam.
(b) Reaction Rt, normal to the beam at its smooth contact with a= acceleration produced in the body.
the corner. 3. Newton's third law of motion: This law states that there is
(c) Horizontal applied force P and couple M always an equal and opposite reaction to every action.
(d) Vertical and horizontal reactions (Ravand Rah)extented at GRAVITATIONAL LAW
the pin connection at B.
=> Principle of equilibrium/ Equilibrium conditions : Gravitational law is also known as universal law of gravitation.
According to the principle of equilibrium, A body, either According to this law, Every substance or body has an attractive
in co-pl-anar or concurrent or parallel system, will be in force with another substance or body and this attractive force is
equilibrium if the algebric sum of all the external forces directly proportional to the product oftheir masses and inversely
is zero and also algebric sum of moments of all the proportional to the square of distance between their centers.
external forces about any point in their plane is zero. So, This attrative force is directed along the line which joins the
LF = 0, LM = 0 centers of bodies.
Let MJ and M2be the masses of two bodies and 'R' be the
=> Equilibrium equations for non-concurrent forces distance between the centers of two bodies. 'F' be the attractive
LF x = 0' LF y = 0 , LM = 0
force or force of attraction between those bodies.
=> Equilibrium equations for concurrent forces Now, According to law,
LF x = 0, LF y = 0 (only two conditions are required) F o: MJ X M2
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1 Stress developed in one direction ~ uniaxial state of stress

and Foc2 Stress developed in two direction ~ biaxial state of stress
R
Stress developed in three direction ~ triaxial state of stress
On combining the above two expressions,
Units of Stress
Foc MIM2
R2
SI : Pa, MPa, GPa 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 1kg;:::::0.1 MPa
cm
F=G MIM2
R2 MKS : kgf/cm? 1 MPa = 106 N/m2
where, G = universal gravitational constant 1GPa = 109 N/m2
= 6.67 x 10-11 NM21 kg? NOIE
When deformation or strain occurs freely in a direction,
ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT stress developed in that direction is zero.
The displacement of a body in rotation is called angular When deformationis restrictedcompletely,or partially stress
displacement.Angular displacement is a vector quantity.Angular is developed. Hence strain is the cause of stress.
displacementO can be measuredin radians, degreesor revolutions.
1 revolution = 21tradians = 360 degrees Type of Stresses
ANGULAR VELOCITY I
The rate of change of angular displacement of a bodywith respect Normal Stress Shear Stress
to time is called angular velocity. (acting perpendicular to (acting parallel to
de corresponding plane) corresponding plane)
dt
0)=-
I I
if a bodyis rotating at N r.p.m. then correspondingangular velocity I
Axi I
I
B di Direct shear stress Torsional shear stress
21tN
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If the body is rotating 0) rad/s along a circular path of radius r,

then its linear velocity (v) is given by Tensile Compressive
v = (l}r
ANGULAR ACCELERATION STRESS TENSOR
The rate of change of angular velocity is called angular
acceleration. It is expressed in radls2
dO)
a=cit
ox , oy .o z are normal stresses
Centripetal and Centrifugal Force
Remaining are shear stress.
Essential force for a circular motion acting radially inwards is
called centripetal force which is given by
Fe = mv?r
where m is the mass of the body
w = angular velocity
r = radius ofthe circular path
As per Newton's third law of motion, the body must exert a force
radially outwards of equal.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Load : It is defined as external force or couple to which a
component is subjected during its functionality.
Stress: It is defined as the intensity of internal resisting force Z face
developed at a point against the deformation cuased due to the
Zxy =Z yx' Zxz =Z zx' Z~ =Z yz
load acting at the member.
Plane Stress problems are those in which the stress acting in one
, of the mutual perpendicular directions is assumed to be zero
.. crz =0 Zxz =0 Zyz =0
p ,
F
d cr=-
..,, ..
p ---- ------ ------ -----_ _ _ ... _.-
,
, , A
/
,
\
[cr]=[crx crxy]
cryx cry
L
For a given stress tensor
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100 120 10]

rr = 20 50 0 Units: MPa p+-~~~----~-~----------------------------------------------------~-!--+p
[
10 0 25 I I
I I
Zxz = 10 (i.e., shear stress acting onx face along Z direction) : La :

I I
Z zy = 0 : L, :
ox = 100'y o = 50'zo = 25 ~'---------------------+'
Elongation of a bar Subjected to axial load P
Oll p
'b=~
AE
Cv =v: 'bV
s, +cy +cz
Elongation of a tapered bar subjected to axial load P Another example of rectangular block is considered
2
Elongation of a prismatic bar under its self weight = yL
2E
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DIL
V=/bt
'bV 0/ ob ot
Cv =--:Y-=T+-';+t
:
'1. : 8
1 For a sphere,
L2 oD
Cv =- D : diameter of sphere
Elongation of a conical bar under its self weight = ~E D
SHEAR STRESS
STRAIN
It is defined as the change in initial right angle between two line
Strain is defined as the ratio of change in dimension to original elements which are parallel to x and y axes respectively.
dimension.
p B B'
Strain
I
L
Normal Strain Shear Strain
Longitudinal
I
Lateral
Shear strain = Shear angle (<l
Volumetric
Strain (Slong) Strain (Slateral) Strain (s.)
.
..
BJ
I
b
I
STRAIN TENSOR
Compressive Tensile
Strain Strain Strain tensor is used to define the state of a strain at a
point
Consider a rod oflength La subjected to load P
c : normal strain y: shear strain
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Shear strain like complementary shear stress are equal in Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity
magnitude but opposite in direction. As per Hooke's law,
Shear stress ex. shear strain
[EhD = [Ex YXY/2]
Y yx/2 Ey 1't=Gyl
Yxy=Yyx 1
for a given 't, G ex. -.
Strain Tensor in 3D Y
Ex Y xy/2 Y XZ/2] Bulk Modulus (K)
[EhD = Y yxJ2 Ey Y yz/2 Normal stress o
[ K=
Y2xJ2 Y zy/2 Ez
(J
Relationship Between Elastic Constants
E=2G(1 +J.!)
-----------,.
.. " 1
~_+--____,,_,,"''',... 1
E=3K(1-2J.!) 1
1
1
9KG 1
1
E= 3K+G 1
--+-~(J
I
E 1 1
G=-x-- 1
2 1+J.! ........ 1
",...",..,;
E 1
K=-x-- - -------------~".",..
3 1-2J.! (J
Value of any Ee ~ 0
Note: J.!cork
=0 HYDROSTATICSTATEOF STRESS
(NO DISTORTION, ONLY
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Young's Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity
As per Hooke's law upto proportional limit normal stress is
VOLUME CHANGES)
directly propotional to longitudinal strain For K=oo

o ex. E)ong
o = E = young's modulus E10ng => Ev = 0v =0
E t => E10ng.J, => 0 I J.. The material neither expands in volume nor contracts in
A material having higher E value is chosen volume. Thus, it is called as incompressible material and
EMS = 200 GPa for that J.!= 0.5.
ECI= lOOGPa
Poisson's Ratio
E = 200 GPa ~ used to determine lateral strain theoretically.
AI 3
-lateral strain I
.. (oI)MS < (ol)CI < (0)Ai
J.!= I longitudinal strain
Elastic Limit: Maximum value of stress upto which a material
can be completely elastic. I
ProportionalLimit
It is the maximum value of stress upto which materials obey ---- f--------------- --- do
Hooke's Law.
~dr
EL ---------------------- B "
1..-
Lo ...,
PL ------------- ~
.. Lr ...
,
"
'E' is the slope of o vis ~ E diagram
J.!=
Load
Engineering Stress (o) = 0" I .
ngma x section area
Instantaneous load oct
True stress = . IfJ.! = 0 => - = 0
Instantaneous x section
do
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Relationship Between Principal Stress and
o Principal Strain
F
~--------------------------------~~ 1
Eng. stress vis Eng. strain curve MS under tension test El = E [al - J.l(a2 + (3)]
A ~ Proportional Limit
B ~ Elastic Limit E2 = ~ [a2 - J.l(a3 + ad]
C ~ Upper yield point
1
D ~ Lower yield point E3 = E [ a 3 - J.l( a 1 + a 2 )]
F ~ Ultimate point
.. for biaxial state of stress/plane stress problems a3 = 0 but
G ~ Fracture point
E3 *- 0
DE ~ Yielding region al = E(El) + J.l a2
EF ~ Strain Hardening region a2 = E E2 + J.l a 1
FG ~ Necking region or
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~ Sudden fall of stress occurs from C to D due to slipping
of carbon atoms in molecular structure of mild steeL al
_ E h + J.l2'E2)
-
_
a2 - E
(E2 + J.l Ed
2
~ Increase in carbon content increases strength, cast surface 1- u 1- J.l
hardness and modulus of resilience. Work done (stretching wire) :
~ Increase in carbon content decreases ductility. When a wire is stretched, the work is done against internal
~ For the most metals, its value is between 0.25 to 0.33. restoring forces. This work is stored in wire as strain energy.
Now,
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
1
(a) Elasticity: It is the property of the material due to which Energy stored in wire, (U) = "2 FI
it regains its original shape after the external load is
removed after applied. Perfectly elastic bodies are those EAI
where , F=--- L
bodies which returns to their original shape completely.
(b) Plasticity: It is the property ofthe material due to which Energy stored/unit volume of wire
it does not regain its original shape after the removed of
external load. Plasticity is the opposite of elasticity of u, =..!.E (Strain)2
2
external load. Plasticity is the opposite of elasticity. or
(c) Ductility: It is the property of the material due to which
if can be drawn into thin wires. The length of deformation Uy = _1_(Stress)2
is very large in a ductile materiaL 2E
(d) Brittleness: material is said to be brittle if the length of where,
deformation is very little in tension. A brittle material has E = Young's modulus of elasticity
lack of ductility. A brittle material tails at a very small A= Area of cross - section
deformation. L = length of wire
I= increase in length of wire
(e) Malleability: It is the property of the material due to Extension of a tapered bar:
which it can be converted into thin sheets in compression. Let us consider a circular bar whose diameters are DJ and D2as
This property is used in forging, rolling etc. shownin figure. Let'F' be the tensile load which is applied axially.
(f) Toughness: It is the property ofthe material due to which
a maximum amount of energy stored in a material upto
fractors. This property is utilized under the action of shock F
or impact loading.
(g) Hardness: It is the property of the material due to which
it resists cutting, scractehing, pinetration or inditation. Let, L = Length of the bar
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E = Young's modulus of elasticity
Extension of tapered bar (8L), 8L = crILl + cr2L2 + cr3L3
Now, E E E
1 2 3
8L = 4FL
1t E DID2 8L = FILl + F2L2 + F3L3
=> Ifbar is of uniform diameter 'D', then, Al EI A2E2 A3E3
Ifthe bars are of same material, then EI = E2= E3 = E,
then,
~
Elongation of a bar due to self weight: 8L = !.[.s_+.!2_+~]
Case (i) For uniform cross - section: E Al A2 A3
Composite bars:
Let us consider a composite bar which is attached at the
top and force F is applied.
Now, F= FI + F2
= o.A, + cr2~
As strains in the bars are equal, then
8L = wL
2AE
where, ~
8L = Elongation ~
w = Area ofweight of bar Types of plans:
A = Area of cross - section Various types of beams are given as follows:
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L =Length of bar
(a) Cantiliver beam: A cantiliver beam has one of its end is
fixed and the other end is free.
Case (ii) For coxical bar
2
8L = wL = Pg L2
crE 6E
L
(b) Simply supported beam: A simply supported beam has
both of its ends are supported.
(c) Overhanging beam:

where,
In overhanging beam, the supports are not placed at the
8L = Elongation end of the beam and also one or both ends are entended
w = specific weight of bar material over the supports.
L = Length of bar I
E = Young is modulus of elasticity
P = Mass density of bar material
(d) Fixed beam: In fixed beam, both of its ends are rigidly fixed
Stresses in bars of variable cross-sections: into the supporting walls.
Let us consider a stepped bar of different lengths and different
I I
cross - sections.
F~ A" E, I A2, E,
(e) Continuous beams: In continuous beams, there are more
IE than two supports.
Let, LI' L2, L3 = Lengths of bars

AI' A2, A3 = Area of cross - section of bars
EI' E2, E3= Young's moduls of elasticity THIN CYLINDERS
Here, F = F I = F2= F3
Pressure vessel is defined as a closed cylindrical or spherical
Let, 8L = total change in length
container designed to store gases or liquids at a pressure
substantially different from ambient pressure.
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A-tO Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials

Moreover,it can be seen from expressionsof Ehoop and Elong that
Pressure vessel Elong < Ehoop
:. The chances offailure ofthin cylinder is more longitudinally.
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS
~ SFD and BMD play an important role in design of beams.
Thin d : diameter ~ To design a beam, maximum value of shear force and
Thick bending moment are required which are determined from
d d t: thickness SFD and BMD.
-~ 20 -> 20
t t Shear Force Sign Convention
X
I
on the basis of
1
I
I
shape of shell
Pil 0 ILp i
+ve shear force
Cylindrical Spherical
Pressure Pressure X
Vessel Vessel I
I
I
Example of Thin Cylinder:
HydraulicCylinder.
Example of Thick Cylinder:
LPG Cylinder, Steam Pipes.
pLI G I
I
I
Ii P 1 i-ve shear force
Assumptions for Thin Cylindrical Vessels Bending Moment Sign Convention

~ Stresses are assumed to be uniformly distributed as X
thickness 't' is small. I
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C] D Ci)
~ Radial stresses are neglected.
y
)-x
z
I
I
I
X
concave
upwards
I
I
+ve bending
moment
(+ve)
-----If---~ (jlong SAGGING
BENDING
,1 __ -
X
I
D Ci)
STATEOF STRESS ATA POINT
pd
IN THIN CYLINDER
along = 4t' ahoop = 2t

pd CJ I
I
I
X
I
HOGGING
Sometimes11 of circumferentialjoint and longitudinaljoint are given. convex -ve bending
In that case, upwards
-ve
pd pd HOGGING
along = -4--' ahoop =
t 11 eJ 2t 11u BENDING
pd pd Beams
.. a1 = 21' a2= 4t I
al pd
Absolute ~max = 2 = 4t Statically Statically
Determinate Beam Indeterminate Beam
_ 8d _ pd (2 _ )
d - 4tE ~
I
Ehoop -
J
Cantilever
J
Simply
t
Over
J
Fixed
~
Propped
l
Continuous
- 6L _ ~(1 - 2 )
Elong - L - 4tE ~ Supported Hanging Beam Cantilever Beam
Beam Beam Beam
6V pd
Ev = -y= 4tE(5-4~)
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Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials A-l1

Bending Stress Beams of Uniform Strength
Normal stresses introduced due to the bending of a A beam is said to be a beam of uniform strength when bending
shaft / member. stress developed at each and every cross-section is same.
Pure Bending: If the magnitude of bending moment
remains constant throughout the length of beam, the beam
is said to be under pure bending.
P-0~~ I I
MA=:P(CD) M ~ P(CD)
I
I
I x
I
ML..--------l
-ve
As BM = const
(+ve) 11b
above beam is under pure bending.
Bending Equation Zl1 = Z22 = Zxx
Ml1 = M22 = Mxx
(crb)ll = (crbb = (crb)xx
. (crb) is independent of 'x' .
MR : moment of resistance offered by plane of cross-section of If beam is subjected to transverse shear load, the bending
beam. moment varies.
(crb) : bending stress at a distance 'y' from Neutral Axis. . (crb) varies.
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E : Young's modulus.
To make beam a beam of uniform strength:-
(i) depth is varied.
INA : area moment of inertia of plane of cross-section about
Neutral Axis.
From bending eq",
d = d
x
Ix
~L
crb = i~ to be used when 'R' is known. (ii)
depth should be varied parabolically.
width 'b' is varied
(crb)max = --
ZNA
M
b = b[~]
x
width should be varied linearly.

. . ~A t => (crb)max "l.. => chances of failure "l..
Consider a log, out of which a rectangle is to be cut such that
For a given beam, (crb) ex y
it is strongest in bending.
This fibre is band d ~ arbitrary dimensions of rectangle
subjected
to compression
NeutralAxis is
neither in tension
nor in compression d
This fibre is
subjected
to tension
(crb)max Y D ~ diameter of log (given)

(crb) = y . . final dimensions of strongest rectangular cross-section
max
are
A beam offering higher moment of resistance is stronger.
I-section beams are strongest as they have high section
modulus.
Fora giveneross-sectionalareaandmaterialsquarecross-section
beam is strongerthan circular cross-sectionbeam as Shear Stresses in Beams
Zgquare > Zcircle PAy
't=---
INA' b
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P shear force on plane of cross-section. ~ I section:
A area.
y distance of hatched portion from neutral axis.
INA: moment of inertia of entire cross-section about neutral
axis.
b width.
Consider a Beam of Rectangular Cross-Section
Shear stress Distribution
~ T section:
~ Square with DiagonalsVertical:

b
9
By using the above formulae, we get
I----~ r max = "8 t avg
1'=
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.. r a: y2 (parabolic variation)
As r f(y2) o:
:. As 's' t t ~
at extreme fibres l' = 0
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
Deflection of beams plays an important role in design of
P beams for rigidity criterion.
where, 1'avg = A The expressions of deflections are further used for
determination of natural frequencies of shaft under
Expression for Maximum Shear Stress Across transverse vibrations.
Various Cross-Sections For a cantilever beam under any loading condition
deflection is maximum at free end.
In simply supported beam, deflection is maximum at
mid-span (when beam is subjected to symmetric loading
only).
Relationship between R, q and Y
A = a2 A= bd e : slope
Y : deflection
3 3
K= - K= - R : radius of curvature
2 2
4 d2y Mxx
-- - --
For circle, K=- dx2 R sr.,
3
in a circular cross-section 1'max =

4
"3 1'avg
e= dy
dx
---)- For square, circle, rectangle, 1'NA is the maximum shear
stress. But in triangular cross-section, it isn't so. JMxx+ C, = EI(:) --> slope equation is obtianed
In triangular cross-section,
3 4 If + C1x + C2 = EI(y) ---)-deflection eq"
Mxx
1'max = "2 1'avg' 1'NA = "3 1'avg
Sign Convention
1'max
--=-
9
= 1.125. ---)- Deflection upwards (+ve) ---)-e ~ +ve
1'NA 8
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Deflection downwards (-ve) 9 (-ve ML ML2

Also, 9max = 9B = EI' Ymax = YB = 2EI
Case V: Cantilever beam of length 'L' subjected to point load
EI d3Y ~ 3 times integration to
'W' at its mid-span.
JC Fxx = dx3 obtain deflection 'y'
shear
force
/ Wxx
d4y __,.4 times integration to
= EI dx4----r obtain deflection 'y'
Alr(---L-/2--~!_B------~OC
J?
load
intensity WL2 5 WL3
Expression for Deflection in Cantilever Beams 9B = 9c = 9max = 8EI' Ymax = Y c = 48 EI
Case I: Cantilever beam subjected to point load W at free end Case VI: Cantilever beam subjected to uniformly distributed
X W load over half its length from fixed end.
L
Aro~o~WN/m DC
7 WL4 WL3
Yc = Ymax = 384 ill' 9max = 9B = 9c = 48EI
Expressions for Deflections in Simply Supported Beam
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G4$
For cantilever, y = Ymaxat x = 0
_WL3 AMr-----: -------'ltF-----C -------::I~ ~
.. Ymax=~.
Case II: Cantilever beam subjected to uniformly distributed 1 Ll2 >1 Ll2
:G_) 1
IE '"
load
ML ML2
W N/m 9max=9BA=
, 2EI; Ymax=YC=-- 8ill
A
Case II: Simply supported beam subjected to concentrated
point load 'W' at mid-span.
W
WL4 1 I 1
Ymax=YB= Arl ~*~C------------~1B
8EI
Case III: Cantilever beam subjected to uniformly varying load 4$ Ll2
~
L
WN/m
WL WL3
A L IB Mmax = 4; Ymax = Yc = 48EI
WL2
WL4 9 =9 =-
max A, B 16EI
Ymax = YB = 30EI
Case III: Simply supported beam subjected to uniformly
Case IV: Cantilever beam subjected to concentrated moment distributed load
'M' at free end.
J.I-----" -L
~~.~------------------------~>M
-DB)
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5 WL4 WI}
Ymax = Yc = 384 ill ;9max = 9B = 9A =
---~~::~_~_~~~
24EI
Case IV: Simply supported beam subjected to a concentrated
point load acting not at mid-span
W ~~----~L------~ Cm~
1 b e: angle of twist
shear angle
<1>:
P Shear Stress Distribution
L : distance of cross-section from fixed end
Torsion Equation
2
o = Wb (a - ab)
/Y
s/ c 3EIL c
doesn't give doesn't give J L R

max. slope max. deflection 9 : maximum angle of twist.
<P:maximum shear angle.
Load J : polar moment of inertia.
~ Stiffness of beam = T r : Twisting moment
Max. deflection
R9
Higher flexural rigidity is an indicative of higher stiffness Now,<p= L
of beam but lower deflection and slope.
~ Maxwell's Reciprocal Theorem A
I
(valid for beams under point load and having same L, E and I)
,?ILoad at C
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-B
= We YeB
~ Moreover, <pex rand 9 ex L
Deflection at B Deflection at C I
due to load at C due to load at B C
Cross-section of a shaft at free end
tA = 'tB = 'te = 'tmax
'tA' = 'tB' = 'te' = 'tmax
A
9A' = 9B, = 9C' = 9A = 9B = ge
<PA= <PB= <Pe= <P
<PA'= <PB'= <PC' <p)
T
5 WL3 'tmax = -
YeB= 48 ill' WB=W Zp
Zp : polar section modulus
We YeB = WB YBe
. 7t 3
For sohd shafts, Zp = 16 d
A For hollow shafts, Zp = 1: D3 (1 - K4)

D : outer diameter
d : inner diameter
d
K= -
D
5 WL3 ~ A shaft offering higher value of T r' has more strength.
Y =---W=W
Be 48 EI' e Shafts with high value of polar section modulus are
preferred.
TORSION ~ Torsional Rigidity
Pure Torsion GJ : Torsional rigidity
A member of a shaft is subjected to pure torsion when the TL
magnitude oftwisting moment remains constant throughout the 9 = GJ
length of shaft. GJ i => 9 ,j.. => <P,j.. => r ,j.. => chances of failure ,j..
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~ Torsional Stiffness (q) 2. T 1 = TA' T2 = TA - T.
T GJ 3. TA+Tc=T.
q=-=-
9 L 4. 91 + 92 = <1>0
~ Torsion of a Tapered Shaft => 91 = (-92)
3T
=> TA= 4
6. = -3.
Shafts in Series
THEORY OF COLUMNS
Column is defined as a vertical structural member which is

fixed at both ends and is subjected to an axial compressive load.
Strut is defined as a structural member subjected to an axial
compressive load.
All columns are struts but vice-versa isn't true.
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Long Columns Medium Columns Short Columns
(fail due to buckling) (fail due to buckling (fail due to crushing)
as well as crushing)
~ As the length of structure, chances of it failing by buckling
Shafts in Parallel are more.
T
Euler's Formulae
Assumptions
CD ~ The self weight of column is neglected.
~ Crushing effect is neglected.
~ Flexural rigidity is uniform.
~ Load applied is truly axial.
~ Length is very large compared to cross-section.
T=T1+T2
. . Pe o: f [E, Imin' end conditions, L2]
9
=> T = (G1 J1 + G2 J2) L 2
1t E Imin
.. Pe = 2
91 = 92 = 9 Le
Shafts with Both Ends Fixed
Pe : Euler's buckling load.
Imin : min [Ixx and Iyy].
L, : effective length of column.
L : actual length of column.
CD L =aL
e 4 length fixity coefficient
G1 J1 = G2 J2 1
1. Net TM = T (anti-clock)
Rxn = T (clock)
f= a2
~ (end fixity coefficient)
1'.
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oe : buckling stress
Both Ends Both Ends Fixed and Fixed and n2E

cr =--
Hinged Fixed Hinged Free e s2
(BH) (BF) (F &H) (FF)
~ S t => Pe .,l.. => buckling tendency is increased
1 1 (S)sc < (SMC)< (SLC)
a 1 - 2
2 J2 SC : Short Column
1 1 MC : Medium Column
11=- 1 4 2 -
0.2 4 LC : Long Column
For steels, if
If remaining all other parameters are same, S ~ 30 => short column
(Pe)BF > (Pe)FH > (Pe)BH > (Pe)FF S > 100 => long column
30 < S ~ 100 => medium column
Which of the following column is stronger?
STRAIN ENERGY METHODS
Strain energy is defined as energy absorbtion capacity of
the component during its functionality.
Resilience is energy absorbtion capacity of the component
within elastic region.
Energy absorbtion capacity of a component just before
(1) (2)
fracture is known as toughness.
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I =- I = -=--=-
1 12' 2 4 n2(4) 4n
(Pe)l = 4n 072 = 4n(0.72) _

P
(Pe)2 12 12 -0.513
SE of bar = work done by load P
. . (2) is stronger.
Rankines formula: 1 P2L cr2 crEAL
It is a combination of Euler and crushing load. It is also Strain energy of bar Po =-- =- x AL =--.
=-
2 2AE 2E 2
known as Rankine Gordon formula.
~ Strain energy of solid circular shaft subjected to torsion
I I 1
-=-+-
RR PE Pc
where,
PR = Rankine's Load
PE = Crippling load by Euler's formula
Pc = crushing load
cry.A
h PR
were = _--=- __
l+a(~r t=-
T
Zp '
where K = radius of gyrotion (minimum)
where
a = Rankini's constant
T : twisting moment.
A = Area of cross - section of column
Zp : polar section modulus for circular x section.
Slenderness Ratio
~ Used to compare buckling loads of various columns
having same material and same cross-section. ~ = C~)d3
2 2
SE = _!_ T9 =_!_ T L =2._(AL).
2 2 GJ 4G
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~ Strain energy of hollow circular x section shaft. Mxx : moment at section x-x
d : Inner diameter. X
I
D : Outer diameter. I
A r- ~; B~~
d
K= -
D ~1(------7) M
X x
K = 0 for solid
~x =-M
K<l
U~ !
L M2
2Eldx~
M2L
2EI
W
~2 T
SE = -- (AL) (1 + K2), where t = b
4G Zp
Proof Resilience: It is the maximum strain energy stored
up to elastic limit.
(
Modulus of Resilience is proof resilience per unit volume.
Modulus of Resilience is the property of material. Proof Wb Wa
Resilience is function of volume of component. e e
0"
In this case using the above relation, we get
Wa2b2
U=---
6EIf
Theories of failure:
Modulus Various thories of failure are given as follows:
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EL of
PL (a) Maximum principal stress theory or Rankine's theory
Toughness
According to this theory, material failure will take place when
the maximum principal stress exceeds the value of yield stress
under a state of complex stress system during of yield stress
under a state of complex stress system during a tensile test.
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Modulus of Resilience
~ Two bars A and B are as shown:-
~,.
Now, Let o. (maximum principal stress) and o, ora3 (minimun

principal stress) and ay by the yield stress.
For design creterion, maximum principal stress must not
exceed the working stress (aw)
al,2 ~ away
P
For considering yield creterion,
(A) P a 1 = ay or a2 = ay
(B) This theory is utilized for brittle meterials.
2 (b) Maximum principle strain theory (St venant's theory)
U =.!_ P8 = 2P L According to this theory, material failure will take place
A 2 nd2E
during tensile testing under a three dimensional complex
UB = UI + U2 stress starts system when maximum strain value reaches
the value of strain due to yielding.
2p2 (~) p2 (~)
0"3
nd2 E + 2nd2 E = 0.5 UA"
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO BENDING
u=J b (M2EIxx
)2
xx dx
a
U : strain energy
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A-IS Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials

Let, 6)' 62, 63 = three principle strains (c) Maximum shear stress theroy or Tresca's
6y = strain at yielding theory:
61,2,3::;6y According to this theory, material failure will take place.
Now, It maximum shear stress in complex stress state will be
equal to the value of maximum shear stress in simple
1
61 = E [ al - Y ( a2 + (3)] tension.
If al = maximum principal stress
1 a2 = minimum principal stress
62 = E [ a2 - Y (al + (3)] ay = yield stress
then, ay = al -a2
1 (d) Maixmum strain energy theory :
63 = E [a3 -y (al +(2)]
According to this theory, material failure will take place
Now,According to failure creterion, under complex stress state, when total strain on the body
or specimen reaches the value of strain energy at elastic
10"1 - r0"2 - r0"3 = 0" Y I limit in simple tension.
[(at +a~ +(J~ )-2y(ala2 +a2 a3 +a3aI)] ~ a~
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Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials
I.. EXERCISE ..., A-19
1. If M 1 and M2 are two masses of two bodies, 'R' is the

A B C
distance between their centers then which ofthe following (c) --=--=--
expression represents gravitational law 'G' is universal cos2 a cos2 J3 cos2 y
gravitational constant. (d) None of these
5. Streamlined shapes offers resistance against air flow or
F=G MIM2 (MIM2)2 water flow, the magnitude ofthe resistance is :
(a) (b) F=G
R2 R2 (a) Least (b) Maximum
(c) Negative (d) Positive
MIM2 (MIM2)2 6. Ifthe forces are reduced on contacting surfaces, the value
(c) F=G-- (d) F=G offriction:
R R (a) increases (b) decreases
2. Iftwo co-planar forces 'PI and 'Q' are acting at a point and (c) remains constant (d) None of these
'9' being the angle between them and also resultant 'R' is 7. The property due to which the material can be drawn into
making an angle a with force Q, then the magnitude of thin wires is knows as :
resultant will be equal to : (a) Malleability (b) brittleness
(a) R= Jp2 +Q2 +2PQsinQ
8.
(c) Ductility (d) Elasticity
The property due to which the material can be converted
R = Jp2
into thin sheets is known as :
(b) +Q2 -2PQsin9
(a) Ductility (b) Malleability
(c) R = ~p2 +Q2 +2PQcos9 (c) Hardness (d) Resilience
9. The property of the material due to which the maximum
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R = 2 +Q2 -2PQcos9 amount of energy stored in a material upto fracture limit is
called as:
3. In the question number 2, the direction or angle mode by
(a) Hardness (b) Resilience
the resultant will be equal to:
(c) Plasticity (d) Toughness
(a) u = tan-I (Q:~::se) 10. The property of the material due to which it resists against
indentation is known as:
(a) Hardness (b) Toughness
(b) a = tan-1 ( Pcos9 ) (c) Elasticity (d) None of these
Q+Psin9 11. The work stored in a stretched wire in the form of strain
energy per unit volume of wire is given by:
(c) a = tan-1 ( Psin9 )
Q-Pcos9 (a) U; = ..!..E(strain)2 (b) Uu =..!..E(strain)
2 2
9 1
(d) a = tan-I ( P cos ) (c) U, = ..!..E(stress)2 (d) Uu = - E(stress)
Q-Psin9 2 2
4. Which of the following expressions represents Lami's 12. IfP = axial load applied,A = cross- sectional are ofuniform
theorem, ifA, B, C are three are in equilibriumand as shown circular bar, L = length of the bar, E = Young's modulus of
in figure. elasticity, then elongation of the bar will be equal to :
A PL PL
(a) -- (b) -
2AE AE
C
PL2 PL2
(c) -- (d) --
AE 2AE
13. In the above question, if w be the total weight of the bar
hanging fixed at one end, then elongation (8L)will be equal
B to:
A B C (a) 8L = wL (b) 8L = 2wL

(a) -- = -- = -- AE AE
cosu cos J3 cosy
2
A B C (c) 8L = wL (d) 8L = wL
(b) --=--=-- AE 2AE
sm u sin J3 sin y
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14. Ifin case ofa stepped bars of same material i.e., E = E, = E2 (b) Rate of change of momentum is inversely proportional
= E3 as shown in figure, then elongation ofthe bar will be to impressed force and takes place in the direction to
opposite of force acting
(c) To every action there is always in equal and opposite
reaction
P~ A"E I A"E A3,E ~P (d) None of these
22. If a body is rotating at N rpm, the corresponding angular
IE ~IE ~IE ~I
L1 L2 L3 velocity will be equal to :
21tN 21tN
P (Ll L2 L31 (a) --rad/s (b) -rad/s
120 360
(a) 8L = E Al + A2 + A3)
21tN 21tN
(c) --rad/s (d) -rad/s
60 180
8L = PE(.!1_+~+ L31)
(b) Al A2 A3 23. If the body is rotating atoi radls along a circular path of
radius 'r', then its linear velocity (y) is given by:
P (a) y= r20) (b) y= rro
(c) 8L = p(LIAI + L2A2 + L3A3)
r
(c) v=- (d) y= 0)2r
(J)
(d) 8L = PE (LIAI + L2A2 + L3A3)
24. According to Hook's Law, stress is directly proportional to
15. A beam whose one of its ends is fixed is known as :
strain within :
(a) simply supported beam
(a) Plastic limit
(b) continuous beam
(b) yield point
(c) cantilever beam
(c) elastic limit ofproportionality
(d) overhanging beam
(d) None of these
16. A beam whose both ends are fixed rigidly into the
25. The value of slenderness ratio (s) for short column ofsteels
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supporting walls is called as :
is in the range of:
(a) continuous beam (b) fixed beam
(c) cantileverbeam (d) None of these
(a) s~30 (b) s~30
(c) s < 20 (d) None
17. A beam whose both ends are supported is known as :
26. Torsion equation is given as: if8 = maximum angle of twist,
(a) simply supported beam
(b) fixed beam J =Polar moment of inertia, T r = Twisting moment,
(c) overhanging beam R8
(d) continuous beam = maximum shear angle = L
18. IfPR = Rankin's Load, PE = crippling load by Euler's formula
~nd.P c = crushing load, then Rankin's formula for columns Tr = G8 = "["max J G8 R
IS given as : (a) J L R L "["max
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) -=-+- (b) -=-+- T, = G8 = "["max l= G8 =!_
PE PR Pc Pc PE PR (c) (d)
L J R "["max L R
1 1 1 27. Ifcantilever beam is subjected to uniformly distributed load
(c) - = ---
(d) -=-+-
PR PE Pc PR PE Pc (UdI), then expressions for deflection are given by:
19. If (')1' (')2and (')yare maximum principal stress, minimum

principal stress and yield stress, then according to
maximum shear stress theory, which of the following
expression satisfies:
(a) (')y=(')1 +(')2 (b) "v" (')1-(')2 wL2 wL2
2 2 (a) 8max = 8B = --, Ymax =YB =--
(c) (')y = (')1 + (')2 (d) o y = o 21 - 2
o2 3EI 5EI
20. Equilibrium equations given for non - concurrent forces
wL3 wL4
are given as :

(b) 8max = 8B = --, Ymax =YB =--
(a) EFx = 0, EFy = 0, EM = 6EI 8EI
(b) EFx = 0, EFy =
wL6 wL6
(c) EFx=O,EFy=O,EM:;tO (c) 8max = 8B = --, Ymax =YB =--
(d) None of tliese 6EI 4EI
21. Newton's second law of motion states that:
wL4 wL4
(a) Rate of change of momentum is directly proportional (d) 8max = 8B = --, Ymax = YB =--
to the impressed force and takes place in the direction 2EI 3EI
of force acting 28. If t = shear stress, G = shear modulus and v = volumn ofthe
body then the expression of strain energy stored withing
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the body is given as :
'[2
(c) ~('L~)2 + ('LFv )2 + 2('LFH )('LFv)
'[
(a) -xV (b) -xV
2G 2G (d) ~('LFH)2 + ('LFy )2 -2('L~)('LFv)
'[2 r 36. In the above question, the direction or angled of the
(c) -xV (d) -xV resultant will be give by:
G G
29. If o I' cr2,cr3are three principal stresses, J..l= Poisson's ratio
(a) tana=--
LFy
and E = Young's modulus of elasticity, then the expression
for strain energy/volume is given by
Lftl
(a) ! [crt + cr~+ cr~+ J..l(

crlcr2+ cr2cr3+ cr3crd]
(b) tana=Lftl
LFy
(b) _!_[ crt + cr~+ cr~- J..l(
crlcr2+ cr2cr3+ cr3crt)]
(c) tan a= 2)H x2)v
E
(d) tana=2 x LFH x~:)v
(c) 2~ [crt + cr~+ cr~- 2J..l(crlcr2+ cr2cr3+ cr3crd] 37. IfD = diameter of thin cylindrical shell
L=length
t = thickness
(d) _1_[crt +cr~ +crj +2J..l(crlcr2+cr2cr3+cr3crd] ~ = internal pressure, J..l= Poisson's ratio
2E then Hoop strain will be given by:
30. Impact strength of a material represents:
(a) Hardness (b) Resilience (a) PP(2-!) (b) PiD(1_!:)
(c) Ductility (d) Toughness 2m 3J..l 3m 3
31. If'i' is the actual length of column and IE is the effective
length of column, then ifboth ends of a column are fixed, (c) PP (l-!':.) (d) PP(I-!':.)
Badboys2 then the effective length (IE) will be equal to: 2tE 2 3tE 2
38. If the both the ends of the column made of mild steel are
I
(a) IE ="2 (b) IE=21 hinged, then Rankin's constant value will be equal to :
1 1
(a) -- (b) --
I
(d) IE="4 7500 6500
32. Poisson's ratio is described as the ratio of: 1 1

(c) -- (d) --
5500 4500
Longitudinal strain Lateral strain
(a) (b) 39. IfDI = external diameter of short column
Lateral strain Longitudinal strain D2 = internal diameter of short column
F = external load applied
stress strain
(c) (d) stress The highest value of eccentricity will be equal to :
strain
33. A cyelindrical elastic body subjected to pure forsion about Df-D~
(a) (b) 8D1
its axis develops:
(a) compressive stress in a direction 45 to the axis
(b) shear stress in a direction 45 to the axis Dr-D~
(c) tensile stress in a direction 45 to the axis (c) (d) 4Dl
(d) None of these
40. Range of Poisson's ratio for steel is given by:
34. The forces whose line of action lie on the same plane and
(a) 0.21-0.22 (b) 0.23-0.27
also must at a point is known as :
(c) 0.37-0.43 (d) 0.57-0.63
(a) co-planar non concurrent forces
41. IfL = original length of specimen, & = Increase in length,
(b) co-planar concurrent forces
then the strain (E) will be equal to :
(c) Non - coplanar concurrent forces
(d) Non - coplanar-Non concurrent forces L
(a) (b) Lx Al.
35. When number of forces are acting on the body and L FH ~L
~L 2L
and L Fv be the algebric sum of all the horizontal forces (c) (d) ~L
L
and the algebric sum of all the vertical forces, then the 42. In case of curved beams, the location of the neutral axis
resultant will be given by; does:
(a) coincide with the geometric axis
~
(b) ~YF: (b) lie at the top of the beam
(c) lie at the middle of the beam
(d) coincidewith normal axis
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43. In case of curved beams, the bending stresses are 55. Poisson's ratio generally depends on:
distributed in the shape of: (a) Material of specimen
(a) Parabola (b) ellipse (b) Area of cross section
(c) circle (d) Hyperbola (c) Magnitude ofload
44. Which ofthe followinghas given maximum principal stress (d) None of these
theory 56. Which of the following has the largest value of Poisson's
(a) Rankins (b) Tresca ratio?
(c) ST. venant (d) Mohr (a) Mild steel (b) Rubber
(c) ceramics (d) stainless steel
45. Which of the following has given maximum shear stress
57. A wire is stretched by a load, ifits radius is doubled the
theory: young's modulus of elasticity of material of wire will
(a) Rankins (b) Tresca become:
(c) Mohr (d) ST. venant (a) trippled (b) doubled
46. Maximum shear stress theory is utilized for which of the (c) No change (d) one fourth
followingmaterials. 58. The value of Poisson'sratio for aluminium material is equal
(a) brittlematerial to:
(b) ductilematerial (a) 0.33 (b) 0.43
(c) brittle and ductile materials (c) 0.53 (d) 0.63
(d) None of these 59. If o"w= working stress, O"u= ultimate stress then the which
47. Maximum principal stress theory is used for which of the ofthe following relation is free?
followingmaterials: (a) O"w=O"u (b) O"w<O"u
(a) ductile and brittle materials (c) O"w>O"u (d) None of these
(b) ductile materials 60. The point of contraflexure is found to be in which of the
following beam?
(c) brittlematerials
(a) cantilever beam (b) Simplesupportedbeam
(d) None of these (c) overhanging beam (d) None of these
48. If llwefficiency of weldedjoint, llR = efficiency of riveted
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61. Alarge plate (uniform)consistingof a rivet hole is subjected
to uniformuniaxial tensilestressof 100MPa. The maximum
(a) llw>llR (b) llw<llR stress in the plate will be equal to :
(c) llw=llR (d) llw~llR
49. When the cyclic or repeated stresses are applied to the
material, then its behaviour is termed as : 20emO 10 em
(a) creep (b) fatigue
(c) stiffness (d) endurance (a) 300MPa (b) 200MPa
50. I( O"b = stress in a beam, z = section modulus, then, which of (c) 100MPa (d) 400 MPa
the following expression represents the relation between 62. A rod of length I and diameter 'd' is subjected to a tensile
them: load P which of the following do we need to calculate the
1 change in diameter.
(a) O"boc- (a) Young's modulus of elasticity
z
(b) Poisson's ratio
1 (c) Shear modulus
(c) 0" ocz2 (d) O"boc-
b z2 (d) Young's modulus of elasticity and shear modulus
51. Neutral plane ofa beam is defined as the plane: 63. An elasti~ body is subjected to a tensile stress O"tand a
(a) whose length changes during deformation compressive str~ss O"e i~ its perpendicular direction. O"tand
0" eare not equal Inmagnitude,then on the plane ofmaximum
(b) whose length does not change during deformation
(c) which lies at top most layer shear in the body, there will be :
(d) None of these (a) normal stress only
52. In case of a continous beam, which of the following (b) shear stress only
statement is true? (c) normal and shear stress both
(a) It has two supports at ends only (d) Maximum shear stress only
(b) It has less than two supports 64. It two principal strains at a point are 1000 x 10-6 and
(c) It has more than two supports - 600 x 10-6, then the maximum shear strain will be equalto
(d) None of these
53. Stiffness is measured in which of the following: (a) 1600 x 10--6 (b) 400 x 10-6
(a) Modulus of elasticity (b) Toughness (c) 800 x 10-6 (d) 300 x 10-6
(c) density (d) ultimate strength 65. In terms of Poisson's ratio (u), the ratio of young's modulas
54. Percentage elongation is associated with which of the of elasticity(E) to shear modulus (C) of elastic material is :
following terms during tensile test? (a) 2 (1- u) (b) 2 (1+ u)
(a) Malleability (b) creep
(c) (1- Jl) (d) (1+ Jl)
(c) Hardness (d) ductility
2 2
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66. If the principal stresses in a plane stress systems are 100
-8F
MPa and 40 MPa, then maximum shear stress will be equal (c) (d) nd2
to:
(a) 30 (b) 40 73. Ifthe length of the column is doubled, the value of critical
(c) 100 (d) 50 load becomes :
67. A thin cylinder of 100 mm internal diameter and 5mm 1 .. 1 ..
thickness is subjected to an internal pressure of 10 MPa (a) - x ongmal value (b) - x ongmal value
and a torque of 2000 Nm. The magnitude of principal 2 8
stresses will be equal to : 1 .. 1 .. 1
(c) - x ongmal value (d) - x ongmal va ue
(a) a1=1098MPa,a2=41MPa 4 16
(b) 0'1 = 502 MPa, 0'2 = 62 MPa 74. For the case of the slender column of length L, flexural
(c) 0'1 =2018,MPa,a2=46MPa rigidity EI built in at its base and free at the top, Euler's
(d) 0'1 = 702 MPa, 0'2 = 88 MPa critical bucking load will be equal to :
68. In case of simply supported beam on two end support, the
value of bending moment is maximum will be : n2EI n2EI
(a) On the supports (a) (b)
4L2 2L2
(b) at mid - span
(c) where there is no shear force n2EI n2EI
(d) where the deflection is maximum (c) (d)
69. A steel cube is subjected to tangential force on its top 8L2 16L2
surface and its bottom is fixed rigidly as shown in figure: 75. True stress is associated with:
then the deformation of the cube will be due to: (a) Instantaneous cross - sectional area
(b) Average cross - sectional area
)P
(c) Original cross - sectional area
(d) Final cross - sectional area
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nnlnmllLm 76. The unit of stress in SI system is given as :
(a) N!mm2
(c) Kgim2
(b) N/m2
(d) None of these
(b) bending only 77. If aT = True stress, ac = conventional stress, then their
(c) twisting only relationship is represented by :
(d) Shear and bending both where E = strain
70. A concentrated load F acts on a simply supported beam of
I
span l at a distance of"3 from the left - end. The bending
moment at the point of application ofload is given by : ac
(c) -= E
Fi 2FI aT
(a) (b) -
4 9 78. Free Body diagram shows:
FI FI (a) No forces are acting of the body
(c) - (d) - (b) All the internal forces acting on the body
9 3 (c) All the internal and external forces acting on the body
71. The second moment of a circular area about the diameter is (d) None of these
given by if'd'is the diameter: 79. During tensile testing for cast iron specimen, the stress-
nd4 nd4 strain curve shows:
(a) (b) (a) No yield point
64 32 (b) upper yield point only
nd4 nd4 (c) lower yield point only
(c) -- (d) -- (d) Both upper and lower yield points
16 8 80. In a stress strain curve, the area under stress strain curve
72. A circular rod of dimeter 'd' and length 3d is subjected to a upto fracture shows which of the following property:
compressive force F acting at the point as shown in figure. (a) Hardness (b) Ductility
Then the stress value at bottom most support at point A. (c) Toughness (d) Brittleness
3d 81. IfG = Modulus of rigidity, "C = shear stress, Y= shear strain,
F aL = Longitudinal stress, E YL = Longitudinal strain, then
6F
1~) (~
-12F
the expression for 'G' will be given by:
(a)
Y
(a) (b) aL
nd2 nd2 (c) (d) Y
"C
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82. Three plans on which the principal strains occurs are: 91. IfH = wall thickness, P = pressure, R = mean radius, then
(a) Mutually perpendicular to each other maximum shear stress in case of thin cylindrical pressure
(b) Mutually inclined to each other than 90 vessel will be :
(c) Inclined at 45 only PR PR
(d) None of these (a) - (b)
83. In case of simply supported beam, the maximum bending 2H H
moment ofa beam having span 'L' and a concentrated load PR PR
wat mid-span will be equal to : (c) (d) -
4H 8H
wL wL 92. In a thin spherical pressure vessel, the volumetric strain is
(a) (b) given by:
3 4
wL wL (a) 3ae (l-v) (b) 3ae (1+ v)
(c) (d) E E
8 2
84. In case of a simply supported beam, whose span is 'L' and
(c) 3ae (l-v) (d) 3ae (l+v)
carries a UDL at wi unit length, the value of maximum 2E 2E
bending moment will be equal to : 93. Ifwe round a thin cylinder with a wire under the application
wL3 wL2 of tensile stresses, then the hoop stress will be of nature:
(a) (b) (a) twisting (b) compressive
8 4
(c) shear (d) tensile
wL2 wL2 94. The ratio of maximum shear ("Cmax) to hoop stress (aH) in
(c) (d) case of thin cylinderical pressure vessel is equal to
8 16
85. In case of a cantiliver beam, whose span is 'L' and carries a
(a) (b) 4
UDL of intensity wlunit length then maximum bending 2
moment will be equal to :
1
Badboys2(a) Wl2 (c) (d) 16
8
wl2 (b) 3 95. If ac = radial stress, ah = hoop stress, then the radial stress
value in a thin spherical vessel will be equal to:
(a) Zero (b) 2ah
(c)
86. Area under shear force diagram represents the (c) a; (d) None of these
(a) Shear force at a point 96. If T = Torque transmitted, O = angle of twist, J = Polar
(b) Bending moment at a point moment of inertia, then torsional rigidity ofthe shaft will be
(c) load at a point equal to:
(d) None of these
T
87. In shear force and bending moment diagram, if the bending (a) (b) T x J
moment is maximum then the shear force at that location J
will be equal to : T
(a) Zero (b) maximmn (c) (d) T x o
e
(c) minimum (d) None of these 97. Under the action of torsion, the shear stress at the centre
88. When the uniformly distributed load is applied, then the of a circular shaft is equal to :
nature of variation ofthe bending moment diagram will be (a) maximmn (b) minimum
(c) zero (d) None of these
(a) Hyperbolic (b) linear 98. If two shafts are connected in paralled position, then
(c) Parabolic (d) None of these (a) angle of twist of both shafts are equal
89. When the concentrated load is applied, then the nature of (b) angle of twist of both shafts are unequal
variation of bending moment will be : (c) torque of both shafts are equal
(a) Linear (b) Parabolic (d) None of these
(c) Hyperbolic (d) Uniform 99. If two shafts are connected in series, then
90. If ah = hoop stress, at = longitudinal stress, then the ratio (a) torque of both shafts are equal
of ah to at in case of thin cylindrical pressure vessels is (b) angle of both shafts are equal
equal to (c) shear stress of both shafts are equal
ah = 2 (d) torsional stiffness of both shafts are equal
(a) (b) ~=4
at at 100. Ifs = slendernessratio, then the value of's' for short column
should be in the range of :
ah = 8 (a) S=32 (b) S< 32
(c) (d) ah = 16 (c) S>32 (d) S~32
at at
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101. IfS = slenderness ratio, then the value of's' for long column 113. The value of frictional force depends on
should be in range of: (a) weight of the body
(a) S> 120 (b) S< 120 (b) area of contact
(c) S= 120 (d) S= 60 (c) Normal reaction
102. Euler's buckling formula is associated with: (d) roughness of surface
(a) Short column (b) long column 114. The value of maximum force of friction when the body
(c) medium column (d) None of these
begins to slide over another body/contacting surface is
103. If'D' is the diameter of a circular column, then radius of
known to be:
gyration (K) will be given by:
(a) limiting friction (b) rolling friction
D D (c) sliding friction (d) None of these
(a) - (b)-
2 4 115. IfF = limiting friction, R = normal reaction, then coefficient
(c) 2D (d) 4D offriction (u) is given as:
104. A beam column is described as a column which carries:
(a) axialloads only R
(a) Jl=- (b) Jl=RxF
(b) transverse loads F
(c) axial and transverse loads F
(d) None of these (c) Jl=- (d) Jl=F2R
R
105. When two forces are in equilibrium, then which of the
= angle of friction, Jl = coefficient of friction, then
116. If 
following conditions is true.
which of the following relation is true?
(a) Magnitudes are equal (b) opposite directions
(a) Jl = cot (b) Jl = sin 
(c) collinear in action (d) All of the above
(c) Jl = tan (d) Jl = cos 
106. In case of co-planar non-concurrent forces, when EH = 0, EV 117. If 
= angle of friction, a = angle of repose, then which of
= 0, then the resultant may be: the following relation is true?
(a) moment (b) couple
(c) force (d) None of these 1
(a) =a (b) =-
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107. When a sphere is placed on a smooth surface, then the
reaction will act:
a
(c) <1>= a2 (d) a= 2<1>
(a) inclined to contact plane 118. If 
= angle of friction, u= coefficient offriction, then which
(b) perpendicular to contact plane ofthe following relation is true?
(c) horizontal to contact plane (a) =COC1(Jl) (b) =tan-1(Jl)
(d) All of the above (c) =sin-1(Jl) (d) =cos-1(Jl)
108. For aquiring equilibrium condition, How many are minimum 119. When a block of weight w is resting on a rough inclined
number of coplaner and non - collinear forces required? plane with angle of inclination being 'a', the force offriction
(a) 1 (b) 5 will be equal to :
(c) 3 (d) 4 (a) wsin e (b) w cos e
109. If three co-planar and concurrent forces are acting on a (c) wtan e (d) w cot e
rigid body at different points then the body will be in : 120. If Jls = coefficient of static friction, Jlk= coefficient ofkinefic
friction, R = Normal reaction, then frictional force of a moving
(a) equilibrium
body with constant velocity will be equal to :
(b) not in equilibrium
(c) mayor may not be in equilibrium
(a) Jlk (b) &_
(d) None of these R R
110. A body having a weight of 50 N is resting on a rough (c) Jl~ (d) Jl~
horizontal floor, then the force of friction acting on the 121. During calculation of shear force, the upward forced to the
body will be equal to: left the of the section are taken as :
(a) 50N (b) lOON (a) Negative (b) Positive
(c) zero (d) None of these (c) Zero (d) None of these
111. Angle offrictiion is defined as the angle between 122. In a shear force and bending moment diagrams, Area of
(a) normal reaction and the resultant of frictional force load diagrams provides:
and normal reaction (a) shear force change (b) bending moment
(b) Normal reaction and frictional force (c) shear force (d) Point of contra flexure
(c) Force on the body and normal reaction 123. There is a cantilever beam whose length is L and it carried
(d) None of these a point load F at its true end. Shear force at the center of the
112. The maximum inclination of the plane at which the body beam will be equal to:
just starts to move is termed as : FL
(a) Cone of friction (a) (b) FL
2
(b) Angle of repose
(c) friction angle F
(c) F (d) 2
(d) None of these
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124. There is a cantilver beam whose length is L and it carries 135. The unit of moment is:
a point load at its free end. Then the bending moment at (a) N-m (b) N/m
the centre of the beam will be equal to: (c) N/m2 (d) N/m4
9 136. The quantity,which is equal to rate of change ofmomentum
(a) --FL (b) - 2 FL is known to be:
5
(a) Force (b) Acceleration
FL FL
(c) 2 (d) 8 (c) Impulse (d) displacement
137. If Dynamic friction = td, static friction = ts' then their
125. A simply supported beam oflength 'I' is carrying a 4dl of relationship will be:
intensity w/unit length. Then the bending moment at the
(a) td<ts (b) td>ts
centers ofthe beam will be equal to : (c) td = ts (d) None of these
wz2 138. When the applied force is less than the limiting frictional
(a) w z2 (b) 8 force, the body will :
(a) start moving (b) remain at rest
w/2 w/2
(c) slide backward (d) None of these
(c) 4 (d) 16
139. In comparisonto rolling friction,the value of sliding friction
126. A simply supported beam oflength 'I' is carrying a Udl of will be:
intensity w/unit length. Then the maximum bending (a) less (b) more
moment will be equal to : (c) equal (d) double
140. A bodyof weight 30N rest on a horizontal floor.A gradually
wz2 (b)
wz2 increasing horizontal force is applied to the body which
(a) 8
2 just starts moving when the force is 9N. The coefficient of
friction between the body and floor will be :
wz2
(d) 16 10
(a) (b) 5
127. The greatest value of the Poisson's ratio is equal to: 3
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(c) 0.5
(b) 1
(d) 0.25 (c)
3
(d) 5
2
10
128. In S.1.system of units, the unit for strain is:
141. Tangent of angle offriction is equal to:
(a) Pa (b) KPa
(a) kinetic friction (b) Limiting friction
(c) GPa (d) None of these
(c) Frictional force (d) coefficient of friction
129. Which ofthe followingequation is associated for designing
142. The coefficient of rolling resistance for a wheel of200 mm
of shaft base on strength is given by:
diameter which rolls on a horizontal steel roll, is 0.3 mm.
T r M T The steel wheel carries a load of 600 N. The force required
(a) - =- (b) - = -- to roll the wheel will be equal to:
J R o Ymax
(a) 90N (b) 180N
T G9 r G9 (c) 45N (d) 270N
(c) - =- (d) - = - 143. The ratio oflinear stress to linear strain is given by :
J L R L
130. Which of the following is a vector quantity (a) Modulus of elasticity (b) Modulus of rigidity
(a) Energy (b) Mass (c) Bulk modulus (d) Poisson's ratio
(c) Angle (d) Force 144. the value of Poisson's ratio is always:
131. Twoforcesof equal magnitude 'F' act an angle of 120 with
0
(a) less than one (b) greater than one
each other. Then their resultant will be equal to: (c) equal to one (d) None of these
(a) 2F (b) F 145. Young's modulus of elasticity for a perfectly rigid bodies
IS:
F (a) Zero (b) One
(c) J3F (d) 4
(c) infinity (d) None of these
132. Factor of safety is the ratio of 146. Which ofthe following is a diamensionless quantity:
(a) breaking stress to working stress (a) stress (b) strain
(b) ultimate stress to working stress (c) Pressure (d) Modulus of elasticity
(c) elastic limit to working stress 147. A cylindricalshellof diameter200 mm and wall thicknessof
(d) breaking stress to ultimate stress 5 mm is subjected to internal fluid pressure of lON/mm2.
133. Effect of a force on the body will depend upon : Maximum stress streas developed in the shell will be :
(a) Direction (b) Magnitude (a) 50 Nzmm? (b) 100 Nzmm-
(c) Line of action (d) All of the above (c) 200 Nzmm? (d) 400 Nzmm-
134. The law of parallelogram offorces gives the resultant of: 148. The bulk moduless of elasticity:
(a) Parallel forces (a) does not increase with pressure
(b) Like parallel forces (b) increases with pressure
(c) two coplanar concurrent forces (c) independent of pressure
(d) Non coplaner concurrent forces (d) None of these
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149. To represent, stress - strain relations for a livearlyelastic 162. The stress strain curve below represents for:
homogeneous and isotropic material, minimum number of
material constants required are:
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 1 (d) 4
150. A tension member with a cross- sectionalarea of30 - mm-
resists a load of 60 KN. The normal stress induced on the
plane of maximum shear stress will be :
(a) 2 KN/mm2 (b) 4 KN/mm2
(c) 8 KN/mm2 (d) 3 KN/mm2 Strain
151. Ifelasticmodulus(E) = 12GPa, shearmodulus(G) = 50 GPa, (a) Brittlematerial (b) Hard material
then the value of Poisson's ration for the material will be (c) Softmaterial (d) ductilematerial
eqaul to: 163. Necking pheneomenon in stress-strain curve is observed
(a) 0.1 (b) 0.4 for:
(c) 0.2 (d) OJ (a) ductilematerial (b) brittlematerial
152. Poisson's ratio ofthe material is used in : (c) (a) and (b) both (d) None of them
(a) One dimensional bodies 164. When a wire is stretched to double its length, then the
longitudinal strain produced in it will be equal to:
(b) two dimensional bodies
(a) 0.5 (b) 1
(c) three dimensional bodies
(c) 1.5 (d) 2.0
(d) both band c 165. In a composite bar, the resultant strain produced will be
153. Hook's Law holds good upto : equal to:
(a) yield point (b) proportionalitylimit (a) Sum of the strains produced by individual bars
(c) breaking point (d) elastic limit (b) Same as stress produced in each bar
154. When a cast iron specimen is subjected to tensile test, (c) Same as strain produced in each bar
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then the percentage reduction in area will be equal to: (d) difference of strains produced by the individual bars
(a) 0010 (b) 5% 166. The total extension ofthe bar loaded as shown in figure is :
r
(c) 10% (d) 15%
155. Ifequal and opposite forces are applied to a body tending
to elongate, if, then which of the following type of stress is lOT~
~ ~ 9T
developed?
(a) twisting stress (b) compressive stress IE 10mm "IE 10mm "IE lOmm "I
(c) tensile stress (d) shear stress
26xlO 16x 10
156. A 100 kg lamp is supported by a single cable of diameter 4 (a) ---mm (b) --mm
AE AE
mm. The stress carried by the cable will be equal to :
(a) 40 MPa (b) 78 MPa 6xl0 32xlO
(c) --mm (d) ---mm
(c) 48 MPa (d) 88 MPa AE AE
157. The modulus of elasticity and rigidity of a material are 200 167. A composite bar is made up of steel and Aluminium strips
GPa and 80 GPa respectively.Then the Poisson's ratio will each having area of cross = section on cm2 The composite
be equal to: bar is subjected to an axial load of 12000 N. If Esteel= 3
(a) 1 (b) 0.55 xE AI' then the stress in steel will be equal to:
(c) 0.75 (d) 0.25 (a) 10N/mm2 (b) 20N/mm2
158. If a composite bar of copper and aluminium is heated, then (c) 30N/mm2 (d) 40 N/mm2
the stresses induced in copper and aluminium will be 168. If a beam is of a rectangular cross-section, then the
(a) compressive and tensile distribution of shearing stress across a section is :
(b) bending and tensile (a) triangular (b) rectangular
(c) Parabolic (d) Hyperbolic
(c) shear and bending
169. The reaction at the prop in a propped cantilever beam
(d) compressive and shear
subjected to U.D.L will be equal to :
159. Slowplastic deformation ofmetals under constant loadingl
stress as a function of time is known as : wI 3wl
(a) (b)
(a) Fatigue (b) creep 4 8
(c) Elastic deformation (d) Plastic deformation wi wi
160. The fatigue life ofa part can be improved by: (c) (d)
8 6
(a) shot peening (b) coating
170. Uniformalydistributedload 'WI is acting overper unit length
(c) Polishing (d) carburizing
ofa cantilever beam of Sm length. If the shear force at the
161. Flow stresses are associated with:
midpointofbeam is 6 KN. then th value ofw willbe equalto :
(a) Breaking point (b) Plastic deformation (a) 2 KN/m (b) 3 KN/m
(c) Fluid motion (d) Fracture stress (c) 4KN/m (d) 6KN/m
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171. The ratio of the compressive critical load for a long (a) -1.0 (b) zero
column fixed at both ends and a column with one end fixed (c) 1.0 (d) infinite
and the other end being free is : 183. A block of mass M is released from point P on a rough
(a) 2:1 (b) 4:1 inclined plane with inclination angle 9, shown in the figure
(c) 8 : 1 (d) 16: 1 below. The coefficient of friction is J..!.IfJ..!< tan 9, then the
172. A simple supported beam PQ oflength 9 m, carries a Udl of time taken by the block to reach another point Q on the
10 KN/m for a distance of 6 m from end P.What will be the inclined plane, where PQ = s, is
reactions forces at P and Q.
(a) 40N,20N (b) 20N,20N
(c) 30N,20N (d) 80N,40N
173. A simply supported beam of 1 m length is subjected to a
Udl of0.4 N/m. The maximumbending moment occuringin
the beam will be:
(a) O.OSN-m (b) 1N-m
(c) 2N-m (d) 4N-m
174. A hollow shaft has external and internal diameters of 10em
and Scm respectively. Torsional sectional modulus of the 2s 2s
shaft will be: (a) (b)
g cos 9(tan 9 -1-1) g cos 9(tan 9 + 1-1)
(a) 184cm3 (b) 384cm3
(c) 284cm3 (d) 37Scm3 2s 2s
175. A solid shaft of diameter 20 mm can sustain a maximum (c) gsin9(tan9-1-1) (d) gsin9(tan9+ 1-1)
shear stress of 400 kg! cm-. The the torque transmitted by
184. A 1 kg block is resting on a surface with coefficient of
the shaft will be equal to :
friction 1-1
= 0.1. A force of 0.8 N is applied to the block as
(a) 0.628Kg-cm (b) 62.8Kg-cm shown in figure. The frictional force is
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(c) 628 Kg-cm
(a) Rankin's formula

(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) 324Kg-cm
176. For designing a connecting rod, which of the following
formula is utilized?
(b) Euler's formula
(d) None of these (a) zero
08L (b) 0.8N
177. When a connecting rod is subjected to an axial force, then (c) 0.89N (d) 1.2N
the buckling of the connecting rod may be with 185. A block R of mass 100 kg is placed on a block S of mass ISO
(a) X - axis as neutral axis kg as shown in the figure. Block R is tied to the wall by
(b) X - axis or y-axis as neutral axis massless and inextensible string PQ. If the coefficient of
static friction for all surface is 0.4, the minimum force F (in
(c) Z-axis as neutral axis
kN) needed to move the block S is
(d) None of these
178. A column which is failed under the application of direct
stress is known as :
(a) Shortcolumn (b) mediumcolumn
(c) long column (d) None of these
179. If L, = buckling load, Lc= crushing load, then which ofthe
following relationship is true for long columns?
00 ~>~ ~ ~>~
(c) ~ =Lc (d) None of these
180. In case of compression numbers, they tend to buckle in
which ofthe following direction?
(a) Maximum cross-section 00 Q~ ~ Q~
(b) Neutral axis (c) 0.98 (d) 1.37
(c) Horizontalaxis 186. A ball weighing 0.01 kg. hits a hard surfaceverticallywith a
(d) Minimum radius of gyration speed ofS mls and rebounds with the same speed. The ball
remains in contact with the surface for 0.01 second. The
181. Two books of mass 1 kg each are kept on a table, one over
average force exerted by the surface on the ball is
the other. The coefficient of friction on every pair of
(a) 0.1N (b) 1N
contacting surfaces is 0.3, the lower book is pulled with a (c) 8N (d) ION
horizontal force F. The minimum value ofF for which slip 187. A pin-ended column of length L, modulus of elasticity E
occurs between the two books is and second moment of the cross-sectional area I is loaded
(a) zero (b) 1.06N centrically by a compressive load P, the critical buckling
(c) S.74N (d) 8.83N load (Pcr) is given by
182. Ifa system is in equilibrium and the position ofthe system
depends upon many independent variables, the principle E1 n2E1
(a) Pcr=~ (b) p =--
of virtual work states that the partial derivatives of its total nL c 3L2
potential energy with respect to each of the independent
variable must be rrEI n2E1
(c) Pcr=7 (d) pc =--L2
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188. For a circular shaft of diameter d subjected to torque T, the 194. A solid circular shaft of diameter d is subjected to a
maximum value of the shear stress is combined bending moment M and torque T. The material
property to be used for designing the shaft using the relation
(a) (b)
.!.i_.J M2 + T2 is
nd3
16T 8T
(c) tid' (d) nd' (a) ultimate tensile strength (Su)
(b) tensile yield strength (Sy)
189. A 200 x 100 x 50 mm steel block is subjected to a hydrostatic
(c) torsional yield strength (Ssy)
pressure of 15 MPa.
(d) endurance strength (Se)
The Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio of the material
195. Ifthe principal stress in a plane stress problem are crl = 100
are 200 GPa and 0.3 respectively. The change in the volume MPa, crl = 40 MPa, the magnitude ofthe maximum shear
ofthe block in mm ' is stress (in MPa) will be
(a) 85 (b) so (a) 60 (b) 50
(c) 100 (d) 110 (c) 30 (d) 20
190. A uniformly loaded propped cantilever beam and its free 196. The state of plane-stress at a point is given by crx= -200
body diagrams are shown below. The reactions are MPa, cry = 100 MPa and txy = 100 MPa. The maximum shear
iillllllllll]l M(illllllilit
q q
stress in MPa is
(a) 111.8
(c) 180.3
(b) 150.1
(d) 223.6
197. A column has a rectangular cross-section of 10 mm x 20 mm
and a length of! m. The slenderness ratio ofthe column is
closed to
1II1II L IJIII R, R2 (a) 200 (b) 346
(c) 477 (d) 1000
5qL 3qL qL2 198. A thin cylinder of inner radius 500 mm and thickness 10 mm
(a) s, = -8-' R2= -8-' M= 8 is subjected to an internal pressure of 5 MPa. The average
circumferential (hoop) stress in MPa
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(b) s, = -8-' R2= -8-' M= 8 (c) 500 (d) 1000
199. A solid steel cube constrained on all six faces is heated so
5qL 3qL that the temperature rises uniformly by LlT. Ifthe thermal
(c) R, = -8-' R2= -8- , M=O coefficient ofthe material is a, Young's modulus is E and
the Poisson's ratio is v, the thermal stress developed in the
3qL 5qL cube due to heating is
(d) Rl = -8-' R2= -8- ,M=O
a(LlT)E 2a(LlT)E
191. The strain energy stored in the beam with flexural rigidity EI (a) (b)
(l-2v) (l-2v)
and loaded as shown in the figure is
3a(LlT)E a(LlT)E
P P
1+-[; t 2L .; L--+I
(c)
(1- 2v)
(d)
3(l-2v)
200. For a long slender column of uniform cross-section, the
p2J3
L ~
2p2L3
ratio of critical buckling load for the case with both ends
clamped to the case with both ends hinged is
(a) 1 (b) 2
(a) (b) -- (c) 4 (d) 8
3EI 3EI 201. A cantilever beam oflength L is subjected to a moment M at
the free end. The moment of the inertia ofthe beam cross-
4p2J3 8p2JJ
(c) -- (d) section about the neutral axis is I and the Young's modulus
3EI 3EI is E. The magnitude ofthe maximum deflection is
192. A rod of length L and diameter D is subjected to a tensile ML2 ML2
load P. Which ofthe following is sufficient to calculate the
(a) 2EI (b) EI
resulting change in diameter?
(a) Young's modulus (b) Shear modulus 4ML2
(c) Poisson's ratio (c) (d) EI
(d) Both Young's modulus and shear modulus
202. The maximum allowable compressive stress corresponding
193. The transverse shear stress acting in a beam ofrectangular
to lateral buckling in a discretely laterally supported
cross-section, subjected to a transverse shear load, is
symmetrical I-beam, does not depend upon
(a) variable with maximum at the bottom of the beam
(a) modulus of elasticity
(b) variable with maximum at the top of the beam
(b) radius of gyration about the minor axis
(c) uniform
(c) span/length of the beam
(d) variable with maximum of the neutral axis
(d) ratio of overall depth to thickness of the flange
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203. The number of strain readings (using strain gauges) needed 209. When a column is fixed at both ends, corresponding Euler's
on a plane surface to determine th principal strains and their critical load is
directions is
n2EI 2n2EI
(a) 1 (b) 2 (a) (b)
L2 L2
(c) 3 (d) 4
204. The buckling load in a steel column is
3n2EI 4n2EI
(a) related to the length (c) (d)
L2 L2
(b) directly proportional to the slenderness ratio
(c) inversely proportional to the slenderness ratio 210. Consider the beamAB shown in figure below. PatAC ofthe
(d) non-linearly to the slenderness ratio beam is rigid. While part CB has the flexural rigidity EI.
205. Ifmoment M is applied at the free end of centilever then the Identify the current combination of deflection at end Band
moment produced at the fixed end will be bending moment at end A respectively
(a) M (b) Ml2
(
(c) 2M (d) zero
206. A thin walled cylindrical pressure vessel having a radius of
0.5 m and wall thickness 25 mm is subjected to an internal
I: L
c
.j4 L ----.j
B
pressure of700 kPa. The hoop stress developed is pC 2PL pC PL

(a) (b)
(a) 14 MPa (b) 1.4 MPa 3EI' 3EI'
(c) 0.14MPa (c) 0.014MPa
207. If J.l = Poisson's ratio G = Modulus of rigidity, K = bulk 8PC 2PL 8Pr! PL
(c) (d)
modulus then 3EI' 3EI'
211. In a stressed body, an elementary cube of material is taken
3K-G K-G
at a point with its faces perpendicular to X and Y reference
(a) J.l= 2G+6K (b) J.l= 2G+6K
axes. Tensile stresses equal to 15 kN/cm2 and 9 kN/cm2 are
observed on theses respective faces. They are also
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3K-2G K-G
u= 2G + 6K (d) u= G+3K accompanied by shear equal to 4 kN/cm2. The magnitude
of the principal stresses at the point are
208. For the shear force diagram shown in figure, the loaded
(a) 12 kN/cm2 tensile and 3 kN/cm2 tensile
beam will be
(b) 17 kN/cm2 tensile and 7 kN/cm2 tensile
.------.14t (c) 9.5 kN/cm2 compressive and 6.5 kN/cm2 compressive
9t
(d) 12 kN/cm2tensile and 13 kN/cm2 tensile
212. Under torsion, brittle materials generally fail
~4m""""I---- (a) along a plane perpendicular to its longitudinal axis
(b) in the direction of minimum tension
4t (c) along surfaces forming a 45 angle with the longitudinal
axis
(d) not in any specific manner
213. A simply supported beam ofspan L and flexural rigidity EI,
carries a unit point load at its centre. The strain energy in
the beam due to bending is
(a)
A C r!
f (a)
48EI (b) 192EI
C C
(c) (d) 16EI
96EI
214. The design ofa eccentrically loaded column needs revision
when
1.5 tim
(a)
fe' + f; <1 (b)
f: _h' <1
Ie h Ie h
(c) Ai.__ ~i~10_t c~f~~uouou~uounuo~ou!3t
(c)
fe' + f; > 1 (d)
f: _h' >1
Ie h Ie h
1.5 tim where,
fc = calculated average axial compression stress
(d) Afo\oaf4t /m fb = maximum allowable bending compressive stress on the
extreme fibre, and
fe' = calculated bending stress in the extreme fibre.
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215. A gun metal sleeve is fixed securely to a steel shaft and the 223. The expression for the strain energy due to binding of a
compound shaft is subjected to a torque. If the torque on cantilever beam (length L, modulus of elasticity E and
the sleeveis twice that on the shaft, find the ratio of external moment of inertia I) is given by :
diameter of sleeveto diameter of shaft [GivenNs = 2.5 NG] p2L3
(a) 2.8 (b) 1.6 (b)
(c) 0.8 (d) 3.2 (a) 3EI
216. A column section as indicated in the given figure is loaded
with a concentrated load at a point 'P' so as to produce (c) (d)
maximum bending stress due to eccentricities about x-x
axis and Y- Y axis as 5 t/ m2 and 8t/m2respectively. If the 224. Consider the following statements:
direct stress due to loading is 15t/m2 (compressive) then Maximum shear stress induced in a power transmitting
the intensity of resultant stress at the corner 'B' of the shaft is
column section is 1. directly proportional to torque being transmitted.
(a) 2 t /m2 (compressive) 2. Inversely proportional to the cube of itr diameter.
(b) 12 t/m2 (compressive) 3. directly proportional to itr polar moment of inertia.
(c) 18tlm2 (tensile) Which of the statements given above are correct
(d) 28 t/m2 (compressive) (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) only 3
217. If the principal strusses and maximum shearing stresses (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
are of equal numerical values at a point in a stressed 225. Maximum shear stress in a Mohr's circle
body, the state of stress can be termed as: (a) in equal to radius of Mohr's circle
(a) isotropic (b) in greater than radius of Mohr's circle
(b) uni -axial (c) in less than radius of Mohr's circle
(d) could be any of the above
(c) pure shear
226. A shaft is subjected to combined twisting moment T and
(d) gineralized plan state of stress
binding moment M. What is the equivalent binding
218. Consider the following statements:
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moment.
1. 2-D straw applied to a thin plate in its own plane
represent the plane straw condition. (a) ]_~M2 +T2
2. Under plane straw condition, the strain in direction 2
3.
perpendicular to plane is zero.
Normal and shear straw may occur simultaneously
on a plane.
(c) ~IM+~M2 +T2 l
227. The ratio of torque carrying capacity solid shaft to that
Which of the above statments is/are correct? of a hollow shaft is given by :
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (a) (1 - 0) (b) (1 - k4)-1
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
219. The principal strains at a point in a body, under kiaxial (d)
stress state, are 700 x 10-6 and - 40 x 10-6.
What will be the maximum shear strain at that point.
(a) 110 x 10-6 (b) 300 x 10-6
o,
(c) 550 x 10-6 (d) 150 x 10-6
where, k = Do
220. What is the relationship between elastic constarts E, G Dj = inside diameter of hollow shaft
and K? Do = outside diameter of hollow shaft
KG 9KG Shaft materials are same
(a) (b) 228. The principal stress at a point in 2-D stress system are o 1
E = 9K+G E= K+G
and cr2 and corresponding principal strains are Eland E2.
9KG 9KG If E and J.l denote young's Modulus and Poisson's ratio
(c) E = K+3G (d) respectively, then which one of the following is correct.
E = 3K+G
221. Four vertical columns of same material, height and weight E
(a) o = EEl (b) o = --2 [El+ J.lE2]
have the same end conditions. Which cross reaction will
I-J.l
carry the maximum load ?
(a) Solid circular reaction E
(b) Thin hollow circular section (c) o = --2 [El- J.lE2] (d) o = E[EI - J.lE2]
1- J.l
(c) Solid square section
(d) I-section 229. A point in a 2-0 state of strain in subjected to pure
222. A steel speciman 150 mm- in cross section stretches by shearing strain of magnitude Yxy. radian. Which ohm of
0.05 mm over a 50 mm gauge length under an axial load the following is the maximum principal strain ?
of 30 KN. The strain energy stored in speciman ? (a) Yxy (b) Yxy/Ji
(a) 0.75Nm (b) 1.00Nm
(c) 1.50Nm (d) 3.00Nm (c) Yxy/2 (d) 2yxy
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230. The SFD for a beam in shown in the fig. The BMD is
shown by :
c (c)
(d)
SFD
C
231. Match list I with list II and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the lists :
List I List-D
A. Clopeyroh'sn theorem 1. Deflection of beam
B. Maculayr's method 2. Eccentrically loaded
column
C. Perry's formular 3. Riveted joints
4. Continuous beam
Codes:
A B C ABC
(a) 3 2 1 (b) 4 1 3
(c) 4 1 2 (d) 2 4 3
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Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials
I~ HINTS & EXPLANATIONS ..., A-33
5. (a) Streamlined shapes are those shapes which decreases 33. (c)
QJ
the amount of friction or resistance against airflow or
waterflow.
6. (b) Byreducing the forceson contacting surfaces, friction
also decreases as if depends on it.
11. (a) If8L= change in length, L = original length, A cylindrical elastic body subjected to pure torsion
. 8L about its axis develops tensile stress in direction
Stram=- 45 to the axis.
L
41. (c) Strain is defined as the ratio of change in length to
original length.
U = '!_E(8L)2
v 2 L LlL
Hence,6=T
where, E = Young's modulus of elasticity.
12. (b) As, we know that, 49. (b) Fatigue is a fracture phenomenon in which material
is failed due to cyclic or repeated stresses usually
Load P
Stress(a) = -------- at low values of stress.
Area of cross - section A 50. (a) As we known that,
. () Stress(a) P 8L I
Stram 6 =--- M = abc (max)
x--
E AE L Ymax
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EIongation 8L
PL
AE
=- where 2 = -_
, Ymax
I .
= section modulus
13. (d) Let a bar be hanging of weight 'w' M = ab(max) x Z
M
ab(max) =Z
1
ab(max) o: Z
53. (a) Stiffness is defined as the property of the material

which resists deflection against load within elastic
limit.
Let, w = specific weight of bar 61. (a) Given: tensile stress (o.) = 100MPa
F=wAy Maximum stress in the plate = 3 x aT
= 3 x 100
elongation (8L) = _FL_= ....:....(
w_A_y.....:...)_.d_y =300MPa
AE AE 64. (a) Given : Principal strains,
6]= 1000 X 10-6
8L= wy8y 62 =-600 X 10-6
E Maximum shear strain (ymax) = 6] - 62
Now, Total elongation - .c=_ o

--
E
wL2 _- --wL
- --
2E 2AE
= (1000 x 10-6)-(-600 x 10-6)
= 1000 x 1Q-6+ 600 x 1Q-6
= 1600 x lQ-6
Here, w = WAL. 65. (b) As we know that,
14. (a) Considering Principal of superposition, E=2C (1 + u)
8L=8L] +8L2 +8L3
~=2(1+Ji)
PLI PL2 PL3
=--+--+-- 66. (a) Given: Principal stresses,
EAI EA2 EA3
ax = 100 MPa, ay =40 MPa
For plane stress system,
= !(.!i_+~+
E Al A2 A3
J L3
a -a
Maximum shear stress ('t"max) = x y
30. (d) Toughness of the material is defined as the 2
maximum amount of energystoredin a material upto
= 100-40 = 60 = 30MPa
fracture under the application of impact loads.
2 2
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67. (a) Using the following relations,
For thin cylinders, = ~ F2 + F2 + 2 cos 120
nd3t = ~2F2 -2F2 cos300 (0: P = Q = F)
J=-
4
R=#
Pdi R=F
crN=crC=-
2t 140. (c)
N
crl' cr2= 1098MPa, 41 MPa
70. (b)
A
;}~ B F~
f
RA
tn
~
RB
w=30N
N=w=30N
2F F when the body just starts moving,
RA =3,RB =3 P=9N
Now, at point If, the bending moment, and also, P = F = 9N
we know that, F = Il R or IlN
(BM)c = 2F x!....=2Fl F 9 3
3 3 9 Il= N = 30 =10
72. (b) Considering the following relations,
o = compressive stress (o) + tensile stress (crt) 142. (b) Given: coefficient offriction (u) = 0.3
Load or Reaction (R) = 600 N
F F 4F 16F force required to roll the wheel
=f..lR
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4
nd2
16
nd2 nd2
=0.3 x 600
=180N
-12F 147. (b) Given: diameter of shell(D) = 200 mm
wall thickness (t) = 5 mm
nd2
Internal fluid pressure (P) = 10Nrmm'
73. (c) For the case of column, Maximum shearing stress (tmro)
2
P = n EI PD lOx200 1
L2 4t 4x5 2
Now, If length is doubled, =100N/mm2
V=2L 150. (a) Given: Area of cross - section (A) = 30 mm-
2 2
Load (P) = 60 KN
pI = n EI = n EI
(2L)2 4L2 Normal stress (crN) = !_ = 60 = 2KN I mm2
A 30
pI L2 151. (c) Given:E=120GPa
- - G =50GPa
p- 4L2-"4 Il=?
Considering the followingrelation,
pI = _!_x P E=2G(1 + Il)
4
E
74. (a) Given: length of column = L Il+ 1 =-
2G
flexural rigidity = EI
=~-1=~-1= 120_1
effective length = 2 x L Il2G 2 x 50 100
u= 1.2-1 =0.2
n2EI n2EI n2EI
P--------- 156. (b) Given: mass(m)= 100kg
- L~ - (2L)2 - 4L2 diameter(d) = 4 mm = 4 x IO-3m
79. (a) During tensile testing of cast iron specimen, the Stress (c) =?
stress - strain curve shows no yield point because . n 2
Area of cross-section (A) = 4d
the length of deformation is very little.
131. (b) Given; P = Q = F, 9 = 120,
=~(4xl0-3)2
R = ~p2 +Q2 +2PQcos9 4
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For long column, (One end fixed and other end is free)
m'
= ~ x 16x 10-6 = 4n x 10---{j 2
4
Load = weight (w) = mg ( p)C L2 -_ n EI
4L2
= 100 x 9.8= 980N
w 980 (PC)Ll 4n2EI 4L2 16
Stress(cr) = - = 6 --=--x--=-
A 4n x 10- (pc )L2 L2 n2EI 1
=78.03 X 106
= 78 MPa (approx.) (PC)L1 : (PC)L2 =16:1
157. (d) Given,E = 200 GPa
172. (a)
G=80Gpa
fl=?
We know that,
pf'f;lOKN~
J
E=2G(1+fl) : 6~
200=2 x 80(1 + u) R 9m R
p Q
RP + RQ= 10 x 6 = 60 KN
(1+ ) = 200 Taking moment about 'P',
fl 160
~ x 0 + 9 x R = 180
u= 1.25-1 =0.25
RQ=20KN
166. (a) Given,
~=60-20=40KN
173. (a)
lOT" I.____ __,I , 9T ~N/m
L fTITIl
__L...~ __ ~__L... __
!
IE 10 mm )IE )IE )1
10mm 10mm IE 1m )1
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M axlmum en mg moment = ---
8
lO-3=7T~7T =0.05N-m
174. (a) Givenexternal diameter (D) = 10em
Internal diameter (D) = 5 em
9T~T
. n[(Do)4 -(Di)4Jx2
Sectional modulus (z) = 32
8L = lOx 10 8L = 7 x 10 8L = 9 x 10 -.o,
1 AE' 2 AE' 3 AE
8L=8L1+8L2+8L3 3.14[(10)4 -(5)4]x2
100 70 90 32 x10
=-+-+- = 183.98cm3
AE AE AE
= 184cm3
260 26 x 10 175. (c) Considering equation,
=-=--mm
AE AE
T _ Ge _ Q
167. (c) Given:A=3 em-
P= 12000N J L R
T=628 kg-em
Esteel= 3 x EAJ
Considering the relations,
P=P1+P2 181. (d)
P=P1A1 + P2~
we get, Psteel
= 30N/mm2
170. (c) 1.5 m R
mg
(SF)R= 6KN=w x 1.5 FBD of Book 1

ByFBD of Book I,
w=_i_=4KN LFy=O=> NI =mg
1.5 So,frictionalforce= flN 1 = fl mg
171. (d) For long column, (fixed at both ends) By FBD of Book 2,
2 LFy=0=>N2=N1 +mg=2mg
(p)C LJ
= 4n EI
L2 LFx=O
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=> F~ ~Nl + ~N2 186. (d) FxO.Ol=O.OI {5-(-5)}
(For slip between two books to occur) or F= ION
F ~ umg + ~ . 2mg ~ 3~ . mg 187. (d) According to Euler's criterion of buckling load, for
:. Fmin= 3 x 0.3 x 1 x 9.81 = 8.83 N pin-ended column oflength L, the critical buckling load
182. (b) The given statement is the principle of virtual work is given by
according to which the partial derivative of total
potential energy with respect to each independent n2 xEI
variable is zero. PO' = 2
L
183. (a)
T r 8 T r
188. (c) By-=-=-=> ----
J r L ~d4 d
32 2
16T
t=-3 =tmax
Here, all the resolved forces acting on the block, along nd
and perpendicular to inclined plane are shown.
:EFN=O tN =3a(I_2V)
189. (b) By using the relation,
=> N=Mgcos8 V E
:EFt=O
=> Mg sin 8- ~N=Ma 3 x 15
=> ~V=(200 x 100 x 50) x --5 (1- 2 x 0.3)
Mg sin 8 - ~ Mg cos 8 = Ma 2 xl0
a = g (sin 8 - ~ cos 8) = 106 x 22.5 x 10-5 x 0.4 = 90mm3
a = g cos 8 (tan 8 - u) 190. (a) The given propped beam consists of two parts
or a = g sin 8 (1 - ~ cot 8) 1. A cantilever with uniformly distributed load
Now, since acceleration is constant so,
2. A cantilever with point load (reaction) R2 at end
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2
in upward direction.
I
q/length
=>
=>
s = 0 + ..!.. g cos 8 (tan 8 - ~ ) t2
t=
2
2s
I~
gcos8(tan8-1-l)
k==:::======J
184. (b)
F=08;:i~ => :EFy = 0 Rl + R2 = q x L
Also, 81 =~
qL4
For a cantilever with UDL, 81 = 8EI
For cantilever with load R2 at end
~g R xL3
8 - ---=-2__
2- 3EI
Friction force F, = ~s x N = 0.1 x 9.81 = 0.981 N
However, applied force (F = 0.8 N) is less than the qxL4 3
=> R2 =-qxL
static friction (F s), F < F s- so that the friction developed 8EI 8
will equal to the applied force F = 0.8 N.
3 5
185. (d) Hint: Given FBD, R1 =qL-R2 = qxL-gqL=gqL
For block'S'
Also, moment M = R2 x L - q x L x (~)
I
= ~q x L2 _.9.L2 = _ qL2
I
I 8 2 8
I ~F
I 5
I So, finally R1 = gqL,
~R2+~----~----~I------~
I
it 3 qL2
R2 = gqL, M = -8-
(100 + 150) = 250 kg
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F = transverse shear load
191. (c) p
'T= transverse shear stress
2L--i B Here, shear stress 'Tis variable and is maximum at the
neutral axis.
D~L=t Ra =P
194. (c)
PL PL
For a shaft subjectedto bending moment M and torque

o~o T, the equivalent torque is
Bending moment diagram
Te =~M2+T2
RA+ RB=2P
:EMB=O 16T 16~M2 + T2
Induced shear stress is 'T- - - -----
4PL - nd3 - nd3
P> 3L+ pX-RA x4L=0 => RA = --= P
4L
8
.. RB=P For safe designing 'T::;~
BMx=P x X n
The total strain energy stored is given by
Torsional yield strength
or
L(Px)2 xdx (pL)2 x2 JL(Px)2 x dx Factor of safety
u=f o 2EI
+
2EI
+
0 2EI 195. (c) If maximum and minimum principal stressesare given,
the maximum shear stress is given by
4p2L3
u=--
3EI 'T = crl -cr2 = 100-40 = 30MPa
max 2 2
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192. (d) When the load P is applied in axial or longitudinal
direction, increase in length 196. (c)
0" = - 200 MPa
TL
t"y= 100 MPa
1 cry = 100 MPa
p 'Tmax=
8 = PL = 4PL
AE nD2E
For, finding the change in diameter (transverse
direction), Poisson's ratio v is needed.
But modulus of elasticity E is also needed. = ~(-150)2 +(100)2 = 180.27 MPa
Now, E= 2G(1 +v) from which vcan be found.
Hence, to find 8D, both Young's modulus and shear
modulus are needed.
193. (d) The distribution of tranverse shear stress along the
197 (b:\
'J L
81enderness ra ti10 'I = K
I\, l':
( 1= AK2,K H'
= A)
vertical height of the beam is given by Moment of'Inertia for rectangular section
t
~t------- t y
bd3
1=-
12
t- ------- ------- Then K= {I= J bd3 20 x (10)3 = 2.886
hl2 fA 12xA 12 x 10x 20
t L---_
3
..A = 1x 10 = 346.4
2.886
FAy 198. (b) P=5MPa,d= 1000mm,t= 10mm
'T=--
I.b 199. (a) We know,
3 3 F
where, 'Tmax= "'2'Tmean
="'2b x h ex = _!_[ crx- v( cry + crz)]
E
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Let thermal stress is a and for the symmetrical it will not depend upon the modulus of elasticity.
system,
ax=ay=az=a 203. (a)
1
ex = ey = ez = - ( a - )l 2a)
E
(slenderness ratio )2
e=~(1-2v)
E
Per could be non linearly related to slenderness ratio
We know e= a~T
so better to avoid choice (d).
~T= a (1- 2v) a = Pd _ 700x103 x2xO.5 _ x 6-
E 206. (a) h 2t - 2 x 25 x 10-3 - 14 10 - 14 MPa.
Ea~T 207. (c) We know that
a=....,----...,...
(1- 2v) E=2G(1 +)l)
As it will be compressive stress. E=3K(1-2)l)
.. 2G(1+)l)=3K(1-2)l)
Ea~T 2G+ 2)lG=3 K-6)lK
So, athermal = (1-2v) )l(2G+6K)=3 K-2G
200. (c) We know critical buckling load 3K-2G
2 )l = 2G + 6K
p = 1[ EI
208. (a) Between A to B, SF = constant
cr 2
Le :. no load.
For both ends hinged, L, = L Between B to C, SF is varying linearly
:.UDL
L
For both ends clamped, L, = "2 Similarly between C & D SF is varying linearly
Badboys2 :. UDL.
(pcr )ctamped 4 209. (d) Euler's critical load, P = 1[2EI

(Per )hinged 1 (Leff )2
where Leff= effective length ofthe column.
d2y When both ends are fixed,
201. (a) We know, EI dx2 = M
Le.ff=0.5L
1[2El 1[2El 41[2 El
.P - ---or--
cr - (O.5L)2 - 0.25L2 L2
210. (a) PartAC ofthe beam is rigid. Hence C will act as fixed end.
dy
or EI-=Mx+C1
dx PI!
thus Os = 3EI
dy
At x = 0, dx = 0 as fixed at end But the bending moment we depend up on rigidity or
flexibility of the beam .
.. C}=O
B.Mat A=2PL.
Mx2 211. (b) Principal stresses,
Again,EIy= -2-+C2
Atx = 0, y= 0 (fixed end)

So, C2 =0
M 2 Given
s= 2EI x a = 15kN/cm2
a x = 9 kN/cm2
ML2 tYxy =4kN/cm2
Ymax = 2EI (atx=L)
:. a',2 =12~(3)2+(4)2 =125kN/cm2
D a} = 17kN/cm2
202. (a) Since allowable compressive stress depends upon T
a2 = 7 kN/cm2
Both of these are tensile in nature.
I
ratio and -; ratio as per I.S. Code 800 : 1984. Therefore, 212. (c) Ductile materials generally fail in shear, therefore, when
y subjected to torsion, a specimen made of a ductile
Badboys2

material breaks along a perpendicular to the = 700 X 10-6 - (-400 - 10-6)
longitudinal, when subjected to torsion, a specimen = (700 + 400) X 10-6 = 1100 x 10-6
made of a brittle material tends to break along
surfaces which are perpendicular to the direction in EIn2
which tension is maximum i.e., along surface forming 221. (b) Maximum! Critical load (F) = -2-
Le
at 4?o angle with the longitudinal axis of the
specimen. So, critical/maximum load a Moment of inertia of
213. (c) In case of simply supported beam carrying a point section
load 'P' at the centre, While, we know that M.O'! of thin hollow circular
LM2dx P section is maximum.
W = J where M = - X .
1
o
2EI' 2 222. (a) Stram energy of bar = "21 P8
p
U2 2X2 dx [2 X p2 x3 ]LI2
:. W; = 2 [ 2x4EI = 2x4EIx3 = ~ x 30 x 103 x 0.05 x 10-3 = 0.75 N-m
Since, P = 1unit
2
r:
w=-- 223. (b) Strain energy due to bending (U) = fLo M2EI dx
96EI
1
215. (b) Let us use suffix S for steel and suffix g for gun metal. L (Px)2 p2 fL
e T
=
J a --dx
2E1
= -
2E1 a
x2dx
L IN
Since both the steel shaft and gun metal slave are p2 [x3]L p2 L3
e = 2E1 3 a = 2EI x]
securely fixed, L is the same for both.
p2L3
---
Badboys2 l=l
JsNs JgNg 224. (d)
6E1
From torsion equation,
Jg Tg Ns
-=--=2x2.5=5 Tr GQ = (')max
r, Ts Ng J L R
~(D4 _d4)
32 =5
T.
( d)
Tr -
= Tr.R = __ 2_
~d4 max J ( 4)
32
D = 1.5651
l1[~ j
d
f,g ('T)g T, D J,
r,:-= (T;)s = TgdT. = 2 x 1.5651 x 1/5 = From the above expression, rmax a Tr and rmax a -3
1
d
0.62604
(')} - (')2
f 225. (a) Maximum shear stress (r max ) =
~=1.6 2
fss
216. (b) Stressat comer B = 15 + 5 - 8 = 12t 1m2 ( compressive) (')}(')2Plane)and (')}-(')2) = diameter of Mohr's
217. (c) As from the condition given, circle.
(')1 = (')2 = r = 'tl = 't2
So, it is the state of pure shear
219. (a) Maximum shear strain, (r) = EI - EI
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. . Tr GQ tmax 229. (c) Maximum principal strain = Yxy / 2
227. (b) From torrsion equation, T =L=R
tmax should be equal for both shafter.
(;) solid = (;) Hollow
THollow
~(D4 -D~)
32 0 I
'fsolid
230. (b) P~ Q
~
THollow I I
B
1
228. (b) Are we know, El = E[cr1 -1.ta2]
1
E2 = E[cr2 - ~crd
On arranging the above equns.
Badboys2 cr1 =
E(El+~E2)
1_~2 ,cr2 =
E(E2+~El)
1_~2
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rl'III~f)11Yf)l~ )11I(;IIINI~S
lINI) )11I(;IIINI~ 1)I~SIfJN
THEORY OF MACHINES contact between them. The surface of one element

It is the branch of Engineering Science, which deals with the slides over the surface of the other. For example: a
study of relative motion between the various parts of machine piston along with cylinder.
along with the forces acting on the parts is known as the Theory (b) Higher Pair: In which the links have point or line
of Machines (TOM). contact and motions are partly turing and partly sliding.
Kinematic Link: Each resistant body in a machine which moves For example: ball bearings, can and follower.
relative to another resistant body is called kinematic link or element. 2. Based on the type of mechanical constraint (or mechanical
A resistant body is which donot go under deformation while contact)
transmitting the force. (a) Self Closed Pair: If the links in the pair have direct
Kinematic Pair: Ifthe relative motion between the two elements mechanical contact, even without the application of
of a machine in contact with each other is completely or external force.
successfully constrained then these elements together is known (b) Force Closed Pair: If the links in the pair are kept in
as kinematic pair. contact by the application of external forces.
3. Based on the type of relative motion between the elements
Badboys2 CONSTRAINED MOTIONS ofthe pair
Constrained motion (or relative motion) can be broadly classified (a) Sliding Pair: A kinematic pair in which each element
is to three types. has sliding contact with respect to the other element.
1. Completely Constrained: Constrained motion in which (b) Rolling Pair: In a rolling pair, one element undergoes
relative motion between the links of a kinematic pair occurs rolling motion with respect to the other.
in a definite direction by itself irrespective of the external (c) Turning Pair: In a turning pair, one link undergoes
forces applied. For example a square bar in a square hole turning motion relative to the other link.
undergoes completely constrained motion. (d) Screw Pair: It consists oflinks that have both turning
2. Incompletely Constrained: Constrained motion in which and sliding motion relative to each other.
the relative motion between the links depend on the direction (e) Cylindrical Pair: A kinematic pair in which the links
of external forces acting on them. These motions between a undergo both rotational and translational motion
pair can take place in more than one direction. For example relative to one another.
a shaft inside a circular hole. (t) Spherical Pair: In a spherical pair, a spherical link turns
3. Partially (or Successfully) Constrained Motion: If the inside a fixed link. It has three degrees of freedom.
relative motion between its links occurs in a definite DEFINITION OF KINEMATIC CHAIN
direction, not by itself, but by some other means, then
Combination of kinematic pairs joined in such a way that the last
kinematic pair is said to be partially or successfully link is joined to the first link and the relative motion between them
constrained. For example a piston reciprocating inside a is definite. There are two equations to find out. Whether the
cylinder in an internal combustion engine. chain is kinematic or not.
TYPES OF KINEMA TIC PAIRS l = 2p-4
where l = number oflinks
Types of kinematic Chains:
p = number of pairs
Usaually, A kinematic chain has a one degree of freedom. The
kinematic chains having number of lower fairs are tour are also
considered to be the most important kinematic chains in which . 3
each pair act as a sliding pair or turning pair. J = -/- 2
2
Some of them are given as :
where
(a) Four bar chain
j = number ofjoints
(b) Single slider crank chain
To determine the nature of chain we use equation
(c) Double slider crank chain
The classified of kinematic pairs is listed as below: . h 3/
J+-=- -2
1. Based on the nature of contact between the pairing elements. 2 2
(a) Lower Pair: Links in the pair have surface or area where h = No. of higher pairs
Badboys2
A-42 Theory of Machines and Machine Design

If L.HS > RH.S. then it is a locked chain Types: (i) Beam engine
L.HS. = RH.S. then it is a kinematic chain (ii) Locomotive coupling rod
L.HS. < RH.S. then it is an unconstrained chain (iii) Watts indicator mechanism
(b) Single slider crank chain
GRUBLER'S CRITERION
Types : (i) Pendulum pump
In a mechanism total no. of degrees of freedom is given by (ii) Oscillating cylinder engine
F = 3(n-l)-2j (iii) Rotary internal combustion engine
where n is no. oflinks and (iv) Crank and slotted liver quick return
j = no. ofjoints (simple hinges) mechanism
most ofthe mechanism are constrained so F = 1 which produces (v) Whitworth quick return mechanism
1 = 3(n-l)-2j (c) Double Slider crank chain
=> 2j - 3n + 4 = 0 this is called Grubler's criterion. If Types: (i) Elliptical trammel
there are higher pairs also no. of degrees of freedom is given by (ii) Scotch-yoke mechanism
F = 3(n-l)-2j-h (iii) Oldham's coupling
where h = no. of higher pairs. Also known as Kutz Bach Klein's Construction:
criterion to determine the number of degree of freedom. It is defined as a graphical method to achieve the magnitudes of
This statement says that if the higher pairs are present in the velocity and acceleration oflinks as well as required points on
mechanism like as slider crank mechanism or a mechanism in which the links. Klein's construction is drawn on the configuration
slipping is possible between the wheel and fixed links. diagram. And It does not need to be drawn two or three different
Higher pair: When the two element of a pair have a line or point diagrams.
contact when relative motion takes place and the motion between Limitation: It is applicable to slider crank mechanism only.
two elements is partly turning and partly sliding. E.g. Cam and
INSTANTANEOUS CENTRE
follower, bale and bearing, belt and rope drive etc.
Number of degree of freedom (movability): The number of A point located in the plane (of motion of a body) which has zero
independent parameters that define its configuration. The number velocity. The plane motion of all the particles ofthe body may be
Badboys2 of input parameters which must be independently controlled in considered as pure rotation about the point. Such a point is called
the instantaneous centre ofthe body. Ifthere are three rigid bodies
order to bring the mechanism into useful engineering purpose.
in relative planar motion and share three instantaneous centre, all
GRASHOF'S CRITERIA lie on the straight line, called Kennedy's theorem.
Grashof's criteria is applied to pinned four bar linkages and states Instantaneous axis of rotation: The axis passing through the
that the sum ofthe shortest and longest link of a planar four-bar instaneous centre of the body at right angles to the plane of
linkage cannot be greater than the sum of remaining two links if motion is called instantaneous axis of rotation.
there is to be continuous relative motion between the links. Axode: The instantaneous centre changes every moment, its
locus is called centrods, and the surface generated by the
instantaneous axis is called the axode.
Methods to Locate Instantaneous Centre
Locating the instantaneous centre of a body depends on the
situation given. Following are some examples:
(i) The instantaneous centre I lies at a distance Va along the

(J)
Fig.
perpendicular to the direction of velocity Va at point A on a
Linkage shown in Fig. 1 is Grashoftype if rigid body shown in Fig.
s+l<p+q IA = Va
(J)
MECHANISM
A mechanism is obtained by fixing one ofthe links of a kinematic II
I
chain, for example a typewriter. Basically there are two types of a I
I
mechanism.
1. Simple mechanism: A mechanism with four links.
2. Compound mechanism: Mechanism with more than four links.
Inversion of a Mechanism
We can obtain different mechanisms by fixing different links in
Fig. Fig.
a kinematic chain, this method is known as inversion of a
(ii) The instantaneous centre I is the point of intersection of the
mechanism.
lines perpendicular to the direction of velocities at the given
Inversions of mechanisms: points on the body as shown in Fig., we can write as
(a) Four bar mechanism
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Theory of Machines and Machine Design A-43

Va = co xIA
v, = coxIB
ar = co2 X PQ = ( VQP J2 X PQ = V~P
where co is the angular velocity with which the body shall QP PQ PQ
appear to rotate about the instantaneous centre I.
(iii) If the two links have a pure rolling contact, the instantaneous and the tangential component ofthe linear acceleration ofQ with
centre lies on their point of contact. respect to P is given by
(iv) If the slider moves on a fixed link having straight surface, the
atQP =axPQ
instantaneous centre lies at infinity and each point on the
slider have the same velocity.
at
Number of Instantaneous Centres in a Constrained a =~ which is perpendicular to the link PQ
PQ
Kinematic Chain
If n are the number oflinks in a constrained kinematic chain, then CORIOLIS COMPONENT OF ACCELERATION
the number of instantaneous centre (N) is given by
Ifa particle C moves with a velocityv on a linkAB rotating with
N= n(n-l) angular velocity co, as shown in Fig., then the tangential component
2 ofthe acceleration of the particle C with respect to the coincident
point on the linkAB is called coriolis component of acceleration
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION OF MECHANISMS
which is given by
To analyse velocity and acceleration ofa mechanism we proceed
c
link by link associated in the mechanism. Let us consider two a cc = atcc = 2r..
UI
rv
points P and Q on a rigid link PQ, as shown in Fig. Let point Q of
the link moves in clockwise direction relative to point P. In this
case the relative velocity of point Q with respect to P would be
perpendicular to the line PQ.
Badboys2 Fig.
where v is the velocity ofthe particle C with respect to coincident
pointC.
ACKERMAN STEERING GEAR MECHANISM
All the four wheels must tum about the same instantaneous centre
to fulfill the condition for correct steering.
Fig. Equation for the correct steering is
Now ifthe point Q moves with respect to P with an angular velocity e
cot - cot = c/b
co and angular acceleration a, thus velocity has two components, where c = Distance between the pivots of the front axles
perpendicular to each other. b = Wheel base
(a) Radial or centripetal component
e
 and are angle through which the axis of the outer wheel and
inner whel turns respectively.
(b) Tangential component
For approximately correct steering, value of c/b should be in
These components of velocity can be determined by calculating
between 0.4 and 0.5.
linear accelerations in radial and tangential directions. Figure
shows the link representing both the components of acceleration. DAVIS STEERING GEAR MECHANISM
According to Davis Steering gear the condition for the correct
steering is given by
tan a = c/2b
where c = Distance between the pivots ofthe front axles
b = Wheel base
a = Angle of inclination ofthe links to the vertical
FRICTIONAL TORQUE IN PIVOT AND COLLAR
BEARING
t
Pivot and Collar bearings are used to take axial thrust of the
Clap rotating shaft. While studying the friction in bearing it is assumed
that
Fig. 1. The pressure over the rubbing surfaces is uniformly
Radial component of the linear acceleration of Q with respect distributed through out the bearing surface.
to P is given by 2. The wear is uniform throughout the bearing surface.
(i) Frictional torque transmitted in a flat bearing is given by
Badboys2
A-44 Theory ofMachines and Machine Design
T = ~ x J.!WR while considering uniform pressure Slack Side T2

3
And in case of uniform wear
1
T= -xJ.!WR
2
where J.! = Coefficient offriction Driving
W = Load transmitted to the bearing Pulley
R = Radius of the shaft Fig.: Belt drive-open system
(ii) Frictional torque transmitted in a Conical Pivot bearing is
given by
2
T= - x J.!WR cosec a
3
while considering uniform pressure
And in case of uniform wear I
Driving
I I Pulley
T= - x J.!WR cosec a Driver
2 Pulley
where
a = semi angle of the cone Fig. : Belt drive-cross system
(iii) Frictional torque trnsmitted in a trapezoidal or truncated When a number of pulleys are used to transmit the power from
conical pivot bearing is given by one shaft to another, then a compound drive is used as shown in
Fig.
T = ~ x J.!W [ r ~ - r ~ ] cosec a
3 r1 -r2
Badboys2while considering uniform pressure.
And in case ofuniform wear
1
T = - x J.!W (r1 + r2) cosec a = J.!WR cosec a
2
where r1 and r2 are the external and internal radii of the
conical bearing respectively Fig.: Belt drive-compound system
Types of Belts
R = r1 + r2 is the mean radius of the bearing.
2 There are three types of belts
(iv) Frictional torque transmitted in a flat collar bearing is given (a) Flat belts: Cross section of a flat belt is shown in Fig. 14.
by Flat belts are easier to use and are subjected to minimum
w[rirf-d-d]
bending stress. The load carrying capacity of a flat belt
- 2 depends on its width.
T --XJ.! ---
3
while considering uniform pressure
And in case ofuniform wear
T= "21 x J.!W (rl + r2)

The frictional torque transmitted by a disc or plate clutch is
same as that of flat collar bearing and by a cone clutch is
same as that of truncated conical pivot bearing.
Fig. : F at belt
BELT DRIVE The ratio of driving tensions for flat belt drive is given by
The transmission of power from one rotating shaft to another T
_1 =eJ.l9
lying at a considerable distance, is achieved using belts and ropes.
T2
Two parallel shafts may be connected by open belt or by cross
belt. In the open belt system, the rotation of both the pulleys is in
the same direction. If a crossed belt system is used, the rotation
of pulleys will be in the opposite direction. Fig. 11and Fig. shows
=> 2.3 log UJ =1'8
open and crossed system respectively. where J.!= coefficient of friction between the belt and the
pulley
e
= angle of contact in radians
Material used for flat belt is generally leather of various
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types having ultimate tensile strength between 4.5 to 7 N where rl and r2 are radii of the two pulleys
per cm width. For heavy duty, two or three piles ofleather x = distance between the centres of two pulleys
are cemented and pressed one above the other such belts In a crossed belt drive the length of the belt is given by
are called double or triple ply belts. (r + r )2
(b) V-belts: Fig. shows the cross section of the V-belts. V- L = 1t (rI + r2) +
I 2 + 2x
belts are available in five sections designed A, B, C, D, and x
When the belt passes from the slack side to the tight side a certain
E and there are used in order of increasing loads. Section
portion of the belt extends and when the belt passes from the
A is used for light loads only and section E is used for
tight to slack side the belt contracts. Due to these changes in
heavy duty machines. The angle ofV-belt for all sections
length, there is relative motion (called creep) between the belt
is about 40. In order to increase the power output, several
and pulley surfaces. Creep reduces the velocity ofthe belt drive
V-belts may be operated side by side. In multiple V-belt
system like slip do.
drive, all the belts should stretch at the same rate so that
the load is equally divided between them. If one of the set Centrifugal Tension
of belts break, the entire set should be replaced at the same The centrifugal tension (Tc)is given by
time. The groove angle in the pulley for running the belt is T, = mV2
between 40 to 60. Due to reduced slipping, V-belts offer
0 where m = Mass per unit length of the belt
a more positive drive. V-belt drives run quietly at high V = Linear velocity ofthe belt
speeds and are capable of absorbing high shock. The power transmitted can be calculated as below:
The total tension on the tight side = T) + Tc
The total tension on the slack side = T2+ Tc
.. PowerTransmitted = [(TI+Tc)-(T2+Tc)]V
=(TI- T2)V
Which is equal to the value of powertransmitted given byeffective
turning force (TI - T2), that is the centrifugal tension has no
effect on the power transmitted.
Badboys2 Fig. V-belt

The maximum power transmitted by the belt is given by the
maximum total tension in the tight side ofthe belt when it is three
The ratio of driving tension for the V-beltdrive is given by times the centrifugal tension.
T = 3Tc
.!L = e(f,.LCOSeC 13) e => T = 3mV2
T2 So velocity for the maximum power transmitted is given by
c> 2.3 log GJ = 11-9- cosec 13 v > )3:

where J3 = Semi-angle ofthe groove Velocity Ratio
e= Angle of contact in radians
V-beltsare usually made of cotton fabric, cards and rubber. The velocity ratio of speeds of driver and driven pulleys is given
by
d + (1- ~J
(c) Circular belts: The cross section of a circular belt is shown
in Fig. The circular belts are also known as round belts.
0)2 = N2 = l t
These are employed when low power is to be transmitted, 0)) N) d2 + t 100
for example in house hold appliances, table top tools and where dJ, d2 = diameters of driver and driven pulleys
machinery of the clothing. Round belts are made ofleather, 0)1, ffi2 = angular velocities of driver and driven pulleys
canvas and rubber.
NI, N2 = rotational speeds of driver and driven pulleys
expressed in revoluations per minute (r.p.m.)
S = SI + S2+ 0.01SIS2is percentage of total
effective slip
SI = Percentage slip between driver and the belt
S2 = Percentage slip between belt and the follower
(driven pulleys)
GEARS AND GEAR DRIVE
I
Fig. Circular Belt A wheel with teeth on its periphery is known as gear. The gears
The ratio of driving tensions in round belts and rope drive are used to transmit power from one shaft to another when the
is same as V-beltdrive. shafts are at a small distance apart.
Length of Belt Types of Gears
In an open belt drive system the length of the belt is given by Commonly used gear are as below:
(rl - r2)2 (a) Spur gear: A cylindricalgear whosetooth traces are straight
L = 1t (r. + r2) + + 2x lines parallel to the gear axis. These are used for
x
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transmitting motion between two shafts whose axis are (g) Internal and external gearing: Two gears on parallel shaft
parallel and coplanar. may gear either externally or internally as shown in Fig.
(b) Helical gear: A cylindrical gear whose tooth traces are
straight helices, teeth are inclined at an angle to the gear
axis. Double helical gears called herringbone gears. The
helical gears are used in automobile gear boxes and in
steam and gas turbines for speed reduction. The
_a:0n
..-- Rack
herringbone gears are used in machinery where large power
is transmitted at low speeds.
(c) Bevel gear: The bevel gear wheels conform to the frusta of Pinion
cones having a common vertex, tooth traces are straight line (a) (b) (c)
generators of the cone. Bevel gears are used to connect
Fig.
two shafts whose axis are coplanar but intersecting when
the shafts are at right angles and the wheels equal in size, Gear Terminology
the bevel gears are called mitre gears. When the bevel gears Terms associated with profile of a gear tooth are illustrated in
have their teeth inclined to the face of the bevel, they are Fig.
known as helical bevel gears. Pitch circle: Essentially an imaginary circle which by pure rolling
action gives the same motion as the actual gear.
Pressure angle or angle of obliquity: Angle between the common
normal to two gear teeth at the point of contact and the common
tangent at the pitch point (common point of contact between two
pitch circles). It is usually denoted by <1>. The standard pressure
1
angles are 14 - and 20.
2
Badboys2 Fig. : Bevel gear
(d) Spiral gear: These are identical to helical gears with the Addendum: Radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the
difference that these gears have a point contact rather than top of the tooth.
a line contact. These gears are used to connect intersecting Addendum
and coplanar shafts.
(e) Worm gear: The system consists ofa worm basically part element
of a screw. The warm meshes with the teeth on a gear wheel Working
called worm wheel. It is used for connecting two non-parallel, depth
non-intersecting shafts which are usually at right angles.
Root or
dedendum
circle
Fig.
Dedendum: Radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to
the bottom of the tooth.
Fig. : Worm gear
(f) Rack and pinion: Rack is a straight line spur gear of Addendum circle: Circle drawn through the top of the teeth
infinite diameter. It meshes,both internally and externally, and is concentric with the pitch circle.
with a circular wheel called pinion. Rack and pinion is used Dedendum circle: Circle drawn through the bottom of the teeth.
to convert linear motion into rotary motion and vice versa. It is also called root circle.
Root circle diameter = Pitch circle diameter x cos 
where is the pressure angle.

Circular pitch: Distance measured on the circumference of
the pitch circle from a point of one tooth to the corresponding
point on the next tooth. It is denoted by Pc, mathematically P,
can be calculated as
P = 1tD
c T
where D = Pitch circle diameter
Fig. : Rack and pinion T = Number of teeth on the wheel.
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For two gears to mesh correctly their circular pitch should be from the begining to the end of engagement.
same Length of the path of contact: Length ofthe common normal cut-
offby the addendum circles of the wheel and pinion.
Arc of contact: The path traced by a point on the pitch circle from
the beginning to the end of engagement ofa given pair of teeth.
~ = D2 It consists of
TI T2 (a) Arc of approach
(b) Arc of recess
Velocity ratio of two meshing gears is given by
VI = 1t DI NI Arc of approach: Portion of the path of contact from the beginning
V2 = 1t D2 N2 of the engagement to the pitch point.
Linear speed of the two meshing gears is equal Arc of recess: Portion of the path of contact from the pitch point
to the end of the engagement ofa pair of teeth.
So 1t DI NI = 1t D2 N2
Length of arc of contact
C ontact R abo = --=--------
Circular Pitch
Contact ratio is the number pairs of teeth in contact.
N2 = IL Length of Arc of contact: Length of the arc of contact can be
NI T2 calculated as
Diametral pitch: It represents the number of teeth on a wheel Length of path of contact
per unit of its diameter. L engt h 0fAr co f contact = ---=-----==-------
cos <l>
. . T 1t
where <l> is pressure angle
DIameter pitch P d = - =-
D Pc Interference: The phenomenon, when the tip of a tooth under
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:::::> PcxPd=1t cuts the root on its mating gear. It may only be avoided, if the
Module: It represents the ratio of pitch circle diameter (in mm) addendum circles ofthe two mating gears cut the common tangent
to the number of teeth. to the base circles between the points of tangency.
D 1 Law of gearing: According to the law of gearing, the common

m=-=- normal at the point of contact between a pair of teeth must always
T Pd
pass through the pitch point.
:::::> m x Pj==I
Gear Trains
Recommended series of modules in Indian Standards are
1, 1.25, 1.5, 2,2.5, 3,4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, and 20. Any combination of gear wheels by means of which power and
motion is transmitted from one shaft to another is known as gear
Modules of second choice are
train. Various types of gear train are
1.125, 1.375, 1.75,2.25, 2.75,3.5,4.5, 5, 5.5, 7, 9, 11, 14 and
1. Simple gear train: A gear train in which each shaft carries
18.
one wheel only. Fig. shows the arrangement of a simple gear
Total depth: Radial distance between the addendum and the train.
dedendum circles of gear.
Tooth depth = Addendum + dedendum Idle gears Driven
or follower
Clearance: Radial distance from the top of the tooth to the
bottom of the tooth in a meshing gear. Circle passing through
the top of the meshing gear is known as clearance circle. I
I
Standard value of clearance is 0.157 m, where m is module. I
Dedendum = Addendum + 0.157 m = m + 0.157 m = 1.157

m
i""Il'""""'~'II"'~III"II"II'"""lIi
Working depth: Radial distance from the addendum circle to
the clearance circle. Fig. : Simple gear train
Working depth = Addendum of first gear + Speed of the driving wheel
Addendum of second gear Velocity ratio = --=---------==-----
Speed of the driven wheel
Back lash: Difference between the tooth space and tooth
thickness, measured along the pitch circle. In actual practice no. of teeth on the driven wheel
somebacklash must be allowed to prevent jamming of the teeth no. of teeth on the driving wheel
due to tooth errors and thermal expansion.
Path of contact: Path traced by the point of contact of two teeth
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ArmC
Train value = ~ = IL
NI T4
2. Compound gear train: A compound gear train includes
two gears mounted on the same shaft as shown in Fig.
Driver Fig. : Epicyclic gear train
. . NB
Driven or
Velocity RatIo - = 1 + -TA
Nc TB
follower
FLYWHEEL
A wheel used in machines to control the speed variations caused
by the fluctuation of the engine turning moment during each
cycle of operation. These wheels are known as flywheel. It absorbs
energy when crank turning moment is greater than resisting
moment and gives energy when turning moment is less than
resisting moment. The speed of a flywheel increases during it
absorbs energy and decreases when it gives up energy. This way
Fig. : Compound gear train flywheel supplies energy from the power source to the machine
Velocity ratio
N
= _I N
= _1 X
N N
_3 x _5 = T2 xT 4 xT 6 at a constant rate throughout the operation.
N6 N2 N4 N6 T1 x T3 x T5 Coefficient of fluctution of energy: Ratio of the maximum
fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle, is called
3. Reverted gear train: A reverted gear train manifests when
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the first driving gear and the last driven gear are on the same
coefficient of fluctuation of energy.
Lllimax = Emax- Emin
axis. Axes are coincidental and coaxial. Fig. shows an
arrangement of the reverted gear train.
C energy-- LlEmax
If D1, D2, D3, D4 be the pitch circle diameters of the
Wpercyc1e
respective gears and corresponding speeds are N], N2,N3,
N4 then where
D1 + D2= D3 + D 4
Lllimax = maximum fluctuation of energy
Cenergy= coefficient of fluctuation of energy
2 2
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed: Ratio of the maximum
=> D1 + D2 = D3 + D4
fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is called the coefficient of
. .
Velocity rano = -N1 = --=-_....:....
T2 x T4 fluctuation of speed.
N4 T1x T3 .1COmax = COmax
- COmin
C
s
= .1comax
CO
mean
Relation between maximum fluctution of energy .1Emaxand
coefficient of fluctuation of speed.
Lllimax = lCOmean
(COmax - COmiu)
= 1(,) (comax- comin)x co
v-mean mean
COmean
Fig. : Reverted gear train Lllimax = lco~ean c, ... (1)

In a clock mechanism a reverted gear train is used to connect also energy stored is a flywheel is given by
hour hand to minute hand in a clock mechanism.
4. Epicyclic gear train: A special type of gear train in which 1 2
E = "2ICOmean
axis of rotation of one or more of the wheels is carried on
an arm and this arm is free to rotate about the axis of
rotation of one or the other gears in the train. Fig. shows an => 2E
... (2)
arrangement of an epicyclic gear train. I
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from (1) and (2) Ifhp is the height of porter governor (when length of arms
Lllimax = 2ECs and links are equal).
where C, = coefficient of fluctuation of speed. and h., is height of watt's governor then
GOVERNORS ~=m+M
The function of a governor is to regulate the mean speed of an hw m
engine within mentioned speed limits for varying type of load
condition. where m = mass of the ball
Terms Used in Governors M = mass of the sleeve
(a) Height of Governor: Vertical distance from the centre (3) Hartnell governor: This is a spring controlled governor. If
of the ball to a point where arms intersect on the spindle Is1eeveis the lift of the sleeve and Xcompressionis the
axis. compression of the spring then
(b) Equilibrium Speed: The speed at which the governor balls,
arms etc. are in complete equilibrium and the sleeve does = Xcompression
Is1eeve = (r2 - r.) y_
x
not tend to move upwards or downwards. where r 1 = Minimum radius of rotation
(c) Sleeve Lift: Vertical distance with the sleeve travels because
r2 = Maximum radius of rotation
of change in equilibrium speed.
x = Length of ball arm oflever
(d) Mean Equilibrium Speed: The speed at the mean position
y = Length of sleeve arm of lever
of the balls or sleeve.
Stiffness of the spring is given by
(e) Maximum and Minimum Equilibrium Speeds: The speeds
at the maximum and minimum radius of rotation of the balls, S = S2 - S1
without tending to move either way are known as maximum h
and minimum equilibrium speeds respectively. IfN 1and N2 where S 1 = Spring force at minimum radius of rotation
are maximum and minimum speeds then S2 = Spring force at maximum radius of rotation
.. 2 (N1 - N2) CAMS
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Sensitiveness = ___;'----.!_----=c..::....
(N1 + N2) A rotating machine element which gives reciprocating or oscillating
(f) Sensitiveness: A governor is said to be sensitive, if its motion to another element called follower is known as cam. These
change of speed is from no load to full load may be small a are mainly used for inlet and exhaust values ofl.C. engines, lathes
fraction of the mean equilibrium speed as possible and the etc.
corresponding sleeve lift may be as large as possible. Types of Cams
(g) Stability: If for every speed within the working range there
L Radial cam: A cam in which followerreciprocates or oscillates
is a configuration of governor balls, then it is said that
in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the cam. Radial
governor is stable. For a stable governor, the radius of
cam is further classified as
governor balls must increase with increase in the equilibrium
(a) Reciprocating cam
speed.
(b) Tangent cam
(h) Hunting: Fluctuation in the speed engine continuously
above and below the mean speed is called hunting. (c) Circular cam
(i) Isochronism: A governor is isochronous provided the 2. Cylindrical Cam: A cam in which the follower reciprocates
equilibrium speed is constant for all radii of rotation of the or oscillates in a direction parallel to the cam axis.
balls upto the working range. CAMS TERMINOLOGY
G) Governor Effort: The average force required on the sleeve A radial cam with reciprocating roller follower is shown in Fig.
to make it rise or come down for a given change in speed.
L Base Circle: Smallest circle that can be drawn to the cam
(k) Power of Governor: The work done at sleeve for a given
profile.
percentage change in speed. Mathematically
Power = Mean effort x Lift of sleeve 2. Trace Point: The reference point on the follower which
Types of Governors is used to generate the pitch curve that varies from case to
Different types of Governors are: case. For example, in case of knife edge follower, the knife
(1) Simple governor-Watt type: The simplest type a centrifugal edge represents the trace point and the pitch curve
governor is known as watt type or watt governor. Height of corresponds to the cam profile while in case of roller
the governor is given by follower, the centre of the roller represents the trace point
3. Pressure Angle: The angle between the direction of the
895
h = -- metres follower motion and a normal to the pitch curve. Keeping
N2 the pressure angle too large will lead to joining of
where N = speed of the arm and ball about the spindle axis. reciprocating follower.
(2) Porter governor: It is obtained by modifying a Watt governor
4. Pitch Point: A point on the pitch pitch curve having the
with a central load attached to the sleeve. The governor speed
maximum pressure angle.
increases and decreases as the sleeve moves upwards or
downwards respectively.
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and acceleration ofthe follower is given by
ar = (1)2(R - r.) cos e
where R = Radius of circular flank
r1 = Minimum radius of the cam
e = Angle turned through by the cam
(I) = Angular velocity of the cam
Maximum
pressure MACHINE DESIGN
angle
Pitch "_--l.~~~-+-+-e A machine which is more economical in the overall cost of
point production and operation is called a new or better machine.
Machine design deals with the creation of new and better machine
Pitch point
and also improving the existing machines. Metals
\ selected to design an element of a machine has some mechanical
\
, Cam profile
"-
properties associated with the ability of the material to resist
"-
" .......... _----".,. mechanical forces and load.
Fig. The commonly used materials in engineering practice are the
5. Pitch Circle: A circle drawn from the centre of the cam ferrous metals which have iron as their main constituent. Various
through the pitch points. types offerrous metals are shown in Fig.
6. Pitch Curve: The curve generated by the trace point as the
follower moves relative to the cam.
7. Prime Circle: Smallest circle that can be drawn from the
centre ofthe cam and tangent to the pitch curve. For a roller
follower, the prime circle is larger than the base circle by the
Grey cast iron Dead mild
radius ofthe roller while in case of knife edge and a flat face steel
(3-3.5% carbon)
follower it is equal. (upto 0.15% carbon)
White cast iron
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8. Lift or Stroke: The maximum travel offollower from its lowest
Low carbon or
position to the topmost position is called life or stroke. (1.75-2.3% carbon)
mild steel
9. Angle of Ascent: It is the angle moved by cam from the time Mottled cast iron (0.15%-0.45%) carbon
the follower begins to rise till it reaches the highest point. (It is a product between Medium carbon
10. Angle of Descent: Angle during which follower returns to grey and white cast iron in Steel
its initial position. composition, colour and general (0.45%-0.8% carbon)
properties)
11. Angle of Action: It is the total angle moved by cam from the High carbon Steel
beginning of ascent to finish of descent. Malleable cast iron
(0.8% - 1.5% Carbon)
12. Under Cutting: The situation of a Cam Profile which has an (Cast iron alloy which solidifies
in the as-cast condition in a
inadequate curvature to provide correct follower movement, graphite free structure)
is known as under cutting.
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION OF THE FOLLOWER BASIS OF LIMIT SYSTEM
(a) Tangent Cam with Reciprocating Roller Follower In order to control the size of finished part with due allowance for
In the tangent cam flanks of the cam are straight and error for interchangeable parts is called limit system. There are
tangential to the base circle and nose circle. Tangent cams generally two basis oflimit system.
are used for operating the inlet and exhaust values of I.C. (a) Hole basis system: In this system the hole is kept as a constant
engines. Displacement of the follower is given by member and different fits are obtained by varying the shaft
Yf= (r. + r2)(1- cos e) sec e size.
Velocity of the follower is given by
(b) Shaft basis system: In this system the shaft is kept as a
Vf= (I) (r, + r2) sin e sec2 e
and acceleration of the follower is given by constant member and different fits are obtained by varying
af = (1)2(r, + r2) (2 - cos' e) sec2 e the hole size.
where r 1 = Minimum value ofthe radius ofthe cam Standard tolerances
r2 = Radius ofthe roller follower
The system oflimits and fits comprise of 18 grades of fundamental
e = Angle turned by the cam, from the beginning
of the follower displacement tolerances according to the Indian standards. These are ITO1, ITO
(I) = Angular velocity of the cam
and ITl ... ITl6, these are called standard tolerances.
(b) Circular Arc Cam with Flat-faced Follower Standard tolerance can be determined in terms of standard
In the circular arc cam the flanks ofthe cam connecting the tolerance unit (i) microns by using the relation
base circle and nose are of convex circular arcs.
Displacement of the flat faced follower is given by i = 0.45 Vi5 + O.OOlD for grades ITS to IT7.
Yf= (R - r1) (1- cos e) And for the grades ITO1, ITO and IT 1 as below
Velocity of the follower is given by For ITOl, i (microns) = 0.3 + 0.008D
Vf= (I) (R - r.) sin e For ITO, i(microns)=0.5+0.012D
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ForlTl, i(microns)=O.8.0.020D SJ. unit ofE is Nzmm-, Hook's law applies to both tension and
where D is the size or diameter in mm. compression.
(iii) Direct shear stress: When a body is subjected to two equal
STATIC LOADING AND DYNAMIC LOADING
and opposite forces, acting tangentially across the resisting
(a) Static loading: A type ofloading in which the load is applied section, as a result of which the body tends to shear off the
slowly or increases from nil to a higher value at a slow pace. section, then the stress induced is called shear stress. The
There are no acceleration produced in the static loading. strain occured due to the shear stress is called shear strain.
(b) Dynamic loading: A type ofloading which varies in magnitude Let us consider the two plates held together by means of a
as well as direction, very frequently, such type ofloading is rivet as shown in Fig.
called dynamic loading or fluctuating or alternating loads.
STRESS AND STRAIN
(a) Stress: Resistive force per unit area to the external force on
a body, set up within the body is called stress on that body.
I I I
(b) Strain: Deformation produced per unit length of a body is ~
d
called strain. (a)
Types of stresses
Stresses are classified as
(i) Tensile stress: If a body is subjected to two equal and
opposite external pulls, then the stress developed inside the
body is called tensile stress (b)
The direct shear stress induced in the rivet is given as
Pt
at= -
A r = Ps
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where P t = Axial tensile force in N A
A = Area of cross-section of the body in mm? where r = direct shear stress in N/mm2
at = Tensile stress in N/mm2 Ps = shear force across the cross-section in N
the strain produced can be calculated as A = cross-sectional area in mm?
8/ If the rivet is subjected to a double shear then shear induced
e= -
/ IS
where 8/ = change in the length ofthe body or increase
"['=_sPc
in length
2A
l = original length of the body is the deformation produced due to shear stress r then
If 
e = tensile strain produced r o: 
(ii) Compressive stress: If the body is subjected to two equal "['=C
and opposite pushes then the stress developed is called where C is called modulus of rigidity.
compressive stress. (iv) Torsional shear stress: When a body is subjected to two
Pc equal and opposite torques or torsional moments acting in
ac= - parallel planes, the body is said to be in torsion, and the
A
where ac = compressive stress in Nzmm? stress produced due to torsion is called torsional shear
Pc = compressi ve force stress. Let us consider a body of circular cross-section
A = area of cross-section of the body in mm- subjected to torque T, which produces a twist of an angle e
Compressive strain is given by radians as shown in Fig.
8/ T I
e= -
where
/
8/ = decrease in length of the body
Hook's law: Hook's law states that when a material is loaded
(~{;~~~~~~;~)
t~-- ~
within elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain T e
aoce The torsional shear stress induced at a distance r from the
or a = Ee centre is given by
where a = stress Txr
e = strain "['torsion = -1-
p
E = Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity
where
a Pxl
E= -=-- "['torsion = torsional shear stress a distance r in Nzmm?
e Ax 8/ T = applied torque
r = radial distance
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Ip = polar
moment of inertia of cross-section d
....!,!.-
about centroidal axis.
Torsion equation: The shear stress is zero at the centroidal
axis of the shaft and maximum at the outer surface. The
maximum shear stress at the outer surface of the shaft may be
I
obtained by the equation known as torsion equation given as
The stress at the surface of contact between the rivet and
1 T co the plate is given by
r Ip P
(Jb or (Jc = --
where C = modulus of rigidity d-t-n
e
= angle of twist in radians where d = diameter of the rivet
I = length of the cylindrical body t = thickness of the plate
(v) Bending stress: When a body is subjected to a transverse d- t = projected area of the rivet
load, it produces tensile as well as compressive stresses, n = no. of rivets per pitch length in bearing or
as shown in Fig. crushing.
The bending equation for beams in simple bending is given The bearing stress is taken into account in case of riveted
by joints, cotter joints, knuckle joints etc.
(J M E Bearing Pressure: Bearing pressure is localised compressive
stress at the area of contact between two components which
Y I R
have relative motion amongst themselves. It is calculated
where
similarly as we did bearing stress. Let us consider a journal
(J = bending stress in N/m2
supported in a bearing as shown in Fig.
M = bending moment in Nm
Average bearing pressure is given by
y = distance of the extreme fibre from the
neutral axis
P P
Pb=
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-=-
I = rectangular moment of inertia about the A ld
neutral axis in m" where P is load along the radius of the journal
E = modulus of elasticity I = length of journal in contact
R = radius of curvature of the neutral axis d = diameter of the journal
I . d = projected area is contact
o
Neutral axis
Stress Concentration
From the equation, we have Irregularity in the stress distribution caused by the abrupt change
M (J in the shape cross section of a machine component is called
y stress concentration. It occurs for all kinds of stresses in the
presence of filters, notches, holes, keyways, splines, surface
I roughness or scratches etc.
M= (JX- =rr x z
y Stress concentration factor: A factor used to associate the
where z is known as modulus of section. maximum stress at the discontinuities of cross-section to the
(vi) Bearing stress or crushing stress: A localised nominal stress is called stress concentration factor.
compressive stress at the surface of contact between two - (Jrnax
members that are relatively at rest is known as bearing stress K t---
(Jo
or crushing stress. Let us consider a riveted joint as shown
where K, = stress concentration factor
in Fig.
(Jrmx = maximum stress at the discontinuity
(Jo = nominal stress at the same point
Stress concentration factor is also known as theoretical or form

stress concentration factor.
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In practical the actual effect of stress concentration is lesser than
that calculated by theoretical stress concentration factor, so in Low Highcycle
~-c-y-c~le_'~--~~-----__'~
actual practice we use fatigue stress concentration factor Infinitelife _______..
denoted by Kj which is given by en- Sut
~
amax.actual
where
amax,actual
= Actual maximum stress at notch or
11
~ S~t----t-------'lf--------- s;
discontinuity
Kf<Kt
Notch sensitivity: Notch sensitivity is calculated by using the
relation 10 1d 102 103 104 105 106 1 rJ 108
Numberof stresscyclesN
Increase in actul stress
K, -lover nominal value S-N diagram
q= -- = ----------
K, -1 Increase in theoretical stress Fatigue Failure Criteria for Fluctuating Stress
over nominal value There are different theories to determine the failure points for
Fatigue and Indurance Limit steel which can be represented in a graph plotted between the
mean stress (am) and variable stress (av) as shown in Fig.
A type of failure of a material caused by the repeated stresses
below the yield point is called fatigue. Failure is caused due to
progressive crack formation which is very fine and is of
microscopic size. Fatigue is basically affected by number of
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and the size of component.
Endurance limit: It is the maximum value of completely
reversed bending stress which a polished standard specimen can
withstand without failure, for infinite number of cycles (usually
107 cycles). Following are some empirical relations commonly
used in practice.
Table
10 cry
Material Empirical Relation 1
1 Tensite -----.
Compressive-+---1
1+--- Meanstress
Steel ae = 0.5 au (crm)
Cast steel ae = 0.4 au

Inference corresponding to each line are shown in the table.
Cast iron ae = 0.35 au
Table
Non-ferrous metals and alloys ae = 0.3 au
Method Name Mathematical Relation
where ae = Endurance limit
au = Ultimate tensile strength
S-N Diagram: A graph between the faituge strength (s) versus
stress cycle (N). With the help of this graph we measure the Gerber Method _1_ = (am J2 x F.S. + ~
F.S. au ae
endurance limit. S-N diagram is shown in Fig.
Factor of Safety valid for ductile
The ratio of material strength to the working or allowable stress material
is called factor of safety. Factor of safety is given by
Maximum strength of the material Goodman Method
FS. = ------=--------
Design or working stress of the material
Yield point strength
FS.ductilematerials= For static loading Soderberg Method
Working or design stress
Ultimate strength
(F.S.X:: J +S.X :: J
FS.brittlemateria!s
= For static loading
Design or working stress Elliptic Method =1
Endurance limit
FS.fatigueloading
= ---------
Design or working stress
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cr +cr
where cr = mean stress = max mm
m 2
cru = ultimate stress
cre = endurable limit for reverse loading stress
c -cr
cr = variable stress = max mm
v 2
o y = yield point stress
FS. = Factor of safety
RIVET JOINTS
A rivet is made of a short cylindrical bar with a head integral to it. Doublerivetellap joint (zig-zig riveting)
Reveting is common method ofjoining and fastening because of Important Terms used in Riveting
low cost, simple operation and high production rates. Based on (i) Gage line: A line passing through the centres of row of
the way in which the plates are connected, rivet joints can be rivets which is parallel to the plate edge.
classified into two types of joints listed below. (ii) Pitch: It is the distance from the centre of one rivet to the
1. Lap joint: If one plate overlapsthe other and the two plates centre of the next rivet measured parallel to the seam.
are riveted together, then this type of joint is called. Lap (iii) Back pitch: The perpendicular distance betweenthe centre
joint, Fig. shows a cross sectional view of a lap joint. lines of the successive rows is known as back pitch.
(iv) Diagonal pitch: The distance between the centres of the
rivets in adjacent rows of zig-zag riveted joints is called
diagonal pitch.
(v) Marginal pitch: The distance between the centre of rivet
hole to the nearest edge of the plate is called marginal
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pitch.
(vi) Caulking: A process in which, the edges of the plates are
2. But joint: In this joint, plates are kept in a way that their given blows to facilitate the forcing down of the edge.
edges touch each other and a cover plate is placed either Blowing the plate with the help of caulking tool forms a
on one side or both sides of the main plates. Finally the metal to metal contact point.
cover plate is riveted with the main plates. There are two (vii) Fullering: A process in which a more satisfactory joint
types of butt joint. is made by using a tool which has its thickness near the
(a) Single strap Butt joint: In this case only one cover end equal to the thickness of plate. This gives better joint
plate is used above or below the main plates and then with clean finish.
final riveting is done.
Failures of Riveted Joint
(b) Double strap Butt joint: In this case instead of one
cover plate, two cover plates one on upper side and Riveted joints may fail in two ways as below:
other on lower side of the main plate emloyed and (i) Failure of Plate
then final riveting is done. Based on the number of (ii) Failure of Rivet
rows of rivets, the butt joints are classified as single (i) Failure of Plate: Plates of the joint can fail in two ways
or double riveted, triple or quadruple riveted. Cross- listed below:
sectional view of the double riveted joint is shown in (a) Tearing of plates at an edge: A joint may fail due to
Fig. tearing of the plate at an edge during riveting or
punching. We can avoid this by keeping the margin,
m ~ 1.5 d where d is rivet hole diameter in mm.
(b) Tearing of the plate across a row of rivets: The
main plate or cover plates may tear off across a row
Double riveted lap joint of rivets due to tensile stresses in the main plates.
Depending upon the relative position of the rivets of each row The tearing resistance or pull required to tear off the
riveting is divided as plate per pitch length is given by
(1) Chain Riveting: In this riveting, the rivets in the various Pt = (P - d) t crt
rows are opposite to each other. Cross sectional view of whereP t= tearing resistance
chain riveting is shown in Fig. P = pitch of the rivets
(2) Zig-Zig Riveting: In this case the rivets in the adjacent d = diameter of the rivet hole
rows are staggired in such a way that every rivet is in the t = thickness of the plate
middle of the two rivets of the opposite row. Zig-Zig crt = tensile stress value permissible for the
riveting is shown in Fig. plate material
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Ifapplied load> P, then tearing of the plate across a Ptransverse= 1.414 s x I x at
row of rivets occurs. where s= Leg or size of weld
(ii) Failure of Rivets: Rivets may fail in two ways listed below. I= Length of the weld
If the plate thickness is less than 8 mm, the diameter of at = Allowable tensile stress
rivet is calculated by equating the shearing resistance to
crushing. p p
(a) Shearing of the rivets: If the rivets are unable to
resist the tensile stress exerted by the plates, then
they are sheared off, this is known as shearing of the
rivets. In case oflap joint and single cover butt joint, .--fI.~f~s_-r---lr
p
rivets are in single shear, while in case of double cover
butt joint rivets are subjected to double shear forces.
P..-.1 -.J s f.-
Double transverse fillet weld
The shearing resistance or pull required to shear off And shear strength of a double parallel fillet weld shown
the rivet, per pitch length is given by in Fig. is given by
PpamUel= 1.414s x I x 1"
PSsingle= n x ~ x d2 X 1"sfor single shear where 1"= Allowable shear stress
4
PSdoubleshear= 2 x PSsingle
where n = number of rivets per pitch length
1"= safe permissible shear stress for the rivet p p
material
d = diameter of the rivet hole
(b) Crushing of the rivets: Ifrivets get crushed off under
the tensile stress values then it is known as crushing Double parallel fillet weld
of the rivets. As a result the joint becomes loose. The (b) Butt Joint: In this joint plates are placed edge to edge
Badboys2 crushing resistance or pull required to crush the rivet order and then welded. Plates are bevelled to V-shape or
per pitch length is given by U-shape if thickness of plate is more than 5 mm. The but
Pc = n . d . t . ac joints are designed for tension or compression.
where ac = Permissible crushing stress for the rivet Design of Butt joint: We take two cases here, single V-butt
or plate material joint and double V-butt joint and calculate the tensile strength in
t = Plate thickness each cases.
n = Number of rivets per pitch length (i) Single V-butt joint: Fig. shows single V-butt joint with
d = diameter of the rivet hole thickness of the throat t.
Efficiency of Riveted Joint )
(
>
Efficiency of riveted joint is the ratio of strength of the joint to
the strength ofunriveted solid plate. (
r
1']
)
>
Minimum of Pc' Pt and Ps
)
)
?>
11=
P x t x at ) 1 :>
where, P = Pitch of the rivets p p

t = Plate thickness
at = Maximum permissible tensile strength of Single V-Butt joint
plate The tensile strength of the single V-Butt joint is given by
WELDED JOINTS P t x I x at
where throat thickness or thickness of
A permanent joint obtained by the fusion of the edges of the two
parts to be joined together, with or withiout the application of thinner plate
pressure and a filler material. There are two types of welded at allowable tensile stress for weldment
joints commonly used listed below: in N/mm2
(a) Lap joint or Filler joint: In this joint the plates are replace at by ac in case it is designed for compression
overlapped and then welded along the edges. The weld I = Length of weld
filled is train gular. There are various types of lap joints (ii) Double V-Butt joint: Tensile strength for doub V-butt joint
like single transverse, double transverse and parallel fillet shown in Fig. is given by
joints. The transverse fillet welded joints are designed for P t x I x at
tensile strength whereas the parallel fillet welded joints where t = tl + t2
are designed for shear strength. P = (tl + t2) x I x at
Design of fillet joint: The tensile strength of a double
=>
where I = length of weld = width of plates
transverse filled weld shown in Fig. is given by
t 1 = throat thickness at the top
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t2 = throat thickness at the bottom (ii) Rectangular sunk key: A rectangular sunk key is
crt = allowable tensile stress for weldment
shown in Fig. The width of the key is equal to ~ and
inN/mm2 4
thickness is equal to ~ .
,._~ 12
pi - j~ -
t
---Inn -t -:t p w=T
t=_!'
12
1 = 1.5 d
Double V-Butt joint
Metric Thread
There are various forms of screw threads, metric thread is an Rectangular sunk key
Indian Standard (I.S.0) thread having an included angle of 60, (iii) Gib-head key: Cross-sectional view of a Gib-head
these are two types, coarse threads and fine threads. For a sunk key is shown in Fig.
particular value of diameter, coarse threads have large pitch and
lead as compared to fine threads. Coarse threads are more in
strength and chances of thread shearing and crushing is very less. w=_Q_
4
They are preferred for vibration free applications as they offer t=2w=_Q_
less resistance to unscrewing. Fine threads give better adjustment 3 6
I =1.5d
in fitment and are used where high vibrations take place as they
where d = diameter of shaft
offer high resistance to unscrewing.
Fine threads are designated as Md x P for example M50 x 5 Gib head sunk key
(iv) Parallel sunk key: It is a taperless key and may be
Badboys2 which indicates an isometric fine thread which has nominal
diameter of 50 mm and pitch 5. rectangular or square in cross-section. It is used
While in case of coarse threads only Md is mentioned for where the pulley, gear or other mating piece is
example M50. required to slide along the shaft.
Todesignate tolerance grade we use the values of each tolerances (v) Feather key: A special type of parallel key which
like 7 for fine grade, 8 for normal and 9 for coarse grade. For transmits a turning moment and also permits axial
example a bolt thread of 6 mm size of coarse pitch and with movement.
allowance on threads and normal tolerance grade is designated (b) Tangent keys: These keys are fitted in pair at right angles,
as M6-8d. each key is to withstand torsion in one direction only.
Tangent keys are used for heavy duty applications. A cross-
KEYS sectional view of a tangent key is shown in Fig.
Toprevent the relative motion of the shaft and the machinery part
connected to it we use a piece of mild steel called key. Keys are
temporary fastenings and are subjectedto considerable crushing
and shearing stresses. Different types of keys are listed below.
(a) Sunk keys: These keys are designed in such a way that
they are half way in the key way of the hub of pulley and
half in the key way of the shaft. There are basically five
types of sunk keys listed as following:
(i) Square sunk key: A square sunkkeyis shownin Fig. If
d is the diameter of the shaft width of the square sunk Tangent key
key is equal to d/4 and the thickness is same as width. (c) Saddle keys: These are taper keys fitted in key way and
1+-'fJ""+I designed such that it is flat on the shaft.
-f--- ----
t I J_~~ (d) Wood ruff keys: This key is made of a piece from a
_t. _L~2 cylindrical disc of segmental cross-section.
Shaft cross-section
(e) Round keys: These keys are circular in cross-section and
w=t=T
d are fitted partly into the shaft and partly into the hub.
length of the key ( = 1.5 d
(f) Splines: When splines are integrated with the shaft which
finally fits into the keyways of the hub. These are stronger
than a single keyway.
Design of Keys
I
A key may fail due to shearing and crushing, it is equally strong
Square sunk key
in shearing and crushing if following condition satisfies.
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(iii) Combined loading: When a shaft is subjected to combined
w=~
2~ twisting moment and bending moment, then the shaft is
designed on the basis of maximum normal stress theory
where w= width of the key
and maximum shear stress theroy and larger size is adopted.
t= thickness of the key
According to maximum shear stress theory (Guest's theory)
O"c = permissible crushing stress
the maximum value of shear stress in the shaft is given by
r= permissible shearing stress
1 I 2 2
SHAFTS ~max = - \J (o.,) + 4~
2
Shafts are used to transmit power from one place to another,
these are normally of circular cross-section. Mild steels are = _!_ 32M + 4 x (16 T J2
hot rolled and then finished to actual size by turning, grinding or 2 nd3 nd3
cold drawing to manufacture shafts. Alloy steels with
composition of nickel, chromium and vanadium is also used to r = ~ 'M2+T2
max nd3 \j
impart high strength. The cold rolled shafts are stronger than
hot rolled shafts, but with higher residual stresses. nd3
M2+T2 = __ ~
Types of Shafts ~ 16 max
There can be two types of shafts nd3
(a) Transmission shaft such as counter shafts, line shafts, over => r, = 16~max
head shafts, etc.
(b) Machine shaft such as crank shaft where T, =equivalent twisting moment = ~ M2 + T2
Design of Shaft Now,
Shafts are designed on the basis of According to maximum normal stress theory (Rankine's
(a) Strength: On the basis of strength of the shaft material we theory the maximum normal stress in the shaft is given by
Badboys2 design a shaft considering three types of stresses induced

in the shafts.
O"b(max) = -1 O"b + -1 ~ (O"b) 2 + 4~ 2
2 2
(i) Torsionalload
(ii) Bending load
(iii) Combined torsional and being loads
,,~_)~ ::3 [~(M M + + T2)]
(i) Torsional load: If the shaft is subjected to pure torsional
_!_ (M + ~M2 + T2 ) = nd3 O"b(max)
load then torsional shear stress is given by 2 32
r = 16; N/m2 for solid shaft

nd3
Me= --xO"b(max)
nd 32
where d = shaft diameter in m where Me = equivalent bending moment
T = torsional moment in N-m
For a hollow shaft = ~ (M + ~M2 + T2 )
~= 16Txdo N/m2 (b) Design of Shafts on the basis of rigidity and stiffness A
( 4
n do - dj 4) , shaft of small diameter and long length the maximum
deflection is expressed as
(5max S; 0.75 mm/length in meters
n 3
=> T -- -x~xdo
16 also (5max S; 0.06 Lin mm
where L = distance between load and bearings in m.
where do = outer diameter of shaft in m These deflections are minimised by using support bearings.
d, = inner diameter of the shaft in m If gear is mounted on the shaft then
(ii) Bending load: When the shaft is subjected to a bending 3
moment only, then the value of stress induced is given by (5max S; f
O"b = 32~ for solid shaft where f = gear face with mm
nd If shaft crosses these limits then deflections are minimized
where O"b = bending stress by using self aligning bearings.
and for a hollow shaft SPUR GEARS
32M When two parallel and coplanar shafts are connected by gears
having teeth parallel to the axis of the shaft, its arrangement is
called spur gearing, and gear used is spur gear. While designing
spur gear it is assumed that gear teeth should have sufficient
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strength so that they do not fail under static as well as dynamic
= 0.124 _ 0.684
loading. T
Lewis Equation . 0.912
Y for 20 full depth mvolute system = 0.154 - --
Lewis equation is used to determine the beam strength of a gear T
tooth. Each tooth is considered as a cantilever beam which is 0.841
Y for 20 stub system = 0.175 - --
fixed at the base. The normal force acting on the tip of the gear T
is resolved into radial and tangential component as shown in The permissible working stress (O"w)in the Lewi's equation
Fig. The radial component induces a direct compress stress of depends upon the material for which, allowable static stress (0"0)
small value, so it is ignored. Tangential component FT is duces a may be determined. Allowable static stress is the stress at the
bending stress that can break the tooth. elastic limit of the material also known as basic stress.
Barth Formula: According to Barth formula, the permissible
working stress is given by
O"w= 0"0 X C,
where Cv = velocity factor
-__
r Tangent to the
- - - base circle Cv = --- 4.5 for care full y cut gears operatmg
. at
4.5+v
velocities upto 12.5 mls
-- 3 c.
lor or dimary cut gears operatmg
. at
. . My 3+v
Maximum value ofbendmg stress = O"w= - ... (1)
I velocities upto 12.5 mls
where M is maximum bending moment (i.e. at BC) Static Tooth Load
M= Ftxh ... (2)
Beam strength or static tooth load is given by
Badboys2 Ft= -
M
h where
Fs = O"eb P, Y = O"eb 1t my
O"e= Flexural endurance limit
M = O"wI For safety against breakage Fs > FD
from (1)
Y where FD is the dynamic tooth load which takes place due to
inaccurate tooth spacing, irregularities in profiles and tooth
deflection under the effect of load.
BEARINGS
. t
Now for y for beam of height t = - A machine element which permits a relative motion between the
2
contact surfaces of the members while carrying the load. It
supports journal. The bearings are mainly classified as
(a) Sliding contact bearings
(b) Rolling contact bearings
Sliding Contact Bearings
In these bearings, the sliding takes place along the surfaces of
contact between the moving element and the fixed element.
F = O"wX bt3 = O"wbt2
These are also known as plain bearings.
t12 x ~ 6h According to the thickness oflayer ofthe lubricant between
2 the bearing and the journal, sliding contact bearings can be
Now if circular pitch is P, then we can represent t, and h in
terms of Peas classified as
(a) Thick film bearings: Bearings in which the working
surfaces are completely separated from each other by the
lubricant. These are also called a hydrodynamic lubricated
O"wbK~ Pc = O"wbPc K~ bearings.
(b) Thin film bearings: In these bearings although lubricant
6K2 6K2
is present, the working surfaces partially contact each other
K2 atleast part of the time. Such type of bearings are also called
Let y=_l_
6K2 boundary lubricated bearings.
(c) Zero film bearings: Bearings which operate without any
F t = o"wb Pc Y Lewis Equation
lubricant are known as zero film bearings.
where y = form factor called Lewis form factor
(d) Hydrostatic bearings: Bearings which can support steady
b = width of gear face loads without any relative motion between the journal and
the bearings because there is externally pressurized
Y for 14!.: composite and full depth involute system lubricant between the members.
2
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Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing Terminology where K is a factor for end leakages
Cross-sectionalview of a hydrodynamicjournal bearing is shown
in Fig.
for 0.75 < !:_ < 2.8, K = 0.002
d
(ix) Short and long bearings: Short and long bearings are
decided on the basis of the ratio lid.
[
If - < 1 then bearing is said to be short
d
[
- = 1 bearing is called square bearing
Journal d
I I [
I
I
- > 1 then bearing is said to be long
I d
Hydrodynamic journal bearing (x) Heat generation and rejection in bearing: Due to fluid
Diameter of the bearing = D = 2R friction and solid friction heat is generated in the bearing
Diameter of the journal = d = 2r which can be expressed as
Length of the bearing = l Qgen= J,.tWV N-m/s
Terminologies associated with a hydrodynamic journal bearing where W = load on the bearing
are defined as following. V = rubbing velocity in mls
(i) Diametral clearance: Difference between the diameter Heat rejection is given by
of bearing and journal is called diametral clearance Qrejection= Kh A (t, - ta) JIS
C1 = D-d where Kh = heat dissipation coefficient in W/m2/C
(ii) Radial clearance: It is the difference between the radii of A = prejected area of the bearing
bearing and journal tb = bearing surface temperature
D-d C1 ta = ambient temerature
C2=R-r=--=-
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(iii) Diametral
2 2
clearance ratio: Ratio between diametral
In case of pressure fed bearings ift, is the inlet temperature
of oil and to is outlet temperature of the oil then heat
clearnace to journal diameter rejection is given by
. . C1 Qrejection= pCoil(to- ti)
Diametral clearance ratio = - where p = density of oil
d
(iv) Eccentricity: It is the radial distance between the centre Coil= specific heat of oil
(0) of the bearing and the displaced centre (0') of the Bearing Characteristic Number
bearing under load. Eccentricity is denoted bye.
(v) Eccentricity ratio (Attitude): Ratio of eccentricity to The factor ZN is known as bearing characteristic number and
P
radial clearance is called eccentricity ratio. it is a dimensionless number.
E= -
e where Z = Absolute viscosity of the lubricant in kg/m-s
C2 N = Speed ofjournal in r.p.m.
(vi) Sommerfield number: A dimensionless number used in P = Bearing pressure on the projected bearing
design of bearings. It's value is given by area in Nzmm-'
(z;)(~J
W .
P = -, W = Load on the Journal
Sommerfield number = [d
The variation of coefficient offriction with respect to the bearing
where N = Journal speed in r.p.m., Z = lubricant viscosity, characteristic number is shown in Fig.
P = bearing pressure normally we take its value as 14.3 x 106
r-:------,_ Thin film or boundary lubrication
(vii)Critical pressure in journal bearing: The pressure at
which the oil film breaks and metal to metal contact takes t 1 (unstable)
place is known as critical pressure. It's value is given by 3

c
o
c;J2 ( [+[ d J NI mm
""B
P- ZN ( d 2 E
- 4.75 x 106 (5
where N = Journal speed in r.p.m. c Partial lubrication
"~-+---~--
Z = Absolute viscosity of the lubricant
(viii)Coefficient of friction: Coefficient of friction can be ~
o
expressed as K
ZN
P
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Variation of coefficientof friction with the surfaces in contact. Due to friction heat is generated which
bearing characteristic number ( z: J should be dissipated rapidly. Friction clutches are further
classified into
(a) Disc or plate clutch
Rolling Contact Bearings (b) Cone clutch
Bearing which operate on the basis of principle of rolling, i.e. the (c) Centrifugal clutch
contact between the bearing surfaces is rolling are known as (a) Disc clutch: Cross-sectional view of a disc clutch is shown
rolling contact bearings. These are also called anti friction in Fig.
bearings as they offer low friction. Mainly there are two types
of rolling contact bearings.
(i) Ball bearing
(ii) Roller bearing
Average life (Median life) of a bearing: It is the number of
revolutions or number of hours at a constant speed that 50% of
a batch of ball bearing will complete or may be exceed and 50% dr
fail before the rated life is achieved. It is denoted by L5o.
Life a 1 Disc clutch
(Load)? Frictional torque acting on an element dr is given by
Dynamic load rating: Value of radial load which bearing can T, = 2n /-! pr2 dr
suffer for I million revolutions of inner ring with only 10% where p = axial pressure intensity
failure is known as dynamic load rating or basic dynamic capacity /-! = coefficient of friction
or specific dynamic capacity. For uniform pressure the intensity of pressure is given by
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Rating Life L ~ (~ J' P= W
n(r?-d)
where P = load where rl = external radius of the surface
C = dynamic basic load rating r2 = internal radius of the surface
P= C (-I J 1/3
W = axial value of thrust which holds the
frictional surfaces together.
L
IfN is r.p.m. the Life in hours is given by Total torque transmitted is given by
CJ3 106
L= ( -
P
x-- hours
60N
T = ~ /-!W
3
[rfrf-d- d ]
cosec a
(b) Cone clutch: Total torque transmitted in the cone clutch is
P = Cx _!.Q_
6 ]1/3 given by
or
[ 60NL Tcme= ~ /-!W [r? - r~] cosec a
3 r2 - r2
1 2
CLUTCHES
where a = semi-angle of frictional surfaces with the
clutch axis.
Clutch is a connection between the driving and driven shafts
(c) Centrifugal clutch: Total torque transmitted in case of
with the provision to disconnect the driven shaft instantaneously
centrifugal clutch is given by
without stopping the driving shaft. Main functions of cluthces
T = /-! (C - S) r, x n
are to stop and start the driven member without stopping the
where C = Spring force acting on shoe = mrw-
driving member, to maintain torque, power and speed, and to
m = mass of shoe
eradicate the effects of shocks while transmitting power.
r = distance of centre of gravity of shoe from
Clutches are classified into two types: centre
w = angular velocity of rotating pulley in rad/s
(1) Positive clutches: These are used where there IS
ri = inside radius of pulley rim
requirement ofpositive drive for examplejaw or claw clutch. S = Inward force due to spring-m (W12)r
(2) Friction clutches: Friction clutch transmits the power by 3
Wl= -w
friction without shock. It is used where sudden and complete 4
disconnection of two rotating shafts are necessary, and the n = number of shoes
shafts are in axial alignment. The power transmission takes
place due to two or more concentric rotating frictional C - S = mr w- - _2._ mrw- = }_ mr w-
16 16
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Theory of Machines and Machine Design
I.. EXERCISE ..., A-61
1. A rotating disc of 1 m diameter has two eccentric masses (c)Geneva mechanism is an intermittent motion device
of 0.5 kg each at radii of 50 mm and 60 mm at angular (d)Grubler's criterion assumes mobility of a planar
positions of 00 and 1500, respectively. A balancing mass mechanism to be one
of 0.1 kg is to be used to balance the rotor. What is the 10. Mobility of a statically indeterminate structure is
radial position of the balancing mass? (a) ::;;-1 (b) zero
(c) 1 (d) ?:2
(a) 50 mm (b) 120 mm 11. A double-parallelogram mechanism is shown in the figure.
(c) 150mm (d) 280mm
Note that PQ is a single link. The mobility ofthe mechanism is
2. The number of degrees of freedom of a planar linkage with 8
links and 9 simple revolute joints is P Q
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
3. Match the items in Column I and Column II.
Column I ColumnII
P. Higher kinematic pair 1. crubler's equation
Q. Lower kinematic pair 2. Line contact
R Quick return mechanism 3. Euler's equation
S. Mobility of a linkage 4. Planar (a) -1 (b) zero
5. Shaper (c) 1 (d) 2
6. Surface contact 12. A circular object of radius r rolls without slipping on a
(a) P-2, Q-6,R-4, S-3 (b) P-6, Q-2, R-4, S-l horizontal level floor with the centre having velocity V. The
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(c) P-6, Q-2, R-5, S-3 (d) P-2, Q-6, R-5, S-l
velocity at the point of contact between the object and the
4. Match the items in Column I and Column II.
Column I ColumnII floor is
P. Addendum 1. Cam (a) zero
Q. Instantaneous centre 2. Beam (b) Vin the direction of motion
of velocity (c) Vopposite to the direction of motion
R Section modulus 3. Linkage (d) Vverticallyupward from the floor
S. Prime circle 4. Gear 13. For the given statements:
(a) P-4, Q-2, R-3, S-l (b) P-4, Q-3, R-2, S-l I. Mating spur gear teeth is an example of higher pair.
(c) P-3, Q-2, R-1, S-4 (d) P-3, Q-4, R-1, S-2 Il. A revolute joint is an example oflower pair.
5. The number of inversions for a slider crank mechanism is Indicate the correct answer.
(a) 6 (b) 5 (a) Both I and IIare false
(c) 4 (d) 3
(b) I is true and II is false
6. For a four-bar linkage in toggle-position, the value of
(c) I is false and II is true
mechanical advantage is
(d) Both I and II are true
(a) zero (b) 0.5
(c) 1.0 (d) infinite 14. In a mechanism, the fixed instantaneous centres are those
7. The speed of an engine varies from 210 rad/s to 190 rad/s. centres which
During a cycle, the change in kinetic energy is found to be (a) Remain in the same place for all configuration of
400 N-m. The inertia ofthe flywheel in kg-m2 is mechanism
(a) 0.10 (b) 0.20 (b) Large with configuration of mechanism
(c) 0.30 (d) 0.40 (c) Moves as the mechanism moves, but joints are of
8. The rotor shaft of a large electric motor supported between permanent nature
short bearings at both deflection of 1.8 mm in the middle of (d) None of the above
the rotor. Assuming the rotor to be perfectly balanced and 15. Maximum fluctuation of energy is the
supported at knife edges at both the ends, the likely critical (a) Ratio of maximum and minimum energies
speed (in rpm) of the shaft is (b) sum of maximum and minimum energies
(a) 350 (b) 705 (c) Difference of maximum and minimum energies
(c) 2810 (d) 4430 (d) Difference of maximum and minimum energies from
9. Which of the following statements is incorrect?
mean value
(a) Gashoffs rule states that for a planar crank-rocker four
16. In full depth 114 degree involute system, the smallest number
bar mechanism, the sum of the shortest and longest
of teeth in a pinion which meshes with rack without
link lengths cannot be less than the sum of remaining
two link lengths interference is
(b) Inversions of a mechanism are created by fixing (a) 12 (b) 16
different links one at a time (c) 25 (d) 32
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17. The two-link system, shown in the figure, is constrained 26. Instantaneous centre of a body rolling with sliding on a
to move with planer motion. It possesses stationary curved surface lies
y (a) at the point of contact
)
(b) on the common normal at the point of contact
(c) at the centre of curvature of the stationary surface
(d) Both (b) and (c)
27. If Cf is the coefficient of speed fluctuation of a flywheel
o x then the ratio of O)~O)min will be
(a) 2 degrees of freedom (b) 3 degrees of freedom 1-2Cf 2-Cf
(c) 4 degrees of freedom (d) 6 degrees of freedom (a) 1+2Cf (b)
18. Ifthe ratio of the length of connecting rod to the crank
radius increases, then l+Cf 2+Cf
(a) primary unbalanced forces will increase (c) 1-Cf (d) 2-Cf
(b) primary unbalanced forces will decrease
(c) secondary unbalanced forces will increase 28. A rotor supported at A and B, carries two masses as shown
(d) secondary unbalanced forces will decrease in the given figure. The rotor is
19. In a cam mechanism with reciprocating roller follower, the
follower has a constant acceleration in the case of
(a) cycloidal motion
(b) simple harmonic motion
(c) parabolic motion
(d) 3 - 4 - 5 polynomial motion (a) dynamically balanced
20. A flywheel fitted in a steam engine has a mass of 800 kg. Its (b) statically balanced
radius of gyration is 360 mm. The starting torque of engine (c) statically and dynamically balanced
is 580 N-m. Find the kinetic energy of flywheel after 12 (d) not balanced
Badboys2 seconds? 29. A body of mass m and radius of gyration k is to be replaced
(a) 233.3 kJ (b) 349.8kJ by two masses m, and m2 located at distances h, and h2
(c) 487.5 kJ (d) None of these from the CG of the original body. An equivalent dynamic
21. In a slider-crank mechanism, the maximum acceleration of system will result, if
slider is obtained when the crank is (a) h}+h2=k (b) hT+h;=k2
(a) at the inner dead centre position
(b) at the outer dead centre position
(c) exactly midway position between the two dead centres 30. A cord is wrapped around a cylinder of radius 'r' and mass
(d) none of these 'm' as shown in the given figure. If the cylinder is releasd
22. Ifthe rotating mass of a rim type flywheel is distributed on from rest, velocity of the cylinder, after it has moved
another rim type flywheel whose mean radius is half the through a distance 'h' will be
mean radius ofthe former, then energy stored in the later at
the same speed will be
(a) four times the first one
(b) same as the first one
(c) one fourth of the first one
(d) one and a halftimes the first one
23. What will be the number of pair of teeth in contact ifarc of
contact is 31.4 mm and module is equal to 5.
(a) 3 pairs (b) 4 pairs
(a) .J2 gh (b) Jib
l3
(c) 2 pairs (d) 5 pairs
24. The distance between the parallel shaft is 18 mm and they (c)
gh (d) \/3
{gh3h
are conntected by an Oldham's couling. The driving shaft
31. There are six gears A, B, C, D, E, F, in a compound train. The
revalues at 160 rpm. What will be the maximum speed of
number ofteeths in the gears are 20, 60, 30, 80,25 and 75
sliding the tongue ofthe intermediate piece along its grow?
respectively. The ratio of the angular speeds of the driven
(a) 0.302 m/s (b) 0.604 m/s
(F) to the driver (A) ofthe drive is
(c) 0.906m/s (d) None of these
25. Two spur gears have a velocity ratio of 113. The driven gear 1 1
(a) (b) 8
has 72 teeth of 8 mm module and rotates at 300 rpm. The 24
pitch line velocity will be
4
(a) 3.08m/s (b) 6.12 mls (c) (d) 12
15
(c) 9.04 mls (d) 12.13 mls
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0
""'"
("I')
("I')
I
o,
ill
Theory of Machines and Machine Design A-63 C)
32. In the four-bar mechanism shown in the given figure, links
2 and 4 have equal lengths. The point P on the coupler 3 will
generate a/an
(a) I~
2n: m
(b) _I
2n:
fJ
m
(a) ellipse 2 3 4
(b) parabola (c) I~ (d) I~
2n: 3m 2n: 2m
(c) approximately straight line
(d) circle p
40. For a four bar linkage in toggle position, the value of
mechanical advantage is
33. A system of masses rotating in different parallel planes is in
(a) 0.0 (b) 0.5
dynamic balance if the resultant
(c) 1.0 (d) 00
(a) force is equal to zero
41. What will the normal circular pitch and axial pitch of helical
(b) couple is equal to zero
gear if circular pitch is 15 mm and helix angle is 30
(c) force and the resultant couple are both equal to zero
(a) 13mmand39mm
(d) force is numerically equal to the resultant couple, but
(b) 26mmand39mm
neither of them need necessarily be zero.
(c) 26mmand 13mm
34. A bicycle remains stable in running through a bend because of
(d) 13mand26mm
(a) Gyroscopic action (b) Corioliss' acceleration
(c) Centrifugal action (d) Radius of curved path 42. The speed of an engine varies from 210 rad/s to rad/s. During
35. The maximum fluctuation of energy E[, during a cycle for a cycle the change in kinetic energy is found to be 400 Nm.
flywheel is The inertia ofthe flywheel in kgnr' is
(a) l( (1)2max - (1)2min) (a) 0.10 (b) 0.20
(b) 1/2 1(1)av ((1)2 max - (1)2min) (c) 0.30 (d) 0.40
43. If first and last gear having teeth 30 and 50 respectively of a
1 2
(C) lIKes (1) av simple gear train, what will be the train value and speed
ratio gear respectively if first gear is driving gear
(d) lKes(1)2av
(where I= Mass moment of inertia of the flywheel (a) 3/5 and 5/3 (b) 3/5 and 4/5
Badboys2 (1)av = Average rotational speed
44.
(c) 5/3 and 3/5 (d) 4/5 and 3/5
The centre of gravity ofthe coupler link in a 4-bar mechanism
K; = coefficient of fluctuation of speed)
36. The road roller shown in the given figure is being moved would experience
over an obstacle by a pull 'P'. The value of'P' required will (a) no acceleration
be the minimum when it is (b) only linear acceleration
(c) only angular acceleration
(d) both linear and angular accelerations
45. In a four-bar linkage, S denotes the shortest link length, L
is the longest link length, P and Q are the lengths of other
two links. At least one of the three moving links will rotate
(a) horizontal by 360 if
(b) vertical
(c) at45 to the horizontal
W S+LSP+Q ~ S+L>P+Q
(d) perpendicular to the line CO (c) S+PSL+Q (d) S + P > L+ Q
37. Two gear 20 and 40 teeth respectively are in mesh. Pressure 46. An involute pinion and gear are in mesh. Ifboth have the
angle is 20, module is 12 and line of contact on each side of same size of addendum, then there will be an interference
the pitch point is half the maximum length. What will be the between the
height of addendum for the gear wheel (a) tip of the gear teeth and flank of pinion
(a) 4mm (b) 6mm (b) tip of the pinion and flank of gear
(c) 8mm (d) lOmm (c) flanks of both gear and pinion
(d) tip of both gear and pinion.
38. In a slider-bar mechanism, when does the connecting rod
47. ABCD is a four-bar mechanism in which AB = 30 em and CD
have zero angular velocity?
= 45 em. AB and CD are both perpendicular to fixed link AD,
(a) When crank angle = 0 (b) When crank angle = 90
as shown in the figure. Ifvelocity ofB at this condition is V,
(c) When crank angle = 45 (d) Never then velocity of C is
39. A disc of mass m is attached to a spring of stiffuess k as c
shown in the figure. The disc rolls without slipping on a
horizontal surface. The natural frequency of vibration of
the system is
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57. The tangential force transmitted (in newton) is
(a) y (b) Iy (a) 3552 (b) 2611
2
(c) 1776 (d) 1305
(c) 2_y (d) 3.y 58. Tooth interference in an external involute spur gear pair
4 3 can be reduced by
48. The transmission angle is maximum when the crank angle (a) decreasing centre distance between gear pair
with the fixed link is (b) decreasing module
(a) ff (b) 90 (c) decreasing pressure angle
(c) 180 (d) 270 (d) increasing number of gear teeth
49. In the given figure, ABCD is a four-bar mechanism. At the 59. Two identical ball bearings P and Q are operating at loads
instant shown,AB and CD are vertical and BC is horizontaL 30 kN and 45 kN respectively. The ratio of the life of
AB is shorter than CD by 30 cm, AB is rotating at 5 radls bearing P to the life of bearing Q is
and CD is rotating at 2 rad/s. The length of AB is (a) 8 1116 (b) 27/8
(c) 9/4 (d) 3/2
B c
60. Match the following criteria of material failure, under
biaxial stress a 1 and a2 and yield stress ay, with their
corresponding graphic representations.
A List I List II o 2
o P. Maximum normal- 1.
(a) 10cm (b) 20cm stress criterion
(c) 30cm (d) 50cm
50. A link OP is 0.5 m long and rotate about point O. It has a
slider at permit B. Centripetal acceleration ofP relative to 0
is 8 m/sec'. The sliding velocityof slider relative to P is 2 mI
sec. The magnitude of Coriolis component of acceleration
cry
Badboys2(a) IS
lti m/sec' (b) 8 m/sec/
cr ".
(c) 32 m/sec' (d) Data insufficient Q. Maximum-distortion- 2. cry Y
51. Which one of the following is a criterion in the design of energy criterion - cry
hydrodynamic journal bearings?
(a) Sommerfield number cr2
(b) Rating life
(c) Specific dynamic capacity
(d) Rotation factor R. Maximum-shear 3. cr1
52. A cylindrical shaft is subjected to an alternating stress of - cry
stress criterion
100 MPa. Fatigue strength to sustain 1000 cycle is 490 - cry
MPa. If the corrected endurance strength is 70 MPa,
estimated shaft life will be (a) P-2, Q-1, R-3 (b) P-3, Q-2, R-1
(a) 1071 cycle (b) 15000 cycle (c) P-2, Q-3, R-1 (d) P-3, Q-1, R-2
(c) 281914 cycle (d) 928643 cycle 61. A solid circular shaft needs to be designed to transmit a
53. 20 full-depth involute profiled 19-tooth pinion and 37- torque of 50 N-m. If the allowable shear stress of the
tooth gear are in mesh. Ifthe module is 5 mm, the centre material is 140 MPa, assuming a factor of safety of 2, the
distance between the gear pair will be minimum allowable design diameter in mm is
(a) 140 mm (b) 150 mm (a) 8 (b) 16
(c) 280 mm (d) 300 mm
54. The resultant force on the contacting gear tooth in newton is (c) 24 (d) 32
(a) 77.23 (b) 212.20 62. Stress concentration in cyclic loading is more serious in
(c) 225.81 (d) 289.43 (a) ductile materials
55. A ball bearing operating at a load F has 8000 h oflife. The (b) brittle materials
life of the bearing, in hour, when the load is doubled to 2F (c) equally serious in both cases
IS (d) depends on other factors
(a) 8000 (b) 6000 63. Feather keys are generally
(c) 4000 (d) 1000 (a) tight in shaft and loose in hub
56. Given that the tooth geometry factor is 0.32 and the (b) loose in shaft and tight in hub
combined effect of dynamic load and allied factors (c) tight in both shaft and hub
intensifying the stress is 1.5, the minimum allowable stress (d) loose in both shaft and hub
(in MPa) for the gear material is 64. For a parallel load on a fillet weld of equal legs, the plane
(a) 242.0 (b) 166.5 of maximum shear occurs at
(a) 22.5 (b) 30
(c) 121.0 (d) 74.0
(c) 45 (d) 60
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65. The silver bearings are used almost exclusively in aircraft where Il = co-efficient of friction
engines due to their excellent W = load over bearing
(a) fatigue strength (b) wear resistance R = radius of bearing
(c) corrosive resistance (d) None of these 75. The frictional torque for square thread at mean radius while
66. When a shaft rotates in anti-clockwise direction at slow raising load is given by (W = load, ~ = mean radius,
speed in a bearings, then it will <j) = angle of friction, a = helix angle)
(a) have contact at the lowest point of bearing (a) W~ tan (<j)- a) (b) ~ tan (<j)+ a)
(b) move towards right of the bearing making metal to (c) WRo tan a (d) WRo tan <j)
metal contact 76. Which one of the following types of bearings is employed
(c) move towards left of the bearing making metal to is shafts of gear boxes of automobiles
metal contact (a) Hydrodynamic journal bearing
(d) move towards right of the bearing making no metal (b) Multi lobed journal bearing
to metal contact (c) Anti friction bearings
67. The most efficient riveted joint possible is one which would (d) Hybrid journal bearings
be as strong in tension, shear and bearing as the original 77. In case of self locking brake the value of actuating force is
plates to be joined but this can never be achieved because (a) Positive (b) Negative
(a) rivets can not made with same material (c) Zero (d) None of these
(b) rivets are weak in compression 78. I.S. specifies which ofthe following total number of grades
(c) there should be atleast one hole in the plate reducing of tolerances?
its strength (a) 18 (b) 16
(d) clearance is present between the plate and the rivet (c) 20 (d) 22
68. To resist breaking of the plate in front of the rivet, we make 79. The theoretical stress concentration factor at the edge of
the distance from the centre of the rivet to the edge of the hole is given by
plate at least
(a) 1.5 d
(c) 2d
(b) 2.5 d
(d) 3d
(a) l+(~) (b) 1+2m
Badboys2 69. The uniform pressure theory as compared to the uniform
wear theory gives
(c) 1+3(~) (d) 1+4(~)
(a) higher frictional torque Where a = halfwidth (or semi axis) ofellipse perpendicular
(b) lower frictional torque to the direction of load
(c) either lower or high frictional torque b = half width (or semi axis) of ellipse in the direction of
(d) None of these load
70. The limiting wear load of spur gear is proportional to 80. In the assembly of pulley, key and shaft
(where Ep = Young's modules of pinion material, Eg = (a) pulley is made the weakest
Young's modulus of gear material. (b) key is made the weakest
(c) key is made the strongest
(d) all the three are designed for equal strength
(a) 81. The longitudinal joint in a boiler shell is usually
(a) Butt joint
(b) Lap joint
(c) Butt joint with two cover plates
(c) (d) Butt joint with single cover plate
82. To restore stable operating condition in a hydrodynamic
71. American standard thread have the angle equal to journal bearing when it encounters higher magnitude loads
(a) 55 (b) 60 (a) Oil viscosity is to be increase
(c) 29 (d) 58 (b) Oil viscosity is to be decrease
72. For overhauling which of the following condition is (c) Oil viscosity index is to be increases
satisfied? (d) Oil viscosity index is to be decreases
(a) <j):?: a (b) <j):::; a 83. Which of the following graph is correctly represent?
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above 0.12 r-------------,
73. A radial ball bearing has a basic load rating of 50 kN. Ifthe
desired rating life of the bearing is 6000 hours, what
equivalent radial load can be bearing carry at 500 rev/min. 0.08
Error (e)
(a) 18.85 kN (b) 8.85 kN
(in mm)
(c) 12.5 kN (d) 14.5 kN
0.04
74. The frictional torque transmitted in a flat pivot bearing
assuming uniform wear
3
(a) IlWR (b) "4IlWR o 4 8 12 16 20 24
Module of spur gears (mm)
2 1
(c) -IlWR (d) "2IlWR (a) AandB (b) Band C
3 (c) AandC (d) A,BandC
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84. For self-locking which of the following condition is 94. In a belt-drive if the pulley diameter is doubled keeping the
satisfied? tension and belt width constant, then it will be necessary to
(a) ~ a (b) <1>::;; a (a) increase the key length
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these (b) increase the key depth
85. Which of the following bearing is suitable for fluctuating (c) increase the key width
demands? (d) decrease the key length
(a) Needle roller bearing (b) Ball bearing 95. Deep groove ball bearings are used for
(c) Tapered bearing (d) Cylindrical bearing (a) heavy thrust load only
86. The S-N curve is a graphical representation of (b) small angular displacement of shafts
(a) Stress amplitude (SF) versus the number cycle (N) (c) radial load at high speed
after the fatigue failure on Log-Log graph paper (d) combined thrust and radial loads at high speed
(b) Stress amplitude (SF) versus the number cycle (N) 96. Which of the following key is under compression rather
before the fatigue failure on log-log graph paper than in being shear when under load?
(c) Number of cycle (N) versus stress amplitude (SF) (a) Saddle (b) Barth
after the fatigue failure on log-log graph paper (d) Feather (d) Kennedy
(d) Number of cycle (N) versus stress amplitude before 97. Which of the following is maximum capacity bearing?
the fatigue failure on log-log graph paper (a) Filling notch bearing (b) Single row bearing
87. Find the diameter of a solid steel shaft to transmit 20 kW (c) Angular contact bearing (d) Self-aligning bearing
98. Reduction of stress concentration is achieved by
at 200 rpm. The ultimate shear stress for the steel may be
(a) Additional notches and holes in tension member
taken as 360 MPa and factor of safety as 8
(b) Drilling additional holes for shafts
(a) 48 mm (b) 68 mm
(c) Undercutting and Notch for member in bending
(c) 78 mm (d) 38 mm
88. The efficiency of overhauling screw is (d) All of above
(a) ~ 50% (b) ::;;50% 99. A full journal bearing with a journal of 75 mm diameter
(c) equal to 50% (d) none of these and bearing oflength 75 mm is subjected to a load of2500
Badboys2 89. Backlash in spur gear is the
(a) difference between the dedendum of one gear and the
N at 400 rpm. The lubricant has a viscosity of 16.5 x 10-3
Ns/m2 and radial clearance is 0.03 mm and eccentricity
addendum ofthe mating gear ratio of bearing is 0.27. The value of minimum oil thickness
(b) difference between the tooth space of the gear and
in mm is
the tooth thickness of the mating gear measured on
(a) 0.033 (b) 0.011
the pitch circle
(c) 0.044 (d) 0.022
(c) intentional extension of centre distance between two
100. A kinematic pair consists of which of the following:
gears (a) two elements that permit relative motion
(d) does not exist (b) two elements that are connected to each other
90. The ratio of friction radius based upon uniform pressure (c) two elements that do not permit relative motion
and uniform wear theory is (Given: Ro = 100 mm (d) None of these
and~=25mm) 101. Which of the following in an inversion of double slider
7 14 21 28 crank chain?
(a) 25 (b) 25 (c) 25 (d) 25 (a) Engine indicator
91. A certain minimum number of teeth is to be kept for gear (b) Elliptical trammel
wheel (c) Quick return mechanism
(a) So that gear is of good size (d) Coupled wheels of locomotive
(b) For better durability 102. A link that connects double slider crank chain fraces the
(c) To and interference and under cutting path of which of the following shape?
(d) For better strength (a) an elliptical path (b) a circular path
92. Which of the following is a positive locking device? (c) a straight path (d) a hyperbolic path
103. Kinematic pair constituted by cam and follower
(a) Castled nut (b) Lockingbypin
mechanism comes under the category of:
(c) Locking by threaded pin (d) Split nut
(a) Higher pair and open type
93. Fatigue strength of a rod subjected to cyclic axial force is (b) Lower pair and open type
less than that of a rotating beam of same dimension (c) Lower pair and closed type
subjected to steady lateral force. What is reason behind (d) Higher pair and closed type
this? 104. Universal joint is an example of which of the following
(a) Axial stitfuess is less than bending stitfuess type of pair :
(b) Absence of centrifugal effects in the rod (a) Higher pair (b) Lower pair
(c) The number of dis-continuities vulnerable to fatigue (c) Rolling pair (d) None of these
is more in the rod 105. In case ofa double slider crank chain. How many number
(d) At a particular time, the rod has only one type of stress of revolute pairs does it have?
whereas the beam has both tensile and compressive (a) 2 (b) 4
stress. (c) 6 (d) 3
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106. Oldham's coupling is an inversion ofwhich ofthe following 118. The maximum and minimum speeds of a flywheel during
type of kinematic chain? cycle are Nland N2 rpm respectively. The coefficient if
(a) Single slider crank chain steadiness of the flywheel will be equal to :
(b) Double slider crank chain N} -N2 N} -N2
(c) 2 - bar chain (a) 2(N} + N2) (b) 2(N} - N2)
(d) 4 - bar chain
107. The number of links in a simple mechanism are: N}-N2 Nl +N2
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) Nl+N2 (d) Nl-N2
(c) 4 (d) 5 119. The flywheel of a steam engine has mass - moment of
108. Inversion of mechanism is defined as : inertia 2500 kg - m2.Ifthe angular accelerationis 0.6radls2,
(a) the process of obtaining by fixing different links in the starting torque required will be equal to:
a kinematic chain (a) 3500 NM (b) 3700 NM
(b) Turning it upside down (c) 1800 NM (d) 1500 NM
(c) Process of obtaining by reversing the input and output 120. Ifthe speed of an engine varies between 390 rpm and 40
motion rpm in a cycle of operation, the coefficient of fluctuation
(d) Changing of higher pair to lower pair of speed will be equal to :
109. For a slider crank mechanism, the velocity and (a) 0.01 (b) 0.02
acceleration of the piston at inner dead centre will be : (c) 0.05 (d) 0.09
(a) 0 and 0 (b) 0 and - co2r 121. The safe rim velocity of a flywheel is influenced by:
(c) 0 and co2r (d) 0 and> co2r (a) Mass of the flywheel (b) energy fluctuation
11o. In a 4 - link kinematic chain, number of pairs (P) and (c) centrifugal stresses (d) speed fluctuation
number of links (L) have the following relation: 122. Centrifugal governors are preferred to the inertia type
(a) L = 2 P - 1 (b) L = 2P - 4 governers because an inertia governor:
(c) L = 2 P - 6 (d) L = 2 P (a) has more controlling force
111. Which of the following pair, a ball and socketjoint forms? (b) has less controlling force
(a) Spherical pair (b) Rolling pair (c) has high initial and maintenance cost
Badboys2 (c) Turning pair (d) Sliding pair (d) is highly sensitive and more prone to hunting
112. PORS is a four bar mechanism in which PQ = 30 em and 123. Porter governor is a :
RS = 45 em. At any instant, both PQ and RS or (a) Pendulum type governor
perpendicular to timed link PS, if velocity of Q at this (b) Dead weight type governor
situation is Y, then velocity of R will be equal to : (c) Spring loaded type governor
(d) Inertia type governor
(a) 2.2y (b) ly
2
124. In case of an isochronous governor, the value of sensitivity
is :
(a) infinity (b) zero
(c) i3 y (d) 2y
3 (c) one (d) None of these
113. In case of six links mechanism in planar motion, the 125. IfH = height of watt governor
number of instantaneous centers will be equal to : co= angular speed for porter governor
(a) 30 (b) 10 then, which of the following relation expresses best
(c) 15 (d) 6 between the walt and porter governor.
114. Ifthe number oflinks in a mechanism is 8, then the number (a) H ex:co (b) H ex:co2
of pairs will be equal to : 1 1
(a) 6 (b) 12 (c) Hex:- (d) Hex:2
co co
(c) 3 (d) 18 126. For a walt governor, the angular speed corresponding to
115. Coriolis component of acceleration exists whenever a the height of 10 cm will be equal to : (take g = 10 m/s2)
point moves along a path that will have: (a) 10 rad/s (b) 5 rad/s
(a) Rotational motion (b) Linear motion (c) 2 rad/s (d) 1 rad/s
(c) Centrifugal motion (d) None of these 127. Which one of the following governors cannot be
116. A slider on a link rotating with angular velocity 'co'and isochronous?
having linear belocity 'v'. Then the value of coriolis (a) Hartnell (b) Porter
component of acceleration will be equal to: (c) Watt (d) Hartung
(a) vco (b) v2co 128. In a watt governor, the weight of the ball is 50 N and the
vco friction at the sleeve is 10 N, then the coefficient of
(c) 2vco (d) 2 detention will be equal to :
117. In a slider crank mechanism, the length of crank and (a) 0 .2 (b) 0.3
connecting rod are 0.15 m and 0.75 m respectively. The (c) 0.4 (d) 0.5
location of crank is 30 from inner dead center. If the 129. During the dwell period of the cam, the followers:
crank rotates at 500 rpm, then the angular velocity of the (a) moves in a straight line
connecting rod will be equal to : (b) moves with uniform speed
(a) 1.61 rod/s (b) 2.7 rod/s (c) remains at rest
(c) 3.7 rod/s (d) 5.5 rod/s (d) does simple harmonic motion
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130. The size of the cam depends upon: 145. Herring bone gears are usually known to be:
(a) Base circle (b) Pitch circle (a) spur gears (b) bivel gears
(c) Prime circle (d) None of these (c) single helical gears (d) double helical gears
131. The term cifd3y/d93 in a cam-followermotion showswhich 146. Differential gear is utilized in automobiles for the
of the following parameters? purpose of:
(a) Acceleration of the follower (a) turning (b) reducing speed
(b) Jerk (c) provide balancing (d) All of the above
(c) Displacement 147. The efficiency of normal spur gear is usually:
(d) Velocity of the follower (a) upto 75% (b) upto 80%
132. The deciding factor for designing the size of the cam is : (c) upto 95% (d) above 98%
(a) base circle (b) prime circle 148. In case of spur gears, the portion of path of contact from
(c) pitch circle (d) pitch curve the pitch point to the end of the engagement of a pair of
133. Angle moved by the cam during which the follower teeth is known as :'
remains at its highest position is known as: (a) Arc of contact (b) Arc of approach
(a) Angle of descent (b) Angle of ascent (c) Arc of recess (d) Arc of departure
(c) Angle of action (d) Angle of dwell 149. The ratio of base circle radius and pitch circle radius in
134. Cam used for low and moderate speed engines should an involute gear is equal to:
move with: (a) sin <j) (b) cos <j)
(a) uniform velocity (b) Harmonic motion (c) tan <j) (d) cot <j)
(c) uniform acceleration (d) cycloidal motion 150. In case of an involute toothed gear, involute starts from:
135. The contact between cam and follower is to a form a : (a) base circle (b) Pitch circle
(a) Higher pair (b) Lower pair (c) addendum circle (d) dedendum circle
(c) Sliding pair (d) Rolling pair 151. In case of involute gears, the value of pressure angle
136. For high speed engines, the cam and follower moves with: genually used will be :
(a) uniform velocity (b) uniform acceleration (a) 30 (b) 60
(c) cycloidal motion (d) simple harmonic (c) 10 (d) 20
Badboys2 motion
137. The pitch point on the cam exists on:
152. The difference between addendum and dedeundum is
known as :
(a) Any point on pitch curve (a) Backlash (b) Flank
(b) Point on cam pitch curve at which pressure angle is (c) Clearance (d) Tooth space
rmmmum 153. Which of the following relation is incorrect for module
(c) Point on cam pitch curve at which pressure angle is of gear (m) ?
maximum pitch circle diameter circle pitch
(d) Any point on the pitch circle (a) m= number of teeth (b) m=-~-
1t
138. For a simple harmonic motion ofa cam follower, a cosine
curve shows : 1t
(a) acceleration diagram (b) displacement diagram (c) m = diameteral pitch (d) m=
circular Pitch
(c) velocity diagram (d) All of the above
139. Which pair of gears usually has higher frictional losses: 154. Which one of the following option is correct to describe
(a) Helical gears (b) Spur gears the speed ratio of a simple gear train?
(c) Bevel gears (d) Worm and Worm Where, N, = R.P.M of driving gear
wheel N2 = R.P.M of driven gear
140. Axis of a pair of speer gears are 200 mm apart. The gear T 1 = Number of teeth on driving gear
ratio and number of teeth on pinion are 3 : 1 and 20 T2 = Number of teeth on driven gear
respectively. Then the module of the gear will be : ~ ~ ~ ~
(a) 5 mm (b) 10 mm (a) -=- (b) -=-
N2 T2 N2 Tl
(c) 15 mm (d) 4 mm
141. The outer circle of spur gear is called:
(a) pitch circle (b) base circle (d) I::!L= (T2)2
(c) addendum circle (d) dedeundum circle N2 Tl
142. Which type of gears are used in connecting two co-planar 155. Creep in a belt occurs due to :
and intersecting shaft? (a) uneven contraction and extension of the belt
(a) Spur gear (b) Bevel gear (b) weak material of the pulley
(c) Helical gear (d) All of the above (c) weak material of the belt
143. The product of module and diameteral pitch is equal to : (d) improper crowning
(a) 1 (b) 4 156. In case of belt drivers, the centrifugal tension:
(c) 3 (d) 0 (a) reduces the speed of driven wheel
144. Axial thrust is minimum in case of: (b) reduces the driving power
(a) Helical gear (single) (b) Helical gear (double) (c) reduces the lengthening of belt under tension
(c) Bevel gear (d) Spur gear (d) reduces friction between the belt and bulley
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157. Average tension on the tight side and slack side of a flat 168. The inner and outer radius of friction surface of a plate
belt drive are 700 Nand 400 N respectively. If linear clutch are 50 mm and 100 mm respectively. Ifaxial force
velocity of the belt is 5 mis, the power transmitted will is 4 KN, then assuming uniform wear theory, the ratio of
be equal to : maximum intensity of pressure to minimum intensity of
(a) 2.5 kw (b) 3.5 kw pressure on cluth plate will be :
(c) 1.5kw (d) 4.5kw (a) 2 (b) 4
158. In a flat belt drive, slip between the driver and the belt is (c) 8 (d) 10
% and that between belt and follower is 3%. Ifthe bulley 169. Which one of the clutch is generally used in motor cycles?
diameters are same, the velocity ratio of the drive is : (a) Single disc wet type (b) Multi disc wet type
(a) 0.96 (b) 0.98 (c) Single disc dry type (d) Multi disc dry type
(c) 9.6 (d) 0.99 170. Which one of the pair is not correctly matched?
159. If in case of disc clutch, (a) Clutch - Diaphragm spring
(b) Steering gear box - Rock and pision
N 1 = Number of discs on driving shaft
(c) Transmission gear box - Bevel gears
N2 = Number of discs on driving shaft
(d) Diffemtial - Hypoid gear
then, number of pairs of contact surfaces will be :
171. Elastic modulus of steel is :
(a) N 1 - N2 + 1 (b) N 1 - N2 -1 (a) 70 GPa (b) 210 GPa
(c) N1+N2+1 (d) N1+N2-1 (c) 270 GPa (d) 310 GPa
160. If Jl = actual coefficient of friction in a belt moving in a 172. The diamond riveting is utilized for:
grooved pulley (a) structural work
a: = groove angle. (b) boiler work
then virtual coefficient of friction will be : (c) both structural and boiler work
(d) None of these
(a) Si~ oc (b) c~ oc 173. The pitch of the rivets for equal number of rivets in more
than one row for lap or butt joint should not be less than:
(c) Jl sin o: (d) Jl cos o: (a) d/2 (b) 2 d
161. Velocity of belt for maximum power transmission by the (c) 1.5 d (d) 3 d
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belt and pulley arrangement will be equal to : 174. Ifthe tearing efficiency of the riveted joint is 35%, then
(a) ~ (b) t;: the ratio of diameter of rivet hole to the pitch of rivet is :
(a) 0.65 (b) 0.75
(c) f:F (d) r:

162. Which of the following clutches is positive type?
(c) 0.85
175. A rivet is specified by:
(a) shank diameter
(c) length of rivet
(d) 0.95
(b) type ofload

(d) None of these
(a) jaw (b) cone 176. Which of the following type of material, the rivets are
(c) disc (d) centrifugal made?
163. Which one of the clutch is not a friction clutch? (a) brittle (b) ductile
(a) disc clutch (b) cone clutch (c) high density (d) None of these
(c) centrifugal clutch (d) jaw clutch 177. The shear strength of the rivet is 50 Nrnm", ifthe diameter
164. The included angle ofV - belt is generally: of the rivet is doubled, then its shearing strength will be
(a) 10 - 20 (b) 20 - 30 equal to:
(c) 30- 40 (d) 40 - 50 (a) 100 N/mm2 (b) 200 Nzmm-
(c) 300 Nzmm- (d) 400 Nzmm-
165. 1fT = Total tension, Tc = centrifugal tension, then a belt
178. The thickness of the boiler plate is 16 mm, then diameter
can transmit maximum power when the total tension of
of rivet used in the boiler j oint will be:
the drive will be :
(a) 28 mm (b) 22 mm
(a) T = 3 Tc (b) T = 4Tc (c) 20 mm (d) 24 mm
(c) T = 5Tc (d) T = 7 Tc 179. If the tearing efficiency of a riveted joint is 25% then,
166. For a flat open belt drive, the belt speed is 880 m/min and the ratio of diameter of rivet hole to the pitch of rivets
the power transmitted is 22.5 kW. then the difference will be equal to:
between the tight side and slack side tensions of the belt (a) 0.3 (b) 0.6
drive will be : (c) 0.75 (d) 0.95
(a) 3000 N (b) 3040 N 180. Lewis equation in case of gears is used to find the:
(c) 1540 N (d) 1500 N (a) Bending stress (b) Tensile stress
167. Assertion (A) : A clutch is the best means to connect a (c) compressive stress (d) All of these
driving shaft with a driven shaft for regular power 181. Centre distance between two involute teeth gears of base
transmission. radii Rand r and pressure angle <1>, is expressed by :
Reason (R) : A clutch can be frequently engaged and (a) (R + r) sin (b) (R + r) cos 
disengaged at operator's will (c) (R'+rj tan o (d) (R+r) cot 
(a) (A) is true, but (R) is false 182. Which type of teeth are normally used and satisfy law of
(b) (R) is true, but (A) is false gearing?
(c) Both (A) and (R) true (a) conjugate teeth (b) cycloidal teeth
(d) Both (A) and (R) false (c) involute teeth (d) All of these
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183. The maximum efficiency of worm and worm wheel system 193. Which of the following is not the part of roller bearing
will be : (a) shaft (b) inner race
1- sin 1+ sin (c) outer race (d) cage
(a) llmax = 1 . A- (b) llmax = 1 . A- 194. Which of the following assumption regarding the lubricant
+~n~ -~n~
film is made in Petroffs equation?
1- cos 1+ cos 
(c) llmax = (d) llmax = 1 A-
(a) It is converging
1+ cos - coso (b) It is diverging
184. The minimum number of teeth in an involute gear with (c) It is converging or diverging
1 (d) It is uniform
one module addendum with pressure angle of 142 to 195. In thrust bearing, the load acts:
avoid under cutting will be equal to : (a) along the axis of rotation
(a) 10 (b) 20 (b) parallel to the axis of rotation
(c) 30 (d) 40 (c) perpendicular to the axis of rotation
185. If '<1>' is the face angle of a bevel gear, then which of the (d) None of these
following relation is correct? 196. The life of bearing is expressed in :
(a) = pitch angle + addendum angle (a) Lacs of revolutions
(b) = pitch angle - addendum angle (b) billions of revolutions
(c) = axial pitch (c) thousands of revolutions
(d) = pitch angle (d) None of these
186. If '8' is the root angle of a bevel gear, then which of the 197. The number of degrees of freedom of a five link plane
following relation is correct? mechanism with five revolute pairs will be:
(a) 8 = pitch angle + addendum angle
(b) 8 = pitch angle - addendum angle
(c) 8 = pitch angle + dedendum angle
(d) 8 = pitch angle - dedendum angle
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187. In case of spiral gears, maximum efficiency is given by :
cos (8 - <1+ 1 cos (8 + <1-1
(a) cos(8 + <1+ 1 (b) cos(8 + <1-1 (a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 2 (d) 5
cos(8+ <1+1 cos(8+<1-1 198. Match the following items in List 1 and List 2
(c) cos (8 - <1+ 1 (d) cos (8 - <1+1 List 1 List 2
(A) Worm gears 1. Parallel shafts
188. The friction torque transmitted in case of flat pivot bearing
(B) Cross-helical gears 2. Non parallel,
for uniform ratio of wear will be equal to :
intersecting shafts
2 (C) Bevel gears 3. Non - parallel, non
(a) Jlw R (b) 3JlwR intersecting shafts
4 1 (D) Spur gears 4. Large speed ratios
(c) 3JlwR (d) 3JlwR Codes:
189. When the intensity of pressure is uniform in a flat pivot ABC D
bearing of radius 'R', then the frictional force is :
(a) 2 3 1 4
(a) R (b) 2R
(b) 4 1 3 2
2R 4R
(c) (d) (c) 4 3 2 1
3 3
190. With a dynamic load capacity of 2.2 KN, a bearing can (d) 3 2 4
operate at 600 rpm for 2000 hours. Then its maximum 199. The arm OA of a epicyclic gear train shown in figure
radial load will be equal to : revolves counter clockwise about '0' with an angular
(a) 409.2 N (b) 308.4 N velocity of 4 rad/s. Both gears are of same size. The angular
(c) 206.5 N (d) 609.8 N velocity of gear c, if the sun gear B is fixed will be equal
191. Antifriction bearings are termed as : to :
(a) ball and roller beaing (b) sleeve bearing
(c) hydro-dynamic bearing (d) thin lubricated bearing
192. A sliding bearing that can support steady loads without
any relative motion between the journal and the bearing
is called as :
~c
(a) zero - film bearing B
(b) hydro static lubricated bearing
(c) boundary lubricated bearing (a) 4 rad/s (b) 8 radls
(d) hydrodynamic lubricated bearing (c) 10 rad/s (d) 15 rad/s
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200. A flywheel of moment of inertia 9.8 Kg - m2 fluctuates by 211. When the thickness of plates is more than 8 mm, then the
30 rpm for a fluctuation in energy of 1936joules. The mean diameter of rivet should be equal to :
speed of the flywheel is (in rpm) (a) d = 6.Jt (b) d = 4.Jt
(a) 600 (b) 700
(c) 900 (d) 1200 (c) d=3.Jt (d) d=2.Jt
201. Ifthe ratio of the diameter of rivet hole to the pitch of 212. It we join two plates by using riveting, then the tearing
rivets is 0.25 then the tearing efficiency of the joint will resistance needed for tearing off the plate/pitch length
be equal to : will be given by :
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.75 (a) (P + d) tFt (b) (P - d) tFt
(c) 0.50 (d) 0.65
Pdt
202. The expected life of a ball bearing subjected to a load of (c) P.d tFt (d) -
9800 N and working at 1000 pm is 3000 hours. Then the Ft
expected life of the same bearing for a similar load of 213. A single riveted lap joint has the efficiency of the
4900 N and speed of 2000 rpm will be equal to: following range: given by:
(a) 6000 hours (b) 12000 hours (a) 45 - 65% (b) 75 - 80%
(c) 18000 hours (d) 24000 hours (c) 85 - 90% (d) 30 - 40%
203. If the load on a ball bearing is reduced to half, the life of 214. IfDj = journal diameter, Fhp = frictional horse power, then
the ball bearing will be: the relation between Dj and Fhp associated with journal
(a) increases 8 times (b) increases 16 times bearing will be :
(c) increases 2 times (d) increases 4 times
204. Spherical roller bearings are normally used: (a) FhP o: Dj
(a) for increased radial load 3
(b) for increased thrust load (c) ~p o: Dj
(c) when there is less radial load 215. If Z = absolute Viscosity of lubricant
(d) to compensate for angular misalignment P = bearing pressure
205. In thick film hydrodynamic journal bearings, the N = journal speed
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(a) increases with increase in load
then the bearing characteristic number is given by :
(b) decreases with increase in load ZN

(a)
(c) is indepandent of load P
(d) None of these
206. To restore stable operating condition in a hydrodynamic ZN2
(c) P (d) ZNP
journal bearing, when if encounters higher magnitudes of
loads: 216. The main advantage of hydrodynamic bearing over roller
(a) oil viscosity decreases bearing is :
(b) oil viscosity increases (a) easy to assemble
(c) oil viscosity neither increases nor decreases (b) low cost
(d) None of these (c) better load carrying capacity at higher speeds
207. The dynamic load capacity of 6306 bearing is 22 KN. The (d) less frictional resistance
maximum radial load it can sustain to operate at 600 rev/ 217. Increase in values of which of the following results in an
min, for 2000 hours will be equal to : increase of coefficient of friction in a hydrodynamic
(a) 3.16 KN (b) 4.16 KN bearing
(c) 6.21 KN (d) 5.29 KN 1. clearance between shaft and bearing
208. For full depth of involute spur gears, minimum number 2. shaft speed
of teeth of pinion to avoid interference depends upon : 3. viscosity of oil
(a) pressure angle (b) speed ratio Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(c) circular pitch (d) pitch diameter
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
209. Axial operation claw clutches having self locking tooth
(c) 2 and 3 (d) None of these
profile:
218. The Lewis form factor (y) for 20 pressure angle with
(a) can be disengaged at any speed
full depth system is expressed as :
(b) can be disengaged only loaded
(c) can be engaged only when unloaded y = 0.154- 0.912
(d) can work only with load (a) (b) y= 0.154+ 0.912
T T
210. According to maximum stress theory of failure,
permissible twisting moment in a circular shaft is T. The (c) Y = 0.254 _ 0.952 (d) y = 0.254+ 9.52
permissible twisting moment in the same shaft as per the T T
maximum principle stress theory will be equal to : 219. The stress concentration factor(k) given in Lewis equation
T has the values for most of the designing purposes is given
(a) 4 (b) T by:
(a) 0.8 (b) 1.8
T
(c) 2T (d) 6 (c) 1.55 (d) 2.55
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220. In a kinematic chain, a quaternary point is equivalent to : 230. If cone angle = 2d
(a) one binary joint (b) two binary joint RI = Smaller radius ofpivof
(c) three binary joint (d) four binary joint R2 = Large radius of pivot
221. Which mechanism produces intermittent rotary motion then assuming uniform wear theory, then the frictional
from continuous rotary motion 2. torque for a truncated conical pivot bearing will be given
(a) Whitworth mechanism by:
(b) Scotch yoke mechanism
(c) Elliptical trammel 4 uw [R~ -Rf] 3 uw [R~ -Rf]
(d) Genera mechanism (a) 3 cosu R~ -R? (b) 4 cosu R~ -R?
222. If T 1 = tension of tight side
T2 = tension on slack side _!_ ~w (-R1 +R2) (d) _!_ flW (RI +R2)
(c) 2 sm n 2 cos u
Tc = centrifugal tension
then, the initial tension developed in the belt resulting 231. IfRI = internal radius ofa collar thrust bearing
into Tc will be given by : R2 = external radius of a collar thrust bearing
w= axial load
TI +2Tc +T2 fl = coefficient of friction
(a) 2
then frictional torque by considering uniform wear theory
TI +2Tc + T2 TI +4Tc + T2 will be given by :
(c) 4 (d) 4
223. The spring controlled centrifugal governor is given as : () 1
-flW [R~-R?]
(a) watt governor (b) Pickering governor a 2 R2 -RI
(c) Porter governor (d) Proell governor
224. If the speed of the engine varies between 430 and 510 2 [R~-R?] 2 [R~+R?]
rpm in a cycle of operation, the coefficient of fluctuation (c) 3flW R2-RI (d) 3flW R2-RI
of speed will be equal to : 232. If, number of discs on driving shaft = 6
(a) 0.01 (b) 0.02 Number of discs on driven shaft = 5
(c) 0.04 (d) 0.17
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Then the number of pair of contact surface in case of
225. In a flywheel, the safe stress is 25.2 MN/m2 and density multiple disc clutch will be given by:
is 7g/em3. Then the maximum peripheral velocity will be (a) 7 (b) 8
(c) 9 (d) 10
(a) 30 (b) 60 233. Which one of the following is the correct expression for
(c) 90 (d) 120 the torque transmitted by a conical clutch of outer radius
226. If Kd = radius of gyration of disc type flywheel RI inner radius r and semi - cone angle a assuming uniform
K, = radius of gration of rim type flywheel pressure theory?
If the diameter is same, then the relation between Kd and
flw(R-r) flw(R+r)
K, will be: (a) (b)
2cosa 2sina
K - Kr t;
(a) d - J2 (b) Kd = \/2Kr 2flW(R3 _r3) 2flW(R3 +r3)
(c) Kd = 2~ (d) Kd = 4 x, (c) 3sina(R 2 _r2) (d) 3sina(R2+r2)
227. An external gear with 60 teeth meshes with a pinion of20 234. Match List- I and List - II and select the correct answer
teeth, having module being 6 mm, then the centre distance using the codes given below:
will be equal to List - I List - II
(a) 120 (b) 160 A Single plate clutch 1. Scooters
(c) 240 (d) 300 B. Multi plate clutch 2. Rolling mills
228. If ~ = spiral angle, e = angle of shaft, <j)= angle offriction C. Centrifugal clutch 3. Trucks
then, which of the following expression is associated with D. Jaw clutch 4. Mopeds
max efficiency for spiral gears? Codes:
A= <j)+e A <j)-e
(a) p (b) p=- A B C D
2 2
(a) 3 4 2
e-<j) (d) 2e-<j)
(c) ~=- (b) 1 3 2 4
2 2
229. If e = semi-cone angle, then in a conical pivot bearing (c) 3 2 4
under uniform wear, the frctional torque transmitted will (d) 3 4 2
be:
235. If, H = followers stroke, w = angular velocity of cam
IflWR IflWR O = cam rotation angle for the maximum follower
(a) 4 cos O (b)
2 sine displacement.
IflWR IflWR then maximum acceleration of cam follower undergoing
(c) (d)
4 tan O 4 cote simple harmonic motion is given by :
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3H( n;Y
238. The height of the porter governor is defined as :
(a) ~(';y (b)
(a) H=m+Mx895 (b) H=m-Mx995
m N2 m N2
( C) 2H (';'f (d) ~( n;r (c) H = m - M x 895
m N2
236. In cam design, the rise motion is given by the SHM
239. A porter governor can be classified as :
s = % ( I - cos ~9) where h is the total rise, 9 is cam shaft

(a) inertia type governor
(b) pendulum type governor
(c) centrifugal governor
angle and ~ is the total angle of rise interval. Then the
(d) dead weight governor
jerk is given by :
240. The cam follower should move with which ofthe following
(a) %(I-COS ~9) (b) ~-%cos( ~9) type of motion in case of high speed engines?
(a) S.H.M (b) Cycloidal motion
(c) Linear motion (d) Uniform motion
241. The shear strength, tensile strength and compressive
(d) None of these strength of a rivet joint are 100 N, 120 Nand 150 N
respectively. If strength of unriveted plate is 200 N, the
237. In case of flat belts having negligible centrifugal tension, efficiency of the rivet joint will be :
then the ratio of driving tensions is given by: (a) 60% (b) 70%
(c) 50% (d) 40%
_T1 Jl Tl r9
(a) (b) -= e 242. The usual proportions for the width of the key is equal to:
T2 o T2
K K
T2 +r9
(a) - (b) -
(c) -= e 4 6
Tl K K
(c) 8 (d) 10
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ANSWER KEY
1 (c) 26 (d) 51 (a) 76 (c) 101 (b)
2 (c) 27 (d) 52 (c) 77 (c) 102 (a)
3 (d) 28 (c) 53 (a) 78 (a) 103 (d)
4 (b) 29 (c) 54 (c) 79 (b) 104 (b)
5 (c) 30 (a) 55 (d) 80 (b) 105 (a)
6 (d) 31 (a) 56 (b) 81 (c) 106 (b)
7 (a) 32 (a) 57 (a) 82 (a) 107 (c)
8 (b) 33 (c) 58 (d) 83 (d) 108 (a)
9 (a) 34 (c) 59 (b) 84 (a) 109 (d)
10 (d) 35 (d) 60 (c) 85 (a) 110 (b)
11 (c) 36 (c) 61 (b) 86 (b) 111 (a)
12 (a) 37 (c) 62 (a) 87 (a) 112 (a)
13 (d) 38 (b) 63 (a) 88 (a) 113 (c)
14 (a) 39 (c) 64 (c) 89 (b) 114 (a)
15 (c) 40 (d) 65 (a) 90 (d) 115 (a)
16 (d) 41 (d) 66 (c) 91 (c) 116 (c)
17 (a) 42 (a) 67 (a) 92 (a) 117 (a)
18 (d) 43 (a) 68 (a) 93 (d) 118 (b)
19 (c) 44 (d) 69 (a) 94 (c) 119 (d)
20 (a) 45 (a) 70 (d) 95 (d) 120 (c)
21 (a) 46 (a) 71 (b) 96 (b) 121 (c)
22 (c) 47 (b) 72 (b) 97 (a) 122 (b)
23 (c) 48 (c) 73 (b) 98 (d) 123 (b)
24 (a) 49 (b) 74 (c) 99 (d) 124 (a)
25 (c) 50 (a) 75 (b) 100 (a) 125 (d)
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126 (a) 151 (d) 176 (b) 201 (b) 226 (a)
127 (b) 152 (c) 177 (b) 202 (b) 227 (c)
128 (a) 153 (d) 178 (d) 203 (a) 228 (a)
129 (c) 154 (b) 179 (c) 204 (d) 229 (b)
130 (a) 155 (a) 180 (a) 205 (b) 230 (c)
131 (b) 156 (b) 181 (b) 206 (b) 231 (a)
132 (a) 157 (c) 182 (c) 207 (d) 232 (d)
133 (b) 158 (a) 183 (a) 208 (a) 233 (c)
134 (b) 159 (d) 184 (b) 209 (c) 234 (d)
135 (a) 160 (a) 185 (a) 210 (b) 235 (a)
136 (c) 161 (b) 186 (d) 211 (a) 236 (c)
137 (c) 162 (a) 187 (d) 212 (b) 237 (b)
138 (a) 163 (d) 188 (c) 213 (a) 238 (a)
139 (b) 164 (c) 189 (c) 214 (c) 239 (d)
140 (a) 165 (a) 190 (d) 215 (a) 240 (b)
141 (c) 166 (c) 191 (a) 216 (c) 241 (c)
142 (b) 167 (b) 192 (b) 217 (c) 242 (a)
143 (a) 168 (a) 193 (a) 218 (a)
144 (b) 169 (b) 194 (d) 219 (c)
145 (d) 170 (c) 195 (a) 220 (c)
146 (a) 171 (b) 196 (d) 221 (d)
Badboys2 147 (d) 172 (a) 197 (c) 222 (a)
148 (c) 173 (c) 198 (c) 223 (b)
149 (b) 174 (a) 199 (b) 224 (d)
150 (a) 175 (a) 200 (a) 225 (b)
l 1 l 1
HINTS & EXPLANATIONS

l l 1
..., I
1. (c) Since, all the masses lie in the single plane of the disc. r = mror' = 0.1 r (02N
So, we have a force polygon. From the above force polygon,
R= ~Fl + Fi + 2F}F2 cos 150 0
2 2
(0.025(02) + (0.030 (02) + 2
I
I
I
I
I
x 0.025 x 0.030 (04x (-0.866)
I
Let (0 be angular velocity of disc = 0.015033 (02.

. . F1= mlr 1(02.= 0.5 x 0.05 x & = 0.025 (02N Now 0.1r(02 = 0.015033 (02.
F2= m2r2&= 0.5 x 0.06 x & = 0.030 &N => r=0.150m => r= 150mm
Ifr is the radial position of balancing mass 0.1 kg, so 2. (c) Accordingto Grubler's criterion,the number of degrees
-----------------~ I' of freedom of a mechanism is given by
1 "
1
1
,
,
F = 3(n -1) - 2j - h = 3(8 -1) -2 x 9- 0 = 21-18 = 3
1 ' 5. (c) For a 4-bar chain/mechanism like slider-crank
IR \
,, mechanism, there are as number of inversions as the
, number oflinks or bars. These different inversions are
\
\
\ obtained by fixing different links one at a item for
one inversion.
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Hence, number of inversions for a slider-crank 11. (c)
mechanism will be four.
Load to be lifted
6. (d) Mechanical advantage =
Effort applied
Output force
Input force
For a four bar linkage in toggle position
Effort = 0
F = 3(n-l) + 2fl -f2. = 3(5 -1)-2 x 5-1
.. Mechanical advantage = 00 =12-10-1=1
7. (a) For flywheel which controls the fluctuations in speed 12. (a) As we know that, velocity at point of contact between
during a cycle at constant output load, object and floor will be (OR. While, radius 'R' will be
1 (2(02 -(01 2) equal to zero an instantaneous centre is situated at the
~E ="21
intersection point of object (radius 'r') and floor.
~ 400 = .I(
2102 - 1902 ) 14. (a) Type of instantaneous centres:
(a) Fixed instantaneous centres
~ 1= 0.1 kg-m-. (b) Permanent instantaneous centres
8. (b) The critical or whirling speed of centrally loaded shaft (c) Neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous centres
between two bearings
(a) Fixed instantaneous centre:
They remains in the same place for all configuration of
"'e ="'0 =t; =~ the mechanism.
Permanent instantaneous centres:
"'e = J 0.0018 = 73.82 rad/ s (b)
9.81 They move when the mechanism move, but the joints
are of permanent mature.
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60
(c) Neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous
centre:-
~ N, = 704.96 ::::705 rpm
9. (a) According to Grsashoff's rule for a planar crank- They vary with the configuration of the Mechanism.
rocker four bar mechanism, the sum of lengths of 15. (c) The fluctuation of energy may be determined by the
shortest and longest links should be less than the sum turning moment diagram for one complete cycle of
of lengths of other two remaining links. operation. The difference between the maximum and
So, statement (a) is incorrect and rest are correct. minimum energies is known as maximum fluctuation
10. (d) The mobility or degrees of freedom of a plane structure of energy.
is the number of inputs (i. e., number of independent
.. AE = Maximum energy - Minimum energy
coordinates required to determine the configuration
16. (d) The minimum number ofteeth on a pinion is found on
or position of all the links of the mechanism W.r.t.
the basis of consideration of avoiding interference.
fixed link. It is determined by Grubler's equation as
F = 3(n - 1) - 2j - h In case of 14Yz involute system, the minimum
where F = degrees of freedom or movability of number of teeth in a pinion which meshes with rack
mechanism 2
n = number oflinks
t . =--=32
nun sin! <j)
j = number oflower pairs 17. (a) y
h = numbers of higher pairs
Now, a 5-bar chain is the simplest statically
indeterminate structure in which link 1 is fixed as shown.
Hence to specify the position of all links, two
coordinates 91 and 92 are required. So two inputs are
required to give a unique output. So, F = 2 or the
mobility is 2.
a~-----------------+x
Kutzbach criterion for movabilityof a mechanism,
1 Number of degree of freedom = 3 (1- 1) - 2j - h
Similarly, for 6-bar or more chains, F > 2 = 3(2 - 1) - 2 x 0 - 1
Hence, for a statically indeterminate structures, =3-1=2
Mobility ~ 2
Hence, it possesses 2 degree of freedom.
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18. (d) Fp = Primary unbalanced force = mror'cos" N2 = 300 rpm
F s = Secondary unbalanced force N2 = T, =.!.
mrci'
=-n-cos28 (I)n=~ N, T2 3
19. (c) For uniform acceleration and retardation the velocity

..:5_ = .!.T = 24
T2 3 I
of the follower must change at a constant rate and Pitch line velocity = W1r1or W2r2
hence the velocity diagram of the follower consists of d2 8x72
sloping straight lines. The velocity diagram represents = 21tN2 - = 21tx300x--
2 2
everywhere the slope ofthe displacement diagram, the = 542867 mmlmin = 9.04 mls
latter must be curve whose slope changes at a constant 26. (d) The position ofthe instantaneous centre changes with
rate. Hence the displacement diagram consists of the motion of the body. Instantaneous centre of a body
double parabola. rolling with sliding on a stationary curved surface lies
(i) on the common normal at the point of contact, and
20. (a) a = _!__ = 580 = 5.59 rad/s ' also
mk" 800 x (0.36)2 (ii) at the centre of curvature of the stationary surface
W2 = WI+ at = O. + 5.59 x 12 = 67.08 rad/s 27. (d) We know that coefficient of fluctuation of speed (Cs)
IS
1 1
KE = -mk2w2 = -x800x(0.36)2 X (67.08)2 C - (wmax - wmin)
2 2
= 233270N = 233.3 kJ S - (ro~;ro~")
21. (a)
or, Cs Wmax + CSWmin= 2 Wmax - 2wmin
wmax = 2+ Cs
wmin 2-Cs
28. (c) Static balance is a balance of forces due to the action
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Consider a rigid rotor with the shaft laid on horizontal
parallel ways. if it is in static balance, the shaft will
fp = rw2 (COS8+ 1 CO:28) not on the ways whatever may be the angular position
At IDC 8=0 of the rotor. For this to happen, the centre of gravity
of the system of masses must lie at the axis of rotation
.. r. ~ rCO>(l+~) of the shaft. For the centre of gravity to be at the axis
of the shaft, the horizontal and vertical moments of
At ODC 8 = 180 0 the rotors must be equal to zero
fp ~ -rCO> (l-~) 'LWr sin 8 = 0, 'LWr cos 8 = 0

The above equations are also true with the dynamic
balance of the inertia forces. Thus if the conditions
22. (c) Energy stored in flywheel is dependent on moment of
for the dynamic balance are met, the conditions for
inertia given by: static balance are also met.
1= (w/g)k2 29. (c) For dynamically equivalent
where k = radius of gyration m1 + m2 = m (i)
In case of rim type of flywheel, m.h, = m2h2 (ii)
k' = radius offlywheel. m.h] + m2h; = mk ' (iii)
k From the equations (ii) and (iii); we get
Since , k' = _2
m,h~ +(m,h,)xh2 =mk2
23. (c) Arc of contact = 31.4 mm
Module (m) = 5 mk2
Circular pitch = 1t m = 51t m. = h,(h, +h2) ...(iii)
Arc of contact From the equations (i) and (ii) we get
So, No. of pair of teeth in contact = C I .h
ircu ar pitc mh
m+-I_I=m
31.4 I h
= ----s;- = 2 pairs.
2
mh2
21tN 2 x 1tx 160 .. m1 = h + h ...(iv)
24. (a) = --
W = 16.75 rad/s I 2
60 60
maximum velocity of sliding = W x d From equations (iii) and (iv)
= 16.75 x 0.018 = 0.302 mls mk2 mh2
25. (c) T2 = 72
hi(hi + h.) (hi + h.)
1
VR= - k2 = h1h2
3
Badboys2

30. (a) Since cylinder falls freely under effect of gravity, it .. 2k
follows basic law of motion and => 9 + -9 =0
3m
v2 = 2gh and v = ~2gh
31. (a) Ratio of angular speeds of F to A
TA . Tc . TE 20x30x 25
OJ" = 2'"
40. (d) In toggle position,
J!.
for a four bar linkage, the
mechanical advantage will be infinity.
TB To TF 60x80x75 24
41. (d) = 30
32. (a) Point P being rigidly connected to point 3, will trace Normal circular pitch = circular pitch x cos 
same path as point 3, i.e. ellipse.
= 15 x cos 30 = 13 mm
33. (c) A system of masses rotating in different parallel
planes is in dynamic balance ifthe resultant force and .. Circular pitch 15 15
AXIal pitch = tan 300
the resultant couple are both to zero. This is known tan 30 Ijj
as dynamic balancing.
=26mm
34. (c) A bicycle remains stable in running through a bond 42. (a) We know that
because of centrifugal action.
llE = ~ l( co~- con => 400 = ~ x [(210)2 -(190)2 ]
35. (d)
=> 400 = 4001
1
= '2l( CO
max + comin) (comax
- comin) = 1 coay x Cs X coay 1 = 0.1 kg-rrr'
emax = lco;y Cs Tfirst 30 3
36. (c) From the figure, it shows that the value of'P' required 43. (a) Train values = T = 50 = 5"
last
will be minimum when it is at 452 to the horizontal.
This can be solved by resolution of forces. 1 5
Speed ratio = T 1 3
mT 40x12 ram va ue
Badboys2 37. (c) R=-=--

2 2
= 240mm 44. (d) The centre of gravity of the coupler link in a 4 bar
mechanism would experience both linear and angular
mt 20x12 accelerations.
r=-=--
2 2 45. (a) According to Grashof s law for a four bar mechanism.
The sum of shortest and longest link lengths should
... r sin
2 = 'VIR 2a _ R 2 cos" 'I'
'" - R sin '"'I'
not be greater than the sum ofthe remaining two link
length.
120x;in20 ~R; -(240cos20)2 -240sin20 i.e. S + L ~ P + Q
R, = 248 mm 46. (a) An involve pinion and gear in mesh. Ifboth have the
addendum = 248 - 240 = 8 mm same size of addendum, then there will be
interference between the tip of the gear teeth and
ro cos O blank ofrenion. This is a phenomenon of interference.
47. (b) We know that, VB= V, CD = 45 em, AB = 30 em
oicos O VCD = Vc = W.CD = CD
If n is large COer
= --
n VBA VB W.AB AB
Angular velocity is maximum at 9 = 0, 180
Angular velocity is zero at 9 = 90 Vc =CD
VB AB
39. (c)
CD 45 3 3
Vc = VBx-= V =-= Vx-=-V
AB 30 2 2
. 3
:. Velocity of C = '2 V .
48. (c) The transmission angle is maximum when crank angle
with fixed link is 180.
The transmission angle is minimum when crank angle
Taking moments about instantaneous centre' A'
I, e + (kx) r = 0 The transmission angle is optimum when crank angle
=> (10 + m2) + kx (Or) r e = 0 49. (b) CD=AB+30cm
Rotation of AB, COl= 5 rad/s
1 2 -i mr 2J 9 + k (9r2) = 0
=> ( '2mr Rotation of CD, CO2= 2 rad/s
So, colAB = co2CD
.. kr' 5 AB = 2 (AB + 30)
=> 9+--9=0
3
-mr
2 AB = 20 em
2
Badboys2

50. (a) ac = r0)2
8 = 0.5 x 0)2
0)2= 16
0) = 4 rad/sec
Coridis component of acceleration = 20)v
=2x4x2=16
51. (a) The Sommerfield number defmed as Z;

used in the design of hydrodynamic journal bearings,
(~r is
T = 60x 20000 106.10 N-m

while rating life, rotation factor and specific dynamic 2n(60x30)
capacity are used for ball and roller contact bearings.
52. (c) It is known that S-N curve becomes asymptotic for Tangential force
106 cycle, so stress <J at this cycle is known as fatigue
or endurance limit of the material.
106100 = 2122 N
(5 x 20) 12
Resultant (normal) force
2.69 = loglO490 FN = Ft 2122 2258.1 N
I
I cos 20 cos 20
I 55. (d) For a ball bearing, the life-load relationship is
2.000 = loglO100 ---1--------
1.845 = 10glO70 ---r-------T--
I I
L = (C)3 => L oc= _1F3
Badboys2 I
I
I
I
F
I I
I I
3 X
6 X-axis
10glON
According to 2-point form, the equation of straight

line connecting (6, 10giO 70) and (3, 10giO 490) is 56. (b) Ft x factor = <Ja x bny x m
y-2.69 = 2.69-1.845 = -0.28167 => <Ja = 3552.56x1.5 = 166.52 MPa
x-3 3-6 25x0.32x4
.. y = 2.69 - 0.28167 (x - 3)
T orque T -- 2nN
y = 3.535 - 0.28167x 60P - 60 x 15000 1492077 N m
57. (a) - 2n x 960 . -
For the shaft subjected to alternating stress of 100
Pitch circle diameter of gear
MPa
D = m x Z = 4 x 21 = 84 mm
y= 10glO 100 = 2 T
.. 2 = 3.535 - 0.28167 .. Tangential force Ft = D 1 2
=> x = 5.44964 = 149207.7 = 3552.56 N

.. 10giON = 5.44964 84/4
N = 105.44964 = 281604.53 cycle 58. (d) Interference is a phenomenon in which the addendum
tip of gear under cuts into the dedendum of base circle
53. (a)
:~tr~~:~:~::5m[Zp;Zg
1
of pinion. This tooth interference can be reduced by
increasing the number of teeth above a certain
minimum number. For example, For 20 full depth
involute teeth system, minimum number of teeth to
= 5('9~37) 59. (b)
avoid interference is 18.
Pp = 30 kN
PQ = 45 kN
56
= 5x- = 140mm
2 As we know that, L = (~) a , a = 3 for ball bearing
54. (c) P = 2nNT => T = 60 P

60 2n N Life of bearing P = Lp = (PQ J3
Life of bearing Q LQ Pp
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Let d = diameter of solid shaft
. T= Px60
.. 21tN
16T
61. (b) Working shear stress = -3 20xl03 x60 =955N-m
1td
21tx 200
Allowable shear stress From torsion theory, we have torque transmitted by
Factor of safety = W or kimg sh ear s tr ess solid shaft (T).
955x103 =~x~xd3
~ 2x 16T = 140 ~ d= 15.4mm= 16mm 16
1td3
1t 3
=16x45xd d=47.6::::48mm
99. (d) Given data

67. (a)
Eccentricityratio = 0.27 = 1- hO
c
hO
0.27= 1- 0.03 ho=0.0219mm
::::0.022mm
101. (b) Examples of inversion of double slider crank chain are
(a) Elliptical trammel

(b) Scotch - Yoke mechanism
Badboys2 snap head (c) Oldham's coupling
109 . (d) Considering the following equations for a slider - crank
mechanism when the piston at inner dead centre,
Snap head rivet is used for boiler plates.
70. (d) Load stress factor . sin 2a]
velocity of piston (v) = rto [ Sma + -2-
K = cr~ sin <P cos <P (_1_ + _1_J

1.4 Ep Eg .. 2[ cos 2a]
Acceleration of piston (a) = rro cos a + -n-
73. (b)
L= 106 (C)3 Now, at inner dead centre, a = 0, then
60n P
Here, n = 500 r.p.m,
v = rro[ sin 0 + Sin;:
0 0) ] = roix O =
L= 6000 hours, C = 50 KN v=O
:.(~r 6000 x 60 x 500

= 180 (l = rro2 [cos 0" + cos:(O)]
C 50
orP= --1 =-=8.85K.N
(180)3 5.65
77. (c) In case of selflocking brake, no external force is required

for the braking action. This is not desirable condition
(l = -r. I)
in normal application. 113. (c) Considering the following relation,

79. (b) It is proved by using theory of elasticity that the Given (N) = 6
theoretical stress concentration factor at the edge of
N(N -1)
Number of instantaneous centres, (N1C) = 2
hole is given by I +2( ~)
where, N = Number oflinks
87. (a) Allowable shear stress Hence,
6(6 -1)
~ = 2!L = 360 = 45 N/mm2 NIC= 2 =3x5=15.
fos 8
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A-SO Theory ofMachines and Machine Design

116. (c) 119. (d) Given: Mass moment of Inertia (Is) = 2500 kg-m-
Angular acceleration (a) = 0.6 rad/s-
Torque required (r) = Is x a
=2500 x 0.6= 1500N-m
120. (c) Given: Speed range of an engine,
111= 390 rpm, 112=410rpm
Coefficient of fluctuation = 112-111 = (112-111)

Let, Ae = coriolis component of acceleration 11m 112+ 111
then A, = 2 vw 2
117. (a) Given:
Length of the crank (Lemnk)= 0.15 m _ 2 (112- 111) 2(410-390)
Length of connecting rad (Le) = 0.75 m - (112+ 111) (410+390)
Location of crank (from IDC) (a) = 30
Crank speed (N) = 500 rpm = 2x20 = 0.05
ndN 800
Angular speed of crank (wemnk) = 60 126. (a) Heightofthewalt governor (H)= lOCm=O.1 m
g= 10m/s2
3.14 x (2 x Lerank) x 500
60 H= g 2 => (Angular speed)2 =]_
(Angular speed) H
3.14x2xO.15x500
60 Angular speed = {10 = JlOO = 10 rad / s
= 7.85 rad/s ~OJ
Badboys2 Considering the following formula, 128. (a) Given: weight ofthe ball = 50 N
friction at the sluve = ION
. . frictio at sluve
coefficient of detention = -----
weight of ball
h
were, h=--=--=5
r., 0.75
Lerank 0.15 =.!.Q = 0.2
50
7.85 x 0.866 140. (a) Given: distance between the axis = 200 mm
= 7 85 cos30
then,
we . x
~(5)2 _ sin2 30 .J25-0.25
gear ratio = 3 : 1
Number ofteeth on pinion (T p) = 20
w = 6.7981 = 6.7981 = 1.37 rad/s Let dg = 3: 1

, dp
e .J24.75 4.975
Hence Angular velocity of connecting rad (we) is nearest
dg = ~ => dg = 3dp ...(i)
to 1.61 rad/s. So, answer will be 1.61 rad/s dp 1
118. (b) Given: maximum speed offlywheel = Nmax= N 1
minimum speed of flywheel = Nmin= N2 dp + dg 200 => dp + dg = 400
2
N, +N2
mean speed of flywheel (Nm) = ___:_-2--=- dp + 3dp = 400 => 4dp = 400
dp = 400 = 100
. . Nm
then, coefficient of steadmess = ----=..:..:'-- 4
N1-N2
dp 100
_ (Nl + N2)
Module ofthe gear (m) = Tp = =5 20
- 2
diameter d
(Nl - N2) 143 (a) M 0du Ie ()m =
. Number of teeth T
_ (N1 -N2) diiametera I PItC

. h (p)d = Number of teeth = -T
- 2(Nl - N2) diameter d
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d T
mXPd =-x-= 1
T d
157. (c) Given: Average tension (T avg.)l = 700 N
and (Tavg.h = 400 N 50 1 2
Linearvelocity(v) = 5 m1s -=-=> 12 = 200N Imm
12 4
Power transmitted (P) = [(T avg.)l - (T avg.h ] x V
= (700-400) x 5 = 300 x 5 178. (d) Given: thickness of boiler plate, (t) = 16 mm
= 1500 walts diameter of rivet (d) = 6.Jt (ift > 15 mm)
= 1.5kw
158. (a) Given: slip between driver and belt (sl) = 1% d = 6M = 6 x 4 = 24 mm
Slip between belt and follower (s2) = 3% 179. (c) Given: tearing efficiency (11t)= 25% = 0.25
Now, considering the following formula, Let, D = diameter of rivet hole
. . -~(1-
Velocity ratio - d2
sl+S2J
100
P = pitch ofthe rivet,
P-D D
then , TIt
'I
=0.25=--=1--P P
166. (c) Given: belt speed (u) = 880m/min.
Power transmitter (P) = 22.5 kw
D = 1-0.25 = 0.75
Let, T 1 = tension in tight side, P
T2 = tension in sleek side 190. (d) Given: Dynamic load capacity(C) = 2.2 KN
then, P = (T 1 - T2) x u Life of bearing (Lf) = 60 x N x time duration
here, u = 880 m1min. = 60 x 600 x 2000
880 44 =72 x 106
=-m/s=-m/s Using the following relation,
60 3
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22.5x1000=(T1-T2)X 3 44
Lf = (~r x 106
K = Constant = 3.3
22.5 x 1000x 3 (
(T} - T2) = 44 1534.1N == 1540N approx)
168. (a) Inner radius (R) = 50 mm 72xl06 =e2~OOOJ.3 xl0 6
Outer radius (RJ = 100 mm

On solving, we get, w= 609.8 N (approx.)
axid force(w) =4 KN
197. (c) Given: Number oflinks (L) = 5
Let, Pmaximum= maximum intensity of pressure
Number of joints (1) = 5
Pminimum= minimum intensity of pressure
Degree of freedom (DOF) = 3 (L - 1) - 2J
Pmaximum= Ro = 100 = 2 =3(5-1)-2x5
Pminimum Ri 50 =3x4-10
= 12-10
174. (a) Given: tearing efficiency (11t)= 35% = 0.35
=2
Let, D = diameter of rivet hole
199. (b) Given, Angular velocity (wA) = 4 radls
P = pitch of rivet
Angular velocity (wB) = 0
(p - D) x t x Ft Angular velocity of gear 'c' = wc
11t= As both gears are of same size, hence
PxtxFt
Number of teeth on A (TA) = Number of teeth on B (T B)
N ow, using the following relation,
0.35 = P - D = 1- D
P P wc-wA =_TB=_l
wB-wA r,
D = 1-0.35 = 0.65
P
w -4
_c_=_l
177. (b) Given:Shearstrengthofrivet(11)=50N/mm2
0-4
diamenter of rivet (initial) (D1) = D
Final diamenter ofrivet (after doubling) (D2) = 2D wc-4=4
wc=4+4= 8radls
As we know that,
Shear strength of rivet IX (Diameterj- 200. (a) Given: Moment of inertia (L) = 9.8 kg-m/
fluctuation speed (Nt) = 30 rpm
1 IX (D)2 fluctuation energy (E) = 1936 j
Badboys2
. 21tNt 2 x 1t X 30
Now, Angular velocity (w) = _- = ---
60 60
=n rad/s
Now, considering the following relation,
E =Lx w x wmean L1 = L2
8
E 1936
wmean= Tfxw =9.8x1t =629rpm(Approx) L2 = 8L1 => 8 times.
207. (d) Given: dynamic load capacity = 22 x 103N
W mean = 629 rpm == 600 rpm (Approx.) Speed (N) = 600 rev/min.
(time duration) Life (L) = 2000 hours
201. (b) Given: diamenter of rivet hole = D
Using the following relation,
Pitch of the rivet = P
D
-=
P
0.25 L = (:r X 106 rev
we get w = 5.29 KN
. e ffici
teanng ICleny ()11t = _-
P-D = 1-- D
P P . . 112-111
224. (d) Coefficient of fluctuation of speed = ......:..:....___:~
= 1-0.25 11m
= 0.75
202. (b) Given: Load (wI) = 9800N _ 112-111 2( 112-111)
Speed(N1)= 100rpm 111+ 112 111+ 112
(Life) (LI) time duration = 3000 hours 2
Now, ifload (w2) = 4900 N
2(510-430) 160
Badboys2 Speed (N 2) = 2000 rpm
then Life (L2) = ?
= 510+ 430 940 = 0.17
225. (b) Given: Safe stress (as) = 25.2 MN/m2
Considering the following,
density (p) = 7g/cm3
Safe stress (a J = p x maximum periphered velocity (v2)
L(w)3 = Constant =>..s. = (W2 3 J as = p x v2
L2 wI
25.2xl06 =_7_xl06 xu2
1000
1000 x 60 x 3000 = (4900)3 =.!.
2000 x 60 x L2 9800 8 2 25.2 xl000
u =----
7
1500 1
~ ="8 => L2 = 1500 x 8 = 12000 hours u = ..)3600 = 60 m / s
203. (a) Given, Initially, wI = w 227. (c) Given: Number ofteeth (T) = 60
Module (m) = 6 mm
Life = LI
Number ofteeth on pinion (T p) = 20
w
After half of load, w 2 =-
2 Centre distance (D) = m(T + Tp ) = 6 (60 + 20)
Life=L, 2 2
Considering the relation, 6x80 480
Lw3=c =--=-=240mm
2 2
Badboys2
rrIII~ll)ll'l~
I~Nf.INI~I~IIINf.
THERMODYNAMICS Surrounding
In the subject of thermodynamics, the inter-relationship ~system boundary
among heat, work and system properties are studied. It is
also called as the conceptual science of entropy and energy.
(Thermodynamic system)
Some Thermodynamical Terms in brief Types of thermodynamic systems:
(i) Thermodynamic system: A thermodynamical system is an There are three types ofthermodynamic systems:
assembly oflarge number of particles which can be described (a) Closed system:
by thermodynamic variables like pressure (P), volume (V), A thermodynamic system in which mass is not transferred
temperature (1). across system boundary but energy may be transferred in
(ii) Surroundings: Everything outside the system which can and out ofthe system, is known as closed system. Mass in
have a direct effect on the system is called surroundings. the piston - cylinder arrangement is the example of a closed
The gas cylinder in the kitchen is the thermodynamic system system.
and the relevant part ofthe kitchen is the surroundings. (b) Open system:
(iii) An adiabatic wall: The wall which prevent the passage of The open system is defined as a system in which mass as
Badboys2 matter and energy.
(iv) Diathermic wall: It prevent the passage of matter but allow
well as energy can be transferred with its surroundings.
Open systems are most common. The region where analysis
the passage of energy. An aluminium can is an example of a ofthe system is performed is known to be a control volume
container whose walls are diathermic. and the boundary of control volume is known as control
(v) Closed and open system: In a closed system, energy may surface. Eg: Air compressor
transfer the boundaries of system but mass does not cross
lnputmass
the boundary, while in open system, both mass and energy
transfer across the boundary of the system. stem boundary
(vi) An isolated system: In this type of system neither the mass Input mass Exit mass
nor the energy can be exchanged with the surroundings.
(vii) Equation of state: The relationship between the pressure, Surroundings
volume and temperature of the thermodynamical system is Exit energy
called equation of state. (Open system)
(viii) Properties : A property of a system is any abusable
(c) Isolated system:
characteristic of the given system various properties of the
In an isolated system, no mass and no energy is transferred
system depend on the state of the system not on how that
across system boundary.
state have been reached.
(xi) Intensive property of a system or those properties whose values ~ystem boundary
does not depend upon the mass of the system. Eg: Pressure,
temperature, viscosity etc., while extensive properties depend ~ Surroundings
upon the mass of the system. Eg: Length, volume etc. (No mass transfer
(x) Equilibrium: A system is said to be in thermodynamic No energy transfer)
equilibrium when it does not lead to change its properties
(macroscopic) and make balance with its surroundings. There, (Isolated system)
a system in mechanical, thermal and chemical equilibrium is
said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium. ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a
third object C then objects A and B are in thermal equilibrium
A thermodynamic system is described as a kind of a region with each other.
available in space and this region is concentrated for the Zeroth law of thermodynamics introduces thermodynamic
purpose of analysing a problem. The system is considered quantity called temperature. Two objects (or systems) are said to
to be separated from surroundings (external to system) by be in thermal equilibrium iftheir temperatures are the same. In
the boundary of the system. The nature of the boundary measuring the temperature of a body, it is important that the
may be real or imaginary and it is considered to be flexible thermometer be in the thermal equilibrium with the body whose
i.e., it can change its shape or size. Ifwe combine a system temperature is to be measured.
and its surroundings, then it constitutes the universe.
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A-84 Thermal Engineerging

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Intensive and Extensive properties
(a) Intensive properties: Intensive properties are those
The first law of thermodynamics is based on conservation of
properties which does not depend on the mass available in
energy. According to this law heat Q supplied to a system is
the system.
equal to the sum ofthe change in internal energyfal.I) and work
done by the system (W). Thus we can write Eg : temperature, pressure, etc.
(b) Extensive properties: Extensive properties are those
Q = ~U+W
properties which depends on the mass available in the
More about First Law of Thermodynamics system.
1. Heat supplied to the system taken as positive and heat Eg : Volume,energy,etc.
given by the system taken as negative. Some terms like specificvolume, specific energy etc. come
2. It makes no different between heat and work. It does not under the category of specific extensive properties.
indicate that why the whole of heat energy cannot be Thermodynamic equilibrium
converted into work. A systemis said to be in equilibriumwhen there is no driving
3. Heat and work depend on the initial and final states but on forces within the system after isolation ofthe system from
the path also. The change in internal energy depends only its surroundings.
on initial and final states of the system. A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium it
4. The work done by the system against constant pressure P satisfies the following three kinds of equilibrium:
is W = P~V. So the first law of thermodynamics can be (a) Mechanical equilibrium
written as Q = /).u + p/).v . (b) Thermal equilibrium
5. Differential form of the first law; (c) Chemicalequilibrium
dQ = dU+dW Internal energy or energy of the system
or ~ = dU+NV The internal energy of the thermodynamic system is
regarded as the combination of all kinds/forms of energy
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS of the system. These all forms of energy include kinetic
(i) Kelvin - Plank Statement: It is impossible to construct an energy, potential energy vibrational energy, rotational
engine that can convert heat completely into work without energy etc.
producing any other effect.According to the statement the If dU is the internal energy of the system, then,
Badboys2 efficiency of any heat engine always be less than 100%. dU=MC~T
where, M = mass in kg, C = specific heat - capacity,
(ii) Clausius Statement: For a self acting machine, it is
impossible to transfer heat from a colder body to a hotter ~T = change in temperature.
body without the aid of external agency. Energy can also be considered as a property of a
thermodynamic system. Consider a system that undergoes
ENTROPY a change from state 'A' to state 'B' and the systemundergoes
Entropy is the another thermodynamical variable which many a cyclic process.
times very useful to understand the system. Entropy is related to A
the disorder or randomness in the system. Tounderstand this, let
us consider two systems as shown in Fig.
f ~B
--~V
(Total work done)eyeIe = (Total heat) cycle
System 1 System 2 WI+W2=QI +Q2
QI-WI =W2-Q2
If SI and S2 are the entropies of the system I and 2 respectively at
any temperature, then SI < S2. I~Q=dU+ 8wl
(i) Entropy is not a conserved quantity. Specific heat of constant volume (C v)
(ii) Entropy can be created but cannot be destroyed. .
It IS defined as the rate of change of internal energy with
(iii) Entropy of the universe always increases. respect to temperature keeping the volume as constant.
If a system at temperature T is supplied a small amount of heat
~Q, then change in entropy of the system can be defined as C =(dU)
~Q V dT p
M= T for constant T Specific heat of constant pressure (C )
For a system with variable T, we have It is defined as the rate of change of errthalpy with respect
to temperature keeping the pressure as constant.
sf dQ
~S = Sf - s, = fT
s,
C =(dH)
p dT v
The second law of thermodynamics may be stated in terms of THERMODYNAMICAL PROCESSES

entropy as:
It is impossible to have a process in which the entropy of an Any process may have own equation of state, but each
isolated system is decreased. thermodynamical process must obeyPV = nRT.
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Thermal Engineerging A-85

1. Isobaric Process:
M
Ifa thermodynamic system undergoes physical change at B
constant pressure, then the process is called isobaric. (-~Vr 00
P p
(v) Work done: W = P~V= 0
(vi) First law ofthermodynamics in ischoric process
Q ~U+W=~U+O
p ......------to--~ p .........
:-~ ........
-..........., or Q ~U
c.sr
W = +Pav 'W=-P~V 3. Isothermal Process:
A thermodynamical process in which pressure and volume
'---~----~- ....v of the system change at constant temperature, is called
V isothermal process.
Expansion Compression
p
(i) Isobaric process obeys Charle's law, VOC T
dP
(ii) Slope of P ~ V curve, dV = O.
(iii) Specific heat at constant pressure
5R 7R p
C;= 2 for monoatomic and Cs= Tfordiatomic
(iv) Bulk modulus of elasticity: As P is constant, M =0
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and B
(-A:f (i) An isothermal process obeys Boyle's law PV =
Constant.
(ii) The wall of the container must be perfectlyconducting
so that free exchange of heat between the system and
(v) Work done: W = P~V=nR~T surroundings can take place.
(vi) First law ofthermodynamics in isobaric process (iii) The process must be very slow, so as to provide
Q= ~U+W = ~U+P~V = ~U+nR~T sufficient time for the exchange of heat.
(iv) Slope of P - V curve:
= nCv ~T + nR~T = n( Cv + R)~T For isothermal process
PV = Constant
= nCp~T
After differentiating w.r. t. volume, we get
(vii) Examples:Boilingof water and freezingofwater at constant
pressure etc. P+V dP 0
2. Isochoric or Isometric Process: dV
A thermodynamical process in which volume ofthe system dP -P -P
remain constant, is called isochoric process. or
dV V or tan O = V
T (v) Specific heat at constant temperature:
As~T=O,
C =
j W=O (vi) First law ofthermodynamics in isothermal process.

As
or
~T
Q
Q
0, :. ~U=O
~U+W=O+W
W
o'-----------v
4. Adiabatic Process:
An adiabatic process is one in which pressure, volume and
temperature ofthe systemchange but heat will not exchange
(i) An isochoric process obeysGay - Lussac' sLaw, P oc T between system and surroundings.
dP p
(ii) Slope of P - V curve, dV = 00
(iii) Specific heat at constant volume

3R 5R
Cv = 2 formonoatomicand Cv = 2 fordiatomic
p
(iv) Bulk modulus of elasticity : As Vis constant, ~V= 0
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(i) Adiabatic process must be sudden, so that heat does 1. Isothermal expansion: If Qj is the heat absorbed from the
not get time to exchange between system and source and WI is the work done, then,
surroundings.
(ii) The walls of the container must be perfectlyinsulated.
(iii) Adiabatic relation between P and V
QI ~ WI ~ nR1Jfn(~ ) (As AU ~ 0)
PVY =k
(iv) Adiabatic relation between Vand T & P and T nR1Jfn(~ J
For one mole of gas
2. Adiabatic expansion: If W2 is the work done during the
RT adiabatic expansion, then
PV=RT, or P= V
nR(lj - Tf ) nR(Ii - T2)
Substituting in PVf = k, we get
W2 = y-I y-I
(Rnv y k 3. Isothermal compression: If Q2 is the heat reject to the sink
and W3 is the work done during the process, then
k
or R = new constant Q2 ~ W3~nRT2fn(~) ~ nRT2fn(~:J
RT
Also V
P
(As flU = 0)
k
~ -nRT2fn(~J
4. Adiabatic compression: If W4 is the work done during the
k adiabatic compression, then
or RY = another constant
nR(lj - Tf) nR(T2 -Ii) -nR (Ii- T2)
Badboys2(v) Specific heat:C = nflT
Q 0
= nflT = 0
W4 y-1
Net work done in the whole cycle
y-I y-I
(vi) First law ofthermodynamics in adiabatic process W =Wj+W2+W3+W4

Q L1U+ W
As Q 0, :. Sll=> W (V
-LJ~n - 2J + nR(Ii -T2)
-- n R'T'II n RT 2~n(V
II - 3J -nR__:__:_----='-'-
(Ii -T2)
Vi y-I V4 y-I
or UI-Uj -W
.. UI Uj-W
P-V Diagram Representing Four Different Processes
...p In the adiabatic expansion B ---+ C

v:
1', y-1
1 2
T Vy-1
2 3
500K
or ...(ii)
400K
Similarly in the adiabatic compression D ---+ A
300K
L------------___.v T Vy-1 1', v,y-l
2 4 1 1
1. Isobaric Process 2. Isothermal Process
3. Adiabatic Process 4. Isochoric Process
CARNOT CYCLE or ...(iii)
Camot cycle has four operations. Thermodynamic coordinates From equations (ii) and (iii) , we have
after each operation are shown in Fig. Initially at A coordinates
are r; Vj,Tj. V2 5_
p V3 V4
... or VIV3 V2V4 ...(iv)
V2 V3
Also
VI V4
Efficiency of carnot engine
Workdonebyengine (W)
11 Heat absorbed by engine from source ({1)
o-------------+v
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can never be realised because dissipative forces cannot be
nR[Tjfn( ~ )-T2fn(~)] completelyeliminated.
Irreversible Process
nRTjfn(~: ) Any process which cannot be retraced in the reverse direction
exactly is called an irreversible process. Most of the processes
occurring in the nature are irreversible processes.
Examples:
As (i) Diffusion of gases.
(ii) Dissolution of salt in water.
r, - T2
----
_ 1 --T2 (iii) Rusting of iron.
(iv) Sudden expansion or contraction ofa gas.
11 11
Enthalpy: Enthalpy is regarded as the total energy of a AVAILABILITY AND REVERSIBILITY
thermodynamic system. It is defined as the sum of internal
energy and product of pressure and volume. It is an Available Energy
intensive property of the system. It is describe as: The sources of energy can be divided into two groups
H=U+PV (l) High grade energy
or (2) Low grade energy
h= u+ pv The conversion of high grade energy to shaft work is exempt
where, H = Total enthalpy from the limitations of the second law, while conversion of low
U = Total internal energy grade energy is subject to them.
P = Pressure, V = Volume(Total)
h = specific enthalpy High Grade Energy Low Grade Energy
u = specific internal energy
v= specific volume (1) Mechanicalwork (1) Heat or thermalenergy
Enthalpy is also considered as a function of temperature (2) Heat derived fromnuclear
(2) Electricalenergy
for the case of perfect gases. Hence, it can be written as : fissionor :fusion
Badboys2 L1H=MCpL1T
where, L1H= H2- HI = enthalpy difference (3) Water power
(3) Heat derived from combustion
of fossilfuels
L1T = T2- T I = temperature difference (4) Windpower
C, = specific heat at constant pressure
Dryness fraction (X) : (5) Kineticenergyof a jet
Dryness fraction is defined as the ratio of the mass of (6) Tidalpower
vapour or dry saturated steam to the total mass of wet
steam or mass of mixture (water in saturated form in liquid Available Energy Referred to a Cycle.
region as well as vapour region).
The maximum work outputobtainablefrom a certain heat input in
My a cyclic heat engine is called the Available Energy (A.E.), or the
Dryness fraction (X) = My + ML . available part ofthe energy supplied. The minimum energy that
where, My= mass of steam or vapour has to be rejected to the sink by the second law is called the
ML= mass of Liquid (saturated) Unavailable Energy (U.E.), or the unavailablepart of the energy
Drynessfractionis utilized to calculatethe quantity ofliquid supplied.
or vapour phase within the mixture. The value of dryness AE.+U.E.
fraction varies between 0 and 1. It also determines the or AE. = Ql - U.E.
quality ofthe steam. T
For the given r. and T2, 11rev. = 1- T~
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
Reversible Process
Any processwhich can be made to proceedin the reverse direction
by variation in its conditions such that any change occurring in
anypart ofthe directprocessis exactlyreversedinthe corresponding
part of reverse process is called a reversible process.
Examples:
(i) An infinitesimally slow compression and expansion of an
ideal gas at constant temperature.
Available and unavailable
(ii) The process of gradual compression and extension of an
energy in a cycle.
elastic spring is approximately reversible. For a given T}, 11rev. will increase with the decrease of Tj. The
(iii) A workingsubstancetaken alongthe completeCarnot's cycle. lowestpracticable temperature of heat rejection is the temperature
(iv) The process of electrolysis is reversible if the resistance of the surroundings, To.
offered by the electrolyte is negligibly small.
u.E. = Ql- Wmax
A complete reversible process is an idealised concept as it
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total volume of the gas. Therefore volume of the gas is
TO
hrrnx 1-- and equal to volume of the vessel.
Tl (4) The molecules of gases are in a state of random motion, i.e.,
they are constantlymoving with all possible velocitieslying
Wmax (1-~~)QI between zero and infinity in all possible directions.
(5) Normally no force acts between the molecules. Hence they
.. Wmax AE. move in straight line with constant speeds.
Qxy- To(Sy- Sx) (6) The molecules collide with one another and also with the
or u.E. Qxy- Wmax walls ofthe container and change there direction and speed
or u.E. = To(S, - Sx) due to collision. These collisions are perfectly elastic i.e.,
The unavailable energy is thus the product of the lowest there is no loss of kinetic energy in these collisions.
temperature of heat rejection, and the change of entropy of the (7) The molecules do not exert any force of attraction or
system during the process of supplying heat.
repulsion on each other except during collision. So, the
Availability of a Given System molecules do not posses any potential energy.Their energy
It is the maximum useful work (total work minuspdV work) that is wholly kinetic.
is obtainable in a process in which the system comes to (8) The collisions are instantaneous i.e., the time spent by a
equilibrium with its surroundings. It depends on the state of molecule in a collision is very small as comparedto the time
both the system and surroundings. elapsed between two consecutive collisions.
Let U, S, and V be the initial values ofthe internal energy,entropy, (9) Though the moleculesare constantlymoving from oneplace
and volume of a systemand Uo,So,and Votheir [mal values when to another,the averagenumber ofmoleculesper unit volume
the system has come to equilibrium with its environment. The of the gas remains constant.
system exchanges, heat only with the environment, and the (10) The molecules inside the vessel keep on moving
process may be either reversible or irreversible, the useful work continuously in all possible directions, the distribution of
obtained in the process molecules in the whole vessel remains uniform.
W ::;;(U-ToS+poV)-(Uo- ToSo+PoVo)
(11) The mass of a molecule is negligibly small and the speed is
Let <1>=
U - ToS+ PoV
very large, there is no effect of gravity on the motion of the
Badboys2 where is the availability function and is a compositeproperty of
both the system and its environment, with U, S, and V being molecules. Ifthis effect were there, the density of the gas
properties of the system at some equilibrium state, and Toand Po would have been greater at the bottom of the vessel.
the temperature and pressure of the environment. (In the Gibbs Equation of State or Ideal Gas Equation
function, G = U - TS + P V,T, and p refer to the system). The equation which relates the pressure (P), volume (V) and
The decrease in the availability function in a process in which the temperature (T) of the given state of an ideal gas is known as
system comes to equilibrium with its environment is ideal gas equation or equation of state.
-o=(U- ToS+ PoV)-(Uo- ToSo+PoVo) i.e., PV = nRT
.. W::;;-o where R = universal gas constant
Thus the useful work is equal to or less than the decrease in the Numerical value ofR = 8.31joule mol-1 kelvirr '
availability function. n = no. of moles of gas
Irreversibility of the Process Behaviour of Real Gases
The actual work done bya system is always lessthan the idealized The gases actually found in nature are called real gases.
reversible work, and the difference between the two is called the 1. Real gases do not obey gas laws
irreversibility ofthe process. 2. These gases do not obey the ideal gas equation
1= Wmax- W PV=nRT
This is also sometimesreferredto as 'degradation' or 'dissipation' . 3. A real gas behaves as ideal gas most closely at low pressure
For a non-flow process between the equilibrium states, when the and high temperature.
system exchangs heat only with the environment 4. Equation of state for real gases is given by Vander waal's
.. I~O equation
I = To [(1\S)system+ (~S)SUlT.J
Similarly, for steady flow process, I = To(1\Ssystem
+ ~SSUlT)
The same expression for irreversibility applies to both flow and
(p+ :2)tV -nb) = nRT
non-tlowprocesses. The quantity To(~Ssystem + 1\SSillT)
represents Here a and b are Constant called Vander waal's constant.
an increase in unavailable energy (or energy). ANALYSIS OF THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES
RELATED TO ENERGY CONVERSION
BEHAVIOUR OF IDEAL AND REAL GASES According to first law ofthermodynamics, heat given to a system
Behaviour of Ideal Gases (~Q) is equal to the sum of increase in its internal energy (~U)
The behaviour of ideal gases is based on the following and the work done (~W) by the system against the surroundings.
assumptions of kinetic theory of gases : i.e., 1\Q= ~U + 1\W
(1) All the molecules of a gas are identical. The molecules of Heat (~Q) and work done (~W) are the path functionsbut internal
different gases are different. energy (~U) is the point function.
(2) The molecules are rigid and perfectlyelastic spheres of very Work
smalldiameter. Let us consider a gas or liquid contained in a cylinder equipped
(3) Gas molecules occupy very small space. The actual volume with a movable piston, as shown in Fig. Supposethat the cylinder
occupied by the molecule is very small compared to the has a cross-sectional area A and the pressure exerted by the gas
at the piston is P.
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I-dx (iii) If the closed loop is traced in the anticlockwise direction,

the expansion curve lies below the compression curve (Wx
<Wy),the area of the loop is negative.
F=P~ !' p
The force exerted by gas on the piston

F = PA
If the piston moves out a small distance dx, the work done
dW = Fdx = PAdx
= PdV
where dV = Adx, is the change in volume of the gas.
'-----!-f-;-' -------;-;,D-----t> V
JiV = area A RC[)F.A
{J
L___~A _
W= area A RCA
_.v
W= - area A RCT>F.FA
The total work done by the gas when its volume changes from ~ Fig.(i) Fig. (ii) Fig.(iii)
to Vf PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES
VI 1. It is a single substance and has a uniform composition. It
W = f PdV has constant chemical composition through its mass.
V; 2. It has a same colour, taste and texture.
If the pressure remain constant while volume changes, then the 3. It has a fixed melting point and boiling point.
work done Types of Pure Substances
W = P(Vf -VJ =Pi1V Two different types of pure substances are :
(i) Element: An element is a substance which cannot be split
Cyclic Process and Non-cyclic Process
up into two or more simpler substances by usual chemical
If a system having gone through a change, returns to its initial
methods of applying heat, lighting or electric energy, e.g.,
state then process is called a cyclic process. If system does not
hydrogen, oxygen, sodium, chlorine etc.
return to its initial state, the process is called non-cyclic process.
(ii) Compound: A compound is a substance made up of two or
p p more elements chemically combined in a fixed ratio by weight
Badboys2 e.g. H20 (water), NaCI (sodium chloride) etc.
P-T DIAGRAM OF A PURE SUBSTANCE
If the heating of ice at - 10C to stream at 250C at the constant
pressure of 1atm is considered 1-2 is solid (ice) heating, 2-3 is melting
L----~-- ..v L------- ... v of ice at OC,3-4 is the liquid heating, 4-5 is the vaporization ofwater
at 100C, and 5-6 is the heating in the vapour state. The process may
(a) cyclic process (b) Non-cyclic process be reversed from state 6 to state 1 upon cooling. The curve passing
Work done in Cyclic Process through the 2, 3 points is called the fusion curve and the curve
Suppose gas expands from initial state A to final state B via the passing through the 4, 5 points (which indicated the vaporization or
pathAXB. condensation at different temperature and pressure) is called the
vaporization curve. The vapour pressure of a solid is measured at
p different temperatures, and these are plotted as a sublimation curve.
These three curves meet as the tripple point as shown in the figure.
The slopes of sublimation curve and vaporization curves for all
substance are positive and slope of the fusion curve for more
substance is positive but for water, it is negative. The triple point of
water is at4.58 mm ofHg and 273.16 K whereas that of CO2 is at 3885
mm ofHg and 216.55 K.So when solid CO2 ( dry ice) is exposed to 1
atm pressure, it gets transformed into vapour, absorbing the latent
o'----,:r:c-)
-------'-c'--.v heat of sublimation from surroundings.
Phase equilibrium diagram on P-T coordinates.
The work done in this expansion
Wx = + areaAXBCDA
N ow gas returns to its initial state B via path B YA.
Work done during this compression 1
I',2.,3__.,a-.n-e-
F..
U's3:m
Wy -area BYADCB
The net work done W Wx+ Wy
areaAXBCDA -areaBYADCB
+areaAXBYA
Thus for a cyclic process
(i) Work done in complete cycle is equal to the area ofthe loop
representing the cycle.
(ii) Ifthe closed loop is traced in the clockwise direction, the
expansion curve lies above the compression curve. (Wx -T
>Wy), the area ofloop is positive.
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T-s diagram for a pure substance Fig. (a) shows a substance like water that expand up freezing.
Consider heating of the system of 1 kg of ice at-5C to steam at Fig. (b) shows substances other than water which contract upon
250C. The pressure being maintained constant at 1 atm. freezing.
Entropy increases of the system in different regimes of heating. Any point on the p-v- T surface represents an equilibrium state of
the substance. The triple point line when projected to the p- T
2500C 6_ plane becomes a point.
f l00'C ---------------
(i) Entropy increase of ice as it is heated from -5C to OC at 1

atm. (Cpice = 2.093 kJ/kg-K)
ilSl = S2- Sl
dQ T2=273 me dT
=j-= j _p
T T1=268 T
Fig. (a) p-v- T surface for water Fig. (b) p-v- T surface of a
which expands a freezing substance which contracts
273 273
= mcp en 268 = 1 x 2.093 en 268 on freezing
h-s diagram or Mollier diagram for a pure substance.
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(ii) Entropy
= 0.0398 kJ/-K
increase of ice as it melts into water at OC (latent
From the first and second laws of thermodynamics, the following
property relations are obtained:
heat offusion of ice = 334.96 kJ kg) Tds= dh-vdp
ilS2 = S3- S2
mL 334.96 or (:~) p ~T
= T = -----ri3 = 1.232 kJ/-K
This equation forms the basis of the h-s diagram of a pure
... (wherem = lkg)
substance, also called the Mollier diagram. The slope of the
(iii) Entropy increase of water as it is heated from OC to
constant pressure curve on the enthalpy-entropy diagram is equal
100C (c Pwater = 4.187 kJ/kg-K) to the absolute temperature. When this slope is constant, the
temperature remains constant. Iftemperature increases, slope of
T3 the isobar increases. The constant pressure curve for different
ilS3 = S4- S3 = m cp en T2 pressure can be drawn on the h-s diagram as shown in the figure.
States 2,3,4 and 5 are saturation curves.
373
= 1 x 4.187t'n 273 = 1.305 kJ/-K
(iv) Entropy increase of water as it is vaporized at 100C,

absorbing the latent heat of vaporization (2257 kJ/kg)
ilS4 = S5- S4
mL 2257
=T= 273 =6.05kJ/kg-K ... (wherem= 1 kg)
(v) Entropy increase of vapour as it is heated from 100C to

250C at 1atm.
--7 (s) Entropy
523 Figure shows the phase equilibrium diagram of a pure substance

= 1 x 2.093 en 373 =0.706kJ/-K on the h-s co-ordinates indicating the saturated solid line,
p-v- T surface for the pure substance. saturated liquid lines and saturated vapour line, the various
The relation between pressure, specific volume and temperature phases and the transition (liquid + vapour or solid + liquid or
solid + vapour) zone.
can be understood with the help ofP-v- T diagram.
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STEAM TABLES
In steam table, properties of water are arranged as a function of pressure and temperature.
Saturates steam: Temperature table
Specific volume, m3/kg Internal Energy KJIKG Enthalpy KJIKg Entropy KJIKgK
Temp. Pressure Sat Sat Sat Sat. Sat Sat Sat Sat
C kPa,MPa Liquid Vapour Liquid Evap. Vapour Liquid Evap. Vapour Liquid Evap. Vapour
T P Vr Vg Or Org ug hr hrg hg Sf Srg Sg
0.01 0.6113 0.001000 206.132 0.00 2375.3 2375.3 0.00 2501.3 2501.3 0.0000 9.1562 9.1562
5 0.8721 0.001000 147.118 20.97 2361.3 2382.2 20.98 2489.6 2510.5 0.0761 8.9496 9.0257
10 1.2276 0.001000 106.377 41.99 2347.2 2389.2 41.99 2477.7 2519.7 0.1510 8.7498 8.9007
15 1.7051 0.001001 77.925 62.98 2333.1 2396.0 62.98 2465.9 2528.9 0.2245 8.5569 8.7813
20 2.3385 0.001002 57.790 83.94 23319 2402.9 83.94 2454.1 2538.1 0.2966 8.3706 8.6671
25 3.1691 0.001003 43.359 104.86 2304.9 2409.8 104.87 2442.3 2547.2 0.3673 8.1905 8.5579
30 4.2461 0.001004 32.893 125.77 2290.8 2416.6 125.77 2430.5 2556.2 0.4369 8.0164 8.4533
35 5.6280 0.001006 25.216 146.65 2276.7 2423.4 146.66 2418.6 2565.3 0.5052 7.8478 8.3530
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40 7.3837 0.001008 19.523 167.53 2262.6 2430.1 167.54 2406.7 2574.3 0.5724 7.6845 8.2569
45 9.5934 0.001010 15.258 188.41 2248.4 2436.8 188.42 2394.8 2583.2 0.6386 7.5261 8.1647
50 12.350 0.001012 12.032 209.30 2234.2 2443.5 209.31 2382.7 2592.1 0.7037 7.3725 8.0762
55 15.758 0.001015 9.568 230.19 2219.9 2450.1 230.20 2370.7 2600.9 0.7679 7.2234 7.9912
60 19.941 0.001017 7.671 251.09 2205.5 2456.6 251.11 2358.5 2609.6 0.8311 7.0784 7.9095
65 25.033 0.001020 6.197 272.00 2191.1 2463.1 272.03 2346.2 2618.2 0.8934 6.9375 7.8309
70 31.188 0.001023 5.042 292.93 2176.6 2469.5 292.96 2333.8 2626.8 0.9548 6.8004 7.7552
75 38.578 0.001026 4.131 313.87 2162.0 2475.9 313.91 2321.4 2635.3 1.0154 6.6670 7.6824
80 47.390 0.001029 3.407 334.84 2147.4 2482.2 334.88 2308.8 2643.7 1.0752 6.5369 7.6121
85 57.834 0.001032 2.828 355.82 2132.6 2488.4 355.88 2296.0 2651.9 1.1342 6.4102 7.5444
90 70.139 0.001036 2.361 376.82 2117.7 2494.5 376.90 2283.2 2660.1 1.1924 6.2866 7.4790
95 84.554 0.001040 1.982 397.86 2102.7 2500.6 397.94 2270.2 2668.1 1.2500 6.1659 7.4158
100 0.10135 0.001044 1.6729 418.91 2087.6 2506.5 419.02 2257.0 2676.0 1.3068 6.0480 7.3548
Badboys2
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P=10 kPa. (45.81) P=50 kPa.(81.33) P = 100 kPa. (99.62)

T v u h s v u h s v u h s
Sat 14.674 2437.9 2584.6 8.1501 3.240 2483.8 2645.9 7.5939 1.6940 2505.1 2675.5 7.3593
50 14.869 2443.9 2592.6 8.1749 - - - - - - - -
100 17.196 2515.5 2687.5 8.4479 3.418 2511.6 2682.5 7.6947 1.6958 2505.6 2676.2 7.3614
150 19.513 2587.9 2783.0 8.6881 3.889 2585.6 2780.1 7.9400 1.9364 2582.7 2776.4 7.6133
200 21.825 2661.3 2879.5 8.9037 4.356 2659.8 2877.6 8.1579 2.1723 2658.0 2875.3 7.8342
250 24.136 2736.0 2977.3 9.1002 4.821 2735.0 2976.0 8.3555 2.4(0) 2733.7 2974.3 8.0332
300 26.445 2812.1 3076.5 9.2812 5.284 2811.3 3075.5 8.5372 2.6388 2810.4 3074.3 8.2157
400 31.053 2968.9 3279.5 9.ffJ76 6.2W 2968.4 3278.9 8.8641 3.1026 2967.8 3278.1 8.5434
500 35.679 3132.3 3489.0 9.8977 7.134 3131.9 3488.6 9.1545 3.5655 3131.5 3488.1 8.8341
600 40.295 3302.5 3705.4 10.1608 8.058 3302.2 3705.1 9.4117 4.0278 3301.9 3704.7 9.(1)75
700 44.911 3479.6 3928.7 10.4028 8.981 3479.5 3928.5 9.6599 4.4899 3479.2 3928.2 9.3398
800 49.526 3663.8 4159.1 10.6281 9.~ 3663.7 4158.9 9.8852 4.9517 3663.5 4158.7 9.5652
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<XX> 54.141 3855.0 4396.4 10.8395 10.828 3854.9 4396.3 10.0967 5.4135 3854.8 4396.1 9.7767
HID 58.757 4053.0 4640.6 11.0392 11.751 4052.9 4640.5 10.2964 5.8753 4052.8 4640.3 9.9764
1100 63.372 4257.5 4891.2 11.2287 12.674 4257.4 4891.1 10.4858 6.3370 4257.3 4890.9 10.1658
1200 67.987 4467.9 5147.8 11.4090 13.597 4467.8 5147.7 1O.6(i)2 6.7986 4467.7 5147.6 10.3462
1300 72.ffJ3 4683.7 4400.7 11.5810 14.521 4683.6 54ffi.6 10.8382 7.2ffJ3 4683.5 54ffi.5 10.5182
P = 200 kPa (120.23) P =300 kPa (133.55) P = 400 kPa (143.65)

Sat. 0.88573 2529.5 27~.6 7.1271 0.60582 2543.6 2725.3 6.9918 0.46246 2553.6 2738.5 6.8958
150 0.95964 2576.9 2768.8 7.2795 0.63388 2570.8 2761.0 7.0778 0.47084 2564.5 2752.8 6.9299
200 1.08034 2654.4 2870.5 7.5056 0.71629 2650.7 2865.5 7.3115 0.53422 2646.8 2860.5 7.17~
250 1.19880 2731.2 2971.0 7.7005 0.7%36 2728.7 2%7.6 7.5165 0.59512 2726.1 2964.2 7.3788
300 1.31616 2800.6 3071.8 7.8926 0.87529 28~.7 3059.3 7.7022 0.65484 2804.8 3066.7 7.5(i)1
400 1.54930 29fl)'7 3276.5 8.2217 1.03151 2965.5 3275.0 8.0329 0.77262 2964.4 3273.4 7.8984
500 1.78139 3130.7 3487.0 8.5132 1.18669 3130.0 3486.0 8.3250 0.88934 3129.2 3284.9 8.1912
600 2.01297 3301.4 3704.0 8.7769 1.34136 3300.8 3703.2 8.5892 1.00555 3300.2 3702.4 8.4557
700 2.24426 3478.8 3927.7 9.0194 1.49573 3478.4 3927.1 8.8319 1.12147 3477.9 3926.5 8.6987
800 2.47539 3663.2 4158.3 9.2450 1.64994 3(i)2.9 4157.8 9.0575 1.23722 3662.5 4157.4 8.9244
Badboys2

RANKINE CYCLE The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is given by
This is a reversible cycle. When all the following four processes (hI -h4)-(h2 -h3)
are ideal, the cycle is an ideal cycle called Rankine cycle. (h, - h4)
Flow Diagram of Rankine Cycle
where, Q 1 = heat transferred to the working fluid
High pressure, high
temperature steam Q2 = heat rejected from the working fluid
Process 1 W T = work transferred from the working fluid
W p = work transferred into the working fluid
~,
r I RANKINE CYCLE WITH REHEATER
: I Boiler
I
I
The flow diagram for the ideal Rankine cycle with reheat is
I
I
I shown in fig.
I
I
I
I
I
I I
Air _J T
and Combus-
fuel tion
products
Process
High pressure water
Simple steam power plant

Process 1 : Reversible constant pressure heating process of
water to form steam in steam boiler.
Badboys2 Process 2: Reversible adiabatic expansion of steam by turbine.

Process 3: Reversible constant process of heat rejection as the
steam condenses till it becomes saturated liquid. This is by
condenser.
Process 4: Reversible adiabatic compression of the liquid
ending at the initial pressure by the pump.
Rankine cycle Plot on p-v, t-s and h-s Planes Pump
Wp
1"
In this cycle, the expansion of steam from the initial state 1to the
condenser pressure is carried out in two or more steps depending
upon the number of reheats used.
In this case efficiency,
(a) QI = h, -h6s + h3 - h2s; Q2 = h4s - hs

WT = h, - h2s + h3 - h4s; Wp = h6s - hs
In practise, the use of reheat only gives a small increase in cycle
efficiency, but it increases the net work output by making possible
the use of higher pressures, keeping the quality of steam at turbine
exhaust within a permissible limit.
By increasing the number of reheats, still higher steam pressures
could be used, but the mechanical stresses increase at a higher
proportion than the increase in pressure, becuase ofthe prevailing
high temperature.
... s
(c)
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RANKINE CYCLEWITH REGENERATOR AND REHEAT Process 1: Air is compressed reversibly and adiabatically.
The effect of reheat alone on the thermal efficiency of the cycle is Process 2: Addition of heat reversibly at constant pressure.
very small. Regeneration or the heating up of feedwater by steam Process 3: In the turbine, air expands reversibly and adiabatically.
extracted from the turbine enhances the efficiency of the cycle. Process 4: From the air heat is rejected reversibley at constant
Flow diagram of Rankine Cycle with regeneration and reheats pressure.
shown in Fig. Efficiency of Brayton Cycle:
11= 1- Q2 = 1- T4 - Tl
...(i)
Q} T3 - T2
As Q 1= heat supplied = mcp (T 3 - T2)
Q2 = heat rejected = mcp (T4 - T 1)
(Y-l)/Y T
T2 P2 3.
Now T; = ( Pt J = T4 (Since PI = P3' and P4 = PI)
T4 -1 = T3 -1
T} T2
\ (Y-l)/y ( \ y-l
T4 - T1 T1 ( PI I v2 I
or
T3 - T2 = T2 = lpJ = l~)
If r k = compression ratio = V /v2 the efficiency becomes
[from Eq. (i)]
Y-l
( J
11= 1- :~
Badboys2 or 11Brayton = 1- y-l

1
...(ii)
rk
If r p = pressure ratio = P2/P 1 the efficiency may be expressed in
the following form also
Here,
( ,(y-l)/y
WT = (hI -h2) + (1-m1)(h2 - h3) + (1-m1)(h4 -h5)
+ (I-ml -m2)(h5 - h6) + (1-ml -m2 -m3)(h6 - h7) kJ/kg. 11= l-l:~)
Wp= (I-m} -m2 -m3)(h9-hg) + (I-ml -m2)(hll -hlO)
+ (1- m.) (h13 - h12) + I(h15 - h14) kJ/kg
Q1 = (hI - h15) + (1- m1)(h4 - h3) kJ/kg
or 11 -
Brayton -
1
(rp i 1
y-l )/y
...(iii)
and Q2 = (I-ml -m2 -m3) (h7 - hg) kJ/kg
The energy balance of heaters 1, 2 and 3 give The efficiency of the Brayton cycle, therefore, depends upon
m 1h2 + (1 - m 1) h 13= 1 x h 14 either the compression ratio or the pressure ratio.
m2h5+(I-ml-m2)hl1 =(I-ml)h12
BRAYTON CYCLE WITH REGENERATOR AND
m3h6 + (I-m} -m2-m3) h9= (I-m1-m2)h10
REHEATER
from which m I> m2 and m3 can be evaluated.
In the regenerator, the temperautre of air leaving the compressor
BRAYTON CYCLE is raised by heat transfer from the turbine exhaust. The maximum
It is the air standard cycle for the gas turbine power plant.The temperature to which the cold air at 2 could be heated is the
flow diagram of Brayton cycle is shown in Fig. temperature of the hot air leaving the turbine at 5. This is possible
only in an infinite heat exchanger. In the real case, the temperature
at 3 is less than that at 5.
We+---
Compressor Turbine
Heat
exchanger
(a)
Badboys2
_____. S
(b)
.. s
(b)
Effectiveness of the regenerator:
t3 - t2 actual temperature rise of air

E = --- = ------=----------
Ts - T1 maximum possible rise of temperature
Efficiency of Brayton cycle with regenerator.
Q} T6 - T} T} [(T2 lTd-I]
11= 1- Q2 = 1- T4 - T3 = 1- T4 1- (Ts I T4)
Badboys2
T} T2 [1-(T} IT2)]
= 1- T4 r; 1-(Ts IT4)
f
11--1 --y
T} y-1/y
T4 p
For a fixed ratio of (T /T 4) the cycle efficiency drops with ~v
increasing pressure ratio. (c)
Effect of Reheat on Brayton Cycle:
In the cycle 4-5-6-4', rp is lower than in the basic cycle 1-2-3-4', so
its efficiency is lower. Therefore, the efficiency of the cycle
decreases with the use of reheat. But T 6 is greater than T'4.
Therefore, ifregeneration is employed, there is more energy that
can be recovered from the turbine exhaust gases. So when
regeneration is employed in conjunction with reheat, there may
be a net gain in cycle efficiency.
AIR STANDARD CYCLES

Air standard cycles are utilized for the purpose of analysing
the working ofInternal combustion Engine. It is considered
to be an idealized cycle and the following assumptions are
made for analysis:
1. The working fluid is taken as air for the cycle and assumed
to be a perfect gas.
2. The engine is assumed to working in a closed cycle. There
is no change of mass of the working medium.
3. All the processes that conclude the cycle is of reversible
nature.
(a)
Badboys2

4. Heat is considered to be provided from a constant High AIR-STANDARD OTTO CYCLE
temperature source and not be chemical combustion.
The air-Standard Otto Cycle of spark-ignition (SI) engine. It is
5. Heat loses are negligible.
named after N.A.Otto a German engineer who first built a four-
6. The value of specific heats of workings substance remain
stroke engine in1876. In most (S-I) engines, the piston executes
constant throughout the cycle.
four complete strokes within the cylinder and crankshaft completes
7. Kinetic energy and Potential energy remain constant
two revolutions for each, thermodyamic cycle. These engines are
throughout the process.
called four-stroke internal combustion engine.
The schematic diagram of each stroke is shown in fig.
1. Induction 2. Compression 3. Expansion 4. Exahust

IVO Both value closed EVO
~It
Jl~ Spark
rl~
0 0
0
TDC or inner
Badboys2
dead centre
(IDC)
BDC or outer _____.

dead centre
(ODC)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Indicator diagram: on the piston which moves to the right and the pressure and
temperature of the gases decrease.
Process 5-6, Blow-down : The exhaust valve opens, and the
pressure drops to the initial pressure.
Process 6-1, Exhaust: With the exhaust valve open, the piston
moves inwards to expel the combustion products from the cylinder
at constant pressure.
The efficiency of air-standard otto cycle
11 = 1- Q2 =1 mcy (T4 - T}) =1 (T4 - T})
2,6 Q1 mCy(T3 - T2) (T3 - T2) ...(i)
1 DC ---.~ V ODC Y-1
T2 = ~
Process 1-2, Intake: The inlet valve is open, the piston moves to
the right, admitting fuel-air mixture into the cylinder at constant
Process 1-2,
T1 ( v2 J
pressure.
Process 2-3, Compression: Both the valves are closed, the piston
compresses the combustible mixture to the minimum volume. Process 3-4,
Process 3-4, Combustion: The mxiture is then ignited by means
of a spark, combustion takes place, and there is an increase in
temperature and pressure.
Process 4-5, Expansion: The products of combustion do work
Badboys2

The indicator diagram of diesel cycle
or
3 4
r
Y-l
. V2
Fromeq. (1) 11= 1- ~ ( J --_'.~ V
Process 1-2, Intake: The air valve is open. The piston moves out
1 admitting air into the cylinder at constant pressure.
or 11otto = 1- y-l ...(ii)
rk Process 2-3, Compression : The air is then compressed by the
piston to the minimum volume with all the valves closed.
whe-e rk is called the compression ratio and given by Process 3-4, Fuel injection and combustion: The fuel valve is
open, fuel is sprayed into the hot air, and combustion takes place
Volume at the beginning of compression VI = ~ at constant pressure.
rk = Process 4-5, Expansion: The combustion products expand, doing
Volume at the end of compression V2 v2
work on the piston which moves out the maximum volume.
The efficiency of the air standard Otto cycle is thus a function of Process 5-6, Blow-down: The exhaust valve opens, and the
the compression ratio only. The higher the compression ratio, the
Badboys2
pressure drops to the initial pressure.
higher the efficiency. It is independent of the temperature levels Pressure 6-1, Exhaust: With the exhaust valve open, the piston
at which the cycle operates. moves towards the cylinder cover driving away the combustion
The net work output for an otto cycle products from the cylinder at constant pressure.
The above processes constitute an engine cycle, which is
completed in four strokes of the piston or two revolutions of the
crank shaft.
Now, The efficiency of diesel engine:

11= 1- 21._ = 1- mcv (T4 - T1) = 1 (T4 - TI)
QI mCp(T3 - T2) Y (T3 - T2)
Here, Ql = Q2 _ 3 = mcp (T3 - T2) = heat supplied
Q2 = Q4-1 = me, (T4 - T 1)= heat rejected
Efficiency in terms of compression ratio, expansion ratio and cut-
El_ = P4 = rp (say) offratio.
P2 PI
VI vI
Compression ratio, rk =-=-
Wnet = PlVl (P3V3 _ P4V4 _P2V2 +IJ V2 v2
y-l PlVl PlVl PlVl
[
V4 v4
-_--
Expansion ratio, e - V3 - v3
[
V3 v3
-_--
Cut-off ratio, c - V2 - v2
It is see that rk=rerc
W = PIVI (r -1) (Y-l_l)
net y- 1 P k
T4 =(~JY-I
DIESEL CYCLES
Process 3-4
T3 v4 rrl
y-l
It is a compression-ignition (CI) engine proposed by Rudolph rc
T4 =T3--l
Diesel in 1890s. It is very similar to SI engine differing mainly in rY-
k
the method of initiating combustion. In diesel cycle or combustion
engine during the compression stroke only air is compressed T2 = P2v2 =~=_
however in SI engine air-fuel mixture is compressed. Process 2-3
T3 P3v3 v3 rc
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=1- Q2 =1- mCp(Tc-TB)+mcp(TD-TC)

Q1 mCv(TE- TA)
Process 1-2 11=1 (TE-TA)

(Tc -TB)+y(TD -Tc)
1 T3 1 where, y=specific heat ratio.
T1=T2 .--=-.--
"y-1 r "y-1 The compressionratio (C.P), Expansion ratio (E.R) and cut
"k e J.k
- offratio (C. R) can be given as follows:
Substituting the values of T l' T2 and T4 in the expression of
efficiency.
C.R= VA ,E.R= VE ,C.R= VD
y-1 VB VD Vc
T l__ T3 _1_ Comparison of Otto, diesel and dual cycles
3 . ry-1 re ry-1
k k The three cycles are compared on the basis of their
11= 1
compression ratio, heat input, work output, etc.
(a) For same heat input, the temperature attrained is
maximum forOtto cycleand minimum for dieselcycle.
Also for same heat input, efficiency of Otto cycle is
1 1 rJ-l maximum while that ofDieselcycleis minimum.
11Diese1
= 1--. y-1 . --1
Y rk re- (b) For same maximum pressure and same heat input, the
efficiency of Diesel cycle is more than Dual cycle.
(c) For same pressure and temperature, the efficiency of
As r c > 1, = Y1 (ry~ -1
-IJ is also greater than unity. Therefore, the Diesel cycle is more than dual cycle.
Steam boilers
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efficiencyof the Diesel cycle is less than of the Otto cycle for the Steam boiler is basically a closed vessel into which water is
same compression ratio. heated until the water is converted into steam at required
Dual cycles pressure by combustion of fuel. In this, fuel is generally
Dual cycle is also called as limited pressure cycle. In this burnt in a turnace and hot gases are produced. These hot
cycle, the addition of heat is done partly at constant gases come in contact with water vessel and the heat of
pressure values and partly at constant volume values. hot gases is transfered to water and steam is produced.
This steam is fed through pipes to the turbine of thermal
power plant.
1
~
C~D Isentropic
process
Applications
()) B (i) Steam boilers are utilized as generators for the
production of electricity in the energy sector.
~ E
tZl
(ii) Steam boilers are used in agriculture and soil -
1\ steaming.
Volume(V) ~ (iii) Steam boilers are also used for heating the building in
cold weather.
Process A - B : Reversible adiabatic compression
Classification of steam boilers
Process B - C : Constant volume heat addition
Steam boilers are classified based on the following basis:
Process C - D : Constant pressure heat addition
(i) Steam pressure (ii) Firing method
Process D - E : Reversible adiabatic expansion
(iii) Tube contents (iv) Circulation of water
Process E - A : Constant volume heat rejection
(v) Heat source (vi) Stationary or Portable
constant volume (vii) Position (viii)Passage of gas
(ix) Draught nature
T (i) Steam pressure:
Steam boilers are classified according to pressure as :
I B follows:
(a) Low pressure boiler: It is described as a boiler which
developes pressure of the steam whose value of below
~ S 80 bar. Examplesare Cochran, Lancashire,Locomotive
Heat supplied, Q, = meP (T, - TB + meP (TD - TC) boilers etc.
Heat rejected, Q2 = mcv (TE - TA) (b) High pressure boiler : It is defined as the boiler in
which steam is developedat more than 80 bar pressure.
Q1-Q2 Examples are Babcock and Wilcox, Benson,Lamount
We know that, efficiency (11)
Q1 etc.
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A-tOO Thermal Engineerging

(ii) Firing method: (viii)Passage of gas:
Steam boilers are classified according to firing method as Steam boilers are classified according to gas passage as :
follows: (a) Single - Pass (b) Multi - Pass
(a) Internally fired boiler: In this type, the boiler shell (ix) Draught nature:
contains the turnace and the turnance is totally Steam boilers are classified according to draught nature as
covered by water cooled surfaces. follows:
Examples are Lancashire boiler, Locomotive, Scotch etc. (a) Natural draught boilers: In this type, Natural gas or
(b) Externally fired boiler : In this type, the region of air circulation develops draught.
turnace is constructed outside the boiler shell. (b) Forced draught boilers: In this type, mechanical
Example: Babcock and wilcox boiler. systems like tans develops draught.
(iii) Tube contents : Difference between fire tube boiler and water tube boiler:
Steam boilers are classified as according to the Fire Tube Boiler Water tube boiler
contents of the tube as follows: Hot gas es are inside the Water is available inside
(a) Fire tube boiler : In this type, the hot gases are tubes while water out side the tube while hot gases
available inside the tubes and the water surrounds the tubes outside the tubes.
the tube. The combustion of hot gases takes place Firing is done internally Firing is done externally.
and the products of combustion pass through the fire
tubes (surrounded by water). The excess heat of hot Operatinal pressure is upto Operational pres sure is
gases is transferred to water and transformed into 16 bar high as upto 100 bar
steam. The exhaust gases are discharge through Less amount of steam is High amount of steam is
chimney. generated generated
Examples are Cohran, Lancashire, locomotive boilers etc. It requires large floor area for It requires les s floor area
(b) Water tube boilers: In this type, water flows inside g rven power for the same power
the tubes while the hot gases passes outside the It is not generally used in It is used in large power
large power plants plants
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tubes. The tubes are generally surrounded by the
products of combustion of hot gases : Boiler shell diameter is large Boiler shell diameter is
Examples are Babcock and wilcox, stirling boilers etc. for given power small for the same amount
(iv) Circulation of water: of given power
Steam boilers are classified as according to water circulation Parts are not accessible Parts are easily accessible
as follows: easily for the purpose of for the purpose of
(a) Natural circulation: In this type, water circulation maintenance maintenance
within the boiler takes place by natural convection Efficiency is less Efficiency is high
current produced by the application of heat. Example Initial cost is less Initial co s t is high
are Lanca-shire, Locomotive, Babcock and wilcox
It has a large ratio ofwater It has a comparatively small
boiler etc.
content to s team capacity ratio ofwater content to
(b) Forced circulation: In this type, circulation is done
s team capacity
by means of forces pumps along with natural
Slow in evaporation Quick in evaporation
circulation for the purpose of increasing the
circulation. Examples are Lamont, Velox, Benson
Boiler Mountings and accessories:
Boiler mountings and accessories are fittings and devices
boilers etc.
which are utilized for safe and efficient operations.
(v) Heat source:
(i) Boiler Mountings: These are components which are
It may be of the following types;
mounted on the boiler body for the purpose of safety and
(a) Combustion offuel in solid, liquid or gaseous form
control of the steam generation. Different Boiler mountings
(b) Electrical energy
are given as follows:
(c) Nuclear energy
(a) Water level indicator: It provides and indication of
(d) Hot waste gases (by - products of chemical processes)
the water level in the boiler constantly. It is also termed
(vi) Stationary or Portable
as water gauge.
(a) Stationary boilers: Stationary plants use stationary (b) Pressure gauge: It is utilized for the purpose of
type of boilers. measurement of pressure inside the vessel. It is
(b) Portable boilers : These are those boilers which are mounted on the top front of boiler shell.
easily de-assembled and transported from one place (c) Safety values: It is utilized for the purpose of release
to other place. of excess amount of steam in a condition when steam
(vii) Position: pressure must have at least two safety values various
According to position, steam boilers may be classified types of safety values are given below:
follows ---+ Dead weight safety value
(a) Horizontal (b) Vertical ---+ Liver safety value
(c) Inclined
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Thermal Engineerging x.toi

~ Spring loaded safety value dynamic action of steam turbine plays an important role
~ High steam and Low water safety value. during the working of steam turbine. The steam is impinged
(d) Fusible plug: It provides a protection of the boiler with a high pressure via nozzle and because of this
against any kind of damage because of overheating for law impingement, a specific amount of heat energy is
water level. It is fixed over the combustion chamber. transformed into kinetic energy. Now, the high velocity
(e) Blow - off cock: It discharge a water partion during steam particles strike on the blade of turbine resulting in
operation of boiler to blowout mud or scale at regular change in direction of motion and develops a momentum.
intervals. It is also used for emptying boiler for the purpose Steam flows with high velocity like jets and moving parts
of cleaning, inspection and repair. of turbine transforms these high velocity sets into
(f) Feed check value: It provides a proper control of mechanical work which rotates the shaft of generator and
water supply to the boiler and to provide the prevention of thus rotation of shaft gives rise to the generation of
escaping of water from the boiler if the pump pressure is electricity.
less. Classification of turbine:
(g) Stop value : It provides a regulation of the flow of Turbines are classified based on the principle of operation
steam from one steam pipe to other steam pipe or from given as follows;
boiler to steam tubes. (a) Simple Impulse turbine: In Simple impulse turbine,
(h) Boiler Accessories: rotar is connected to the shaft which provides useful power.
Various types of boiler accessories are given as follows: It is a rotating element of turbine which consists of moving
(a) Feed pumps: It is used for delivering feed water to blades. In the middle portion of the turbine, the nozzle and
the boiler. Rotary pump and Reciprocating pumps are blades are available. Nozzle works as a passage for steam
generally used as feed pumps. flow where high pressure energy of steam is converted
(b) Injector: It is utilized for feeding water into the boiler. into kinetic enegry. Simple impulse turbine is also known
It is employed in vertical and locomotive boilers. It can as De Lavel turbine. In this type, only one set of blades is
also be used in place of feed pumps where the space fixed to the wheel through which conversion of kinetic
availability is less. It is very low in cost, simple and its energy of steam into mechanical work takes place. It has a
Badboys2 thermal efficiency is very high.
(c) Economiser: It is described as a device which uses
very large ratio of expansion i.e., the velocity of steam is
very high (1000 m/s).
the waste heat of hot flue gases for the purpose of heating
the feed water which is further supplied to the boiler.
Cp(TB-TA)
% saving in fuel consumption H_H x 100
w
where, C, = specific heat at constant pressure
T B = Temperature of heated feed water
T A = initial feed water temperature
H= Enthalpy
H w = Sensible heat of water
(d) Air Pre-heater : It is used for the purpose of increasing
or raising the air temperature before entering if into
the furnace. The position of air - preheater is always
after economiser. Tube type, plate tube and storage
type of air preheaters are used.
(e) Superheater: It is a device which is used for the
purpose of increasing the steam temperature which is
higher at its saturation temperature. It can be utilized
in fire tube and water tube boilers. Due to superheater, (b) Pressure Compounded impulse turbine : In case of
consumption of steam is reduced and efficiency of simple impulse turbine, high velocity steam flows through
the steam plant is increased. moving blades produces a high amount of rotational speed
(f) Steam separator: It is device which separates the which should be avoided for practical purposes. In this
increased water molecules from the steam which is type, a number of simple impulse turbines in series are
passing to the turbined. mounted on a single common shaft. Each simple impulse
(g) Steam trap: It is device which is utilized for the purpose turbine is said to be the stage of the turbine. Each stage
of draining the condensed steam from steam pipes, consists of its own nozzles and blades. The steam coming
steam separators etc. So that no steam could be out from the boiler passes through first nozzle where its
escaped. pressure is decreased and velocity is increased. This high
Steam turbines: velocity steam is directed towards the moving blades of
In steam turbines, conversion of high pressure and high first stage result absorption of all of its velocity. Hence the
temperature steam into mechanical energy takes place. The steam pressure does not is being apsorbed. Thus the total
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A-l02 Thermal Engineerging

pressure absorbed is equally (nearly) divided in stages
which reduces the steam velocity entering into moving
blade.
(e) Reaction turbine:

In the reaction turbines, steam from the boiler first flows
Pressure compounding through guiding mechanism and then flows through the
(c) Simple velocity compounded impulse turbine: moving blades. The kinetic energy is minimised. The
This type of turbines consistsof a setof nozzles and moving pressure energy does not change before striking. When
the steam passes through moving blades, then is a
blades rows which are connected the shaft whereas the
difference of pressure between inlet and outlet tips due
fixed blade rows are connected to casing. Ithas in general,
to w_hichpressure is decreased while passing through
moving and fixed blades. The steam at a very high pressure
movmg blades. The fixed blades are considered to change
coming out from boiler is expanded in the nozzle where
the steam direction and at the same time allowing to get
pressure energy is transformed into the kinetic energy.The
expanded to higher velocity values. The steam pressure
steam at high velocity is impinged on the first stage of
Badboys2 moving blades and steam flows through blades loosing
decreases when if passes over the moving blades.
some amount of velocity due to the fact that some part of

Fixed
momentum imported by blade. High kinetic energy is
absorbed and steam velocity remains constant while
passing through fixed blades. The process is repeated fill
all of steam energy is being absorbed.
Entropy (~) ~
- -- P
....................
I+-dH(,+ll+-dH
3
2-+1
Vr2>Vr j
Steam flow through turbine blades: (some important

formulas)
)1
Velocitycompounding
(d) Pressure velocity compounded turbine:
Itis the combinationarrangement of pressure compounding
and velocity compounding. The decrease in total pressure
of steam is split in stages and velocity of each stage is
compounded. A High amount of pressure is decreases in
this type of turbine and so lesser number of stages are
required which gives rise to design of a smaller turbine for
similar value of pressure drop. The efficiency is very low
and it is very rarey used nowadays. VW2
Velocity triangle of steam turbine
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Thermal Engineerging A-I03

Let us consider the following: 11. Maximum efficiency of reaction turbine;
u = velocity (Linear) of blade
2cos2 a
v WI= velocity of whirl at inlet 11max = 2
l s-cos U
VW2= velocity of whirl at outlet Comparison between Impulse and reaction turbine:
v fl = flow velocity at inlet Impulse turbine Reaction turbine
Only kinetic energy is Kinetic energy and
v f2 = flow velocity of output utilized for the purpose Pressure energy both are
Vrl = relative velocity at inlet of rotation of turbine utilized for the purpose of
rotation of turbine
vr2 = relative velocity at output Water flows over the Guide mechanism directs
VI = Absolutive velocity of steam at inlet nozzle followed by the water for the purpose
v 2 = Absolute velocity of steam at output striking the blades of flowing over turbine
u = nozzle angle J3 = Angle with which discharged Pres sure is decreas ed Pressure is decreased in
steam makes with tangeal of wheel in nozzle and not in fixed blades (nozzles) and
e = Inlet angle of moving blade moving blades also in moving blades
 = exit angle of moving blade
The type of the blades The type of the blade is
co = steam weight which flowes through blade
is profile aerofoil
Qv = volume of steam flowing through blades
Low power is High power is produced
D = diameter of blade drum
Low efficiency High efficiency
w For same power For same power
1. Work done on blades/sec. = -(VWl - VW2)X u
g generations ifrequires generations, it requires
less space more space
Badboys22. Horse power =
W
g
u(VW1-VW2)
75 Internal combustion Engine: (IC Engine) :
An I.e. Engine is defined as a heat engine in which the
combustion of fuel is occured in the presence of air and
3. this results in releasing the energy in the cylinder of an
engine.
Comparison between I.C. Engine and Steam angine :
v2
4. Energy supplied to blades/kg of steam = 2~
Steam Engine LC. Engine
In steam engine, In r.c Engine, Combustion
2u(vW1 -VW2) combustion takes place takes place inside the engine.
5. Blade efficiency = 2 outside the engine.
vI
Steam engines are Operation one. Engines
6. Stage efficiency operated at temperature done at temperature values of
work done on blade values of around 600 C about 2400C
(11) = Total energy supplied per stage It does not require It requires cooling due to
cooling high operational
(VWl-VW2)u temperatures
(11) = g x ~h x J The enhaust of steam The exhaust of an l.C. Engine
engine is utilized as teed is exited to the atmosphere.
11 = blade efficiency x nozzle efficiency
water
Instantaneous use for Instantaneous use of I.e.
7. Axial force on wheel = w (v fl - Vf2 ) steam engine is not Engine is possible
g
pos sible
vI CoSU
8. If blade speed =u= 2 .fhen efficiency of Weigh t to power ratio is Weight to power ratio is low
high
impulse turbine Steam engine has a very I.e. Engine has higher value
9. If blade speed = u = vcosa, then efficiency of low value ofefficiency of efficiency i.e.30-36%
reaction turbine is maximum. i.e. 15-20%
10. Maximum efficiency of impulse turbine,
Classification ofI.C. Engine:
cos2 a ( vr1 cos<l> '\
11max = -l2 vr2 cosn + 1)
An I.e. Engine can be classified as follows:
(i) According to the type of fuel used
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(a) Diesel engine B.D.C. But actually exhaust value begines to open when
(b) Petrol engine about 85% of working stroke is completed. A pressure (4-
(c) Cras engine 5 bar) forcesabout 60% ofburnt gases into exhaustmaxifold
(ii) According to method of igniting the fuel at high speed. The remaining burnt gases are cleared off
(a) Spark Ignition Engine the swept volume when the piston moves from B.D.C to
(b) Compression Ignition Engine T.D.C.The exhaust value opens and inertia of flywheeland
(iii) According to number of strokes/cycle other moving parts push the piston back to TD.C, forcing
(a) Two stroke cycle engine the exhaust gases out through the open exhaust value. At
(b) Four stroke cycle engine the end of exhaust stroke, the piston is at TDS and one
(iv) According to cycle of operation operating cycle has been completed.
(a) Diesel cycle engine Engine components:
(b) Oho cycle engine There are various components of an I.C. Engine which are
(c) Dual cycle engine grven as:
(v) According to member of cylinders (a) Cylinder: In this, the burning offuel takes place and
(a) Single cylinder engine power produced.
(b) Multi cylinder engine (b) Cylinder head: One end of the cylinder is covered by
(vi) According to cooling system it and if also consists of the values.
(a) Air cooled engine (c) Piston: The other end of the working space of cylinder
(b) water cooled engine is coveredby the piston. Powerproduced due to combustion
(c) oil cooled engine products is transmitted to the crank shaft.
(vii) According to cylinder position (d) Connecting rod: It changes and transmits the
(a) Horizontal engine translatory motion of the piston to rotating crank bin during
(b) vertical engine working stroke.
(c) V -engine (e) Crank shaft: Crank shaft is used to transmit the work
(d) Radial engine from the piston to driven shaft.
Badboys2 (viii) According to speed of the engine
(a) Low speed engine
(f) Crank webs
(g) Main bearings
(b) Medium speed engine (h) Crank pin and bearing
(c) High speed engine (i) Fuel Nozzle: It is used for delivering fuel into
Four stroke cycle engine: combustion chamber through an injection system having
Most of the I.C. Engines work on the basis of four stroke pump.
cycle engine. Following is the sequence of operations are G) Piston rings: It provides a gas high seal between the
given in four stroke cycle engine: piston and the liners.
(a) Suction Stroke: To start with, the piston is near to (k) Intake value: It permists the fresh air to enter.
Top dead center (TD.S) and the inlet value is open and (1) Exhaust value : The combustion products are
exhaust value is closed.As the piston moves from T.D.C to exhausted through this value after working.
B.D.C, the charge is to rush in and fill the space created by (m) Cam - shaft (n) Cam
piston. The charge consists of air-fuel mixture. The (0) Rocker arms (P) Value - springs
admission of charge inside cylinder continuous until the (q) Crank case : It holds the cylinder piston and crank
inlet value is closed. shaft.
(b) Compression stroke: In this stroke, both values are (r) Flywheel
closed and the piston moves from B.D.C to TD.C. The (s) Bed plate
charge is compressed upto compression ratio of 5 : 1 to (t) Cooling water jackets
9 : 1 and the pressure and temperature at the end of Carburettor
compression are 6 - 12bar and 250 - 300 C respectively. It is a device which is used for the purpose of atomising
(c) Power or Expansion stroke: When the piston reaches and vaporising the fuel and if also mixes fuel and air in
TD.C. position, the charge is ignited by causing an electric different preportions for the charging purposes.
spark by spark plug. During combustion process, chemical Air Fuel mixture:
energy of fuel is released and there is a rise in temperature There is a range of air-fuel mixtures through which
and pressure of gases. The temperature of gases increases combustion takes place. The limits of these ranges of air-
to 1800 - 2000C and pressure reaches 30-40 bar. Now the fuel mixtures are given below:
combustion products expand and push the piston down Upperlimit => 20 : 1
the cylinder. The reciprocating piston motion is converted Lower limit => 7: 1to 10: 1
into rotary motion of crankshaft by a connecting rod and Two- stroke cycle Engine:
crank. During expansion,pressure decreasesdue to increase In two stroke cycle engine, the following four operations
in volume of gases and heat absorption by cylinder walls. are given as follows:
(d) Exhaust stroke: In this stroke, the exhaust value is (a) air-induction
opened at the end ofworking strokes when the piston is at (b) air compression and fuel injection
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(c) expansion (vii) Volumetricefficiency: It is defined as the ratio of mass
(d) release and exhaust of charge actually inducted to the mass of charge given by
Engine Performance: swept volume at ambient temperature and pressure.
Engine perfomance given an indication the efficiencywith (ix) Relative efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of
which the conversion of chemical energy of fuel into Indicated thermal efficiency to the air standard cycle
usefuel mechanical work takes place. efficiency.
Some certain parameters are used for the purpose of
evaluating the engine performance which are given below: l1lTH
l1Rel. =--
(i) Indicated Power : It is defined as the total power 11cycle
produced due to the fuel combustion in the combustion (x) Fuel- Air ratio:
chamber.
. Mass of consumed fuel
PmxLxAxNxKxh Fue I - Ai r ratio = --------
Indicated Power (lP) = 60 kw Mass of air taken inside
where, Pm= mean effective pressure (KPa) during the same period
L = length of stroke (m) of time
A = Piston area (m/) (xi) Relative fuel air ratio:
N = Number of revolution of crank shaft (rpm)
1
K = 2" for 4 - stroke engine and 1 for 2 - stroke engine fu I . . (lL.)
R e1ative e - aIr ratio .._K
Actual fuel- air ratio
= --------
Stoichiometric fuel
n = number of cylinders
air ratio
PmLANKn
Indicated Horse Power (IHP) = 4500
Specific fuel consumption(SFC) = Fuel consumed(gm/hr)
(ii) Brake Power: When an engine produced power at the Power produced
Badboys2 output shaft, then this power is termed as brake power. (xii) Mean-piston speed
2nNT s=21N
Brake Power (BP) = kw where, I= stroke length
60 x 1000
Where, T=Torque(N -m) N = Cranck shaft (rpm)
(xiii) Specific output:
N= Speed(rpm)
(iii) Frictional Power : It is the difference of Indicated
Specific output = ~(kw / m3)
power and brake power. AxL
Frictional power (FP) = IP - BP
(iv) Indicated thermal efficiency: n 2
where, A=-d
4
Indicated Power d = bore diameter (m)
11 =------
IlH Input Fuel Energy L = length of stroke (m)
(xiv)Calorific value offuel :
LP It is defined as the heat quantity developed due to its
mf xCL combustion at constant pressure and under normal
where, m, = mass of fuel supplied (kg/s) conditions. It is the amount of thermal energy developed
CL = Lower calorific value of the fuel by complete combustion of a fuel.
(v) Brake thermal efficiency: Difference between four - stroke and two storke cycle:
Four stroke cycle Two stroke cycle
Brake Power
11 =------ Cycle is completive in Cycle is combusted in
BTH Input fuel energy four strokes two strokes
Heavy flywheel is Light flywheel is
B.P
required required
mfxC
Engine is heavy for Engine is light for same
(vi) Mechanical efficiency: same power output power output
Brake power Less cooling and High cooling and
11mech. lubrication is needed lubrication is needed
Indicated Power
High initial cost Low initial cos t
B.P High thermal efficiency Lower thermal
IP efficiency
Volumetric efficiency is Volumetric efficiency is
B.P more less
BP+FP
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Difference between SI and CI Engine: (b) Dry sump lubrication system
S.I Engine C.I. Engine In this system, oil supply is carried in a separats tank.
Ifperforms on OHO cycle Ifperforms on diesel Scavenger pumps are used to return the oil to the tank. It is
cycle generally used in radial engines or high capacity engines.
Compression ratio ranges Compression ratio (c) Engine cooling:
from 5 to 10 ranges from 13 to 27. Engine cooling is very necessary to maintain the
Carburetor supplies fuel Fuel injector supplies temperature ofthe engine low other it affectsthe behaviour
fuel of fuel combustion and also shortens the life of engine.
Maintenance cost is low Maintenance cost is Cooling systems: There are generally two types of cooling
but running cost is high high but running cost is systems used as :
low (i) Air - cooling
Spark plug is used No Spark plug is used
(ii) Water or liquid cooling
(i) Air cooling: In air cooling system, air flows through
Thermal efficiency is low Thermal efficiency is
the outsides of cylinder barrel and out surface area is
high
increased by the use oftimes. The heat dissipated amount
Engine Lubrication and cooling: to air depends upon amount of air flowing through cooling
(a) Engine Lubrication: tins, tin surface area and thermal conductivity of material
Lubrication is defined as a method in which oil is provided of the fins used.
between two moving surfaces having relative motion Applications: Small engines, Industrial and agricultural
between them. Lubrication is employed to reduce friction engines.
betweenmoving parts. There is an oil film made which acts (ii) Water or liquid cooling: In this system,water or liquid
like a cushion for moving parts and absorbs heat from the is made to circulate around the cylinders and thus absorbing
parts. heat from the walls of the cyclinder and cylinder head.
The basic characteristic oflubricant is viscosity, oiliness, Coolant absorbs heat while passing through the engine
chemical stability,Adhesiveness, film strength, flash point and lubricates the water pump.
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first point etc. => Methods for circulating water
Kinds oflubricants
Thermo syphon cooling
(i) Oils
---+ mineral oils Forced cooling
---+ fatty oils Pressurised water cooling
---+ synthetic Evaporative cooling
---+ multigrade oils Thermostat cooling
(ii) Greases => Various components of water cooling system
---+ Lubricating grease Water jacket
Eg.Aluminium, Calcium, Sodiumgreases.
Water pump
Lubrication system
The following lubrication system are as : Thermostat
(a) Wet Sump Lubrication system: Fan
It consists of a sump which contains an oil supply. This Radiators
sump is connected to the bottom of case of engine. Radiator cap
---+ Splash system Applications: Industrial cooling towers, Marine vessel
---+ Full pressure system thyristors ofHVDC value etc.
---+ Semi pressure system
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Thermal Engineerging
I.. EXERCISE ..., A-t07
1. Which of the following is not a property of thermodynamic 10. The fixed points for celcius temperature scale are:
system? (a) Ice point as 0 C
(a) Pressure (b) Energy (b) Steam point as 100C
(c) Heat (d) Volumes (c) Both ice and steam points as OC and 100C
2. Match List - I and List - II and Give answer the following respectively
codes: (d) Triple point of water as 0.Q1 C
List- I List- II 11. For the calculation of real temperature in thermodynamics,
A. Heat 1. Point function the values of absolute zero temperature is known to be:
B. Energy 2. Path function (a) 273C (b) -273C
C. Entropy 3. Second Law of (c) o-c (d) 373C
thermodynamics 12. Which of the following gives the correct relation between
D. Cribbs function 4. F=C-P+2 centigrade and fahrenheit scales?
Codes: (c = degree centigrade, F = degree Fahrenheit)
ABC D 5 5
(a) C = -(F -32) (b) C=-(F+32)
(a) 9 9
234
(b) 4 2 3 5 9
(c) F=-(F+32) (d) C=-(F-32)
(c) 2 1 3 4 9 5
(d) 1 4 2 13. The gas constant 'R'is equal to the:
3
Badboys2Stirling and Ericsson cycles are: (a) sum of two specific heats
(b) difference of two specific heats
3.
(a) irreversible cycles (c) product of two specific heats
(b) quasi - static cycles (d) ratio of two specific heats
(c) semi - reversible cycles 14. According to which law, all perfect gases change in volume
(d) reversible cycles by II 273 rd oftheir original volume at 0 C for every 1 C
4. In thermodynamic cycle, heat is rejected at: change in temperature while pressure is kept constant.
(a) constant volume (b) constant pressure (a) Joule's Law (b) Boyle's like
(c) constant enthalpy (d) constant temperature (c) Charles's law (d) Gay - Lussca Law
5. A system is taken from state "X" to state "Y" along with 15. Properties of substances like pressure, temperature and
two different paths 'A' and 'B'. The heat absorbed and work density in thermodynamic co-ordinates are:
done by the system along these paths are QA'QBand WA' (a) Path function (b) Point function
WBrespectively. Which of the following is the correct (c) Cyclic function (d) Real function
relation? 16. For which of the following substances, the internal energy
(a) QA+WA=QB+WB (b) QA-WA=QB-WB and enthalpy are the functions of temperature only?
(c) QA +QB=WA +WB (d) QA =QB (a) Saturated steam (b) Water
6. Which one of the following is an extensive property of a (c) Perfect gas (d) None of these
thermodynamic system? 17. Ifa graph is plotted for absolute temperature as a function
(a) Pressure (b) Density of entropy, then the area under the curve would give:
(c) Volume (d) Temperature (a) amount of heat supplied
7. Which of the following cycle consists of three processes? (b) amount of work transter
(a) Ericsson cycle (b) Stirling cycle (c) amount of heat rejected
(c) Alkinson cycle (d) None of these (d) amount of mass transfer
8. The first type of perpetual motion machine is one, which: 18. Heat is being supplied to air in a cylinder fiiled with
(a) does not work without internal energy frictionless piston held by a constant weight. The process
(b) works without any external energy will be:
(c) can completely convert heat into work (a) Isochoric (b) Isothermal
(d) cannot completely convert heat into work (c) Isobaric (d) Adiabatic
9. Zeroth law ofthermodynamics deals with: 19. During an adiabatic process, the pressure P of a fixed mass
(a) concept of temperature of a ideal gas changes by ~P and its volume v changes by
(b) enthalpy ~V
(c) entropy ~ V. THe value of V is given by :
(d) external and internal energy both
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A-lOS Thermal Engineerging

1 P 1 ~P
(a) (b) v P
v ~P
~P ~v 32. Which of the following in an irreversible process?
(c) v- (d) v.- (a) Isothermal process (b) Isentrobic process
P v
(c) Isoparic process (d) Isenthalpic process
20. Which of the following gases has the heighest value of
33. In a reversible adiabatic process, the ratio (T 1 : T2) will be
characteristic gas constant (R)?
equal to:
(a) Nitrogen (b) Oxygen. .
(c) Carbon-di-oxide (d) Sulpher-di-oxide y-1 y-1
21. Molecular kinetic energy of the gas is proportional to:
(a) T
(c) T3/2
(b) P
(d) TI/2
(a)
(:~F (b)
(~~F
22. The internal energy of the perfect as depends on y-1 y
(a) temperature, entropy and specific heats
(b) temperature only
(c) (~~)2y (d) (~~) y-1
(c) termperature, pressure and specific heats

34. An engine which takes 105 MJ at a temperature of 400 K,
(d) temperature, enthalpy and specific heats
rejects 42 MJ at a temperature of 200 K and delivers 15
23. Heat and work are:
KWh mechanical work. Is this engine possible ...?
(a) Point function (b) System properties
(a) Possible (b) Not possible .
(c) Path function (d) None of these
(c) data insufficient (d) Cannot be predicted
24. Which one of the following physical quantity is constant
35. A mixture of gases expands from 0.03 m' to 0.06 m' at
in the Gay - Lussac's Law?
constant pressure of IMP a and absorbs 84 KJ heat during
(a) Pressure (b) Volume
the process. The change in internal energy of the mixture
(c) Temperature (d) Weight
will be equal to:
25. An ideal gas as compared to a real gas at very high pressure
Badboys2 occupies:
(a) 54KJ
(c) 30KJ
(b) 64KJ
(d) 75KJ
(a) More volume (b) Samevolume
36. Actual expansion process in a throttling device is :
(c) Less volume (d) None of these .
(a) Reversible adiabatic expansion
26. Which Law states that the internal energy of the gas IS a
(b) Isenthalpic expansion
function of temperature?
(c) Isothermal expansion
(a) Law ofthermodynamics
(d) Irreversible
(b) Joule's Law
37. First Law of thermodynamics depicts the relation between
(c) Boyle's Law
(a) heat and work
(d) Charle'sLaw
(b) heat, work and system properties
27. The application of gas laws are limited to :
(c) various properties of the system
(a) gases and liquid (b) steam and liquid
(d) various thermodynamics processes
(c) gases alone (d) gases and vapours
38. The first Law of thermodynamics was given by :
28. Mean strquare molecular speed is :
(a) Obert (b) Keenan
(a) directly proportional to density
(c) Joule (d) Newton
(b) inversely proportional to density .
39. For non - flow closed system, the value of net energy
(c) directly proportional to the square root of denslt~
transferred as heat and work equals changes in :
(d) inversely proportional to the square root of density
(a) Enthalpy (b) Entropy
29. Temperature of a gas is produced due to :
(c) Internal energy (d) None of these
(a) its heating value
40. During throlling process, which ofthe following not good :
(b) kinetic theory of molecules
(a) Enthalpy does not change
(c) repulsion of molecules
(b) Enthalpy changes
(d) attraction of molecules
(c) Entropy does not change
30. According to kinetic theory of gases, the absolute zero
(d) Internal energy does not change
temperature is attained when:
41. A closed gaseous system undergoes a reversible process
(a) volume of gas is zero
during which 20 kcal are rejected, the volume changing
(b) pressure of gas is zero
from 4 m' to 2 m' and the pressure remains constant at 4.2
(c) kinetic energy of molecules of gas is zero
kg/em'. Then the change in internal energy will be equal to:
(d) None of these . .
(a) + 10 kcal (b) -10 kcal
31. The work in a closed system undergoing an isentropic
(c) 0 (d) +5kcal
process is given by :
42. If Q = Heat content of a gas, u = Internal energy
y -1 ) P = Pressure, V = Volume, T = Temperature
(b) -mR(T1-T2 then which of the following statement is applicable to perfect
2
gas and is also true for an irreversible process?
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Thermal Engineerging A-t09

(a) dQ=dU+qdV (b) Tds=dU+PdV
(c) dQ=Tds (d) dQ=Tds+dU constant
43. Which of the following equation given the correct T volume
expression for the work done by compressing a gas
isothermell y?
Ify = Heat capacity ratio and all other parameters have their
(b) 1
usual meaning.
(a) _Y_P1V1 (P2

[ )YY-I]- 1
P2
(b) mRTI/n-
Y -1 PI PI
T
(c) MCp (T2- Tl) (d) mR(l- ~~) (c) 1 constant

volume
44. A Frictionless heat engine can be 100% efficient only it the

exhaust temperature is : --~S
(a) equal to its input temperature
(b) less than its input temperature
(c) OC (d) OK 2
T
45. Kelvin Plank's Law deals with :
(a) conservation of energy
(b) conservation of heat
(d) 1 constant
volume
(c) conservation of mass
(d) conversion of heat into work --~"'S
46. The second Law of thermodynamics defines:
Badboys2 (a) Heat (b) Entropy 52. According to clausius statement:
(a) Heat flows from hot substance to cold substance
(c) Enthalpy (d) Internal energy
47. A machine produces 100 KJ of heat to spend 100 KJ heat. (b) Heat flows from hot substance to cold substance
This machine will be known as : unaided
(a) PMM-l (b) PMM-II (c) Heat flows from cold substance to hot substance with
(c) PMM-III (d) PMM-N aid of external work.
48. Third Law ofthermodynamics is : (d) (b) and (c) both above
(a) an extension of second law 53. Which one of the following is the correct sequence for the
(b) an extension of zeroth law air standard efficiencies of different gas power cycles at a
(c) an extension of first law definite compression ratio?
(d) an independent law of nature (a) 11oHo>11diesel > 11dual (b) 11oHo>11dual> 11diesel
49. In which cycle, all the four processes are not reversible? (c) 11diesel> 11oHo> 11dual (d) 11dual> 11oHo
> 11diesel
(a) Vapour compression cycle 54. The air standard efficiency of otto cycle is given by :
(b) Joule cycle 1 1
(c) Carnot cycle (a) 11= 1- (r)y-I (b) 11= 1- (r)y+1
(d) None of these
50. For thermodynamic cycle to be irreversible, it is necessary 1 1
that, (c) 11= 1+ (r)y-I (d) 11=1--- y-I
(r)-
(a) dQ = 0 (b) dQ <0 Y
T T
55. A carnot engine working between 36C and 47C
(c) dQ > 0

temperature, produces 150 KJ of work. Then the heat added
(d) <l>dQ~ 0
T during the process will be equal to:
51. In thermodynamic cycles, the otto cycle is represented by (a) 1500KJ (b) 3000KJ
which of the following T - S diagram? (c) 4360KJ (d) 6000KJ
56. Which of the following is the expression for Joule -
"-
"" 2 Thompson coefficient?
(a)
T
1 1[' \v (a) (!\ (b) (:) t
4
./
"' 3 (c) (:)p (d) (:\
S
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x.uo Thermal Engineerging

57. The entropy of the universe is: 68. The critical point for water is :
(a) increasing (b) decreasing (a) 374C (b) 373C
(c) constant (d) unpredictable (c) 273C (d) 323C
58. The unit of entropy is given as : 69. The amount of heat requiredto raise the temperaturevolume
(a) kg/J'K (b) J/kg.m is known as:
(c) J/kgOK (d) J/sec (a) specific heat at constant pressure
59. In a statistical thermodynamics, entropy is defined as : (b) specific heat at constant volume
(a) Reversible heat transfer (c) kilo -joule
(b) Measure of reversibility of a system (d) None of these
(c) A universal property 70. Critical pressure is the pressure of steam at
(d) Degree of randomness (a) exitofsteamnozzle
60. The change in entrophy is zero during: (b) either at inlet or at outlet of steam nozzle
(c) inlet of steam nozzle
(a) Reversible adiabatic process
(d) throat of steam nozzle
(b) Hyperbolic process
71. As the pressure increases, the saturation temperature of
(c) Constant pressure process
vapour:
(d) Polytropic process
(a) increases
61. Steam coming out of the whistle of a pressure cooker is :
(b) decreases
(a) dry saturated vapour (c) increases first then decreases
(b) wet vapour (d) decreases first then increases
(c) super heated vapour 72. In steam tables, the entropy is shown as zero for,
(d) ideal gas (a) saturated vapour at atmospheric pressure
62. At critical point, any substance: (b) saturated liquid at atmospheric pressure
(a) will exist in all the three phases simultaneously (c) saturated vapour at 0 C
(b) will change directly from solid to vapour (d) saturated liquid at 0 C
(c) will lose phase distinction between liquid and vapour 73. Expression for the specific entropy of wet steam is:
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63.
(d) will behave as an ideal gas
The ratio of two specific heats of air is equal to : (a) Sg+Xsf (b) hf+XT
L
(a) 1.41 (b) 2.41
(c) 4.14 (d) 0.41 L
64. Dryness fraction of steam is defined as : ~ ~+X~ ~ ~+XT
Mass of dry steam 74. The latent heat ofvapourization of a fluid at look K is 2560
(a) KJ/kg. Then change of entropy associated with the
Mass of water vapourin suspension
evaporation will be equal to:
(b) Mass of water vapour in suspension (a) 6.86 KJ/kgOK (b) 9.86 KJ/kgOK
(c) 25.6 KJ/kgOK (d) -25.6 x 103 KJ/kgOK
Mass of dry steam
75. When wet steam undergoes adiabatic expansion, then
(c) (a) its dryness fraction may increase or decrease
Mass of dry steam
(b) its dryness fraction increases
Mass of dry steam + Mass of water vapour (c) its dryness fraction decreases
(d) (d) its dryness fraction does not change
Mass of water vapour in suspension 76. Critical pressure for steam is equal to :
Mass of water vapour in suspension + W nObM ~ nl~
Mass of dry steam (c) 163bar (d) 184bar
77. Throttling calorimeter is used for the measurement of:
65. Triple point is a point of a pure substance at which: (a) very low dryness fraction upto 0.7
(a) liquid and vapour exist together (b) very high dryness fraction upto 0.98
(b) solid and liquid exist together (c) dryness fraction of only low pressure
(c) Solid and vapour exist together (d) dryness fraction of only high pressure
(d) solid, liquid and vapour phase exist together 78. A wet vapour can be completely associated/specified by
66. Sensible heat is the needed to which of the following?
(a) vaporise water into steam (a) Pressure only
(b) change the temperature of a liquid or vapour
(b) Temperature only
(c) convert water into steam and super heat it
(c) Specific volume only
(d) measure dew point temperature
(d) Pressure and dryness fraction
67. If H = enthalpy of dry air, H, = enthalpy of water vapour
w = ~pecifichumidity, then the enthalpy of moist air will be 79. It a given temperature, the enthalpy of superheated steam
equal to: is always:
(a) Ha+ n, (b) H +wH (a) less than enthalpy of saturated steam
(c) Ha-wHy (d) H:w-H: (b) greater than enthalpy of saturated steam
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Thermal Engineerging A-11I

(c) equal enthalpy of saturated steam (c) Feed check value (d) Fusible plug
(d) None of these 92. Steam in boiler drum is always
80. The enthalpy of vapour at lower pressure depends (a) wet (b) dry
(a) Temperature (c) superheated (d) Both (a) and (b)
(b) Volume 93. Air pre heater:
(c) Temperature and volume (a) increases evaporation capacity of boiler
(d) Neither temperature nor volume (b) increases the efficiency of boiler
(c) enables low grade fuel to be burnt
81. For high boiler efficiency,the feed water is heated by:
(d) All of the above
(a) regenerator (b) convective heater
94. In a Lancashire boiler, the economiser is located:
(c) super heater (d) economiser
(a) before air pre-heater
82. Locomotive type of boiler is: (b) After air preheater
(a) horizontal multi - tubular fire tube boiler (c) Between feed pump and boiler
(b) horizontal multi - tubular water tube boiler (d) Not used
(c) vertical tubular fire tube boiler 95. Locomotive boiler produces steam at :
(d) water wall enclosed turnace type (a) Medium rate (b) Low rate
83. Lancashire boiler is a : (c) Veryhigh rate (d) Verylow rate
(a) water tube boiler (b) fire tube boiler 96. For the same diameter and thickness of a tube, fired tube
(c) locomotive boiler (d) high pressure boiler boiler as compared to water tube boiler has:
84. Water - tube boilers are those in which : (a) More heating surface
(a) water passes through the tubes (b) Less heating surface
(b) flue gases pass through tubes and water around it (c) Same heating surface
(c) work is done during adiabatic expansion (d) No heating surface
(d) there is change in enthalpy 97. Ifcirculation of water in a boiler is made bypump, then it is
85. The capacity of the boiler is defined as : known as:
(a) Forced circulation boiler
Badboys2 (a) The volume offeed water inside the shell
(b) The volume of steam space inside the shell
(b) Natural circulation boiler
(c) Internally fired boiler
(c) The maximum pressure at which steam can be
(d) Externallyfiredboiler
generated 98. The device used to empty the boiler, when required and to
(d) Amount of water converted into steam from 100 C to
0
discharge the Need, scale of sediments which are
110 C in one hour.
0
accumulated at the bottom of the boiler is known as :
86. The type of safety value recommended for high pressure (a) Safety value (b) Stop value
boiler is- (c) Fusible value (d) Blow- offcock
(a) Dead weight safety value 99. Maximum heat is lost in boiler due to:
(b) Liver safety value (a) Unburnt carbon (b) Flue gases
(c) Spring loaded safety value (c) Incomplete combustion (d) Moisture in fuel
(d) None of these 100. What salts of calcium and magnisium cause tempeorary
87. Boiler rating is generally defined in terms of: hardness of boiler feed water?
(a) maximum temperature of steam (a) Sulphides (b) Carbides
(b) heat transfer rate KJ/hr (c) Nitrates (d) Bi - carbonates
(c) heating surface 101. Bluding in turbine means:
(d) heating output kg/hr (a) leakage of steam
(b) extracting steam for preheating feed water
88. Boiler mountings are necessary for:
(c) removal of condensed steam
(a) operation and safety of a boiler
(d) steam doing no useful work
(b) increasing the efficiency of boiler
102. In parson's steam turbine, steam expands in:
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(a) partly in nozzle and blade
(d) None of these
(b) blades only
89. Bab cock and wilcox boiler is
(c) nozzles only
(a) water tube type
(d) None of these
(b) fire tube type
103. Pressure compounding can be done in the following type
(c) Both (a) and (b)
turbines:
(d) None of these
(a) Impulse turbines
90. Range of high pressure boilers are: (b) Reaction turbines
(a) blow 80 bar (b) above 80 bar (c) Both impulse and reaction turbines
(c) 40 - 80 bar (d) 60 - 80 bar (d) None of these
91. A boiler mounting used to put - off fire in the fuel when 104. Blade efficiency of steam turbine is equal to:
water level in the boiler falls below a safe limits. (a) V (Vw,- Vw2) / 2g
(a) Blowoffcock (b) Stop value
(b) 2V (Vw,- Vw2) / V/
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x.nz Thermal Engineerging

(c) V(Vw,+Vwz)/g n n
105.
(d) 2Vrvw, + Vw2)/V,2
Steam turbines are governed by the following methods: (a) ~ =C!Jn-1 (b) P2 =
PI
(_2_)
n-l
n-I
(a) Throttle governing n

(b) Nozzle control governing
(c) By - Pass governing
(c) P2
PI
= (_2_)
n-i-I
n+1
(d) All of these 117. Multi-stage turbines are:

106. For Parson's reaction turbine, degree of reaction is: (a) Reaction type (b) Pressure compounded
(a) 50% (b) 100% (c) Velocity compounded (d) All of these
(c) 75% (d) 25%
118. If11BT = Brake thermal efficiency
107. In flow through a nozzle, the mach number is more than
111T= Indicated thermal efficiency
unity :
11m = Mechanical efficiency
(a) in converging section
then, which ofthe following relation is correct?
(b) at the throat
(c) in diverging section
(d) can be in any section of the nozzle depending upon
the nozzle profile and geometry
11m
108. When steam flows over moving blades of an impulse turbine: (c) 11BT =~
(a) Pressure drops and velocity increases IT
(b) Pressure remains constant and velocity decreases 119. De- Laval turbine is:
(c) Both pressure and velocity remain constant (a) Pressure compounded impulse turbine
(d) Both pressure and velocity decrease (b) Simple single wheel impulse turbine
109. Curtis turbine is an example of: (c) Velocity compounded impulse turbine
(a) velocity compounded impulse steam turbine (d) Simple single wheel reaction turbine
(b) pressure compounded impulse steam turbine 120. The reason for inter cooling in multistage compressors is :
Badboys2 (c) pressure - velocity compounded impulse steam turbine
(d) reaction steam turbine
(a) To minimize the work of compression
(b) To cool air delivery
110. Stage efficiency of steam turbine is equal to : (c) To cool the air during compression
(d) None of these
Blade efficiency Nozzle efficiency 121. Work done by prime mover to run the compressor is
(a) Nozzle efficiency (b) Blade efficiency minimum if the compression is :
(c) Nozzle efficiency x blade efficiency (a) adiabatic (b) isothermal
(d) None of these (c) isentropic (d) polytropic
111. The reason of compounding of steam turbine is : 122. Reciprodcating air compressor is best suited for:
(a) To reduce rotor speed (a) Lar ge quan ti ty of air at high pressure
(b) To reduce exit losses (b) Small quantity of air at low pressure
(c) To improve efficiency (c) Small quantity of air at high pressure
(d) All of the above (d) Large quantity of air at low pressure
112. For a single stage impulse turbine, having nozzle angle 'a', 123. In a Brayton cycle, the air enters the compressor at 3000 K
then maximum blade efficiency under ideal condition is and maximum temperature of cycle is 12000 K. Then the
given by: thermal efficiency of cycle for maximum power output will
be:
cosa sin a
(a) -- (b) W ~% ~ ~%
2 2 (c) 50% (d) 90%
(c) tan a (d) cot a 124. An axial flow compressor will be having symmetrical blades
113. Shock effect in a nozzle is felt in : for the degrees of reaction:
(a) divergent portion (b) straight portion (a) 25% (b) 50%
(c) convergent portion (d) throat (c) 75% (d) 100010
114. In a steam turbine, the critical pressure ratio for in dry 125. A reciprocating compressor having 0.20 m bore and stroke
saturated steam is given by : runs at 600 rpm. If the actual volume delivered by
(a) 0.545 (b) 0.577 compressor is 4m3 I min. Its volumetric efficiency is about
(c) 0.585 (d) 0.595
115. Steam nozzle converts: (a) 70% (b) 75%
(a) Heat energy to potential energy (c) 80% (d) 85%
(b) Heat energy to kinetic energy 126. The centrifugal type of rotary compressor is used in
(c) Kinetic energy to heat energy (a) Boilers (b) Gas turbines
(d) Potential energy to heat energy (c) Cooling plant (d) None of these
116. For maximum discharge, ratio of the pressure at the exit and 127. If the compressor ratio is increased, then the volumetric
at inlet of the nozzle (PiP,) is equal to: efficiency of a compressor :
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Thermal Engineerging A-l13

(a) decreases (b) increases (a) 7.75 (b) 8.75
(c) constant (d) None of these (c) 9.75 (d) 10.75
128. Volumetric efficiencyof air compressor is defined as : 139. In a refrigeration system, the refrigerant gain heat:
(a) Compressor (b) Condenser
Stroke volume (b) Airactually delivered (c) Expansion value (d) Evaporator
(a) Clearance Volume Amount of piston 140. The Bell- columan refrigeration cycle uses:
(a) Hydrogen as a working fluid
displacement (b) Air as a working fluid
(c) Compression ratio (c) carbon di - oxide as a working fluid
(d) Index of compressor performance (d) Any inert gas as a working fluid
129. Centrifugal compressor works on the principal of: 141. A simple saturated refrigeration cycle has the following
(a) conversion of Pressure energy into kinetic energy state points. Enthalpy after compression = 425 Kl/kg,
(b) conversion of kinetic energy into pressure Enthalpy after throttling = 125 Kl/kg, Enthalpy before
(c) centripetal action compression= 375 Kl/kg. Then the COP of refrigeration is:
(d) developing pressure directly (a) 5 (b) 10
130. Air is compressed by a double stage compressor (with (c) 6 (d) 9
complete intercooling), from 1 bar pressure 127C 142. A camot refrigeration cycle has a COP of 4. The ratio of
temperature to 36 bar pressure. Then the inter-stage higher temperature to lower temperature will be equal to :
pressure for the minimum work of the compressor: (a) 2.5 (b) 2
(a) 6 bar (b) 12bar (c) 2.8 (d) 1.25
(c) 18bar (d) 24 bar 143. The refrigeration system works on:
131. An engine operators between temperature limits 900 K and (a) First Law ofthermodynamics
T2 and another between T2 and 400 K. For both of the (b) Second Law ofthermodynamics
engines to be equally efficiency,the value ofT 2should be : (c) Zeroth Law of therodynomics
(a) 600K (b) 700K (d) None of these
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132.
(c) 625K (d) 750K
A heat engine develops 60 kw of work having an efficiency
144. One ton of refrigeration is equal to:
(a) 210KJ/min (b) 21 KJ/min
of 60%, then the amount of heat rejected will be equal to: (c) 420 KJ/min (d) 20 KJ/min
(a) 400kw (b) 40kw 145. If a heat pump cycle operates between the condensar
(c) 20kw (d) 200kw temperatureof + 27C and evaporatortemperatureof-23C,
133. In carnot cycle, addition and rejectionofheattakesplaceat : then the COP of camot will be equal to :
(a) constant pressure (b) constant temperature (a) 6 (b) 12
(c) constant volume (d) constant speed (c) 5 (d) 1.2
134. A heat engine receives 1120 KJ of heat and rejects 840 KJ 146. Which of the following has minimum freezing point?
of heat while operating between two temperature limits of (a) Freon-12 (b) Freon-22
560 K and 280 K. If indicates that the engine operates on (c) Ammonia (d) Carbon di-oxides
the following cycle:
147. In actual refrigeration systems, the compressor handles
(a) Reversible cycle (b) Irreversible cycle
vapour only. This process commonly reflered to as :
(c) Impossible cycle (d) Unpredicable cycle
(a) Gas compression (b) Phase compression
135. Area under T - S diagram represents:
(c) Dry compression (d) wet compression
(a) Heat transfer for reversible process
(b) Heat transfer for Inreversible process
(c) Heat transfer for all processes 148. The expression 0.622( Py
Pt -Py
J is associated with:
(d) Heat transfer for adiabatic processes (a) Relative humidity (b) Specifichumidity
136. A heat pump working an reversed camot cycle has COP of (c) Degree of saturation (d) Partial pressure
5. Ifit work as refrigerator taking 1 kw of work input the [where, Py = Vapour pressure, P, = total pressure = Pa + PyJ
refrigerating effectwill be : 149. In the absorption refrigeration cycle, the compressor of
(a) 1kw (b) 2kw vapour compression refrigeration cycle is replace by :
(c) 3kw (d) 4kw (a) Liquid pump
137. Tworeversiblerefrigerator's are arranged in series and their (b) Generator
COP are 4 and 5 respectively. Then the COP of composite (c) absorber and generator
refrigeration system will be : (d) Absorber, Liquid pump and generator
(a) 1.5 (b) 2. 150. When water Lithium bromide is used in a vapour absorption
(c) 4 (d) 3.7 refrigeration system, then:
138. An ideal refrigerator is operating between a condenser (a) they together act as refrigerant
temperature of -37C and an evaporator temperature of (b) water is the refrigerant
-3 C. Ifthe machine is functioning as a heat pump, its COP (c) Lithium bromide is refrigerant
will be equal to: (d) None of these
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151. The wet bulb depression is zero when relative humidity (a) Air only (b) Liquid fuel only
equals: (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Solid fuel and air
(a) Zero (b) 50% 164. If the compression ratio is increased in SI engine, the
(c) 75% (d) 100% knocking tendency will :
152. In winter air conditioning, the inside design conditions are (a) increase (b) decrease
given by the following: (c) Not be affected (d) Cannot be predicated
(a) 21CDBT,600IoRH 165. The function of carburetor is :
(b) 21CDBT,50%RH (a) Atomise and vaporise the fuel and to mix it with air in
(c) 25CDBT,50%RH proper ratio
(d) 25CDBT,600IoRH (b) Refining the fuel
153. Piston rings are generally made offollowing material: (c) Increase the pressure of the fuel vapour
(a) cast iron (b) mild steel (d) Inject petrol in cylinder
(c) aluminium (d) carbon steel 166. In an engine working on otto cycle, air fuel - mixture is
154. Which of the following is not an internal combustion compressed from 400 C.C to 100C. C. ifr = 1.5, then the
engine? thermal efficiencyof cyclewill be :
(a) 3 - stroke pertrol engine (a) 50% (b) 65%
(b) 4 - stroke petrol engine (c) 60% (d) 90%
(c) Diesel engine 167. Mixture formation in a carburetor is based on the principle
(d) Steam engine of:
155. Compression ratio of an IC engine is given as : (a) Pascal's Law (b) Buoyancyprinciple
ifV c = cylinder volume, Vs = swept volume (c) Ventureprinciple (d) Pitot tube principle
168. Octane number of a gasoline is a measure of its:
1+ Vs 1- Vs (a) Knocking tendency (b) Ignition delay
(a) Vc (b) Vc
(c) Smoke point (d) Ignition temperature
169. In four cylinder petrol engine, the standard firing order is:
Badboys2(c) 1+ Vc
Vs
(d) 1- Vc
Vs
W
~
1-3-3-4
1-3-3-4
(b) 1-4-3-3
~) 1-3-4-3
156. Two stroke engines have: 170. Which of the followingis not a part ofMPFI petrol engine?
(a) valves (b) Ports (a) Fuel injector
(c) both (a) & (b) (d) None of these (b) Carburetor
157. Detonation is said to take place in the engine when: (c) MAP sensor
(a) sudden acceleration is imparted to the engine (d) Electronic control unit
(b) temperature rise too high 171. Fuel injector is used in :
(c) high pressure waves are set up (a) steam engines
(d) combustion of fuel takes place without spark provided (b) gas engines
to it (c) spark ignition engines
158. Number of working strokes/minute for a two stroke cycle (d) compression ignition engines
engine as compared to speed ofthe engine in rpm, is : 172. Compression ratio of diesel engine may have a range of:
(a) same (b) half (a) 8 to 10 (b) 16to 30
(c) double (d) four times (c) 10to 15 (d) 40 to 50
159. For the same compressionratio and heat input, the efficiency 173. For diesel engine, the method of governing is employed is:
of an oHo cycle engine as compared to diesel engine is : (a) Quality governing
(a) less (b) more (b) Quantity governing
(c) equal (d) None of these (c) Hit and miss governing
160. The ratio of the stroke to the crank radius in an LC. engine (d) None of these
IS given as : 174. In diesel engine, the governor controls:
(a) 1: 1 (b) 3: 1 (a) Fuel pressure (b) Fuel volume
(c) 2: 1 (d) 1: 2 (c) Fuel flow rate (d) Fuel temperature
161. The correct sequence of stroke in a four stroke engine is : 175. The firing order of six cylinder diesel engine is
(a) suction, compression, exhaust, expansion (a) 1-3-5-3-4-6
(b) expansion, compression, suction, exhaust (b) 1-5-3-6-2-4
(c) suction, compression, expansion, exhaust (c) 1-4-3-6-3-5
(d) suction, expansion, compression, exhaust (d) 1- 6 - 3 - 5 - 3 - 4
162. Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio by volume for compression of 176. The ignition of fuel in a diesel engine is caused by:
methane in air is : (a) spark plug
(a) 15: 1 (b) 9.53: 1 (b) compressed fuel
(c) 17.2:1 (d) 10.5:1 (c) heat resulting from the compressed air that is supplied
163. The term air injection, associatedwith fuel injection system for the combustion
ofan IC engine means injection of: (d) air fuelmixing
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177. The curve shown in the given figure is characteristic diesel (c) 70em3 (d) 84em3
engines: Then 'Y' axis shows: 187. Unit of brake specific fuel consumption is:
(a) kg-hr-kw (b) kglkw-hr
Y (c) kw - hr / kg (d) kg - hr / kw
188. Indicated mean effective pressure is :
Area of indicator diagram x spring scale
(a) Length of base of indicator diagram
Area of indicator diagram
(b) Length of base of indicator diagram x spring scale
--+------~x
o Power Length of base of indicator diagram x spring scale
(c)
Area of indicator diagram
(a) Efficiency
(b) Specific fuel consumption Area of indicator diagram
(c) Air fuel ratio (d) Length of base of indicator diagram
(d) Total fuel consumption 189. Most important properly of an IC engine lubricant is:
178. Value overlapping happens: (a) density (b) viscosity
(a) completelybeforeT.D.C (c) thermal conductivity (d) none of these
(b) completelyafter T.D.C 190. The process of scavenging is associated with:
(c) partially before T.D.C and partially after T.D.C (a) two stroke engine (b) four stroke engine
(d) completelybefore B.D.C (c) gas turbine (d) compressor
179. Morse test is used for multicylinder spark ignition engine 191. The function oflubrication in engine are:
to determine: (a) Lubrication and cooling
(a) Thermal efficiency (b) Mechanical efficiency (b) cleaning, sealing and noise reduction
(c) Volumetricefficiency (d) Relative efficiency (c) efficiency increase
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180. Actual power generated in engine cylinder is known as :
(a) brake horse power (b) Indicated horse power
(d) Both (a) and (b)
192. Ifthe lubricant for an automobile to be used under subzero
(c) One boiler horse power (d) fractional horse power temperatures is to be selected, then which of the following
181. Flash point for diesel fuel should be: properties will get priority consideration?
(a) Minimum49 C (b) Maximum49C (a) calorific value (b) pour point
(c) Minimum99C (d) Maximum99C (c) specific gravity (d) carbon content
182. The ratio of brakepowerto indicatedpowerof an I.C. engine 193. Control of maximum oil pressure in the lubrication system
is called: is attected by :
(a) Thermal efficiency (b) Mechanical efficiency (a) oil filter (b) Pressure switch
(c) Volumetricefficiency (d) Relative efficiency (c) Pressure relief value (d) Pump motor
183. The primary winding of ignition coil consist of: 194. What technique is adopted forthe lubrication of the cylinder
(a) few turns of thin wire of a scooter engine?
(b) many turns of thin wire (a) splash lubrication (b) Forced feed lubrication
(c) few turns of thick wire (c) Gravity feed lubrication (d) Petrol lubrication
(d) many turns of thick wire 195. Using lubricants on engine parts reduces:
184. How many power stroke/second will take place in a four (a) motion (b) force
stroke petrol engine rotating at 3000 r.p.m? (c) Acceleration (d) Friction
(a) 25 (b) 50 196. The water pump generally employed for cooling of engine
(c) 100 (d) 200 of a vehicle is:
185. If P = mean effective pressure, L = length of stroke (a) Gear type (b) vane type
N = ~peed of the engine (rps), A = Bore area (c) centrifugal type (d) Riciprocating type
Then, the indicated power of four stroke engine will be 197. The advantage of using pressure cap on the radiator
equal to: (a) Evaporation of coolant is increased by its used
PmLA (b) It prevents vaccum formation in the system
(a) Pm.LAN (b) N (c) By using this, atmospheric pressure is always
maintained in the system
PmLAN PmLAN (d) Boilining point temperature ofthe coolant is decreased
(c) (d) 2
4 by its use
186. Ifthe bore diameter stroke length, and compression ratio 198. Radiator tubes are generally made up of:
of a single cylinder engine are 7 em, 8 em and 8 em (a) Brass (b) Steel
respectively. Then the clearance volume will be equal to : (c) Cast iron (d) None of these
(a) 44em3 (b) 50em3 199. Which of the following lubrication system is used in a car
engine generally?
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(a) Petrol
(c) Pressure
(b) Splash
(d) Dry sump (c) f
Tds (d) sdT f
200. For a good quality of lubricant, consider the following 207. A condenser ofa refrigeration system rejects heat at a rate
statements: of 120 kw, while the compressor consumes of power of
1. change in viscosity should be minimum with the 30 kw. The coefficientofperformance of the systemwill be:
change in temperature 1
2. pecific heat should be low (a) - (b) 2
4
3. Flash point should be high (c) 4 (d) 3
The true statements from the above are: 208. Which among the following relation is valid only for
W 1&2 ~ 2&3 reversible process undergone by a pure substance?
(c) 1 & 3 (d) 1,2 & 3 (a) oQ=Pdv+dU (b) oQ=du+sw
201. In pressure lubrication system of an engine, the maximum (c) Tds = dU + ow (d) Tds = Pdv + dU
oil pressure is controlled by : 209. Consider a refrigerator and a heat pump working on the
(a) oil pump (b) oil pressure gauge reversed camot cyclebetween the same temperature limits.
(c) oil pressure reliefvalue (d) oil filter Which of the following is correct?
202. A body of weight 100 N falls freely a vertical distance of (a) COP of refrigerator = COP of heat pump
(b) COP of refrigerator = COP of heat pump + 1
50m. The atmospheric drag force is O.5N. For the body,the
(c) COP of refrigerator = COP of heat pump - 1
work interaction is :
(d) COP of refrigerator = Inverse of COP of heat pump
(a) -25J (b) +25J 210. A solar energy based heat engine which receives 80 KJ of
(c) + 500J (d) - 500 J heat at 100Cand rejects70 KJ ofheat to the ambientat 30C
203. Match List - I and List - II and answer according to the is to be designed. Then the thermal efficiencyof heat engine
codes given below: will be:
List- I List-II (a) 12.5% (b) 24.5%
(A) cetane number 1. Ideal gas (c) 40% (d) 70%
(B) Approach and range 2. vander walls gas
Badboys2(C) (OT) :;t 0 S.1.Engine
211. For an ideal gas, the expression [ T(:;) p- T(:;) v ] is
3. always equal to :
oP h
(a) zero (b) R
(D) dh = CpdT, even when 4. C.IEngine
pressure, varies Cp
(c) (d) Rf
5. Cooling towers Cv
6. Heat exchangers 212. During a phase change ofa pure substance:
(a) dG=O (b) dP= 0
ABC D (c) dH = 0 (d) dU= 0
(a) 4 5 2 1 213. At the triple point of pure substance,the number of degrees
(b) 3 4 1 2 of freedom is :
(a) 2 (b) 1
(c) 1 2 4 6 (c) 0 (d) 4
(d) 4 5 3 214. A vessel of volume 1m' contains a mixture ofliquid water
and steam in equilibrium at 1.0 bar. Given that 90% ofthe
204. The first Law ofthermodynamics takes the form w = -Ll D volumeis occupiedbythe steam, then the fractionofmixture
when applied to: will be equalto: Ifat 1bar,Vf= 0.001 mvkg, V = 1.7mvkg
(a) A closed system undergoing a reversible adiabatic (a) 5.27 x 10-3 (b) 7.27 x 10-4 g
process (c) 8.29 X 10-3 (d) 9.23 x 10-3
(b) An open systemundergoing an adiabatic process with 215. The following data is provided for a single stage impulse
negligiblechangesin kineticenergyand potentialenergy steam turbine : Nozzle angle = 20, Blade velocity =
(c) A closed system undergoing a reversible constant 200 m/s Relative steam velocity at entry = 350 m/s, Blade
inlet angle = 30, Blade exit angle = 25,
volume process
Itblades friction is neglected, the work done/kg steams is :
(d) A closed system undergoing reversible constant (a) 124KJ (b) 164KJ
pressure process (c) 174KJ (d) 184KJ
205. A steel ball of mass 1 kg of specific heat 0.4 Kj is at a 216. if V N and a are the nozzle exit velocity and angle in an
temperature of 60 C. Itis dropped into 1kg water at 20 C. impulse turbine, then the optimum blade efficiencyis given
The final steady stats temperature of water is by:
(a) 23.5C (b) 30C
(c) 40C (d) 42.5C VN sina
(a) VN sin a (b) 2
206. For reversible adiabatic compression in a steady flow
process, the work transfer/mass is VN cosa
(a) f pdv (b) f vdP (d) 2
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217. For a single stageimpulseturbine with rotor diameter of2 m (a) will be slightly less than 5 bar
and speed of 3000 rpm when the nozzle angle is 20, the (b) will be slightlymore than 5 bar
optimum velocity of steam in mls is : (c) will be exactly 5 bar
(a) 334 (b) 668 (d) Cannot be ascertained in the absence of the value of a
(c) 356 (d) 711 227. A p- V diagram has been obtained from a test on a
218. The figure below shows a thermodynamic cycleundergone reciprocating compressor.Which ofthe followingrepresents
by a certain system. Then the mean effectivepressure in NI that diagram?
m';
(a) p (b) P
: ---~
I
I
I
I
Pout
Pin =2
Pout
Pin I~
I I Vc V
I I V(mj V
0.01 0.03
(a) 1.5kPa (b) 3 kPa
-n I~
(c) 4.5kPa (d) 6kPa (C) P (d) P
219. In orderto burn 1kg ofCH4 completely,the minimumnumber
Pout Pout
of kg of oxygenneeded is (take atomic weights ofH, C and
o as 1, 12 and 16 respectively)
(a) 3 (b) 4 Pin Pin
I I
(c) 5 (d) 6 I
220. An IC engine has a bore and stroke of 2 units each. The I
area to calculate heat loss can be taken as : Vc V Vc V

(a) 4n (b) 5n
228. The following four figures have been drawn to represent a
Badboys2
(c) 6n (d) n
221. Atmospheric air from 40 C and 60% relative humidity can fictitious thermodynamic cycle, on the p-Vand T-S planes.
be bought to 20 C and 60% relative humidity by:
(a) cooling and dehumidification process
(b) cooling and humidification process P T
(c) Adiabatic saturation process

(d) sensible cooling process
222. The use of Refrigerant R - 22 for temperature below-30C
is not recommended due to its:
(a) good miscibility with lubricating oil
(b) Poor miscibility with lubricating oil
(c) low evaporating temperature Fig. 1 V Fig. 2 S
(d) None of these
223. IfAir-Fuel ratio ofthemixture in petrol engine is more than P T
15: 1,then,

(a) NO is reduced (b) CO2 is reduced
(c) HCxisreduced (d) CO is reduced
224. An aircraft is flying at an altitude where the air density is
half the value at ground level with reference to the ground
level, the air fuel ratio at this altitude will be :
(a) ..fi (b) 8i Fig. 3 V Fig. 4
According to the first law of thermodynamics, equal areas

S
(c) 2 (d) 4
are enclosed by
225. The silencer of an internal combustion engine
(a) Figures 1 and 2 (b) Figures 1 and 3
(a) reduces noise
(b) decrease break specific fuel consumption (c) Figures 1 and 4 (b) Figures 2 and 3
(c) Increase break specific fuel consumption 229. Match items from groups I, II, III, IV and V.
(d) has no effect on its efficiency
226. Nitrogen at an initial state of 10 bar, 1 m3 and 300 K is r Group I Group II Group In Group IV Group V I
expanded isothermally to a final volume of2 m3. The p-V-T When Differential Function Phenomenon
relation is (p+ :2 Jv = RT, wherea>O.

added to the
system, is
EHeat G Positive I Exact KPath M Transient
The final pressure F Work H Negative J Inexact L Point N Boundary
Badboys2
A-11S Thermal Engineerging

(a) F-G-J-K-M (b) E-G-I-K-M 234. A compressor undergoes a reversible, steady flow process.
E-G-I-K-N F-H-I-K-N The gas at inlet and outlet of the compressor is designated
(b) F-H-J-L-N (b) E-G-J-K-N as state 1 and state 2 respectively. Potential and kinetic
E-H-I-L-M F-H-J-K-M energy changes are to be ignored. The following notations
230. A 100 W electric bulb was switched on in a 2.5 m x 3 m x 3 m are used
size thermally insulated room having a temperature of20C. V = specific volume
The room temperature at the end of24 h will be and p = pressure of the gas
(a) 321C (b) 341C The specific work required to be supplied to the compressor
(c) 450C (d) 470C for this gas compression process is
231. The above cycle is represented on T-S plane by 2 2
p (a) f pdV (b) f Vdp
3 1 1
y
400 kPa p V = constant (c) VI(P2 -PI) (d) -P2 (VI - V2)
235. A frictionless piston-cylinder device contains a gas initially
at 0.8 MPa and 0.015 m'. It expands quasi-statically at
(2007, 2m) constant temperature to a final volume of 0.030 m3. The work
output (in kJ) during this process will be
100 kPa 2 W &TI ~ ~OO
(c) 554.67 (d) 8320.00
3 236. Ifa closed system is undergoing an irreversible process, the
1m VI V
entropy of the system
(a) must increase
(a) T (b) T
(b) always remains constant
3\12
3 (c) must decrease
~2
(d) can increase, decrease or remain constant
237. Consider the following two processes:
Badboys2 I. A heat source at 1200 K loses 2500 kJ ofheat to sink at 800 K.
Il. A heat source at 800 K loses 2000 kJ of heat to sink at 500 K.
Which ofthe following statements is true?
S S
(a) Process I is more irreversible than Process II
(c) T (d) T
(b) Process IIis more irreversible than Process I
2J 2//
3
(c) Irreversibility associated in both the process is equal
(d) Both the processes are reversible
238. A mono-atomic ideal gas (y= 1.67; molecularweight=40) is
compressed adiabatically from 0.1 MPa, 300 K to 0.2 MPa.
The universal gas constant is 8.314 kJ mor' K-I . The work
of compression of the gas (in kJ/kg is
232. In a steady-state steady-fltwprocess taking place in a deJce (a) 29.7 (b) 19.9
with a single inlet and a single outlet, the work done per unit (c) 13.3 (d) zero
239. One kilogram of water at room temperature is brought into
mass flow rate is given by W = _fOlutlet Vdp ,where V is the
In et contact with a high temperature thermal reservoir. The
specific volume and p is the pressure. The expression for W entropy change of the universe is
given above is (a) equal to entropy change of the reservoir
(a) valid only if the process is both reversible and adiabatic (b) equal to entropy change of water
(b) valid only if the process is both reversible and (c) equal to zero
isothermal (d) always positive
(c) valid for any reversible process
240. A turbo-charged four-stroke direct injection diesel engine
(d) .
incorrect; . must b e W =
It fOutlet
Inlet p dV has a displacement volume of 0.0259 m3 (25.9 L). The ending
has an output of950 kW at 2200 rpm. The mean effective
233. A balloon containing an ideal gas is initially kept in an
pressure in MPa is closest to
evacuated and insulated room. The balloon ruptures and
(a) 2 (b) 1
the gas fills up the entire room. Which one of the following
statements is true at the end of above process? (c) 0.2 (d) 0.1
(a) The internal energy of the gas decreases from its initial 241. The values of enthalpy of steam at the inlet and outlet of a
value but the enthalpy remains constant steam turbine in a Rankine cycle are 2800 kJ/kg and 1800 kJ/
(b) The internal energy ofthe gas increases from its initial kg respectively. Neglecting pump work, the specific steam
value but the enthalpy remains constant consumption in kglkW-h is
(c) Both internal and enthalpy ofthe gas remains constant (a) 3.60 (b) 0.36
(d) Both internal and enthalpy of the gas increase (c) 0.06 (d) 0.01
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242. The crank radius of a single-cylinder IC engine is 60 mm and 250. Which thermometer is independent of the substance or
the diameter ofthe cylinder is 80 mm. The swept volume of material used in constructions?
the cylinder in cm ' is (a) Mercury thermometer (b) Alcohal thermometer
(a) 48 (b) 96 (c) Ideal gas thermometer (d) Resistance thermometer
(c) 302 (d) (m
251. A perpetual motion machine of the first kind i.e. a machine
243. The contents ofa well-insulated tank are heated by a resistor
of23Q in which 10 A current is flowing. Consider the tank which produces power without consuming any energy is
along with its contents as a thermodynamic system. The (a) possible according to first law ofthermo-dynamics
work done by the system and the heat transfer to the system (b) impossible according to first law ofthermo-dynamics
are positive. The rates of heat (Q), work (W) and change in (c) impossible according to second law of thermo-dynamics
internal energy (Al,') during the process in kWare (d) possible according to second law of thermo-dynamics.
(a) Q=O, W=-2.3,ilU=+2.3 252. In Rankine cycle, regeneration results in higher efficiency
(b) Q=+ 2.3, W= 0, ilU=+2.3 because
(c) Q=-2.3, W=0,ilU=-2.3 (a) pressure inside the boiler increases
(d) Q=O, W=+2.3,ilU=-2.3 (b) heat is added before steam enters the low pressure
244. An ideal gas of mass m and temperature T I undergoes a
turbine
reversible isothermal process from an initial pressure PI to
(c) average temperature of heat addition in the boiler
final pressure P2. The heat loss during the process is Q. The
Increase
entropy changes ilS of the gas is
(d) total work delivered by the turbine increases
253. A process, in which the working substance neither receives
(a) nor gives out heat to its surroundings during its expansion
or contraction, is called
(a) isothermal process (b) isentropic process
(c) (d) zero (c) polytropic process (d) adiabatic process
254. If 8Q is the heat transferred to the system and 8w is the work
245.A cylinder contains 5 m3 of an ideal gas at a pressure of
done by the system, then which of the following is an exact
Badboys2 1 bar. This gas is compressed in a reversible isothermal
process till its pressure increases to 5 bar. The work in kJ
differential
required for this process is (a) fQ (b) 8W
(c) 8Q+8W (d) 8Q-8W
(a) 804.7 (b) 9532
255. The ratio of specific heats of a gas at constant pressure and
(c) 981.7 (d) 1012.2
246.Specific enthalpy and velocity of steam at inlet and exit of at constant volume
a steam turbine, running under steady state, are as given (a) varies with temperature (b) varies with pressure
below. (c) is always constant (d) none of the above
Specific enthalpy Velocity 256. The piston of an oil engine, of area 0.0045 m3 moves
(kJ/kg) (m/s) downward 75 mm, drawing in 0.00028 m3 offresh air from the
Inlet steam condition 3250 180 atmosphere. The pressure in the cylinder is uniform during
Exit steam condition 2360 5 the process at 80 kPa, while the atmospheric pressure is
The rate of heat loss from the turbine per kg of steam flow 101.325 kPa. Find the displacement work done by the air
rate is 5 kW. Neglecting changes in potential energy of finally in the cylinder.
steam, the power developed in kW by the steam turbine (a) 13J (b) 18J
per kg of steam flow rate, is
(c) 21 J (d) 27 J
(a) 901.2 (b) 9112
257. Saturated liquid at a higher pressure PI having hfl = 1000
(c) 17072.5 (d) 17082.5
247. The maximum theortical work obtainable, when a system
kJ/kg is throttled to a lower pressure P2. The enthalpy of
interacts to equilibrium with a reference environment, is saturated liquid and saturated vapour are 800 kJ/kg and 2800
called kJ/kgrespectively. Find the dryness fraction of vapour after
(a) Entropy (b) Enthalpy throttling.
(c) Energy (d) Rothalpy (a) 0.1 (b) 0.2
248. An isolated system is one, which (c) 0.8 (d) 0.9
(a) permits the passage of energy and matter across the 258. For which of the following situations, zeroth law of
boundaries thermodynamics will not be valid?
(b) permits the passage of energy only (a) 50 cc of water of at 25C are mixed with 150 cc of water
(c) does not permit the passage of energy and matter aeross it at 25 C
(d) permits the passage of matter only (b) 500 cc of milk at 15C are mixed with 100 cc of water at
249. The measurement of thermodynamic property known as
15C
temperature, is based on
(c) 5 kg of wet steam at 100C is mixed with 50 kg of dry
(a) Zeroth law ofthermodynamics
and saturated steam at 100C.
(b) First law ofthermodynamics
(c) Second law ofthermodynamics (d) 10 cc of water at 20C are mixed with 10 cc of sulphuric
(d) None of the above acid at 20C.
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259. The compression ratio of a gas power plant cycle
( a )
corresponding to maximum work output for the given
temperature limits ofT minand Tmaxwill be
(c) lP+ y2) (Y - b) = RT
(a) (Truax
Tmm
t y
Y+1) (b)
(Tmin ) 2(Y-l)
lTmaJ
y
(d)
(
lP-
a )
y2) (Y - b) = RT
266. In which case the work done is negative?
(c) (Truax
Tmln
y
y-l
(d) (Tmm
Tmax
y
y-l (a) A rigid steel vessel containing steam at a temperature
of 110C is left standing in the atmosphere which is at
a temperature of32C
(b) One kg of air flows adiabatically from the atmosphere
260. The Carnot cycle consists of two reversible adiabatic
into a previously evacuated bottle.
processes and
(c) A rigid vessel containing ammonia gas is connected
(a) two reversible isothermal processes
through a valve to an evacuated rigid vessel. The
(b) two reversible constant pressure processes
vessels, the valve and the connecting pipe are well
(c) two reversible constant volume processes
(d) one reversible constant pressure processes insulated. The valve is opened and after a time,
261. Equal volume of all gases, at the same temperature and conditions through the two vessels become uniform.
pressure, contain equal number of molecules. This is (d) A mixture of ice and water is contained in an insulated
according to vertical cylinder closed at the top by a non-conducting
(a) Charle's law (b) Avagadro's law piston, the upper surface is exposed to the atmosphere.
(c) Joule's law (d) Gay Lussac law The piston is held stationary while the mixture is stirred
262. In the polytropic process equation, p v = constant, if n = 1, by means of a paddle-wheel protruding through the
the process is called cylinder wall as a result some of the ice melts.
(a) constant pressure process 267. At STP, 8.4 litre of oxygen and 14 litre of hydrogen mix with
(b) constant volume process each other completely in an insulated chamber. Calculate
Badboys2 (c) constant temperature process the entropy change for the process assuming both the gases
(d) none of these behave like an ideal gas
263. For a reversed Carnot cycle, which figure represents the (a) 2.48kJ (b) 5.49kJ
variation of T L for different values of COP for a constant (c) 7.85kJ (d) zero
value ofT H = 300 K (say)? 268. For an ideal gas the expression
~
0
\OOK ~
0
TH = 300 K [T(;)P-T(;)vN!;)p -T(;l.s
equal to
always

U U Cp
(a) (b) (a) zero (b)
Cv
TL,oK TL,oK (c) R (d) RT
269. The pressure p of an ideal gas and its mean kinetic energy E
per unit volume are related by the relation
TH = 300 K 1 3E
TH=300K (a) p=-E (b) p=-
3 2
~ ~
(c)
0
U
(d)
0
U
\J (c) p=-E
2
3
(d) p=-
E
3
270. An ideal gas expands isothermally from volume vIto v 2 and
then compressed to original volume vI adiabatically initial
TL'K TL'K
pressure is PI and final pressure is P 3. The total work done
264. In steam power plant the heat supplied to boiler is 3608 kJf by gas is w, then
kg. The enthalpies at the entry and exit of turbine are 2732 (a) P3>P1,w>0 (b) P3<P1,w<0
kJ/kg and 335 kJ/kg respectively. Ifthe efficiency of power (c) P 3 > PI' w < 0 (d) P 3 = PI' w = 0
plant is 64% then the efficiency of turbine will be 271. If during a process, the temperature and pressure of system
(a) 0.93 (b) 0.94 are related by
(c) 0.95 (d) 0.96
265. Vander Waal's equation of state ofa gas is y-I
(a) pY=nRT T2=(P2JY
TI PI
(b) (p+ ;2 }V+b)=RT then the system consists of
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(a) any gas undergoing an adiabatic process (c) R-T-3,P-S-l,P-T-4,Q-S-5
(b) an ideal gas undergoing a polytropic process (d) P-T-4,R-S-3,P-S-l,P-S-5
(c) any pure substance undergoing an adiabatic process 277. Given below is an extract from steam tables.
(d) an ideal gas undergoing a reversible adiabatic process Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Specific volume (m3/kg)
272. In a gas turbine, hot combustion products with the specific Temperature
(bar) Saturated
(0C)
Psat Saturated Saturated Saturated
heats Cp= 0.98 kJ/kgK, andCv=0.7638 K enter the turbine liquid vapour liquid vapour
at20 bar, 1500K exits at 1bar. The isoentropic efficiencyof
45 0.09593 0.001010 15.26 188.45 2394.8
the turbine is 0.94. The work developed by the turbine per
kg of gas flow is 342.24 150 0.001658 0.001658 1610.5 2610.5
(a) 686.64kJ/kg (b) 794.66kJ/kg Specificenthalpy of water in kJ/kg at 150bar and 45C is
(c) 10009.72kJ/kg (d) 1312.00kJ/kg (a) 203.60 (b) 200.53
273. The volume V versus temperature T graphs for a certain (c) 196.38 (d) 188.45
amount of a perfect gas at two pressure p I and P2 are as 278. A thin layer of water in field is formed after a farmer has a
shown in the figure. It can be concluded that watered it. The ambient air conditions are: temperature 20C
and relative humidity 5%.
An extract of steam tables is given below.
Temperature (0C) - 15 -10 -5 0.01 5 10 15 20
Saturation pressure (kPa) 0.1 0.26 0.4 0.61 0.87 1.23 1.71 2.34
Neglecting the heat transfer between the water and the

ground, the water temperature in the field after phase
equilibrium is reached equals
(a) lO.3C (b) -lO.3C
T----+
(c) -14.5C (d) 14.5C
279. Which combination ofthe following statements is correct?
(a) PI represents monoatomic gas and P2 represents
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The incorporation ofreheater in a stream power plant
diatomic gas P. always increases the thermal efficiency of the plant.
(b) the adiabatic index for PI is higher than that for P2 Q. always increases the dryness fraction of steam at
(c) the pressure PI is greater than the pressure P2 condenser inlet.
(d) none of the above R always increases the mean temperature of heat
274. One kilomole of an ideal gas is throttled from an initial addition.
pressure of 0.5 MPa to kO.l MPa. The initial temperature is S. always increases the specific work output
300 K. The entropy change of the universe is 280. Which one of the following is not a necessary assumption
(a) 13.38kJ/K (b) 4014.3kJ/K for the air-standard Otto cycle?
(c) 0.4621kJ/K (d) -0.0446kJ/K (a) All processes are both internally as well as externally
275. The inversion temperature Ti ofa gas is related to the Van reversible
der Waal' s constants as (b) Intake and exhaust processesare constant volume heat
rejection processes
T-~ T _ 27R.b
(a) (b) 1- (c) The combustion process is a constant volume heat
1- 27R.b 8a addition process
T _ 2R.b (d) The working fluid is an ideal gas with constant specific
(c) I- (d) TI = R.b2a
heats.
8a
281. In an air-standard Otto cycle, the compression ratio is 10.
276. Group I shows different heat addition processes in power The condition at the beginning of the compression process
cycles. Likewise, Group II shows different heat removal is 100kPa and 27C. Heat added at constant volume is 1500
processes. Group III lists power cycles. Match items from kJ/kg while 700 kJ/kg of heat is rejected during the other
Group I, II and III. constant volume process in the cycle. Specific gas constant
for air = 0.287 kJ/kg-K. The mean effectivepressure (in kPa)
Group I Group II Group ill I of the cycle is
P. Pressure S. Pressure 1. Rankine cycle (a) 103 (b) 310
constant constant (c) 515 (d) 1032
Q. Volume T. Volume 2. Otto cycle 282. The thermal efficiency of an air-standard Brayton cycle in
constant constant terms of pressure ratio rpand y (= c/c) is given by
R. Temperature U. Temperature 3. Carnot cycle
constant constant 1__ 1_ 1-_!_
(a) [y-I (b) rY
4. Diesel cycle p p
5. Brayton cycle
1
(a) P-S-5,R-U-3,P-S-l, Q-T-2 1-- (d) 1
(c) [I/y (y-l)/y
rp
(b) P-S-l, R-U-3,P-S-4,Q-T-2 P
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283. Which one of the following pairs of equations describes an dry air when it is saturated at the same temperature
irreversible heat engine? and pressure
(d) ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a given volume
(a) ~8Q > 0 and ~8Q
T<O of moist air to the mass of water vapour in the same
volume of saturated air at the same temperature and
pressure.
(b) ~8Q <0 and ~8Q
T<O 291. The correct representation of a simple Rankine cycle naT -
s diagram is
(c) ~8Q>0 and ~8Q
T>O
(d) ~8Q<0 and ~8Q

T>O
284. For a gas turbine power plant, identify the correct pair of (a) (b)
statements.
P. Smaller in size compared to steam power plant for same
power output
Q. Starts quickly compared to steam power plant
R
S.
Works on the principle of Rankine cycle
Good compatibility with solid fuel 1 i
T
T
(a) P, Q (b) R, S
(c) (d)
(c) Q,R (d) P,S
285. A diesel engine is usually more efficient than a spark ignition 1 4 S --+
engine because S ____.
(a) diesel being a heavier hydrocarbon, releases more heat
per kg than gasoline
292. With reference to air standard Otto and Diesel cycles, which
Badboys2 (b) the air standard efficiency of diesel cycle is higher
ofthe following statements are true?
(a) For a given compression ratio and the same state of air
than the otto cycle, at a fixed compression ratio
before compression. Diesel cycle is less efficient than
(c) the compression ratio of a diesel engine is higher than
an Otto cycle.
that of an SI engine (b) For a given compression ratio and the same state of air
(d) self ignition temperature of diesel is higher than that before compression. Diesel cycle is more efficient than
of gasoline an Otto cycle.
286. Rankine cycle efficiency for a power plant is 29%. The camot (c) The efficiency of a Diesel cycle decreases with an
cycle efficiency will be increase in the cut-offratio.
(a) less (b) more (d) The efficiency of a Diesel cycle increases with an
(c) equal (d) none of these increase in the cut-offratio.
287. Diesel cycle consists of 293. A refrigerating machine working on reversed Carnot cycle
(a) two adiabatic and two constant volume process takes out 2 kW per minute of heat from the system while
(b) two adiabatic and two constant pressure process between temperature limits 0000 K and 200 K. COP and
(c) two adiabatic, one constant pressure and one constant Power consumed by the cycle will be respectively:
volume processes (a) 1 and 1 kW (b) 1 and2kW
(d) two isothermal, one constant pressure and one (c) 2andlkW (d) 2and2kW
constant volume processes 294. The bypass factor, in case of sensible cooling of air, is given by
288. A Camot refrigeration system requires 1.5 kW per ton of tdl - td3 td2 - td3
refrigeration to maintain a region at - 30C. The COP of (a) td2 -dd3 (b) tdl -dd3
system will be
td3 - tdl
(a) 1.69 (b) 2.33 (d)
(c) td2 - dd3
(c) 2.79 (d) 3.44
289. Brayton cycle can not be used in reciprocating engines for where
same adiabatic compression ratio and work output because tdl = Dry bulb temperature of air entering the cooling coil,
(a) it requires large air-fuel ratio td2 = Dry bulb temperature of air leaving the cooling coil,
td3 = Dry bulb temperature of cooling coil
(b) it is less efficient
295. An engine working on air standard otto cycle has a cylinder
(c) large volume oflowpressure air cannot be efficiently
diameter 10 em and stroke length of15 em. IfV cis 196.3 cm3
handled
and heat supplied is 1800 kJ/kg, the work output will be
(d) all of these (a) 1080.78kJ/kg (b) 1282.68kJ/kg
290. The relative humidity is defined as the (c) 973.44kJ/kg (d) 1172.56kJ/kg
(a) mass of water vapour present in 1 m3 ofdry air 296. Efficiency of a diesel cycle with approach to otto cycle,
(b) mass of water vapour present in 1 kg of dry air when
(c) ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a unit mass of (a) diesel engine will operate at high speed
dry air to the mass of water vapour in the same mass of (b) cut off period of diesel cycle is reduced to zero
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(c) diesel fuel is balance with petrol 307. For the same maximum pressure and temperature
(d) none of these (a) Otto cycle is more efficient than diesel cycle.
297. A engine is working on air standard diesel cycle.The engine (b) Diesel cycle is more efficient than Otto cycle.
has bore 250 mm, stroke 375 mm and clearance volume is (c) Dual cycleis more efficientthan Otto and diesel cycles
1500 cm'. If the cut off value is 5% of stroke volume the (d) Dual cycleis less efficientthan Otto and Diesel cycles.
efficiency of engine will be 308. Ifcompression ratio of an engine working on otto cycle is
(a) 53.25% (b) 60.5% increasedfrom5to 6, its air standardefficiencywillincreaseby
(c) 64.89% (d) 67.75% (a) 1% (b) 20%
298. Number of processes in a Rankine cycles are (c) 16.67% (d) 8%
(a) 3 (b) 4 309. An air standard diesel cycle at fixed compression ratio and
(c) 5 (d) 6 fixedr
299. The comfort condition in air conditioning are at (a) thermal efficiency increases with increase in heat
(a) OODBTandO%RH. (b) 20CDBTand60%RH addition and cut offratio
(c) 30CDBTand 80%RH. (d) 40CDBTand 90%RH. (b) thermal efficiency decreases with increase in heat
addition and cut off ratio
300. The dual combustion cycle consists of two adiabatic
(c) thermal efficiencyremains the same wethe increase in
processes and
heat addition and cut offratio
(a) two constant volume and one constant pressure (d) none of these
processes 310. In an air standard otto cycle, the pressure in the cylinder at
(b) one constant volume and two constant pressure 30% and 70% ofthe compression stroke are 1.3bar and 2.6
processes bar respectively. Assuming that compression follows the
(c) one constant volume and one constant pressure law PV 1.3 = constant,what will be the air standard efficiency
processes of cycle
(d) two constant volume and two constant pressure (a) 36% (b) 42%
processes (c) 46% (d) 48%
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301. The air standard diesel cycle is less efficient than the Otto 311. The stroke and bore ofa four stroke spark ingition engine
cycle for the are 250 mm and 200 mm respectively.The clearancevolume
(a) same compression ratio and heat addition is 0.001 m3. If the specificheat ratio y = 1.4,the air-standard
(b) same pressure and heat addition cycle efficiency ofthe engine is
(c) same rpm and cylinder dimensions (a) 46.40% (b) 56.10%
(d) same pressure and compression ratio (c) 58.20% (d) 62.80%
302. An otto cycletakes in air at 300 k. The ratio of maximum to 312. An engine working on otto cycle having compression ratio
minimum temperature is 6 for maximum work output the of 5. The maximum and minimum pressure during the cycle
are 40 bar and 1 bar respectively. The mean effective
optimum pressure ratio will be
pressure of cycle will be
(a) 7.48 (b) 8.37
(c) 8.93 (d) 9.39 (a) 7 bar (b) 7.89bar
303. The mean effective pressure of an Otto cycle can be (c) 9.04bar (d) 11.79bar
expressedas where (~P = Pressurerise during heat addition) 313. A heat pump works on a reversed cannot cycle. The temp in
(~).llth the condenser coil is 27C and that in the evaporator coil is
(a)
(Y-I)(r-l) (b)
(Y-l)(r-l) -23C. For a work input of lkW, how much is the heat
pumped?
(~).llth (~).llth (a) 1 kW (b) 5 kW
(c) (d) (c) 6kW (d) None of these
(y-l)(r-l) (Y-l)r
314. What is sol-air temperature?
304. The diesel engine and otto engine has same compression (a) It is equal to the sum of outdoor air temperature and
ratio. The cut offratio of diesel engine is S. The air standard absorbed total radiation divided by outer surface con-
efficiency of these cycles will be equal when vective heat transfer coefficient
(a) Sf - r( s - 1) = 0 (b) Sf - r( s - 1) + 1= 0 (b) It is equal to absorbed total radiation divided by
(c) Sf - r(s - 1)- 1= 0 (d) Sf - (s - 1) - r = 0 convective heat transfer coefficient at outer surface.
305. Brayton cycle consists of sets of processes (c) It is equal to the total incident radiation divided by
(a) isentropics and constant volume convective heat transfer coefficient at outer surface.
(b) isentropics and constant pressure (d) It is equal to the sum of indoor air temperature and
(c) isothermal and constant pressure absorbed total radiation divided by convective heat
(d) isothermal and constant volume transfer coefficient at outer surface.
306. For a given set of operating pressure limits of a Rankine 315. In a Brayton Cycle, what is the value of optimum pressure
cycle the highest efficiency occurs for ratio for maximum net work done b/w temperature. T I and
(a) Saturated cycle (b) Superheated cycle T3,where T3is the maximum temperature and Tl is the mini-
(c) Reheat cycle (d) Regenerative cycle mum temperature?
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0
('I')
('I')
('I')
I
o,
A-124 Thermal Engineerging C)
y-l Process in figure Name of the process

Y
(a) fp=(~t (b) fp=(~r P. 0-1 i Chemical

dehumidification
Q. 0-2 ii. Sensible heating
y
fp=(~ t
2(y-l)
R 0-3 Cooling and
(c) Y-1) (d) fp=(~ J-y-
S. 0-4
ill.
IV.
dehumidification
Humidificationwith steam
316. Match list I (processer with) list II (Type) for Bell coleman injection
or Joule or Reverse Brayton cycle for gas cycle refrigera- T. 0-5 v. Humidificationwithwater
tion and select the correct answer using the codes given injection
below the lists.
List! List II (a) P-i,Q-ii,R-iii,S-iv,T-v
A. Compression 1. Isobaric (b) P-ii,Q-i,R-iii,S-v,T-iv
B. Heat rejection 2. Isothermal (c) P-ii,Q-i,R-iii,S-iv,T-v
C. Expansion 3. Isentropic (d) P-iii,Q-iv,R-v,S-i,T-ii
D. Heat absorption 4. Isenthalpic 320. For a typical sample of ambient air (at 35C, 75% relative
Codes: humidity and standard atmospheric pressure), the amount
ABC D of moisture in kg per kg of dry air will be approximately?
(a) 3 1 4 2 (a) 0.002 (b) 0.027
(b) 3 I 3 1
(c) 0.25 (d) 0.75
(c) 3 2 3 2
(d) 3 1 2 2 321. The statements concern psychrometric chart.
317. Match list I with list II and select the correct answer using 1. Constantrelativehumiditylines are uphill straightlines
the codes given below the lists. to the right.
List I List II 2. Constant wet bulb temperature lines are downhill
Badboys2 A. Pelton turbine 1. Specificspeedfrom 300
to 1000+ axialflowwith 3.
straight lines to the right.
Constant specific volume lines are downhill straight
fixed runners vanes line to the right.
B. Prancis turbine 2. Specific speed from 10 4. Constant enthalpy lines are coincident with constant
to 50 + tangential flow wet bulb temperature lines
C. Propeller turbine 3. Specific speed from 60
Which of the following statements are correct?
to 300 + mixed flow
(a) 2and3 (b) 1and 2
D. Kaplan turbine 4. Specificspeedfrom 300
to 1000+ axialflowwith (c) 1and 3 (d) 2 and 4
adjustablerunner vanes 322. In a Pelton wheel, the bucket peripheral speed is 10m/s,the
Codes: waterjet velocityis 25 mls and volumetric flowrate of thejet
ABC D is 0.1 m3/s. Ifthe jet defletion angle is 120 and the flow is
(a) 2 1 3 4 ideal, the power developed is
(b) 4 1 3 2 (a) 7.5kW (b) 15.0kW
(c) 2 3 1 4 (c) 22.5kW (d) 37.5kW
(d) 4 3 1 1 323. Dew point temperature is the temperature at which
318. Centrifugal pump have which ofthe following advantages? condensation begins when the air cooled at constant
1. low initial cost
(a) volume (b) entropy
2. compact, occupying less floor space
3. easy handling of highly viscous fluid (c) pressure (d) enthalpy
(a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 1and 2 324. The stroke and bore of a four stroke spark ignition engine
(c) 1and 3 (d) 2and3 are 250 mm and 200 mm respectively.The clearance volume
319. Various psychrometric processes are shown in the figure is 0.001 m'. Ifthe specificheat ratio y = 1.4, the air-standard
below. cycle efficiency of the engine is
(a) 46.40% (b) 56.10%
(c) 58.20% (d) 62.80%
325. If a mass of moist air in an airtight vessel is heated to a
higher temperature, then
w (kg/kg) (a) specific humidity of air increases
(b) specific humidity of air decreases
(c) relative humidity of air increases
(d) relative humidity of air decreases
Badboys2
I.. ANSWER KEY

1 (c) 26 (b) 51 (c) 76 (b) 101 (b) 126 (b) 151 (d) 176 (c) 201 (c) 226 (b) 251 (b)

276

(a)
,
301 (a)
1
2 (c) 27 (c) 52 (d) 77 (b) 102 (a) 127 (a) 152 (a) 177 (d) 202 (a) 227 (d) 252 (c) 277 (d) 302 (d)
3 (d) 28 (d) 53 (b) 78 (d) 103 (a) 128 (b) 153 (a) 178 (c) 203 (a) 228 (a) 253 (d) 278 (c) 303 (b)
4 (a) 29 (b) 54 (a) 79 (b) 104 (b) 129 (b) 154 (d) 179 (b) 204 (b) 229 (d) 254 (d) 279 (b) 304 (a)
5 (b) 30 (c) 55 (c) 80 (a) 105 (d) 130 (a) 155 (a) 180 (b) 205 (a) 230 (b) 255 (c) 280 (b) 305 (b)
6 (c) 31 (a) 56 (a) 81 (d) 106 (a) 131 (a) 156 (b) 181 (a) 206 (b) 231 (c) 256 (d) 281 (d) 306 (d)
7 (c) 32 (d) 57 (a) 82 (a) 107 (c) 132 (b) 157 (c) 182 (b) 207 (c) 232 (c) 257 (a) 282 (d) 307 (b)
8 (b) 33 (a) 58 (c) 83 (b) 108 (b) 133 (b) 158 (a) 183 (c) 208 (a) 233 (c) 258 (d) 283 (a) 308 (d)
9 (a) 34 (b) 59 (d) 84 (a) 109 (a) 134 (b) 159 (b) 184 (a) 209 (c) 234 (b) 259 (a) 284 (a) 309 (b)
10 (c) 35 (a) 60 (a) 85 (c) 110 (c) 135 (a) 160 (b) 185 (d) 210 (a) 235 (a) 260 (a) 285 (c) 310 (c)
11 (b) 36 (b) 61 (b) 86 (c) 111 (a) 136 (d) 161 (c) 186 (a) 211 (b) 236 (a) 261 (b) 286 (b) 311 (c)
12 (a) 37 (b) 62 (c) 87 (d) 112 (a) 137 (b) 162 (b) 187 (b) 212 (a) 237 (b) 262 (c) 287 (c) 312 (c)
13 (b) 38 (c) 63 (a) 88 (c) 113 (a) 138 (a) 163 (c) 188 (a) 213 (c) 238 (a) 263 (b) 288 (b) 313 (c)
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14 (c) 39 (c) 64 (c) 89 (a) 114 (b) 139 (d) 164 (a) 189 (b) 214 (a) 239 (d) 264 (d) 289 (c) 314 (a)
15 (b) 40 (a) 65 (d) 90 (b) 115 (b) 140 (b) 165 (a) 190 (a) 215 (a) 240 (a) 265 (c) 290 (d) 315 (b)
16 (c) 41 (c) 66 (b) 91 (d) 116 (a) 141 (a) 166 (a) 191 (d) 216 (d) 241 (a) 266 (b,d) 291 (a) 316 (b)
17 (a) 42 (b) 67 (b) 92 (a) 117 (d) 142 (d) 167 (c) 192 (b) 217 (b) 242 (d) 267 (b) 292 (a, c) 317 (c)
18 (c) 43 (b) 68 (a) 93 (d) 118 (a) 143 (b) 168 (d) 193 (c) 218 (a) 243 (a) 268 (c) 293 (c) 318 (d)
19 (b) 44 (d) 69 (b) 94 (a) 119 (c) 144 (a) 169 (d) 194 (d) 219 (b) 244 (b) 269 (c) 294 (b) 319 (b)
20 (a) 45 (d) 70 (d) 95 (c) 120 (a) 145 (a) 170 (b) 195 (d) 220 (b) 245 (a) 270 (c) 295 (c) 320 (b)
21 (a) 46 (b) 71 (a) 96 (b) 121 (b) 146 (b) 171 (d) 196 (c) 221 (a) 246 (a) 271 (d) 296 (b) 321 (a)
22 (b) 47 (b) 72 (d) 97 (a) 122 (c) 147 (c) 172 (b) 197 (b) 222 (b) 247 (c) 272 (a) 297 (b) 322 (b)
23 (c) 48 (d) 73 (d) 98 (d) 123 (a) 148 (b) 173 (a) 198 (a) 223 (a) 248 (c) 273 (c) 298 (b) 323 (c)
24 (b) 49 (a) 74 (c) 99 (b) 124 (b) 149 (d) 174 (c) 199 (c) 224 (b) 249 (a) 274 (c) 299 (b) 324 (c)
25 (a) 50 (b) 75 (a) 100 (d) 125 (d) 150 (b) 175 (b) 200 (c)
HINTS & EXPLANATIONS

225 (a) 250 (c) 275
...,
(d) 300 (a) 325 (d)
5. (b) Considring the followingdiagram, 12. (a) As we know that,

C F-32
1 - = --
~l' 100 180
C
Q)
S C= 100(F_32)=~(F_32)
!ZJ
!ZJ 180 9
Q)
1-0
P-. ~2
5
C =-(F -32)
Volume (V) ~ 9
hence, (QA -wA) = (QB -wB) 13. (b) Let, Cp = specific heat at constant pressure
Badboys2

C, = specific heat at-constant volume T2=47C=47+ 273
then, =320K
Cp - C, = R (gas constant) work produced (wp) = 150 KJ
where, R = 287 Jzkg" K
T2- T1 (320- 309)
19. (b) As we knonw that, Now, efficiency (11)=T= 320
during an adiabatic process, PvY = constant
PIVIY=P2 V/=C 11
Here, PI =P,P2=M>, V1=Y, V2=tN 11= - = 0.0344
320
We also know that,
Hence tN = _!_ ( dP)
'V y P
. () work Produced ( w p )
28. (d) Let v = mean square molecular velocity efficiency 11 = ---------,-----'--,-:::--:-
Heat added (QA)
p = density,
0.0344= 150
thenvoc-~-=1 VI ~2 -
QA
.JP V2 PI
30. (c) Given: T = 0 Q =~=4360KJ

Now considering kinetic energy equation of gases, (kinetic A 0.0344
3 74. (c) Given Latent heat ofvapourization (dQ) = 250

energy) K.E = "2 KT Temperature (T) = 100 K
Here, T =0 dQv
Hence, K.E = 0
change of entropy (ds) = T
34. (b) Given: Q1 + 105 MJ, Q2 = 42 MJ
T1=400K, T2=200K = 2560 = 25.6 KJ IK Ok
100 g
Badboys2 Q1 105 21 123. (a) Given: In a Brayton cycle,
Now, T; = 400 = 80 Initial temperature (T) = 300 K
Final or maximum temperature (Tf) = 1200 K
Q2 = 42 =~
T2 200 100 Tf-Ti)
thermal efficiency (11thermal ) = ( ~ x 100
Here,
Q1
T; ~
* Q2 = 12000 - 300 x 100
1200
So, Engine is not possible.
35. (a) Given: Initial volume (v) = 0.03 m' 900
=--xl00= 75%
Final volume (v2) = 0.06 m' 1200
Pressure (P) = 1 MPa = 1 x 103 kPa 125. (d) Given: Bore diameter (D) = 0.20 m
Heat absorbed (ow) = -84 KJ stroke (L) = 0.25 m
Now, using first Law of thermodynamics, speed (N) = 600 rpm
dQ=ow+du Actual volume delivered = 4m3/min = 0.0667 mvs
du = dQ - Ow= -Pdv - dw
=-103(0.06-0.03)-(-84) swept volume (v) = ~ D2L = ~ x (0.2)2 x 0.25
=-103 x 0.03 + 84
=-30+ 84= 54KJ =0.00785m3
41. (c) Given: Initial volume (v) = 4m3 Now using the following relation,
Final volume (vf) = 2 m' Volume of air induced
Pressure (P) = 4.2 kg/em- Volumetric efficiency (11vot)= swept volume
work done (w)p = Pdv
=4.2 x 104 x (4-2) we get, 11vol
= 85%
=4.2x2xl04 131. (a) Given: First conditions: TI = 900 K, T2=T2
= 8.4 X 104 joule Second conditior, T I = T2' T2= 400 K
Efficiency for first, condition, (First Engine)
As the system undergoes a reversible process, then,
Heat (Q)H= 20 x 4.2 X 104 111= T2 - T1 = T2 - 900 = 1- 900
= 8.4 x 104 joules T2 T2 T2
change in internal energy = w D - QH
Efficiency for second condition, (second Engine)
=8.4x 104-8.4 x 104=0
55. (c) Given, TI = 36 C = 36 + 273 _ T2 -T1 _ 400-T2 -1- T2
=309K 112- T2 - 400 - 400
Badboys2

Now, 11,= 112 136. (d) Given: coefficient of performance (COP)p = 5
work input (W,/p)= 1 kw
1- 900 =1- T2
T2 400 (COP)p=~=Qa=5
T22=360000 WI/P 1
T2 = '-'360000 = 600K Q =5kw
Now, (COP)p-(COP)R =w= 1
132. (b) Given: work developed / produced (W) = 60 kw
5 -(COP)R = 1
Efficiency (11)= 60% or 0.6
(COP)R = 5-1 =4
considering the following formula,
. () work Produced (w ) (COP) = 4 = Qar = Qar

Effirciency 11 = ( ) Now, R W 1
Amount of Heat Generated QG liP
Q =4x 1=4kw
w 137. (b) COP of refrigerator' l' = (COP), = 4
11=-
QG COP of refrigerator '2' = (COP)2 = 5
Now, COP of composite refrigeration system (COP)c;
0.6 = 60 (COp) = (COP)l x (coph = 4x5
QG
c 1+ (COP)l + (coph 1+4+5
60
QG =-=100kw 20
0.6 (COP)c =-= 2
10
Now, Amount of heat rejected (QR) = Qa - w
= 100-60=40kw. (COP)c = 2
134. (b) Given: Heat received (Q,) = 1120kT 138. (a) Given: condensortemperature (T)= 37C
Heat rejected (Q2) = 840kJ =37+273=31OK
Badboys2 Temperature Limits, T, = 560 K, T2= 280 k
Now, considering clausing inequality,
Evaporator temperature (T E) = - 3C
=-3 +273
=270K
Ql = 1120 = 14 = ~
Tl 560 7 270
(COp) Refrigerator= TE 270 = 6.75
Tc-TE 310- 270 40
Q2 840 3
-=-=-
T2 280 (COp) Refrigerator= (COp) Refrigerator+ 1
=6.75+1
Ql *- Q2
Hence, -T
1
T 2
=7.75
141. (a) Given: Enthalpy after compression (~) = 425 KJ/kg
Hence, engine operates on Irreversible cycle Enthalpy after throttling (H4) = 125 KJ/kg
135. (a) Considering the following Temperature (T) - Enthalpy before compression (H) = 375 KJ/kg
Entropy(s) diagram: Here,H3=H4
Considering the following block diagram,
Throttle
Hl-H4
()COP Refrigerator= H
Now, we know that, L\Q = f T.ds H
2- 1
B 375 -125 250

QA-B = f T.ds = T.(SB - SA) 425-375 50
A (COP).Refrigerator =5
dQ = T.ds 142. (d) Given: coefficient of performance (COP) = 4
Hence, Area under T - S diagram shows heat transfer for Let T, = Higher temperature
reversible process. T2= Lower temperature
Badboys2
A-12S Thermal Engineerging
COP = ____.:!l__
T1-T2
_1_ = Tl - T2 =..!L-l 307.72

7Vc = 307.72 => Vc = -7-
COP T2 T2
V =43.96cm3=44cm3
202. (a) Weight of body = 100N,dragforce(Fo)=0.5N
distance covered (s) = 50 m
work done (w) = Fox 50
=0.5 x 50
..!L= ~= 1.25
T2 4 =25J
Now, work interaction is work is performed by the system
145. (a) Given: TJ = 27 C
on the surrounding i.e. - 25 1.
TJ =27+273=300k
205. (a) Given: mass of steel ball (m) = 1 kg
T2=-23C
Specific heat (C) = 0.4 KJ/kg
T 2 =-23+273=250k
temperature (~T) = 60 C
_ ____:!i_ _ 300 = 300 = 6 For system energy equilibrium/conservation,
( ) dU=O
COP cornot - Tl - T2 - 300 - 250 50
mC ~T=1 x 0.4 x (T-60)
166. (a) Given: Total volume = 400 cc =O.4(T -60)
compressed volume = 100 cc For water,
r = 1.5 temperature = 20 C
400 mass (m) = 1kg
Comression ratio (C.R) = 100 = 4 specific heat (cw) = 4.18 KJ/kg
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m C ~T= I x4.18+(T-20)
I now. dU:'mC ~T+m C ~T=O
thermal efficiency of cycle ( 11thermal ) = 1- ( )r-l , 0.4 (T _s60)+4.18 (T-:_20) =0
C.R
O.4T-24 +4.18T -83.6=0
4.58T -107.6 = 0
=1 1
(4)1.5-1 4.58T= 107.6
1 1 T = 107.6 = 23.49C ::;::

23.50C
4.58
11thermal = 1- (4)0.5 = 1-(4)112
207. (c) () Heat rejected
COP system = Power Consumed
= 1__ 1_= I-.!.= 1-0.5
.J4 2
= 120 = 4
11thermal = 0.5 or 50% 30
184. (a) Given: speed (N) = 3000 rpm 210. (a) Given: Heat received (Q) = 80 KJ
3000 3000 Temperature (TJ) = 100C
Power stroke / s = __ = _- = 25 Heat rejected (Q2) = 70 KT
2 x 60 120
Temperature (T2)= 30 C
186. (a) Given: Bore diameter (D) = 7 em
Stroke length (L) = 8 em Ql -Q2 100
compression ratio (C.R) = 8 Thermal efficiency ( 11th. ) = Ql x
Swept volume (V) = "4 D 2L

7t
= 80-70 xlOO
80
=~x(7)2x8
4 = !Qxl00
80
=307.72cm3
=12.5%
considering the following relation,
214. (a) Given volume of vessel (v) = 1 m'
C.R Vs -v,
= ____::__-=- steam volume (Vs) = 0.9 m'
Vc
water volume (V w) = 0.1 m'
At 1 bar, Vf= 0.001 mvkg
Where, Vc = clearanace volume
V g = 1.7m3/kg
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=0.03KN-m
Vs 0.9
steam mass ( ms ) = - = - = 0.5294 kg
Vg 1.7 . () work done
Mean effectIve pressure MEP = ----
volume
water mass mw = -
Vf
( ) v:
= --
0.1
0.001
= 100 kg 0.03
0.02
0.5294 3
Now, Dryness fraction = +
ms mw 0.5294+100 2
=0.005266 = 1.5 KN/m2
= 5.266 X 10-3 = 1.5 kPa

= 5.27 X 10-3 220. (b) Given: Bore (d) = 2 unit, stroke (L) = 2 unit
215. (a) Given: a=20, ~ =200 mis, VS1 = 350mls
~l = 30, ~e = 25 Total area for heat loss = ~d2 + ndl. = ~(2)2 + n (2)(2)
4 4
As, VS1 = VS2 = 350 mls
=n+4n
use the following diagram and formula,
=5n
VW1 226. (b) T = constant
IE >I< VW2 )1
( a '1 ( a '1
~~
Thus, lp, + vfjV =lp2 + vljV
t 2
Ub(VwJ + VW2)
work done I kg = ---'------"-
1000
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We get, work done/kg = 124.79 KJ
= 124KJ
217. (b) Given: Rotor diameter (d) = 2 m
speed (N) = 3000 rpm 1 a a a
nozzle angle (a) = 20 => P2 =10x2+ 1x2 - 22 = 5+4
ndN n x 2 x 3000 Asa>O, p> 5

Blade velocity (Ub) = 60 = 60 227. (d) In reciprocating compressor, at initial point ofsuction
and final point of compression a little higher value of
=314m/s pressure is required to open the inlet and outlet value
2ub respectively.
Now, optimum velocity of steam ( vopt. ) =-- 229. (d) Heat is positive when added to system, is in exact
cos o;
differential path function and boundary phenomenon.
2x314 2x314 Work is negative, inexact differential, path function
v ------
opt. - cos 20 - 0.9396 and transient phenomenon.
230. (b) Heat generated by bulb
= 668.4 mls ::::::
668 mls
= 100 x 24 x 60 x 60 J
218. (a) Given
= 8.64 x 106 J
2 . . Heat dissipated = (L x v) x [Cy (T - 20)]
KN/m .. 100 x 24 x 60 x 60=(1.20 x 3) x 2.5 x 3 x Cy(T -20)
A 0.32 x 106 = Cy (T - 20)
5 1'---"","
= 1000 x 1.004 (T -20)
=> T=338.72C
131. (c) First of all, process (1-3) is adiabatic, means a vertical
line in T-8 diagram.
3
.____.___-........__--+ V (m ) As given figure is clockwise for (1-2-3) so from Figures
0.01 0.03 1 and 2, clockwise (1-2-3) will be selected.
In the graph above, 232. (c) Under steady-state flow conditions,
In dABC, AB = 3 KN/m2, BC = 0.03 - 0.0 1 d W=-dH+dQ ...(i)
=0.02m3 Also, in reversible process,
Now, work done = Area of dABC T. d 8 = dH - Vdp ... (ii)
=>- Vd P = - dH + T. d8
1 From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
=-xABxBC
2 dW=-Vdp
Integrating both sides, we get
= _!_ x 3 x 0.02 W=-jVdp
2
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233. (c) Enthalpy of balloon is given by T2=396.30K
H=U+Pr
W R(TI-T2)
Initially balloon kept in insulated and evacuatedroom.
=> No heat transfer from outside. ~e = 0 m y-l
Also, gas does not have to do any work against any
8.314 x(300- 396.30)
external pressure.
=> ~ W=O 1.67-1
From 1stlaw,
=> ~Q=~U+~W W = 1194__!!_
~U=O m kmol
Further, between initial and final states, total energy = 1194J/mol
or enthalpy remains same for the gas. The change in Imol=Mg=40 g
pressure and volume is suchthat their product remains For 40 g, W=1194
constant. 1194
Hence, h also remains constant. For 1kg W= --xl000
, 40
234. (b) dH=dU +d(pVO)
=29.7 kJ/kg
dH = dU + pdV + Vdp
239. (d) In every case, entropy of universe is always positive.
f dH = f dq + f Vdp
(L\S)universe~ 0
~=Q+fVdp
~Ssystem+ ~Ssurrounding~ 0
Q-~=-fVdp
240. (a) AL= Vs(Sweftvolume)= 0.0259m3, Pem =?
~kf;+~p.E+ W =-fVdp N=2200rpm
2 1
W=-fVdp For 4-stroke diesel engine, K = "2
1
P=950kW=950 x io'w
Work is done on the system.
Badboys2 V2
P = Pem xALxNxK
235. (a) Wisothermal= PIVIen- 60
VI
1
- x x 6 0.030 Pem xVs xNx-
-0.8 0.015 10 en 0.015 950xl03 = 2
60
= 8.31kJ
236. (a) Due to internal friction produced in irreversible 950 xl 03 x 60 x 2
process, entropy of the system increases. Pem = 0.0259 x 2200
237. (b) From Clausius inequality, =2 x 106 Pa=2MPa
Cyclic integral of di < 0 for irreversible process 241. (a) H1
Ql + Q2 + Q3 + ....+ Qn < 0
Tl T2 T3 Tn
For process I,
2500 _ 2500 = -1.042
1200 800
For process II,
HI =2800kJ/kg
2000 _ 2000 = -1.5 H2= 1800kJ/kg
800 500 Work done = HI - H2= (2800 -1800) kJ/kg
Process II is more irreversible than process I. = 1000kJ/kg
238. (a) In adiabatic process, Then, specific steam consumptionm
W = PIVI - P2V2 3600
y-l = 1000 =3.60kg/kW-h
y-l 242.(d) d=80mm
_]_=
T2
(RL]r
P2
Strokelength L = 2 x Crank radian
=2 x60= 120mm
Then, swept volume Vs= A x L
0.67 = ~d2 xL
=> 300 = (~)1.67 = (0.5)0.4012 4
T2 2
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258. (d) According to zeroth law of thermodynamics, "when
= ~ x (80)2 x 120 two systems which are equal in temperature to a third
system, they are equal in temperature to each other '.
=603cm3 Accordingly when 50 cc of water at 25C are mixed
244. (b) We have dQ = dU + pdU with 150cc of water at 25C, the resulting temperature
mRTdV ofthe mixture will be 25C, Same analogy applies to
or T dS = mCvdT + --V-- situations in (b) and (c). However,this argument is not
valid when water and sulphuric acid, initially at the
dS = 8+mR dV sametemperature,are mixed.Heretemperaturewill rise
V due to chemical reaction - the change is often violent.
(as isothermal process, dT = 8) 263. (b) For reversed Carnot cycle,
or
fIdS=mRfdVI V COP =
h-TH
TL
For a fixed value of TH' as TL increases,COP also

increases but not linearly. In fact COP decreases with
~S=mRn V2 increasing differencebetween operating temperatures.
VI
11= WTurbine
( PI' 264. (d)
or ~S=mRnlp2) (asPIVI =P2V2) QSuppIied
(2732-335)
0.64 = 11T --'----3-6-08---'-
245. (a)
11T=0.96
266. (b,d) Signs of work for the four cases are given below
(a) 0 (b) '-' ve
246. (a)
(c) 0 (d) '-' ve
Badboys2 and 8=-5 KW m= 1kg/s 267. (b) ~S = - R (nlnxl + n2 n X2)
247. (c) In thermodynamics, energy or available energy of a
8.4
nl =--= 0 .375
system in the maximum useful work possible during a
22.4
process that brings a system into equilibrium with
surroundings (heat reservoir). 14
n2 =-=0.625
252. (c) 22.4
T
3
n2
x2 = = 0.625
nl +n2
~S = - R (0.375 n 0.375 + 0.625 n 0.625)
= 0.66 R = 5.49 Jik
L....-------------+S
The object of the regenerative feed heating cycle is to 1 221 2
269. (c) pV =-mnc = -.-mnc
supply the working fluid to the boiler at same state 332
between 2 and 2' (rather than at state 2) there by
increasing the average temperature of heat addition to or 3p = _!_ mnc2 = E
the cycle. 2 2 V
254. (d) du = 8Q- 8W 2E
Since du is the property and it is exact differential so or p=-
8Q- 8W is the exact differential. 3
256. (d) Here we have to find out the work done an the air in
the cylinder. 270. (c)
work = change in volume due to piston 3
displacement x pressure inside the piston
= 0.0045 x 0.075 x 80 x 103
=27 joule.
1
p
l~
257. (a) In throttling process enthalpy remains constant.
i,, :2
,,,
h, =h2 ,,
, ,,
,, ,,
1000= 800+x (2800- 800) ,,, ,,
x=O.1 ,, ,,,
,, ,,
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P3 > PI 279. (b) Incorporation ofreheater in a steam power plant always
Wgas < 0 increases dryness fraction of steam at condenser inlet
As we know that slope of isothermal process in PV and always increases specific work output.
diagram is less than slope of adiabatic process in PV 280. (b)
diagram. Thats why P3 > PI and from the process it is End of
clear that work done is negative. combustion
272. (a) Cp = 0.98, c, = 0.7638 p ~
PI =20bar, T3 = 1500k Exhaust
P2 = lbar, 11=0.94 valve open
11= Cp =~=1.28305
c, 0.7638
I
Patm
11-1 0.28305
T4 = (P4 , ----;- => l = (20) 1.28305 Intake
T3 lp3) 1500 1
L...-----1f----------+----.v
T4 = 29047434k. TDC BDC
p 3
11= T3 - T4' => 0.94 = 1500- T4
T3 - T4 1500-2904.7434
T'4= 2820.45
Work w= Cp (T3-T'4)
w= 0.98(1500 - 2820.45)
Badboys2 w= 1294.049 kJ/kg.
274. (c) ~suniverse = ~Ssyst + DSsurrounding
~ssurrounding = 0 (Throtteled)
~Su = ~Ssys
. P2 I 0.1 ~----;------------------;--~v
=R IogJ-=8.314 og-
PI 0.5 TDC BDC
Air-standard auto cycle with four reversible processes
~suniverse= 13.38 kJ/k 1-2; isentropic compression
275. (d) Gases become cool during Joule Thomson's expansion 2-3; V = constant heat addition
only if they are below a certain temperature called 3-4; isentropic expansion
inversion temperature T I: The inversion temperature 4-1; V = constant heat rejection
is the characteristic of each gas. It is related to the Van From the first figure, it can be seen that intake and
der Waals' constants 'a' and 'b' by the relation exhaust are not constant volume processes.
p
T _ 2a
1 - R.b 281. (d)
276. (a) Pressure constant heat addition and pressure constant

heat removal are Brayton cycles.
Constant temperature heat addition and constant
temperature heat removal are Carnot cycles
Pressure constant heat addition and pressure constant
heat removal are Rankine cycles.
Volume constant heat addition and volume constant v
heat removal are Otto cycles. Given, PI = 100 kPa
277. (d) F or a given saturation pressure, iftemperature is lower Tl =27+273=300K
Heat supplied (process 2-3)
than the saturation temperature then it is subcooled
Qs = 1500 kJ/kg
liquid or compressed liquid. For 150 bar pressure Heat rejected (process 4-1 )
saturation temperature is 342.24. But as temperature is QR = 700 kJ/kg
lower than that, thus it is compressed liquid at 45C, Gas constant for air,
R = 0.287 kJ/kg-K
specific enthalpy would be 188.45 kJ/kg.
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.. VI V3- v2 = 0.05 (VI - v2)

Compression ratio, r = 10 = V2
Now, mean effective pressure is given by (:~ -I)=O.OS[ :~ -I]

Work done
Pmean = ----- rc -1 = 0.05 [12.26]
Swept volume
rc = 1.61
V4
Now -=-=10
'V3
=> VI = 10V2
Vt
V2
Also swept volume

...(i)
~diesel = 1- (r l
)~-Il~(ct_~;
VS=VI-V2 1 1(l.61)l.4_1]
=> VS=0.9VI lldiesel = 1- (13.26)OAll.4 x 0.01 = 60.5
Initiallyfor air
PIVl =nRTI 301. (a) The air standard diesel cycle is less efficient than the
" _ nRT _lxO.287x300 Otto cycle, given the same compression ratio and heat
.. vt - ~ - 100 =0.861 m3/kg addition. However, it is more efficient than the Otto
cycle with the same peak pressure and heat addition.
.. Vs=0.9x 0.861 =0.7749m3/kg
Work done in cycle 302. (d) 3
W = Heat supplied - Heat rejected = Qs - QR
= 1500 - 700 = 800 kJ/kg
W 800
=> Pmean = Vs = 0.7749 = 1032.39kPa
285. (c) For same compression ratio and the same heat supplied,
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otto cycle is most efficient and diesel cycle is least
efficient.
In practice, however, the compression ratio of the Diesel
engine ranges between 14 and 25 whereas that of the
otto engine between 6 and 12. Because of its higher TI =300k
efficiency than the otto engine.
T3 =6
COP = Refrigeration effect = ~ = 2.33 TI
288. (b)
Work done 1.5 T3 = 1800k
we know that for maximum work output
200 T2T4=TIT3
293. (c) 2
300-200 T2 = ~TtT3
T L = Lower temperature
T H = Higher temperature T3 = JTIT3
RE 2 T4 = JTtT3
Power= --=- =lkW
COP 2 T2 = .)1800 x 300 = 734.84 k
1t 2 1t 2 3 t
295. (c) Vs =-d L = -(10) x15=1177.5cm
4 4 ~=(T2Jr-t
v2 TI
r = 1+ ~ = 1+ 1177.5 = 1 +5.99 ~7
1
Vc 196.3
r= (~ )r-I =9.39.
W 1
1l=-=1---
Qs (r)y-l
W
303. (b) Pm=-
Vs
~=1-
1800 (7iA-1 t
ll+n
W
= - = -----
W
W = 973.44 kJ/kg Qs mcv(T3-T2)
297. (b) Vs = ~(25)2 (37.5) = 18398.43 em3 h _ W

4 +n - mR~T
--
vc = v2 = 1500 em3
y-1
r = 1+~ = 1+ 18398.43 = 13.26
Vc 1500
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more efficient.
w = 11+nmR.1T = 11+nM>vc :. 11DieseI>11DuaI> 110tto
y-1 (Y-1)
11= 1__ 1_= l-(r)y-1
308. (d) (r)Y-I
.1n M
-xl00= -(I-r)-xl00
Vs =(r-l)vc n r
11+n(.1p)vc M
Pm = -...;,...:=........:...__~-=---- = (r-1)-x
r
100
(Y-1)(r-1)vc
6-5
= (1.4-1)x-5-x100 =0.08 x 100=8%
11+n(M
= (y-l)(r-l) 310. (c)
304. (a) 11otto= 11diesel
1- (r)~-l=1- (r)~-I[r(:=~)] I
I
I
I
sr-1 = r( s - 1) I
sr-I - r( s - 1) = 0 --4--------1
>I
P 11
306. (d) Efficiency of ideal regenerative cycle is exactly equal v,1
V'
I 2
11
to that of the corresponding Camot cycle. Hence it is
maximum, 70% 30% V---+
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307. (b) Following figures shows cycles with same maximum V2 =1
pressure and same maximum temperature. In this case, v2' = 1 +0.7 (r-l)
otto cycle has to be limited to lower compression ratio =0.7r +0.3
to fulfil the condition that point 3 is to be a common v2' = 1 +0.3 (r-l)
state for both cycles. =0.3r+0.7
T -S diagram shown that both cycles will reject the same
lIx .'.
amount of heat.
~=(_!i_J =(2.6)1.3 =1.7
v2 P2 1.3
2 3
0.7r+0.3
1.7
0.3r+0.7
r=4.68
P
1
4 11=1---
(r)Y-I
1
=1 --1-:-4-:---:-1 = 0.46 = 46%
V (4.68) .
311. (c) vc=O.OOI m3
7t 2 3
Ys = -x 0.200 x 0.250m
4
= 1-[ 0.001 ]1.4-1 =58.2%

S 0.001+~xO.2002 xO.250
Thermal efficiency= 1 Qrejected = 1 Constant
312. (c) Given PI = 1 bar
Qsup plied Qsupplied
P3 =40bar
Thus the cycle with greater heat addition Qsuppliedis r=5
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i.e., 0-3
Humidification and steam injection - temperature
increases and w increases to
i.e., 0-5
Humidification and water injection - temperature
decreases but w increases
i.e., 04
320. (b) On a psychrometric chart
75% RH
P2 =Pl( :J =1.(5)14 =9.51 bar

0.025
1 1
11=1--- = 1--- =0.4746
(r r' (5).4
R(T3-T2) 30
Qs = Cv (T3 - TI) = _____..:.._--=----~ 321. (a) On a psychrometric chart
r-1 Constant relative humidity lines are uphill curve not
v2 (P3 - P2) (40 - 9.51) x vc straight, to the right.
= = 76.255vc Constant WBT lines straight downhill to the right.
r-1 1.4-1
Constant specificvolumedownhill straight to the right.
1+~=5 Constant enthalpy lines are not coincident to WBT.
Vc 322. (b) P=2u(v-u)(1 +cos<j x flowrate
= 2 x 10(25-10) (1 + cos 120) x 0.1
Badboys2 Vs = 4vc
= 20 x 15 x 0.5 x 0.1 = 15kW
W
11=- 323. (c)
Qs
T
0.4746= W
76.225vc
Tdew
W = 36.17vc
Pm = W = 36.17vc = 9.04 bar

Vs 4vc
s
313 . ()c
H mt: ..c. I ( ) QI QI Air is cooled at constant pressure to make unsaturated
usmg rormu a cop = W = Q2-Ql
air to saturated one,
324. (c) Given,
=~ StrokeL = 250 mm
T2-Tl
Diameter, d=200mm
319. (b) Chemical dehumidification- temperature increases,w
Clearance volume Vc=0.00Im3
decreases,
Now, swept volume
i.e., 0-2
Sensible heating - straight horizontal line towards 1t 2 1t 2
Vs =-d L=-(200) x250cc
right, 4 4
i.e.0-1
11-1-( Vc JY-1
VC+VS
Substituting values,
w (kg/kg) 1.4-1
11-1- 0.001
[ 0.001+~(0.2)2 x (0.25) ]
Wc) = 0.582or 58.2%

Cooling and dehumidification-temperature decreases 325. (d) Relative humidity of the air decreases.
and w also decreases
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I~I.(. JI)) )11~(~IlllNI(~S

llN)) )lll(~IIINI~11Y
Fluid: Fluid is a substance which has the property tendency to m
p =
flow under the action of shear and tangential forces. V
Liquids and gases both are fluids. 2. Specific Weight (co) : It is defined as weight per unit
Ideal and Real fluids: volume of substance.
In ideal fluids, there is no viscosity and no surface tension
mg
and are incompressible. co= - =pg
In real fluids, viscosity, surface tension together exist and V
are compressible along with density. 3. Relative density Specific gravity (Sg) : It is defined as
Classification of fluids : ratio of density of fluid to the density of standard fluid.
It may also be defined as the ratio of specific weight of
Fluids can be classified on the basis of the following:
the fluid to the standard weight of fluid.
Based on density and viscosity
(i) Ideal fluid: An ideal fluid is describedas a fluid which is in S _ weight of fluid
compressible and also has zero viscosity and constant g - weight of standard fluid
density. Density of Fluid
Badboys2 (ii) Real fluids: A real fluid is described as a fluid which is
compressible and viscous by nature. The density of real
Sg =
Density of standard Fluid
Ex: Oil ofSg of 0.8 => Poil = 800 kg/m'
fluid are variable and while in motion, an amount of
Specific volume (v) :
resistance is always offered by these fluids.
It is expressed as the volume per unit mass of fluid.
(iii) Newtonian fluids: Newtonian fluidss are defined as fluids
those obey Newton's law of viscosity. The density of these V I
v=-=-
fluids may be constant or variable. The viscosity is m P
calculated according to Newton's law of viscosity as : 4. Compressibility(13)
du Hydrostatic law: It states that rate of increase of pressure
t=f..l-
dy in a vertical direction is equal to weight density of fluid
where, r = shear stress at that point.
f..l= viscosity offluid
. P
du/dy = velocity gradient Mathematically, pressure head (h) = -
pg
Examples are, water, ethyl alcohol, benzene etc.
(iv) Non-Newtonion fluids: Non-newtonian fluids are defined dV
as fluids those do not obey Newton's laws of viscosity. 13 = _____:y_ = _!_ dp
The density of these fluids may be constant or variable dp P dp
and the viscosity of these fluids does not remain constant.
Examples are Gels, Solutions of polymers, pastes etc. Liquids are highly incompressible :. dp = 0
(v) Compressible fluids: A compressible fluid is defined as dp
the fluid which reduces its volume when an external Gases are highly compressible as P ex p.
pressure is applied. All the fluids available in nature are 5. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K)
compressible. It is defined as reciprocal of compressibility.
(vi) In-compressible fluids: Incompressible fluids are defined
VISCOSITY
as the fluids whose density does not change when the
value of pressure changes. There is no effect of pressure It is the property of fluid by virtue of which one layer resists the
on the density of fluid. In these fluids, density remains motion of another adjacent layer. i.e. its resistence to shearing
constant and viscosity remains non-zero. stresser.
(vii) Inviscid fluid: Inviscid fluid is the fluid which has zero Newton's Law of Viscosity
viscosity and density may be constant or variable.
The viscous shear stress between two layers at a distance 'y'
FLUID PROPERTIES
du
1. Density (p) : It is defined as mass per unit volume of from the surface can be written as: r ex -
dy
substance.
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Fluid Mechanics and Machinery A-137

du Adhesive forces are attractive forces between the molecular ofa
as r = Il- liquid/fluid and the molecular of a solid boundary surface in
dy
contact.
'Il' is co-efficient of dynamic viscosity / viscosity.
Property of a liquid.
Il is a property of fluid called dynamic viscosity and is a
The basic cause of surface tension is the presence of
function of temperature only.
cohesive forces.
Fluids which obeyNewton's law of viscosity are known as
It is a property by virtue of which liquids want to mnimize
Newtonian fluids.
their surface area upto maximum extent.
If Il is high => velocitygradient du is less => highly viscous
dy
fluid.
Icr=~IN/m
du Wetting and Non-Wetting Liquids
If Il is low => velocity gradient dy is high => easy to flow
It is the mutual property of liquid-surface.
fluid. If adhesion cohesion,
Kinematic Viscosity (v) Liquid wets the surface.
It is expressed as the ratio of dynamic viscosity (u) and density If cohesion > > > > adhesion,
of fluid (p).
No wetting
v=1: For wetting, angle of contact (8) should be acute and for
p non-wetting angle of contact (8) should be obtuse.
Units SI ~ m2/s
CgS ~ Stokes/cmvs
For pure water 8 = 0.
1 stokes = 1Q-4 m2/s

For Mercury-glass, 8 = 130 to 140.
Effect of temperature and pressure on viscosity: CAPILLARITY
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Viscosity of liquids decrease but that of gases in- When a tube of very fine diameter is immersed in a liquid, there
crease with increase in temperature. will be rise or fall of liquid level in the tube depending upon
In ordinary situations, effect of pressure on viscos-
ity is not so significant but in case of some oils, vis- whether the liquid is wetting with the tube or non-wetting.
cosity increase with increase in pressure. The rise or fall ofliquid level in the tube is a phenomenon known
as capillarity.
RHEOLOGY h : rise of liquid level in tube
It is the branch of science in which we study about different o : surface tension
types of fluids r : radius of capillary tube
p : density of liquid
Bingham plastic 8 : angle of contact
Rheopactic 2 c cos 8
h=---
'"'" pgr
~~---
....0::: For an annular capillaryhaving external radius r2and inner radius
<I.)
,.<:1
r:.rJ. r.,
Newtonian
r h = 2 cr cos 8
pg(r2 - r1)
~ Ideal fluid Pascal's law: It states that pressure intensity at any point in a
liquid of rest, is same in all directions. If P ,P and P are the
(~~) pressure in x, y & z - direction acting on ~ flhid element, at
Examples rest, then
Newtonian: Water, air P, = py = pz
Dilatent : Butter, starch solution PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
Psuedo plastic : Paints
L BAROMETER
Bingham plastic: Gel, cream
It is a device made by Torricelli and is used to measure
Thixotropic: Printer's ink and enamel
local atmospheric pressure.
SURFACE TENSION (0') II. PIEZOMETER
Cohesive and Adhesive forces: It is a device used for measurements of moderate
Cohesive forces are intermolecular attraction of forever be- pressure (gauge) of liquids only.
tween molecular of same liquid/fluid. Piezometer cannot measure the pressure of gas.
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A-138 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

m MANOMEIER specific depth of the fluid.
used for measurement of high pressure. -+ Fluid pressure does not depend on the shape or area of
It makes the use of a manometric fluid. the container. Pressure is a scalar quantity as it has only
megnitude but no direction.
Atmospheric Pressure
SIMPLE U TUBE Atmospheric pressure is defined as the normal pressure exerted
p
y MANOMETER by the atmospheric air on the surfaces which are in contact
with air.
-I-h- -- -- Gauge Pressure
- --- --
Gauge pressure is defined as the difference between the absolute
pressure and the pressure exerted by the atmosphere i.e.
atmospheric pressure.
PI + pgy - Pn gh = 0 Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is defined as the sum of fluid pressure and
atmospheric pressure. It is an actual pressure at a given specific
point.
Vacuum Pressure
Vacuum pressure is defined as the pressure which is below the
atmospheric pressure.
+-- DIFFERENTIAL
Absolute pressure
U TUBE MANOMETER
t
w 1
, Gauge pressure r Atmospheric
i
Pressure
I'
, Gauge pressure
pressure
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I'
INCLINED TUBE MANOMETER absolute pressure

In this type, the masuring leg is inclined at angle of 10. ~ II
The inclination is provided for the purpose of improving Zero Absolute pressure ~
the accuracy and sensitivity of the results. This type of Relations Among Different Kinds of Pressures
manometer is utilized for the purpose of measurement
Let, Patm= Atmospheric pressure
of very small pressure difference.
Pabs= Absolut pressure
Pgauge= Gauge pressure
Pvac= Vacuum pressure
Ipabs= PatIn+ PgaugeI
Ipvac= Patm- PabsI
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
(Inciined tube manometor)
FLUID STATICS
In fluid statics, the behaviour or characteristics ofthe fluid
'"
is studied when the fluid is at rest y""
-+ Pressure is described as the normal force applied by a cp : Centre of pressure
fluid/unit area. The unit of pressure N/m2 which is also cg : Centre of gravity
termed as Pascal. F : hydrostatic force acting
-+ In case of a fluid, Pressure acts in all the directions. In on the plane surface inclined to free surface.
static liquid. The value of pressure increases with the
. h hcp h
increasing depth. SIn e= = = =-- = -
y ycp y
-+ At any point in a fluid, pressure is directly proportional
to the fluid density and depth in the fluid.
pAHg F = pghA
Pressure (P) = ---;::- = pHg
- - leg sirr' 8
hence from the above expression, hcp = h + ---=-,=---
hA
pap and p aH
-+ The pressure of fluid is equal in all directions at any leg: moment of inertia of the plane surface about c.g
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For a horizontal surface, O = 0 HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON CURVED SURFACES
=> 11ep = 11 Consider a curved surface as shown in the figure.

For a vertical surface, O = 90
v
- - leg
=> h ep =h+- hA
Vertical Surfaces (9 = 90)
(i)
F : Hydrostatic force acting on the curved portion

h d/2 FH: Horizontal component of F
bd3 Fe : Vertical component of F
leg = -
12 FH = pghA
A= bd Fy = pgV
(ii) F=~~ +F~

V = Volume till the free surface
STABILITY OF SUBMERGED BODY

Centre of Buoyancy: B
Badboys2 d Centre of Gravity: G
h IfB lies above G, the body is in stable equilibrium.
3
IfB and G coincide, the body is in neutral equilibrium.
bd IfB lies below G, the body is in unstable equilibrium.
A=
2
Stability of Floating Body
bd2
leg -- Metacentric point (M): When a body is given a small angular
36 displacement which is floating in a liquid in a state of
equilibrium. It starts oscillating about some point (M), known
(iii)
as metacentric point.
IfM lies above G, the body is in stable equilibrium.
If M and G coincide, the body is in neutral equilibrium.
IfM lies below G, the body is in unstable equilibrium.
d Metacentric Height (GM)
d 1
h GM =- -BG
2 V
I: Moment of inertia of the face of the body intersected by
= ~d4
leg free surface
64
V : Volume of the fluid displaced.
A = ~d2 BG : Distance between centre of buoyancy and centre of gravity.
4
GM : Metacentric height
(iv) :l.
':"
For Stable equilibrium GM > 0
~
l+-~11a I
For neutral equilibrium GM = 0
For unstable equilibrium GM < 0
Buoyancy
When the bodies are immersed partially or fully in a fluid, the
a
h resultant hydrostatic force acts on the body in the vertical upward
2 direction. This force is known as upthrust or buoyant force.
a4 FB : buoyant force
leg =
12 FB = pgV
A = a2 V = volume of the fluid displaced by body
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Centre of Buoyancy Continuity equation:
It is the point at which upthrust or buoyant force is acting on the If states if no fluid in added/removed from the pipe in any
body and is exactly same as the centre of gravity of displaced length then mass passing across different reactions will
be equal. Mathematically, for reaction (1 - 1) and (2 - 2),
fluid.
PlA1V1= P2A2V2
Floatation
For floatation of body, the density of the body must be equal to 2
or less than density ofliquid i.e.
ps s p
density of density of
solid liquid
NOTE:
For a completely submerged body, the centre of buoyancy 2
doesn't change. However, for a floating body the centre of
buoyancy changes when the orientation of body changes. for incompressible fluid, A1V1= A2V2
Continuity equation in cartesian - co-ordinates
FLUIDKINEMATICS
There are two approaches to kinematics of a fluid flow i.e. ~ (pu) + ~ (p v) + ~ (pw) + ap = 0
Lagragian approach and Eularian approach. ax ay az at
In classical fluid mechanics, Eularian approach is
considered. Acceleration of A Fluid Particle
Different Types of Flow ~ A A A
V = u i-i v j-r w k
1. Steadyflow
If the properties in the flow are not changing with respect ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
ev av ev ev av
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2. Uniformflow
to time, such a flow is known a steady flow. a=-
at =u-+v-+w-
ax ay az +
at
J.. J.. L-...J
If the properties (velocityat any given time) is not changing Convective acceleration temporal
with respect to space, such a flow is known as uniform or local
acceleration
flow.
3. Incompressibleflow au au au au
If the density of the fluid doesn't change with respect to a =u-+v-+w-+-
x ax ay az at
pressure, the flow is known as incompressible flow.
4. Rotationaland Irrotationalflow av av
a =u-+v-+w-+-
av av
If the fluid particles are rotating about their centre of mass, Y ax ay az at
the flow is known as rotational flow. If the fluid particles
aren't rotating about their centre of mass, the flow is aw aw
a =u-+v-+w-+-
aw aw
known as irrotational flow. z ax ay az at
Laminar and turbulent flow: In Laminar flow, individual
particles move in a zig-zag way. a=~a2x+a2y+a2z
For Reynold's number (R ). For uniform flow,
If Re < 2000, flow in laminar convective acceleration = 0
If Re > 4000, flow in turbulent For steady flow
If 2000 < Re < 4000, flow may be laminar/turbulent
Rate of flow / Discharge (Q):
Q = Area x Average velocity
Q=AxV
H
5. Internal and External flows :
---j. In case of an internal flow, it is surrounded or _1 _
bounded by solid boundaries. Due to these solid

boundaries the development of boundary layer is
restricted. local/temporal acceleration = 0
E.g: Flow through pipe For steady and uniform flow,
---j. In case of external flow, the fluid flows over the total acceleration = 0
bodies which are immersed in an un-bounded fluid and Consider a tank as shown in figure
hence the boundary layer develops freely in single For the figure,
direction. convective acceleration = 0
Eg : flows over air foild, turbine blades etc. temporal acceleration = 0 (if H is constant)
temporal acceleration =1= 0 (if H is verying)
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Stream Line
It is an imaginary line drawn in such a waythat the tangent drawn where
dx
dy Id -~I
= Y=
dx v
at any point on this line gives the direction of velocity vector of
Slope of equipotential line
the fluid particle at that point.
Stream Function (w)
Equation of streamline
It is defined only for 2D flows and is a function of space
in differential form and time.
PATH LINE U= --
a\jJ
ay
It is the actual path traced by a fluid particle.
a\jJ
V=-
STREAK LINE ax
It is the locus of all fluid particles at a moment which have passed There is no boundation on \jJ as it satisfies continuiting
through a given point. equation.
Rotational components in flow Equistream Line
It is a line obtained byjoining points having same stream function
V = ui = v}
values.
1 (av au 1 dy =~
wz =-l---)
2 ax ay dx u
where Wz is the net rotation of fluid particle about its own centre Slope of equistream line
of mass.
If'w, = 0 => flow is irrotational ( dY) x ( dY) =_~ x~ = (- 1)
If'w, *- 0 => flow is rotational dx tjl=constant dx \jI=constant V U
:. Equistream and Equipotential lines are orthogonal to each

VORTICITY
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It is defined as double of angular velocity. (Circulation per unit
other.
Cauchy-Riemann EqD
of enclosed area)
In irrotational flows,
Vorticity = 20)
CIRCULATION m u= _ ax =_ a.v
B
ay
~ IB
ax
= a.v1...
ay
(I)
It is defined as the line integral of velocity vector along a closed
loop.
r=~v.dr
v=-:=~ ~ 1:=-~1 ... (2)
Equations (1) and (2) are known as Cauchy-Riemann equations.
F = (Vorticity)Area
FLUID DYNAMICS
Velocity Potential Function (cj
Velocity potential function q, is a function of space and The following types of energies are involved in fluid dynamics.
time. (a) Kinetic energy: Kinetic energy is defined as the energy
It is defined in such a way q, that which is because of motion of the body.
(b) Potential energy : Potential energy is defined as the
u =--
aq, energy due to elevation of the body above the specified I
ax arbitrary datum.
aq, (c) Pressure Energy : Pressure energy is defined as the
v =--
energy due to pressure above datum
ay
(d) Internal energy: Internal energy is defined as the energy
aq, related with the inter-molecular altratiction of forces or
w =--
az internal state of matter. It can be stored as nuclear energy,
where u, v and w are the components of velocity vector in thermal energy, chemical energy etc.
x, yand z direction. Some expressions regarding above energies
q, only exists in irrotational flow. For this, q, must satisfy
laplace equation i.e. (a) kinetic energy (k.E) = ..!..mv2
2
1'12 q, = 01 where, m = mass of the body, v = velocity of the body
(b) Potential Energy (P.E) = mgH
Equipotential Line where, m = mass of the body
It is a line joining the points having same potential function H = elevation of the body from datum
values. g = 9.8 m/s?
(c) Pressure energy: Pressure energy (PEnergy) = VH
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DifferentKindsofHeads P V2
(a) Head: It is described as the amount of energy per unit The Bernoulli's Eq=in such a casecan be written as-1 + -21 + Zt
weight. pg g
(b) Kinetic head: It is defined as the kinetic energy per unit P2
=-+-+Z2
vi +hf
weight. pg 2g
. h ead =
kimetre kinetic energy
-------=::..::...._-
where hf : head losses encountered as the fluid flows from point
weight of the body 1 to 2.
Applications of Bernoulli's Equation
Following are the applications of Bernoulli's equation given
mg below:
(a) Sizing of pumps: In case of pumps, kinetic energy is
2 converted into pressure energy according to Bernoulli's
kinetic Head = ~ eqaution.
2g
(b) Ejectors: In ejectors, pressure energy of the fluid is
(c) Potential head : It is defined as the potential energy per
unit weight. converted into velocity energy for the purpose of
entraining suction fluid. The mixed fluid is recompressed
. Ih d Potential energy by converting velocity enegry into pressure energy. This
Potentia ea = ------=..::...-
weight of the body process is based on Bernoulli's equation.
(c) Pitot tube: It is utilized for the purpose of measuring
mgH the fluid flow velocity. The principle of pitot tube is based
mg on the Bernoulli's equation.
Potential head = H (d) Carburetor: Carburetor also works on the basis of
(d) Pressure Head: It is defined as the fluid pressure Bernocelli's equation. When the velocity of air is
per unit specific weight. increased, it lowers the static pressure and increases the
value of dynamic pressure.
fluid pressure P (e) Siphon: A siphon is a device used for the purpose of
Pressure head = =-
Badboys2 specificweight pg removing a liquid from its container. The velocity
expression is given as following:
(e) Total head: It is defined as the sum of kinetic head,
potential head and pressure head. v=~2gH
Total head = kinetic head + potential head + Pressure head (f) Flow sensors
v2 P Flow Measurement Devices
HT=-+H+-
2g pg Venturimeter
It is a highly accurate device used for measurement of discharge.
Euler's Equation of Motion
The Euler's equation considers the following assumptions
CD CD Throat (minimum
cross-sectional area)
Flow is irrotational
Flow is laminar
Flow is invicid.
I~ + V dv + g dz = 0 I~ Euler's Eqn for steady flow
Integrating the above equation. We obtain Bernoulli's

equation Converging Diverging section
section
P V2
- + - + Z= constant (Head form) 2gh
pg 2g QTH = A2Al A2 _ A2
1 2
1
P + - pV2 + pgz = constant Q = Cd QTH
2 Coefficientof discharge (it's value vasics between 0.96 -
For Bernoulli's equation, there are two more assumptions i.e. 0.98)
flow is steady
flow is incompressible Cd=~
Under the five assumptions stated above, the summation of all h : piezometric head difference between 1 and 2
energies (Pressure, Kinetic and Potential) per unit volume hL : head loss
remains constant at each and every point in a flow. Orifice meter :
BERNOULLI'S EQUATION FOR REAL FLUID The principle of an orifice meter is same as that of venturimeter.
In this type, the cross-section of the flowing stream is reduced
In real fluids, viscous shear stresses are present due to which while passing through the orifice, the value of velocity head is
energy is not conserved. increased at the expense of pressure head. Bernoulli's equation
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provides a basis for the purpose of correlation maintained Working principle: A pitot tube consists of a tube which points
between increase in velocity head with the decrease in pressure directly into the flow of fluid. The liquid flows up the tube and
head. after attaining equilibrium, the liquid is reached at a height above
An orifice meter is also termed as pipe orifice or orifice plate, the free surface of the water stream.
In can be easily installed in the pipeline. A thin circular plate Now, neglecting friction, Po- P = Hpg
along with a hole in it is placed in the orifice meter. The diameter where, Po = stagnation pressure
1 P = static pressure
of an orifice meter is generally kept"2 times the pipe diameter Velocity (v) = ~2gH
orifice meter is most commonly used for the purpose of Flow Through Pipe Bends
measuring the flow offluid in pipes having fluids of single phase.
The main aim of this chapter is to determine the forces.
The pipe bend is horizontal. Hence, there wouldbe no effect
~2 Vena confracta
of weight.
I' :rl~~e Consider a pipe bend as shown,
Direction
of flow -+-1---+
Differential manometer
Fluid (system)
Orifice Meter
Discharge is given as : Fluid
Cc~d2J2gH
Badboys2 Q= ~
or
Q-CdAo~2gH P1 A1
where, Fx, Fy are the horizontal and vertical forces acting on the fluid
element.
Cd = (coefficient of discharge) By momentum equation, Fxand Fycan be found
l-C~(~r PIAl - P2A2cos e + Fx=mV2 cos e - mVI
A = Area of cross-section of orifice meter Fy- P2A2sin e = mV2sin e

D = diameter of pipe at section (1)
d = diameter of pipe at section (2) F = \jIF2x + F2
Y
Cc = contraction coefficient of water jet
Vortex flows
~ Cd (coefficient of discharge) depends upon the Reynold's
number (Rc) When a certain mass of fluid is rotating with respect to
Pitot tube: some different axis, such a flow is known as Vortex flow.
A pitot tube is a device which is used for the purpose of There are 2 types of vortex flow
measuring the velocity of fluid flow. It has a wide applicability (i) Free vortex
such as for calculating the speed of air of an aircraft, speed of (ii) Forced vortex
water of boat and also for measuring the velocities of liquid, FREE VORTEX
air or gas in various industrius applications. A pitot tube is No external torque is required. Hence angular momentum
utilized for measuring the local velocity at a point in the flow
remains conserved.
stream.
1 V: velocity
Voc-
r r: radius
FORCED VORTEX
External torque is required to maintain its angular velocity
at a constant value.
w= constant
V o: r
NOTE:
Free vortex flows are irrotational flows and thus,
Pitot tube Bernoulli's equation can be applied.
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Forced vortex flows are rotational flows and hence, (ii) Exit Losses
Bernoulli's equation cannot be applied.
Fundamental Equation of Vortex Flows
dp = pw2 r dr - pg dZ
General equation and can be applied between any two points
For free surface, dp = 0
=> pw? r dr = pg dZ V12
Integrating the above equation we get,
h.= 2g
(iii) Losses Due to Sudden contraction
Iz = w:t I
A pipe is a closed contour which carries fluid under
pressure.
When fluid flows through pipe, it encounters losses. These
losses can be broadly categorized into
(i) Major losses
(ii) Minor losses CD
Major Losses
These losses are due to friction. The losses are evaluated
h.= vi [_1 _1]2
2g Cc
by Darcy-Weishback Equation.
A2
fLV2 CC=A
3
2gd ...(1)
If'C, is not given, hj= 0.5 Vll2g
Head loss occurs after Venacontracta as boundry layer
f: friction factors
Badboys2 L : length of pipe
V : velocity in pipe of fluid
separation occurs.
(iv) Entrance Losses
d : diameter of pipe
f= 4 f
friction coefficient
The above equation (1) is valid for both laminar and
turbulent flow.
NOTE:
Head loss is independent of pipe orientation. It depends only on
details of the flow through the duct. O.5V2
For fully developed laminar flow, f= 64/Re h---
f- 2g
where Re : Reynold's No.
pVD BEND LOSSES
Re=--
J..l KV2
V = velocity h---
f- 2g
D = diameter
m = dynamic Viscosity K = Constant which depends upon angle of bend and its
Minor Losses radius of curvature.
Bernoulli's Equation, momentum Eq" are used to FLOW THROUGH BRANCHED PIPES
determine these losses.
The magnitude of minor losses is very loss. Pipes in Series
In series, discharge (Q) remains same but head is divided.
(i) Losses Due to Sudden Enlargement
,~
~: ......_ -'
13, d31 I
N_
CD I
121 ~ :
I

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Q=Q] =Q2=Q3 Shear between fluid layers e = Il du/dy(x-dir.)
h-= (hd] + (hf)2 + (hfh Entrance Length
The distance in downstream from the entrance to the
=> h=~[LIV? + L2Vj + L3V}] location at which fully developed flow begins is called
2g d1 d2 d3 L
entrance length for laminar flow in pipes. ~ = 0.06 R,
Dupit's Equation
A pipe ofuniform diameter is said to be equivalent to compound L, = entrance length
pipe if it carries same discharge and encounters same losses. D = diameter of pipe
Steady Laminar Flow in Circular Pipes
! ~
--! -~----
PIPES IN PARALLEL ~P+.?Pdx
"[: Ox
In parallel arrangement, head losses remain same but
discharge gets divided. 1" :shear stress
R: radius of pipe
9+~---t-~-
M : dynamic viscosity of fluid
ap
ax : pressure gradient
u : velocity at a distance
Q=Q1 +Q2 'r ' from cente
SYPHON
(hf)1 = (hfh
t=(-:H
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Siphon is a long bend pipe used in carrying water from a
reservoir at higher level to another reservoir at lower level.
u = - _1_ (ap)
(R 2 _ r2)
4M ax
The height point of siphon is called summit.
from above expression of 'u', we can conclude that velocity is
No section of the pipe will be more than 7.6 m above the
varying parabolically.
hydraulic gradient line.
When absolute pressure of water becomes less than 2.7 m
gases come out from water and get collected at the summit Umax = - 4M
1 ( ap)
ax
2
R ,Q =
( 1t R
2
l-2-) U max
'1
thereby providing an obstruction to flow.
POWER TRANSMISSION THROUGH PIPE Umax

u=--
2
\J
at r = R/ .fi ,= U = U i.e. average velocity equals the local
H velocity.
Pressure drop (P, - P2) in a given finite length 'L'
32MUL
P1 - P2 = D2
P theoretical = pQgH
P actual = pQ (H - hf) LAMINAR FLOW BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL PLATES
where hf are the head losses in pipe.
Case I : One plate is moving with a velocity of 'U' while the
pQ (H - hf) other is stationary.
11= pQgH
for maximum efficiency 1he = ~ I

--r-bj d~t-'--::I;;?::- -u
Laminar Flow in Pipes

At low velocity of real fluids, viscosity is dominant. The
Uy
u=--- 1 - (ap) (by-y 2
)
flow of fluid takes place in form oflaminar. This laminated b 2M ax
flow is known as laminar. Case II : When both plates are at rest
Features of Laminar Flow
No slip at boundary u =- 2~ (:) (by - y2) (Poiseuille flow)
Flow is rotational
No mixing of fluid layers
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large velocity gradients existing in it.
u = __ 1 (ap)b 2
Velocity within the boundary layer increases from zero to
max 8J.l ax main stream velocity asumptically.
_ 2
U =3 Umax
TURBULENT FLOWS Boundary
layer
In turbul ent flow, there is continuous mixing of fluid
particles and hence velocity fluctuates continuously.
u' and v' are fluctuating components of velocity
Boundry Conditions
2 ( du ,2 aty= 0 u=O
1: = pu'v' = P I ldy) y=o u = 0.99Uo
1: = turbulent shear stress y=o au =0
I: mixing length, 1= 0.4 y, y is distance from pipe wall ay
Mixing length is the length in transverse direction where
in fluid particles after colliding loose excess momentum y=O
a2u
-=0
and reach the momentum as of local environment.
ay2
Umax - U
o : boundary layer thickness
= 5.75 10glO (R/y) UOC) : free stream velocity
---=..:..:,:=..:....___
V* Nominal thickness is the thickness of boundary layer for
V. : Shear velocity V. =t
which J.l= 0.99 UOC)
In case ofa converging flow (aPlax = - ve), the boundary
layer growth is retarded.
u ( y,
ap
ax
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For separation of boundary layer, > O.
V* = 5.75 10glO ly')
o IX X 1/2 'x' is the distance from leading edge of the plate.
y' = 0' I 107 (for smooth pipes) As x increase, boundary layer thickness increases.
y' = Kl30 (for rough pipes) The transition from laminar to turbulent flow is decided
Reynold's condition for rough & smooth pipes by Reynold's No.
R, ::;5 x 105 => flow is laminar
R, > 6 x 105 => flow is turbulent
v
Displacement thickness (0)
=> rough pipe
ReR > 100
ReR < 4 => smooth pipe

0* = 1
o
(ll- ~ ') dy
UOC)
4 < ReR < 100 => transition Momentum thickness (8)
In turbulent flow in pipes, average velocity equals local
velocity at y = 0.223 R. 8= 1
o UOC)
~(ll- ~)'
UOC)
dy
Thickness of Laminar Sublayer (0')
Energy thickness (OE)
11.6v
0' =--
Hydrodynamically Rough and Smooth Boundaries

V* OE = -U
8
fo
u (
OC)
II- u2
-2
Uoc>
,
j dy
From Nikuradsee's experiment,
0*
K Shape factor (H) = e
87 < 0.25 => smooth boundary
Von Karman's Momentum Integral Equation Assumptions
K
87 > 6 => rough boundary Flow is 2D, incompressible and steady
dP ~ d8
K 6 ..
0.25 < - < => transition
-=0
dx pU~ dx
0'
where 8 : momentum thickness
BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY 1:0 : plate shear stress
The concept of boundary layer was first introduced by L. p : density

Prandtl. UOC) : free stream velocity
Boundary layer is a layer in the vicinity of the surface with Drag force (FD)
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It is the force exerted by the fluid in a direction parallel to relative (b) Medium head and small quantity of flowing water
motion. (c) Low head and larger quantity of flowing water
A zero angle of incidence, of the plate the drag force is due to ~ Based on the specific speed of the turbine
shear force. (a) Low specific speed turbine (specific speed < 60)
(b) Medium specific speed turbine (specific speed : 60
C _-- to to 400)
fx _ 1 2
(c) High specific speed turbine (specific speed: above
-pU
2 00 400)
CD = average drag coefficient Basic Definitions of Hydraulic Turbines
Cfx = local drag coefficient ~ Impluse turbine : In this type, only kinetic energy is
For air flow over a flat plate, velocity (U) and boundary layer available at the inlet of turbine. Eg : Pelton wheel turbine
thickness (8) can be expressed as
~ Reaction turbine : In this type, kinetic energy and
pressure energy both available at the inlet of turbine. Eg :
~ =Hi)-Hir ~
kaplan turbine, Francis turbine
Radial flow turbine : In this type, the flowing of water
is in the radial direction through the runner.
4.64 x ~ Inward radial flowturbine: In this type, the flowing of
water is from outward to inward radially.
8 = ~Rex ~ Outward radial flowturbine : In this type, the flowing
of water is from inward to outward radially.
TURBOMACHINERY ~ Axial flow turbines : In this type, the flowing of water
The conversion of energy carried by water into electrical energy is through the runner along the direction parallel to the
is carried out by the turbo-generator. In this a rotating turbine rotational axis of the runner.
driven by the water and connected by a common shaft to the ~ Mixed flow turbine : In this type, the flowing of water
is through the runner in radial direction but leaves in the
rotor of a generator.
direction parallel to the rotational axis of the runner.
Any turbine consists of a set of curved blades designed to deflect
~ Yangential flow turbine : In this type, the flowing of
the water in such a way that it gives up as much as possible of its
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water is along the tangent of the runner.
ComparisonbetweenImpulseTurbineand ReactionTurbine
runner, and the water is directed on to this either by channels
and guide vanes or through a jet, depending on the type of turbine. Impulse turbine Reaction turbine
The efficiency of any turbomachine
(i) In this, the conversion (i) A part of energy offluid
P[Power output) of potential energy into is converted into kinetic
11 = ---~--~=--..:....._--
1000 x Q x g x H(Power input) kinetic energy takes energy before entering the
where, Q = flow rate of the falling water the number of cubic place by nozzle before fluid into turbine.
metres per second entering to turbine
g = acceleration due to gravity (ii) There are no losses in (ii) There are losses in flow
H = effective head flow regulations regulations
Mass of a cubic metre of fresh water = 1000 kg
.. mass falling per second = 1000 x Q (iii) The whole unit is (iii) The whole unit is
placed above the tailrace submerged in water below
Hydraulic Turbines
tailrace
In hydraulic turbines, the conversion of hydraulic energy into
(iv) Blades are in acting (iv) Blades are in acting
mechanical energy takes place. This mechanical energy is
mode only when they are mode at all the time
utilized for running an electrical generator which is directly
connected with the shaft of the hydraulic turbine. Thus, finally, in front ofno:zzle
the conversion of mechanical into electrical energy takes place. Pelton Wheel Turbine
Classification of Hydraulic Turbines The pelton wheel is an impulse turbine.
The hydraulic turbines are classified based on the following The Pelton wheel turbine with water flow from moving cup (b)
basis: and actual motion of water and cup (c) are shown in fig. below.
~ Based on the type of energy at inlet
(a) Impulse turbines
(8)
(b):) (e);::
(b) Reaction turbines
~ Based on the direction of flowing water ~) v=Q
(a) Tangential flow turbines
(b) Axial flow turbines
(c) Radial flow turbines water
Inward radial flow turbines Fig. : Pelton wheel turbine: (a) vertical section ; (b) water flow
Outward radial flow turbined as seen from moving cup; (c) actual motion of water and cup
(d) Mined flow turbines The volume rate of flow Q corresponding to head H
~ Based on the Head of water and water quantity available
(a) High head and small quantity of flowing water
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Vw = velocity of whirl at outlet
Q= A~(2gH) 2
u = peripheral velocity
where A = area ofthe jet
g = acceleration due to gravity. Vr1 = relative velocity at inlet
The input power to the turbine
Vr2 = relative velocity at outlet
P = 1000 x Q x g x H = 1000 x A~2gH x g x H VI = absolute velocity at inlet
V 2 = absolute velocity at outlet
(.: Q = A~2gH )
Vf2 = velocity of flow at outlet
Specific Speed
Efficiencies :
Ns = 1] x ~ 2 P r;;
(a) Hydraulic efficiency :
H x"H It is defined as the ratio of work done / second by jet of
Where, 11 = rate of rotation (in rpm) water to the input energy / second.
H = effective head (in m)
2U(VWI VW2 )
P = available power (in kW) l1H = -....:....._-:----....:....
The range of specific speed for pelton wheel is 10-80 V?
Main parts of a pelton turbine :
The following are the main parts are given of a pelton turbine: 1+ coso
Maximum hydraulic efficiency (l1max.) = 2
(a) Nozzle and spear: Spear controls the amount of water
that strikes the buckets. (b) Mechanical efficiency : It is described as the ratio of
(b) Runner: It consists of circular shaped disk. On the power available at the shaft and the power produced by
periphery of this circular disk, number of buckets are the wheel.
fixed evenly, buckets have the shape of hemi - spherical
cup and divided by the splitter which divides the water jet Pshaft
into two parts, Runner is made up of cast iron or stainless
l1mech. = Q H
P W W
steel etc. The value of mechanical efficiency varies between 0.97
Badboys2 (c) Casing: Itacts as cover and prevents the water splashing. to 0.99.
It is made up of cast iron and steel etc. (c) Volumetric efficiency : It is defined as the ratio of
(d) Breaking jet: It strikes the back of vane and utilized for volume of water actually strikes the buckets and total
stopping runner in a very short duration oftime. volume of water supplied by the jet to the turbine.
Velocity triangle for Pelton wheel : (d) Overall efficiency : It is defined as the product of
IE
u
2 * Vu
p
2 )1
hydraulic efficiency (l1H)' mechanical efficiency (l1mech)
and volumemetric efficiency (11 vol).
110 = l1H x l1mech x 11vol.
Francis Turbine
Francis turbines are by far the most common type in present-
day medium or large-scale plants. They are used in installations
where the head is as low as two metres or as high as 300. These
are radial-flow turbines.
VU1 Francis turbine is completely submerged, it can run equally well
with its axis horizontal or vertical.
Some important formulas : Francis turbine is shown in figure below
Gross head = HG = difference between head race and tail
race
Net head = Hnet = ~ - hf- h
fLv2
where, hf =--
2gdp
here, f = frictional factor
L = Length of penstock
v = mean velocity in penstock
d, = diameter of penstock
h = height of nozzle above the tail race
~ Work done/second = (VWI VW2 ).u pavl
u Fig. : Francis turbine: (a) cut-away diagram; (b) flow across
~ work done / weight = (VWl VW2 ).g
guide vanes and runner
where, Vw = velocity of whirl at inlet Francis turbines are most efficient when the blades are moving
1
nearly as fast as the water, so high heads imply high speeds of
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rotation. ~ Work done per second: (W.D/s)
W.D/s = pQd[VW1Ul VW2U2]
T he range 0f l
speerifiIC speeds, ( Ns = n x ~~)
~) for
For radial discharge, VW2 = 0 , then
Francis turbine is 70-500.
W.D/s = pQdVwI ul
Main parts of a Francis turbine :
(a) Penstock: It is a tube of large diameter through which ~ Hydraulic efficiency : It is defined as the ratio of
water from dams reaches to the inlet of the turbine. workdone per second on the runner and the energy at inlet/
(b) Spiral casing : It is a closed passage. The diameter of second.
the spiral casing is decreases along the flowing direction. VWIUlVW2U2
The area of spiral casing is maximum at inlet and minimum 11H =
(nearly zero) at outlet. gH
(c) Guide vanes : It is an aerofoil like shape vane which is ~ Mechanical efficiency : It is defined as the ratio of shaft
fixed between two rings and a part of pressure energy is power to the power developed by the runner. It is denoted
converted into kinetic energy by guide vanes. as 11mech.
(d) Runner: It is connected to the shaft of the turbine. ~ Volumetric efficiency (11vol): It is defined as the actual
(e) Draft tube: It is defined as tube which expands gradually quantity of fluid working on the runner to the total quantity
and it discharges water passing through the runner to the of fluid supplied.
tail race. Actual fluid quantity
Velocity triangle of Francis turbine : 11vol . = T ota I flU1d quantity
.
~ Overall efficiency (110): It is defined as the ratio of shaft
power to the input power. It may also be defined as the
product of hydraulic efficiency, mechanical efficiency and
volumetric efficiency.
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shaft power
110 = Input power
or
110 = 11H x 11mech. x 11vol.
KAPLAN TURBINES
Kaplan turbine is a axial flow or propeller type turbine which has
adjustable blades. It is an inward flow reaction turbine, i.e., the
working fluid changes pressure as it moves through the turbine
and gives up its energy.
Axial-flow turbine and runner of kaplan-turbine shown in figure
Some important formulas : below.
~ Net head (H) :
P v2
At the exit of penstock, H =-+zl
p
+-
2g
. P v2
At the exit of draft tube
, H = -- P - Zl --
2g
At the exit of pen stock when the position of draft
tube is at the tail race. Fig. : A Propeller or axial-flow turbine
Main parts of a kaplan turbine:
p v2
H=-+z.+- (a) Scroll casing: It is the casing in which guiding the water
P 2g and controlling of passage of water takes palce.
At the exit of draft tube when the position of draft (b) Guide vanes: The water is directed at a suitable angle by
the guide vanes. The guide vanes also works for the
tube is at the tail race.
purpose of regulation the water quantity which is to be
v2 supplied to the runner.
H=--
2g (c) Stay ring: The stay ring guides the water from scroll casing
to the guide vanes.
If the velocity at the exit of draft tube is negligible,
(d) Runner blades: Runner blades are connected to the hub
then Net head, at the exit of penstock.
and there is an axial flow ofwater through the runner.
(e) Draft tube : It is utilized for the purpose of connecting
H=(~+Z<J
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runner exit to the tail race. The draft tube is a kind of a pipe 1000
which has a gradually increasing area used for discharging
water from turbine exit to tail race. There are generally four
types of draft tubes gi ven as :
100
Conical draft tube .
Single elbow tube 1
.c
I MW Francis and similar
turbines
Moody spreading tube
Elbow draft tube with circular inlet and rectangular 10 20 kW
outlet.
The range of specific speed of Kaplan turbine is 350-1000. The flowrate 1m) $-1
figure given below shows the ranges of head, flow rate and power
Fig. : Ranges of application of different types of turbine.
of different types of turbine.
Note the overlap at the boundaries
Velocity Triangle of Kaplan Turbine VELOCITY DIAGRAMS
Blade
Shift
--*)~-- Disc
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e, = vane tip angle

a, ~ = angle which absolute velocity makes with tangential
directions
Degree of reaction (R):
It is defined as the ratio of change in static energy in the rotor to
the total energy transfer.
Fixed Blade
(Vr} - Vr{l (uf-ufl
R
l 2g ) +l
= -----=--------=--
2g )
H
Run away speed:
It is defmed as the speed when the turbine has maximum value of
discharge while running. Ranges ofrun away speed for different
turbines are given below:
Pelton turbine = l.8 to l.9
Kaplan turbine = 2.5 to 3
Francis turbine = 2 to 2.2 N
Cavitation and cavitation factor:
Cavitation is defined as a process which occurs in a flowing
T-
I I
liquid. In this process, the cavities are formed and grown. After I I
that these cavities collapse in a high pressure zone at the time I I
I I
when there is fall of to vapour pressure or below vapour pressure. I I
Cavitation affects the output and efficiency. Due to cavitation, I U2
output and efficiency both decreases.
In reaction turbines, the locations where the cavitation occurs,
-l---~~====~====~~I
I
----
:+-Vwl ---+!
I
V w2
are given as follows:
(a) Cavity may occur at the exit of the convex side ofrunner.
~---------~VW----------~
Here, a = guide blade angle or runner vane angle at inlet
(b) Cavity may also occur at the inlet of draft tube.
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e = wheel vane angle
 = vane angle at outlet
Vf1 Vf1 V
tan a = -- . tan e = ; tan = ____f1_
Vwl ' Vwl -u u
Unit Quantities
The unit quantities provide the speed, discharge and power for unit speed (NJ
a particular turbine by keeping the head of I m (assumed) Unit speed vs unit power
considering the same efficiency unit quantities provide a (b) Constant speed curves or operating characteristics
suitable information regarding the prediction of performance curves:
of turbines. In this type, various tests are performed at a constant speed
(a) Unit speed (Nu) : The turbine speed working under unit by varying the head and adjusting the discharge. The
head is known as unit speed following curves are drawn.
-+ Power vs discharge
N
Nu= JH -+ efficiency vs discharge
-+ efficiency vs unit power
(b) Unit discharge (Q,) : The turbine discharge working -+ maximum efficiency vs % Full load
under unit head is known as unit discharge.
Q
Qu= JH
(c) Unit Power (Pu) : The turbine power produced while
working under a unit head is known as unit power
P
Pu = H3/2
Performance of Turbines
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The performance of turbines should be studied for the purpose
of providing information regarding the performance ofturbine.
For the purpose of studying the turbine performance,
characteristic curves are used and drawn on the basis of actual
tests.
There are following there kinds of characteristic curves are % full load
used: (Operating characteristic curves)
(a) Constant head curves : These are also known as main (c) Constant efficiency or Muschel curves :
characteristics curves. In this type, head is kept constant, In these curves, the data obtained from constant head and
and the speed of turbine is varied by varying the flow rates constant speed curves are drawn for the purpose of finding
after the adjustment percentage of gate opening. The the constant efficiency zone.
curves drawn under constant head are given as :
H = constant
-+ Unit discharge vs unit speed Full opening
-+ Unit power vs unit speed
-+ Overall efficiency vs unit speed
~;:::i
CI 100%
'-' 25%
(l)
eo 75%
~
,J::I
o
fZl 50%
:.a ....... - ~.. , 'Best performance curves
.~ 25% Nu
Muschelcurves
Unit speed (Nu) Centrifugal Pumps
(Unit speed vs unit discharge) In centrifugal pumps, the conversion of mechanical energy into
Hydraulic or pressure energy by the application of centrifugal
force. The flow of water is in radial outward direction. The
principle on which it works is forced vortex flow. Common
applications are sewage,petroleum and petrochemical pumping.
-+ Working principle: Centrifugal pumps work based on the
principle of forced vortex flow in which rotation of a
unit speed (Nu) certain mass by the external torque rise in pressure head
takes place. The energy is converted due to two main parts
Unit speed vs efficiency
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ofthe pump. i.e. impeller and casing. The driver energy is Radial flow 10- 25
converted into kinetic energy by impeller and the kinetic Mixed flow 70 - 135
energy is converted into the pressure energy by the Axial- flow, propeller 100 - 425
diffuser. (c) Based on types of casing :
Main Parts of Centrifugal Pump -+ Volute chamber pump: It has a spiral shaped casing.
In this type, the sectional area increases from tongue
A centrifugal pump consists of two main parts: to delivery pipe in a uniform way.
(a) Rotating component :
-+ Vortex chamber pump : In this type, there is an
-+ Impeller uniform increasing area which is given between the
-+ Shaft outer periphery of impeller and the volute casing.
(b) Stationary component :
-+ Diffuserpump: In this type, the guids vanes are placed
-+ casmg
at the impeller vanes-outlet. In this, due to enlarge
-+ casing cover
area of cross - section of guids vanes, the velocity
-+ bearings
of water increases and the pressure decreases. It
(a) Rotating components:
provide improved value of efficiency.
-+ Impeller: It is the main rotating component which
(d) Based on direction of flow of water :
works for the purpose of providing centrifugal
-+ Radial flow : In this type, the flow of water in the
acceleration to the fluid.
impeller is totally in radial direction.
-+ Shaft: It works for the purpose of transmitting
-+ Mixed flow: In this type, the change of direction of
torques which are encountered during starting and
flow of water from radial flow to the combination of
during operation. It also works as a supporting
a radial flow and axial flow takes place due to which
member for the impeller and other rotating
flow area is enhanced.
components.
-+ Axial flow: In this type, high discharge and lowheads
(b) Stationary components :
is used. Eg : Irrigation.
-+ Casing: In this, the conversion of kinetic energy
(e) Number of entrances to the impleller :
into pressure energy takes place. Generally three
-+ Single suction pump : In this type, suction pipe is
kinds of casings are used given as :
Badboys2 Volute casing: It is utilized for higher heads
arranged only one side of impeller.
-+ Double suction pump : In this type, suction pip is
Vortex casing : In this, reduction of eddy arranged on the both of the sides ofthe impeller. Due
currents takes place. to which, discharge is increased.
Circular casing : It is utilized for lower head. (f) Based on disposition of the shaft :
-+ Diffusers are employed in multistage pumps. -+ Horizontal shafts: In this type, horizontal shafts are
Priming used in centrifugal pumps.
-+ Vertical shafts : In this type, vertical shafts are
In this process, suction pipe, casing and delivery pipe is filled
utilized if there is a lake of space available.
upto delivery value with water. It is also utilized for removing
(g) Based on number of stages :
air from the above mentioned parts.
-+ Single stage : In this type, only one impuller is
-+ Positive priming : In this type, the speed of processing
connected to the shaft.
is increased
-+ Multi stage: In this type, a number of impellers are
-+ Negative priming: In this type, the speed of processing
mounted on the same shaft and enclosed in the same
is decreased.
casing.
Classification of Centrifugal Pumps
Velocity Triangles for Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal pumps may be classified based on the following:
(a) Based on working head:
-+ Low head centrifugal pumps : These are generally
single stage centrifugal pumps. The working ofthese
pumps is generally below the 15 m head.
-+ Medium head centrifugal pumps : The working of
these pumps is generally at the heads lying between
15 mand45 m.
-+ High - head centrifugal pumps : In high head
centrifugal pumps, the value of head enceeds 45 m.
These are generally multistage pumps having guids
vanes.
(b) Based on specific speed : Specific speed of a centrifugal
pump is defined as the speed of identical pump which
provides unit discharge with unit head.
NJQ
specific speed (N s) = ~
H
Type of pump specific speed
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wVw2u2g
11mech. =
Ps
(c) Overall efficiency (110) : It is defined as the ratio of
(Forward facing power output to power input to the pump or shaft.
(Radial Vanes) (Back-ward
Vanes) facing vanes) wHm
110 =-p-
(d) Volumetric efficiency (l1vol) : It is defined as the ratio

of actual discharge to the sum of actual discharge and rate
of leakage.
QA
where, QA = Actual discharge, QL = rate of leakage

(e) Hydraulic efficiency : It is defined as the ratio of
manometric head to the theoretical head.
Hm
11N=-
Work Done by Impeller on the Water HT
Characteristic Curves
[VW2 .u2 - VWlul ]
WD = .:::...._--=------=---= These curves are utilized for the purpose of predicting
g
the performance of centrifugal pump working under
where, W.D = work done different head, rate of flow and speed. The main
VWl = velocity of whirl at inlet characteristic curves are as :
Badboys2VW2 = velocity of whirl at outlet ~ Main characteristic curve
~ Operating characteristic curve
ul = tangential velocity of impeller at inlet ~ Muschel or constant efficiency curve
u2 = tangential velocity of impeller at outlet ~ Main characteristic curve :
Ifwater comes radially,
a = 0, and VW1 = 0
then work done

v:
= __ 2_
u2
g
Heads in Centrifugal Pumps

(a) Suction head: It is defined as the vertical height of centre
line of the centrifugal pump, which is above the water
surface to the pump.
(b) Delivery head : It is defined as the distance between
centre line ofthe centrifugal pump and the surface of water
in the tank to which water is to be delivered.
(c) Static head: It is defined as the sum of suction head and
delivery head. Fig. (3)
(d) Manometric head: It is defined as the head against which
work is done by the centrifugal pump. (Main Characteristic Curves)
Efficiencies
In fig (1), for a given speed, when discharge increases,
(a) Manometric efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of Hm decreases and for a given discharge, greater is speed,
manometric head with the head provided by impleller, large is~.
Manometric head (Hm ) In fig. (2) for a given speed, as discharge increases, Ps
11mano. = (VW2U2)/ g increase.
In fig. (3) higher is the speed, higher is the maximum
efficien cy.
11mano.
(VW2U2)/ g ~ Operating characteristic curves :
In these curves, it the speed is kept constant, the variation of
(b) Mechanical efficiency (l1mech) manometric head, power and efficiency with respect to
It is defined as the ratio ofpower delivered by the impeller
discharge provides operating characteristic curves.
with the power input to shaft.
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~ Muschel or constant efficiency curve
efficiency
lip power
a
'._/
--g
(])
...s:::
~
E I---.+--l-_
~ Discharge (Qd)
(Operating characteristic curves) Rate of flow (Lifi/s)-----7
...,
(Muschel curves)
IIIIII~ EXERCISE
1. The velocity components in the x and y direction of a two- 6. For the continuityequation given V.; = 0 to be valid, when
dimensional potential flow are u and v respectively, then ; is the velocity vector, which one of the following is a
au. necessary condition?
aX IS equal to
(a) Steady flow (b) Irrotational flow
Ov Ov (c) Invescid flow (d) Incompressible flow
(a) Ox (b)
Ox 7. Match the following:
Badboys2(c) Ov
ay (d)
Ov
ay
P. Compressive flow
Q. Free surface flow
U. Reynolds number
V. Nusselt number
2. The velocity profile in fully developed laminar flow in a R. Boundary layer flow W. Weber number
pipe of diameter D is given by u = uo(1 - 4r2/D2), where r S. Pipe flow X. Froude number
is the radial distance from the centre. If the viscosity of T. Heat convection y. Match number
the fluid is u, the pressure drop across a length L of the z. Skin friction
pipe is coefficient
/-!uOL (a) P-U; Q-X; R-V; S-Z; T-W
(a) D2 (b) P-W; Q-X; R-Z; S-U; T-V
(c) P-Y; Q-W; R-Z; S-U; T-X
8/-!uoL (d) P-Y; Q-W; R-Z; S-U; T-V
(c) D2
8. A hydraulic turbine develops 1000 kW power for a head of
3. A two-dimensional flow field has velocities along x and y 40 m. If the head is reduced to 20 m, the power developed
directions given by u = x2t and v = - 2xyt respectively, (in kW) is
where t is time. The equation of streamlines is (a) 177 (b) 354
(a) x2 y = constant (c) 500 (d) 707
(b) xy2 = constant 9. A phenomenon is modelled using n dimensional variables
(c) xy= constant
with k primary dimensions. The number ofnon-dimensional
(d) not possible to determine
variable is
4. In a two-dimensional velocity field with velocities u and v
along the x and y directions respectively, the convective (a) k (b) n
acceleration along the x-direction is given by (c) n-k (d) n + k
10. The maximum velocity of a one-dimensional
(a) u-+v-
au au
(b) u-+v-
au Ov
incompressible fully developed viscous flow, between two
ax ay Ox ay fixed parallel plates is 6 mls. The mean velocity (in mls)
Ov au au au of the flow is
(c) u-+v- (d) v-+u- (a) 2 (b) 3
ax ay Ox ay
(c) 4 (d) 5
5. For a Newtonian fluid
11. A pump handling a liquid raises its pressure from 1 bar to
(a) shear stress is proportional to shear strain
(b) rate of sheer stress is proportional to shear strain 30 bar. Take density of the liquid as 990 kg/m '. The
(c) shear stress is proportional to rate of shear strain isentropic specific work done by the pump in kllkg is
(d) rate of shear stress is proportional to rate of shear (a) O. 10 (b) 0.30
strain (c) 2.50 (d) 2.93
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12. A streamline and an equipotential line in a flow field 19. Length of mercury column at a place at an altitude will
(a) are parallel to each other vary with respect to that at ground in a
(b) are perpendicular to each other (a) linear relation
(c) intersect at an acute angle (b) hyperbolic relation
(d) are identical (c) parabolic relation
13. For steady, fully developed flow inside a straight pipe of (d) manner first slowly and then steeply
diameter D, neglecting gravity effects, the pressure drop 20. A type of flow in which the fluid particles while moving in
the direction of flowrotate about their mass centre, is called
dP over a length L and the wall shear stress 'tw are related
(a) steady flow (b) uniform flow
by
(c) laminar flow (d) rotational flow
dPD ~PD2 21. A-2d flow having velocity V = (x + 2y + 2) i + (4 - y)j will
(a) 't =-- (b) 'tw =--2- be
w 4L 4L (a) compressible and irrotational
dPD 4dPL (b) compressible and not irrotational
(c) 't =-- (d) 't =-- (c) incompressible and irrotational
w 2L w D
(d) incompressible and not irrotational
14. Biot number signifies the ratio of 22. Buoyant force is
(a) convective resistance in the fluid to conductive (a) resultant of upthrust and gravity forces acting on the
resistance in the solid body
(b) conductive resistance in the solid convective (b) resultant force on the body due to the fluid
resistance in the fluid surrounding it
(c) inertia force to viscous force in the fluid (c) resultant of static weight of body and dynamic thrust
(d) buoyancy force to viscous force in the fluid of fluid
15. A flow field which has only convective acceleration is (d) equal to the volume ofliquid displaced by the body
(a) a steady uniform flow 23. If cohesion between molecules of a fluid is greater than
(b) an unsteady uniform flow adhesion between fluid and glass, then the free level of
(c) a steady non-uniform flow fluid in a dipped glass tube will be
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16. Match Group A with Group B: (b) same as the surface of liquid
(c) lower than the surface of liquid
Group A Group B (d) unpredictable
P: Biotnumber 1 Ratio of buoyancy to 24. In a pipe pitot tube arrangement the static stagnation head
viscous force is 20 m and static head is 5m. If the diameter of pipe is
Q: Grashof number 2 Ratio of inertia force to 400 mm. Find the velocity of flow of water in pipe
(a) 17.15 mls (b) 22.22 mls
viscous force
(c) 38.76 mls (d) 42.85 mls
R: Prand tl number 3 Ratio of momentum to
25. Depth of oil having specific gravity 0.6 to produce a
thermal diffusivities pressure of 3.6 kg/ern! will be
s: Reynolds number 4 Ratio of internal (a) 40 em (b) 36 em
thermal resistance to (c) 50 em (d) 60 em
boundary layer thermal 26. The capillary rise in a narrow two-dimensional slit ofwidth
'w'is
(a) P-4, Q-l, R-3, 8-2 (b) P-4, Q-3, R-l, 8-2 (a) half of that in a capillary tube of diameter 'w'
(c) P-3, Q-2, R-l, 8-4 (d) P-2, Q-l, R-3, 8-4 (b) two-third of that in a capillary tube of diameter 'w'
17. Consider the following statements regarding streamline(s): (c) one-third of that in a capillary tube of diameter 'w'
(d) one-fourth of that in a capillary tube of diameter 'w'
(i) It is a continuous line such that the tangent at any 27. For a turbulent flow in pipe the value of y at which the
point on it shows the velocity vector at that point point velocity is equal to the mean velocity of flow, is (y
(ii) There is no flow across streamlines is measured form pipe axis).
dx (a) 0.772 R (b) 0.550 R
(iii) - = -dy = -dz. IS telh di fferentra. I equation . f
0 a (c) 0.223 R (d) 0.314 R
u v w 28. Pressure in Pascals at a depth of 1m below the free surface
streamline, where u, v and ware velocities in of a body of water will be equal to
directions x, y and z, respectively (a) 1 Pa (b) 98.1 Pa
(iv) In an unsteady flow, the path of a particle is a (c) 981 Pa (d) 9810 Pa
streamline. Which one ofthe following combinations 29. A circular disc of diameter' d' is slowly rotated in a liquid
of the statements is true? of large viscosity J..lat a small distance h from a fixed
(a) (i), (ii), (iv) (b) (ii), (iii), (iv) surface. The minimum torque required to maintain an
(c) (i), (iii), (iv) (d) (i), (ii), (iii) angular velocity 0) will be
18. Consider a velocity field V = K ( yi + xk), where K is a J..l1td40)
constant. The vorticity, 0z, is (a) 32h
(a) -K (b) K
J..l1td30)
(c) -K/2 (d) K12 (c) 32h
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30. Viscosity of a fluid with specific gravity 1.3 is measured to 40. When pressure p, flow rate Q, diameter D, and density d, a
be 0.0034 Ns/m2. Its kinematic viscosity, in m2/s, is dimensionless group is represented by
(a) 2.6 x 1O-{i (b) 4.4 x 10-{i pQ2 __ P__
(c) 5.8 x 1O-{i (d) 7.2 x 10-{i (a) dD4 (b) dQ2D4
31. The shear stress at a point in a glycerine mass in motion if
the velocity gradient is 0.25 metre per sec/per meter, will be pD4d pD4
(a) 0.0236kg/m2 (b) 0.02036kg/m2 (c) Q2 (d) dQ2
(c) 0.0024kg/m2 (d) none of these 41. Maximum wall shear stress for laminar flow in tube of
32. The general equation of continuity for three-dimensional diameter D with fluid properties J..land p will be
flow of a incompressible fluid for steady flow is
32000J..l2 6400J..l2
ou+av +ow =0 Ou=av =Ow =0 (a) pD3 (b) pD3
(a) (b)
ox Oy oz ox Oy oz
l6000J..l2 8000J..l2
au ov Ow
-+-+-=1
au av Ow
-+-+-=u.v.w
(c) (d) pD3
(c) (d)
ax Oy oz ax Oy oz
42. Air flows over a flat plate 1 m long at a velocity of 6 m/s.
where u, v and ware components of velocity in x, y and z The shear stress at the middle of plate will be
directions respectively. [Take S = 1.226 kg/nr', v = 0.15 x 10-4 m3/s (0.15 stokes)
33. The pressure in meters of oil (specific gravity 0.85) for air]
equivalent to 42.5 m of water is (a) 84.84 x 10-3 N (b) 92.69 x 10-3 N
(a) 42.5m (b) 50m (c) 67.68 x 10-3 N (d) 103.45 x 10-3 N
(c) 52.5m (d) 85m 43. The friction head lost due to flow of a viscous fluids
34. The cause ofturbulence in fluid flow may be through a circular pipe of length L and diameter d with a
(a) high Reynold number velocity v, and pipe friction factor 'f is
(b) abrupt discontinuity in velocity distribution
4fL v2 4f L y2
(c) critical Reynold number (a) -.-
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discontinuity
of velocity gradient without abrupt d 2g (b) nd2 2g
y2
.. h . 02<j> 02<j>. kn
35. For an irrotational flow t e equation -2 + -2 IS own (c) 2g
as
ax Oy
44. Value of coefficient of compressibility for water at
(a) Bernoulli's equation
ordinary pressure and temperature is
(b) Cauchy Riemann's equation
(a) 1000 kg/cur' (b) 2100 kg/cnr'
(c) Euler's equation
(d) Laplace equation. (c) 2700 kg/cnr' (d) 21,000 kg/cnr'
36. A control volume refers to 45. Crude oil of kinematic viscosity 2.25 stokes flows through
(a) a closed system (b) a specified mass a 20 em diameter pipe, the rate of flow being 1.5 litres/
(c) an isolated system (d) a fixed region in space sec. The flow will be
37. The pressure coefficient may take the form (a) laminar (b) turbulent
(c) uncertain (d) None of these
~P 46. Pseudo plastic is a liquid for which
(a)
O'J..lY (a) dynamic viscosity decreases as the rate of shear
increases
(c) (b) Newton's law of viscosity holds good
(c) dynamic viscosity increases as the rate of shear
38. Pressure force on the 15 em dia head light of an automobile increases
travelling at 0.25 m/s is (d) dynamic viscosity increases with the time for which
(a) IO.4N (b) 6.8N shearing forces are applied.
(c) 4.8N (d) 3.2N 47. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer
39. A fire engine supplies water to a hose pipe L m long and D using the codes given below the lists.
mm in diameter at a pressure P kPa. The discharge end of L~t I L~t II
the hose pipe has a nozzle of diameter d fixed to it. Determine (Loss) (Parameter responsible)
the diameter d of nozzle so that the momentum ofthe issuing A Leakage Loss 1. Zero at design point
it may be maximum B. Friction Loss 2. Proportional to head
_ (D3)1I4
(a) d- - (b)
_ (D5)1I4
d- -
C. Entrance Loss 3. Proportional to half of
relative velocity square.
8L 8L
Codes
3)1/5 5 )115 A B C A B C
(c) d= ( ~L (d) d= ( ~L (a) 1 2 3 (b) 2 3 1
(c) 1 3 2 (d) 2 1 3
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0
""'"
("I')
("I')
I
o,
Fluid Mechanics and Machinery A-157 C)
48. The velocity potential in a flow field is = 2xy. The 59. Compressibility (B) is equal to :
corresponding value of stream function is (If k is bulk modulus)
(a) (y2 _ x2) + constant (b) (x2 - y2) + constant
(a) ~ = _!_ (b) ~=k
122 k
(c) -(x - y ) + constant (d) 2 (x - y) + constant
2 ~=_1
(c) (d) ~ = k2
49. Consider the following k2
The components of velocity u and v along X and Y 60. Kinematic viscosity is equal to :
directions in a two dimensional flow problem of an (a) Dynamic viscosity x density
incompressible fluid are Dynamic vis cosity
(i) u = x2 cos Y ; v = - 2x sin y (b)
Density
(ii) u = x + 2; v = 1 - 4
(iii) u = xyt ; v = x3 _ y2t12 Density
(iv) In u = xty; v = xy - ylx (c) Dynamic vis cosity
Which of that will satisfy the continuity equation ?
(a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 1,2 and 4 (d)
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1,2, 3 and 4 Dynamic viscosity x Density
50. Consider the following statements regarding bernaulli's 61. Void ratio does not depend upon:
theorom for fluid flow (a) Liquid limit (b) Volume
1. Conservation of energy (c) Bulk volume (d) Porosity
2. Steady flow 62. The height of the water column corresponding to a
3. Viscous flow pressure equivalent to 60 m of mercury column will be
4. In compressible flow equal to:
Which of the above statements is/are correct? (a) 8160 em (b) 816 em
(a) 1,2 and 4 (b) 1 only (c) 81.6 em (d) 7996.0 em
(c) 2,3 and 4 (d) 1,2, 3 and 4 63. The difference of pressure between inside and outside of
51. An ideal fluid is defined as the fluid which: a liquid drop is
Badboys2 (a) is compressible
(b) is in compressible (a) ~P=Txr (b) M>=!
(c) is in compressible and non-viscous r
(d) has negligible surface tension
52. Which of the following is the unit ofkinematic viscosity? (c) M>=_!_ (d) M>= 2T
(a) N- s/m? (b) m2/s 2r r
(c) kg/s m2 (d) m/kg-s 64. Falling drops of water become spherical in shape due to
53. Poise is the unit of: the property of :
(a) dynamic viscosity (b) kinematic viscosity (a) adhesion (b) cohesion
(c) mass density (d) velocity gradient (c) surface tension (d) viscosity
54. Surface tension is a phenomenon because of: 65. The pressure at a depth of 5 km below the surface of sea
(a) viscous forces only water considering specific gravity of water to be 1.3, will
(b) Adhesion between liquid and solid molecules be equal to :
(c) Difference in magnitude between the forces due to (a) 63765 Pa (b) 637654 Pa
adhesin and cohesion (c) 1.27 x108Pa (d) 1.48 x 108 Pa
(d) cohesion only 66. Capilary action is due to :
55. In case of a static fluid: (a) viscosity of liquid
(a) only normal stresses can exist (b) cohesion of liquid particles
(b) linear deformation is small (c) surface tension
(c) fluid pressure is zero (d) None of these
(d) resistance to shear stress is small 67. A piece of wood having weight 5 kg floats in water with
56. Gauge pressure is equal to: 60% of its volume under the liquid. Then the specific
(a) absolute pressure + atmospheric pressure gravity of the wood will be equal to:
(b) absolute pressure - atmospheric pressure (a) 0.83 (b) 0.60
(c) atmospheric pressure - absolute pressure (c) 0.71 (d) 0.72
(d) atmospheric pressure - vaccum 68. Hydrostatic low states that the rate of increase of pressure
57. It pressure intensity is 1.006 MN/m2 and specific gravity in vertical direction is equal to :
of sea water is 1.025, then the depth of a point below (a) fluid density (b) fluid specific weight
water surface in sea will be equal to : (c) fluid weight (d) fluid specific gravity
(a) 10 m (b) 1000 m 69. A rectangular tank of square cross-section (2m x 2m)
(c) 100 m (d) 1m and height 4 m is completely filled up with a liquid. Then
58. An oil of specific gravity 0.7 and pressure 0.14 kgf I cm-. the ratio oftotal hydrostatic force on any vertical wall to its
Then the weight of the oil will be equal to : bottom is equal to:
(a) 70 em of oil (b) 2 m of oil (a) 2.0 (b) 4.0
(c) 20 em of oil (d) 80 cm of oil (c) 6.0 (d) 1.0
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A-15S Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

70. Viscosity has the following dimensions: Codes:
(a) [ML T2] (b) [ML-1 T-1]
A B C D
(c) [ML T-1] (d) [ML2T]
71. A piezometer tube is used for the purpose of measurement (a) 4 1 3 2
of: (b) 2 3 4
(a) Low pressure (b) High pressure (c) 4 3 2
(c) Moderate pressure (d) Vacuum pressure
(d) 2 4 1 3
72. Atmospheric pressure is 1.03 kg/em- and vapour pressure
is 0.03 kg / cm-, then the air pressure will be equal to : 82. The reading ofthe pressure gauge fitted on a vessel is 25
(a) 1.03 kg/ern- (b) 1.06 kg/ern- bar. The atmospheric pressure is 1.03 bar and the value
(c) 0.53 kg/ern- (d) 1 kg/cm2 of g is 9.81 m/s-', The absolute pressure in the vessel will
73. In case of Rotameter, which one of the following be equal to :
statement is correct? (a) 23.97 bar (b) 24 bar
(a) Float has a density lower than the density of flowing (c) 26.03 bar (d) 27.04 bar
fluid 83. A metal piece having density exactly equal to the density
(b) Float has a density equal the density of flowing fluid of fluid is placed in the liquid. The metal piece will :
(c) Float has a density greater than the densityofflowing (a) will be wholly immersed
fluid (b) sink to the bottom
(d) None of these (c) float on the surface
74. If gauge pressure = 21 bar, atmospheric pressure = 1.013 (d) will be partially immersed
bar then the value of absolute pressure will be equal to : 84. Resultant force on a floating body will act:
(a) 21 bar (b) 22.013 bar (a) vertically upwards through meta centre
(c) 20.012 bar (d) 21.018 bar (b) vertically down wards through metal centre
75. Water at 20 C is flowing through a 20 em diameter pipe. (c) vertically upwards through centre of buoyancy
The kinematic viscosity of water is 0.0101 stoke. It the (d) vertically downwards through centre of buoyancy
Reynold's number is 2320, then the velocity with which 85. For a floating body,match List - I with List - II and select
Badboys2 the water will be flowing through the pipe will be:
(a) 1.117 cm/s (b) 2.228 cm/s
the correct answer from the codes given below:
List - I List - II
(c) 4.677 cm/s (d) 5.67 cm/s A Meta - centre is above 1. stable equilibrium
76. A certain liquid has 5 tonnes mass and having a volume of the centre of gravity
10m3. Then the mass density of the liquid will be : B. Meta - centre is below 2. unstable equilibrium
(a) 500 kg/m' (b) 1000 kg/m' the centre of gravity
(c) 50 kg/m' (d) 5000 kg/m' C. Meta centre and centre 3. Neutral equilibrium
77. The volumetric change ofthe fluid caused by a resistance of gravity coincides
is known as: Codes:
(a) volumetric strain (b) volumetric index ABC
(c) compressibility (d) stress (a) 2 3
78. A glass tube of3 mm diameter is immersed in water which
is at 20 C. The surface tension for water is 0.0736 N/m. (b) 2 3
The contact angle for water is 0. Then the value of (c) 3 2
capillary rise or depression will be equal to : (d) 2 1 3
(a) 20 mm (b) 10 mm 86. Find the buoyant forceacting on the aluminium cubewhich
(c) 30 mm (d) 36 mm is suspended and immersed in a jar pilled with water when
79. The desirable properties for any practical fluids are: it is given that the side of the cube is 5.0 em.
(a) should be viscous (a) 2.45 N (b) 1.25 N
(b) should posses surface tension (c) 3.25 N (d) 6.25 N
(c) should be compressible 87. The centre of pressure of a plane submerged surface:
(d) All of the above (a) should coincide with centroid of surface
80. A liquid compressed in a cylinder has initially a volume (b) should coincide with centroid of pressure prism
of 20 m3 at a pressure of 100 Pa. It the new volume is 40 (c) may be above or below centroid
m3 at a pressure of 50 Pa, then the bulk modulus of (d) cannot be above mentioned
elasticity will be equal to : 88. The vertical distance of centre of pressure below the e.g
(a) 20 Pa (b) 40 Pa of the inclined plane area (submerged in liquid) is :
(c) 50 Pa (d) 70 Pa
81. Match List - I and List - II and select the correct answer leg sin2 e leg cos2 o
using the codes given below: (a) (b)
A'x' A'x'
List - I List - II 2 2
A capilarity 1. cavitation leg tan e leg cot o
(c) (d)
B. vapour pressure 2. Density of water A'x' A'x'
C. viscosity 3. shear forces where, Q = inclination of plane area.
D. specific gravity 4. surface tension x = distance ofc.g of plane area from free liquid surface.
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89. The velocity distribution in turbulent flow is a function of 99. The shear stress in a turbulent pipe flow:
the distance y measured from the boundary surface and (a) varies parabolically with radius
friction velocity V*, follows as : (b) is constant over the pipe radius
(a) Parobolic Law (b) logarithimic Law (c) is zero at centre and increases linearly to the wall
(c) hyperbolic Law (d) linear law (d) None of these
90. The Boundary layer on a flat plate is called laminar 100. The concept of stream function which is based on the
boundary layer if the value of Reynold's number (Re) is : principle of continuity is applicable to :
(a) Re < 5 x 105 (b) Re < 2000 (a) Three - dimensional flow
(c) Re<4000 (d) None of these (b) Two - dimensional flow
91. The continuity equation in fluid mechanics is a (c) One - dimensional flow
(d) None of these
mathermatical statement employing the principle of:
101. The most essential feature of the turbulent flow is :
(a) conservation of energy
(a) Large discharge
(b) conservation of mass
(b) Small discharge
(c) conservation of momentum (c) High velocity
(d) None of these (d) Velocity and pressure at a point shows irregular
92. The velocity at which the flow changes from laminar to fluctuations at high frequency
turbulent for a given fluid at a given temperature is termed 102. The flow is said to be subsonic ifthe value of mach number
as: IS :
(a) maximum velocity (a) Mach No. = I (b) Mach No. < 1
(b) minimum velocity (c) Mach No. > 1 (d) Mach No. = 2
(c) average velocity 103. Ratio of inertia force to surface tension is termed as :
(d) critical velocity (a) Mach number (b) Froude number
93. In laminar, incompressible flow in a circular pipe the ratio (c) Reynold's Number (d) Weber's number
between average velocity to maximum velocity will be 104. If the free steam fluid velocity (v) is 20 mls and the pipe
equal to: diameter (d) is 1m, if the dynamic density (p) is 0.150
Badboys2(a) 2 (b) 4
kg/m! and the fluid viscosity is 0.0000122, then the
Reynold's number (R) will be equal to :
(a) 245902 (b) 235902
3 I (c) 434904 (d) 324906
(c) 4 (d) ~ 105. Laminar flow developed at an average velocity of 5 m/s
occurs in a pipe of 10 em radius. Then the velocity at 5
94. An oil having kinematic viscosity of 0.25 stokes flows em radius will be equal to :
through a pipe of 10em diameter. The flow will be critical (a) 10 m/s (b) 7.5 mls
at a velocity of about: (c) 5 mls (d) 2.5 mls
(a) 1.5 mls (b) 0.5 m/s 106. Stanton diagram is a graph of:
(c) 2.5 m/s (d) I mls (a) Friction factor versus Reynolds number
95. In a turbulent flow through a pipe, the shear stress is : (b) Friction factor versus log of Reynolds number
(a) Maximum at centre and decreased linearly towards (c) Log of friction factor versus Reynolds number
the wall (d) Log offriction factor versus log of Reynolds number
(b) Maximum at centre and decreased logarithimically 107. The experimental determination of coefficient of velocity
towards the wall is given as :
(c) Maximum midway between the centre - line and the
wall
(d) Maximum at the wall and decreases linearly to zero (a) c, =J?;;. (b) Cv=~
at the centre
96. An oil with specific gravity 0.85 and viscosity 3.8 poise C = J4XH2
flows in a 5 em diameter horizontal pipe at 2 m/s. The (c) v
y
(d) c, =~~~
Reynold's number will be approximately equal to : 108. Application of Bernoulli's equation requires that:
(a) 224 (b) 2240 (a) the duct is two - dimensional
(c) 22.4 (d) 22400 (b) the flow is laminar
97. At what distance (r) from the centre of pipe of radius (R) (c) the duct is frictionless
does the avergae velocity occur at laminar flow: (d) the fluid is nonviscous and incompressible
(a) r = 0.304 (b) r = 0.707
(c) r = 0.808 (d) r = 0.609 P v2
109. It -+-2 +z= constant is a Bernoulli's equation, with
98. With the same cross-sectional area and placed in the pg g
turbulent flow, the largest drag will be experienced by :
(a) A sphere v2
their usual meanings then the term 2g represents:
(b) A streamlined body
(c) A circular disc held normal to the flow of direction (a) kinetic energy (b) Pressure energy
(d) A circular disc held parallel to the flow of direction (c) kinetic energylunit weight (d) None of these
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11O. Match the List - I and List - II and selectthe correct answer 119. Energy loss in flow through nozzle as compared to venturi
using the codes below: meter is :
List - I List - II (a) Same (b) More
A Froude number 1. pi pu2 (c) Less (d) Unpredictable
B. Mach Number 2. U I (gd) 120. Using Blasius equation, the friction factor for turbulent
flow through pipes varies as :
C. Weber's Number 3. U/Jid
D. Euler's Number 4. pLU2/cr
(a) Re (b) ReO.5
P
5.
p2U2
6. U/C (c) ReO.33 (d) ReO.25
Codes: 121. Which of the following parameter is measured using
A B C D orifices?
(a) 3 6 4 1 (a) Velocity
(b) Pressure
(b) 2 4 3 (c) Flow rate
(c) 1 3 4 6 (d) Both pressure and velocity
(d) 2 4 5 6 122. If Cy = coefficient of velocity, Cc = coefficient of
contraction C, = coefficient of resistance, then
111. A pivot tube is used for measuring:
coefficient of discharge (Cd) is equal to
(a) pressure of flow (b) velocity of flow
(a) c, x Cc (b) c, x c,
(c) flow rate (d) total energy (c) Cy+ Cc (d) Cy-Cr
112. Venturimeter is used to measure flow of fluids in pipes 123. For a viscous flow, the coefficient of friction is given by:
when pipe is:
(a) horizontal
(b) vertical, flow downwards
Badboys2 (c) vertical, flow upwards
(d) In any position (c) f=~ (d) f=~
113. Which of the following device is used to measure flow Re Re
on the application of Bernoulli's theorem: 124. Loss of head due to friction to maintain 0.05 m3/s of
(a) venturimeter (b) orifice plate discharge ofliquid (specific gravity 0.7) through a steel
(c) Pivot tude (d) All of these pipe 0.2 m diameter and 1000 m long, taking coefficient
114. For a nozzle to convert sup sonic flow into a super sonic of friction 0.0025 will be equal to :
flow, must be : (a) 6.44 m (b) 9.45 m
(a) convergent type (c) 10.8 m (d) 12.3 m
(b) divergent type 125. If velocity of flow through a pipe is doubled, then the
(c) convergent-divergent type head loss due to friction becomes :
(d) of uniform cross-sectional area (a) two time (b) four times
115. Flow through a supersonic nozzle is an example of: (c) eight times (d) half
(a) Isolated system (b) open system 126. For maximum power, transmission through a pipeline, the
(c) closed system (d) insulated system frictional head loss equals:
116. In the Navier, stoke equation, the forces considered are: (a) HI 3 (b) HI 4
(a) Gravity, pressure and viscous (c) HI 6 (d) HI 9
(b) Pressure, viscous and turbulence 127. The maximum velocity of one dimensional
(c) Gravity, pressure, and turbulence incompressible flow between two fixed parallel plates is
(d) Pressure, gravity, turbulence and viscous 6 mis, then the mean velocity of the flow is :
117. The line which provides the sum of pressure head, datum (a) 2 m/s (b) 4 m/s
head and kinetic head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with (c) 6 m/s (d) 9 m/s
respect to some reference line is known as : 128. The surge tanks are used in a pipeline to:
(a) Hydraulic gradient line (a) reduce frictional loss in pipe
(b) Total friction line (b) ensure uniform flow in pipe
(c) Total energy line (c) relieve the pressure due to water hammer
(d) None of these (d) reduce cavitation
118. Which of the following flow measurement device is 129. Two pipe systems are said to be equivalent, when in two
independent of density? systems:
(a) Electro - magnetic flow meter (a) head loss and discharge are same
(b) Orifice plate (b) friction factor and length are same
(c) Turbine meter (c) length and diameter are same
(d) Venturi - meter (d) length and discharge are same
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130. Ifa draft tube is used with a Francis turbine (installed above 142. Ajet of water ofO.002m2 area moving with a velocityof15
tail race level), the pressure at the runner outlet: mls strikes on a series of blades moving with a velocity of
(a) is equal to atmospheric pressure 6 m/s. The force exerted on the blades will be :
(b) is above atmospheric pressure (a) 0.18N (b) 270N
(c) is below atmospheric pressure (c) 27 N (d) 180 N
(d) depends upon turbine speed 143. In kaplan turbine, the number of blades is generally equal
131. Francis turbine is a : to :
(a) tangential flow reaction turbine (a) 2 to 4 (b) 4 to 8
(b) axial flow reaction turbine (c) 8 to 16 (d) 16 to 24
(c) radial flow reaction turbine 144. Run away speed of a hydraulic turbine is :
(d) mixed flow reaction turbine (a) Full load speed
132. Francis turbine is best suited for: (b) The speed at which turbine runner will be damaged
(a) all types of heads (c) The speed it the turbine runner is allowed to revolve
( b) medium head (34 - 180 m) freely without load and with the wicket gates wide
(c) low head ( upto 30 m) open
(d) High head (above 180 m) (d) The speed corresponding to maximum overload
133. The value of speed ratio in kaplan turbine is generally kept permissible
as: 145. Impulse turbine is generally fitted:
(a) 1.5 (b) 2.5 (a) little above the tail race
(c) 1 (d) 0.5 (b) at the level of tail race
134. Mean diameter ofrunner ofa pelton wheel turbine is 200 (c) slightly below the tail race
mm and least diameter of jet is 1 em, then the jet ratio (d) about 2 to 5 m below the tail race
and number of buckets will be : 146. In a reaction turbine:
(a) 20, 25 (b) 200, 115 (a) flow can be regulated without loss
(c) 20,40 (d) 25,65 (b) water may be allowed to enter a part or whole of the
135. The specific speed of a turbine is represented as : wheel circumference
Badboys2 NHS/4 NJP
(c) the outlet must be above the tail race
(d) there is only partially conversion of available head
(a) JP (b) HS/4
to velocity head before entry to runner
NJP NJP 147. The condition for maximum efficiency of reaction turbine
(c) PHS/4 (d) gHs/4 is given by:
136. Ifthe jet ratio in a Pelton turbine wheel is 18, the number (b) Vb = V? cos a
of buckets will be equal to :
(a) 24 (b) 30 2 V2
(c) Vb VI
=-- (d) Vb _ --- 1
(c) 34 (d) 40 cosa cos2 a
137. An impulse turbine is used for: 148. In a reaction turbine, a stage is represented by:
(a) Low head of water (a) each row of blades
(b) High head of water (b) number of discharge of steam
(c) Medium head of water (c) number of casings
(d) High discharge (d) None of these
138. A kaplan turbine produces 3000 kw power under a head 149. A pelton wheel operates with a speed of 600 rpm, speed
of 5 m and a discharge of 75 m3/s. Then the overall ratio of 0.44 and a net head of300 m. Then the diameter
efficiency will be equal to : of the wheel will be :
(a) 82% (b) 90% (a) 0.82 m (b) 1.08 m
(c) 94% (d) 96% (c) 1.51 m (d) 2.14 m
139. The function of hydraulic turbine is to convert water 150. Compared to cylindrical draft tube, a tapered draft tube:
energy into : (a) prevents hammer blow and surges
(a) Heat energy (b) Electrical energy (b) responds betler to load fluctuations
(c) Atomic energy (d) Mechanical energy (c) converts moke kinetic heads into pressure head
140. If 'a' is the angle of blade fip at outlet, then maximum (d) prevents cavitation even under reduced discharge
hydraulic efficiency of an impulse turbine is : 151. The degree of reaction ofa kaplan turbine is:
1+ cosa l-cosa (a) equal to 1
(a) (b)
2 2 (b) equal to 180
(c) Greater than zero but less than 1 12
l+cos2 a l+sina
(c) 2 (d) 2 (d) Greater than 112but less than 1
152. The discharge through a turbine is
141. Which of the following turbine does not requir a draft (a) directly proportional to HI/2
tube? (b) inversely proportional to H1I2
(a) Pelton turbine (b) kaplan turbine (c) directly proportional to H3/2
(c) Francis turbine (d) Propeller turbine (d) inversely proportional to H3/2
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153. To maximize the work output at turbine, the specific volume 165. Air vessel is used in reciprocating pumps to obtain:
of working fluid should be: (a) Rise in delivery head
(a) As small as possible (b) Reduction of suction head
(b) As large as possible (c) Increase in supply of water
(c) constant throughout the cycle (d) continuous supply of water at uniform rate
(d) None of these 166. Which of the following provides the correct relationship
154. Cavitation depends upon: between power (P) required to run a centrifugal pump and
(a) vapour pressure which is the function oftemperature diameter (d) of its impeller?
(b) absolute pressure or barometric pressure (a) P ex: d5 (b) P ex: d4
(c) suction pressure which is height of runner outlet ( C ) P ex: d2 (d) P ex: d
above tail race level 167. The specific speed of a pump is defined as the speed of
(d) All of the above unit of such a size that it :
155. Open type impeller centrifugal pump is used for the (a) requires unit power to develop unit head
purpose of: (b) delivers unit discharge at unit power
(a) mixture of water, sand, pebbles and clay (c) delivers unit discharge at unit head
(b) sewage treatment (d) produces unit power with unit head available
(c) water treatment 168. For small discharge at high pressure, which of the
(d) None of these following preferred?
156. The discharge through a single acting reciprocating pump (a) Mixed flow (b) Reciprocating
is given by: (c) Axial flow (d) Centrifugal
169. The discharge through a double acting reciprocating pump
_ 2ALN
(b) Qd - 60 is where N is rpm :
ALN (a) Q = 2ALN (b) Q = ALN

60
(c) Qd = 120 (d) Qd = ALN
157. In a centrifugal pump, the liquid enters the pump: (c) Q = ~N (d) Q= 2ALN
Badboys2 (a) at the top (b) at the bottom 170. Centrifugal pump is started with its delivery value is :
(c) at the centre (d) None of these (a) kept 50% open
158. In order to avoid cavitation in centrifugal pumps: (b) irrespective of any position
(a) The suction pressure should be high (c) kept fully closed
(b) The delivery pressure should be high (d) kept fully open
(c) The suction pressure should be low 171. Pick up the wrong statement about centrifugal pump:
(d) The delivery pressure should be low (a) Head is proportional to (diameter f
159. A centrifugal pump lifts 0.013 m3/s water from a depth of (b) Discharge is proportional to diameter
32 m. If the pump motor consumes 6 kw and density of (c) Head is proportional to (speed)?
water is 1000 kg/m ', then the overall efficiency of the (d) Power is proportional to (speed)?
pump will be : 172. The multistage centrifugal pumps are used to obtain:
(a) 88% (b) 75% (a) High head
(c) 69% (d) 79% (b) High discharge at high head
160. The vanes of a centrifugal pump move due to: (c) High efficiency with high discharge
(a) Pressure energy of water (d) Pumping of viscous fluids
(b) kinetic energy of water 173. A centrifugal hydraulic pump is used to force water to an
(c) Both (a) and (b) open tank through a pipe having a diameter of 2
(d) Power supplied by Prime mover decimeters. Given tha the pump is 4 km away from the
161. The maximum value ofthevane exit angle for a centrifugal tank, the average speed of water in the pipe is 2 m/s. After
pump impeller is equal to : neglecting the other minor losses, evaluate the absolute
(a) 10 to 15 (b) 15 to 20 discharge pressure at the pump exit if it is to maintain a
(c) 20 to 25 (d) 25 to 30 constant head of5 m in the tank. (Assume Darcy's friction
162. The vanes of a centrifugal pumps are usually: factor of 0.01 for the pump).
(a) curved forward (b) curved backward
(a) 5.503 bar (b) 55.03 bar
(c) radial (d) None of these
(c) 44.911 bar (d) 0.449 bar
163. A pump is defined as a device which converts:
174. In a centrifugal pump when delivery value is fully closed,
(a) hydraulic energy into mechanical energy
the pressure of fluid inside the pump will
(b) mechanical energy into hydraulic enegry
(a) becomes zero (b) reduce
(c) kinetic energy into mechanical energy
(c) increase (d) remain unaltered
(d) none of these
175. In a double acting reciprocating pump, there are:
164. N. P. N. S. H stands for:
(a) One suction value and one delivery value
(a) Net Positive Supply Head
(b) Two suction values and two delivery values
(b) Net Power Supply Head
(c) One suction values and two delivery values
(c) Net Positive Suction Height
(d) Two suction values and two delivery values
(d) Net Positive Suction Head
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176. A centrifugal pump will start delivering water only when 184. In a flow field, the stream lines and equipotential lines :
the pressure rise in the impeller is equal to or greater (a) are parallel
than the: (b) cut at any angle
(a) manometric head (b) kinetic head (c) area orthogonal everywhere in the field
(c) static head (d) velocity head (d) cut orthogonal except at the stagnation point
177. A centrifugal pump has the following specifications. 185. For a fluid element in a two - dimensional flow field (x-
Speed = 1000 rpm y) if it will undergo:
Flow = 1200 m3/s (a) Translation and deformation
Head = 20 m (b) Translation and rotation
Power= 5 HP (c) Translation only
If the speed is increased to 1500 rpm, then the flow will (d) Deformation only
become: 186. Existence of velocity potential implies that
(a) 1800 m3/s (b) 2700 m3/s (a) Fluid is in continuum
(c) 1200 m3/s (d) 3600 m3/s (b) Fluid is irrotational
178. Casting of a centrifugal pump is designed to minimise: (c) Fluid is ideal
(a) Friction Loss (b) Cavitation (d) Fluid is compressible
(c) Static (d) Loss of kinetic energy 187. The velocity components in x and y directions are given
179. A mercury manometer is used to calculate the static
pressure at a point in a water pipe as shown in fig. The by u = A x y3- x2y, V = xi -~4 v". Then, the value of 'A'
level difference of mercury in two limbs is 10 mm. Then for the possible flow field involving an incompressible
m
the gauge pressure at that point will be equal to : fluid is :
(a) H) (b)
(c) 4 (d) 3
188. In a case of a turbulent flow of a fluid through a circular
tube (as compared to the case oflaminar flow at the same
Badboys2 flow rate), the maximum velocity is shear
Manometer stress at the wall is , and the pressure drop
across a given length is . The correct words for
the blanks are:
(a) 1236 Pa (b) 1333 Pa (a) Higher, higher, higher (b) Higher, lower, lower
(c) Zero (d) 98 Pa (c) Lower, higher, higher (d) Lower, higher, lower
--:-:
180. The force F required to support the liquid of density d 189. The parameters which determines the friction factor for
and the vessel on top is : the turbulent flow in a rough pipe are :
1r ---------
----------
~_~
-----------_.
------------
_~
Vessel
Liquid
-_..-
(a) Reynolds number and relative roughness
(b) Mach number and relative roughness
(c) Froude number and relative roughness
(d) Froude number and Mach number
190. The discharge in m3/s for laminar flow through a pipe of
diameter 0.04 m having a centre line velocity of 1.5 mls is:
3n 3n
Friction less piston (a) 50 (b) 10000
of area =A 3n 3n
(a) gd (hA- H) (b) gdHA
(c) gdHA2 (d) gd (H- h)A (c) 2500 (d) 5000
181. Kinematic viscosity of air at 20 C is given to be 1.6 x 191. The predominant forces acting on an element of fluid in
10-5 m2/s. Its kinematic viscosity at 70 C will be : the boundary layer over a flat plate in a uniform parallel
(a) 2.2 x 10-5 m2/s (b) 4.2 x 10-5 m2/s stream are
(c) 3.4 x 10-5 m2/s (d) 6.6 x 10- 5 m2/s (a) viscous and pressure forces
182. The velocity potential function for a source varies with (b) viscous and body forces
the distance 'r' as : (c) viscous and inertia forces
1 (d) inertia and pressure forces
(a) - (b) r 192. Prandtl's mixing length in turbulent flow signifies:
r
(c) r2 (d) 1m (a) the average distance perpendicular to the mean flow
183. Stream lines, path lines and streak lines are virtually covered by the mixing particles
identical for : (b) the ratio of mean free path to characteristic length
(a) Uniform flow of the flow field
(b) Flow of ideal fluids (c) the wavelength corresponding to the lowest
(c) Stead flow frequency present in the flow field
(d) Non-uniform flow (d) the megnitude of turbulent kinetic energy
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193. The necessary and sufficient condition which brings about
separation of boundary layer is : (a) 2 (b) 1
(3) : >0, !~<0 (b) : <0, !>O (c) 4 (d) 3

200. If I = moment of inertia of the plane of the floating body
at water surface
dP < 0 dU > 0 (d) dP > 0 dU < 0 v = volume of body submerged in water
(c) dy "dx dy "dx BG = distance between the centre of gravity G and centre
194. In a fully developed laminar flow in the circular pipe, the of buoyancy B
head loss due to friction is directly proportional to : then, The metacentric height GM is expressed as :
(a) (mean velocity)? (b) (mean velocity)!
(c) (mean velocityr' (d) (mean velocity)" (a) GM=_!_-BG (b) GM=_!_+BG
195. The discharge velocity at the pipe exit as shown in figure V V
is: I I
(c) GM= BG-- (d) GM=-xBG
V V
201. For irrotational and incompressible flow, and, if =
H velocity potential, 'V = stream function, then which of
the following is correct?
(a) = 0,V2'V = 0
V2<1> (b) V2<1> *- 0,V2'V *- 0
(c) V2<1> *- 0,V2'V = 0 (d) V2<1> = 0,V2'V *- 0
202. The parameters for ideal fluid flow around a rotating
(a) ~2gH (b) fiijl circular cylinder can be obtained by superposition of some
elementary flows. Which one of the following set would
(c) ~2g(H + h) (d) ~2g(H - h)
result into such a flow?
196. Which of the following forces act on a fluid at rest? (a) source, vortex and uniform flow
1. gravity force 2. hydrostatic force (b) doublet, vortex and uniform flow
Badboys2 3. surface tension 4. viscous force
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
(c) sink, vortex and uniform flow
(d) vortex and uniform flow
(a) 1,2,3and4 (b) 1,2and3 203. How could magnus effect be simulated as a combination?
(c) 1 and 2 (d) 3 and 4 (a) uniform flow, irrotational vortax and doublet
197. The normal stress is same in all directions at a point in a (b) uniform flow and doublet
fluid only when : (c) uniform flow and vortex
(a) the fluid has zero viscosity and is at rest (d) uniform flow and line source
(b) one fluid layer has no motion relative to an adjacent 204. The velocity distribution in a turbulent boundary layer is
layer given by: uNo = (y/8)ln, then the displacement thickness
(c) the fluid is frictionless is equal to :
(d) the fluid is frictionless and incompressible
8
198. The depth of fluid is measured in vertical z-direction, x (a) 8 (b) 7
and yare other two directions and are mutually
perpendicular the static pressure variation in the fluid is 8
(c) 8 (d) 28
given by:
dP dP 205. In the flow past bluft bodies:
(a) - = g (b) - = P (a) pressure drag is smaller than friction drag
dz dz
(b) pressure drag occupies the major part of total drag
dP dP (c) friction drag occupies the major part of total drag
(c) -=pg (d) -=-pg
dz dz (d) pressure drag is less than that of stream lined body
(The symbols have their usual meanings) 206. Match List - I and List - II and select the correct answer
199. A stepped cylindrical container is filled with a liquid as using the code below:
shown in figure. The container with its axis vertical is first List - I List - II
placed with its large diameter downwards and then A Dynamic viscosity 1. ML2T-3
upwards. The ratio in the forces at the bottom in the two B. Moment of momentum 2. ML-l T-2
cases will be : C. Power 3. ML-lil
D. Volume modulus 4. ML2T-2
d
IE ;;.1 of elosticity 5. ML2T-l
1 Codes:
ABC
(a) 3 5
D
2
(b) 4 2 3
(c) 1 2 3 4
IE >1 (d) 2 4 5 1
2d
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207. Consider the following energies associated with Pelton
216. If NSI= specific speed of pump handling large discharges
turbine
1. Mechanical 2. Kinetic at low heads
3. Potential NS2= specific speed of pump handling low discharges at
(a) 1 - 2 - 3 (b) 2 - 3 - 1
high heads, then:
(c) 3-2-1 (d) 1-3-2
208. Consider the following types of water turbine (a) NS1 > NS2 (b) NS1 = NS2
1. Bulb 2. Francis (c) NS1 < NS2 (d) NS1 ~ NS2
2. Kaplan 217. The power is absorbed by a hydraulic pump is directly
The correct sequence of order in which the operating head proportional to :
decreases while developing the same power is : (a) N (b) N2
(a) 3 - 1 - 2 (b) 1 - 3 - 2 (c) N3 (d) N4
(c) 2-3-1 (d) 3-2-1 Where (N = rotational speed of pump)
209. Critical speed of turbine is defined as : 218. The minimum net positive suction head (NPSH) required
(a) the speed at which natural frequency of vibrations for a hydraulic pump is to:
becomes equal to the number of revolutions while (a) prevent cavitation (b) increase discharge
the time is same (c) increase efficiency (d) increase suction head
(b) the speed at which the turbine stops functioning 219. Which of the following pump is not a positive
(c) the speed at which natural frequency becomes larger displacement pump?
than the number of revolutions of same time (a) reciprocating pump (b) centrifugal pump
(d) None of these (c) vane pump (d) lobe pump
210. The dimension of the specific speed of the turbine is : 220. If Tin= input torque, Tip = Out put torque, then In case of
(a) F1I2L-3/41312 (b) F-112L3/4T312
a hydraulic coupling,
(c) FI/2 L 415 T 3/4 (d) F2/3L -3/4 T312
(a) T!p (b) Tjp
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211. Consider the following turbines: (c) Tjp (d) None of these
1. Kaplan 2. Pelton 221. Jet pumps are generally used in process industry for their:
3. Francis (a) larger capacity
The correct sequence in increasing order of the specific (b) high efficiency
speed of these turbines is : (c) capacity to transport gases, liquids and mixtures of
(a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 2, 3, 1 boths
(c) 3,2, 1 (d) 1,3,2 (d) None of these
212. The power, speed and discharge of a hydraulic turbine are 222. The specific speed ofa hydraulic pump is the geometrically
respectively proportional to : similar pump working against a unit head and:
(a) HlI2,HlI2,H3/2 (b) HlI2,H312, H1I2 (a) Delivering unit quantity of water
(c) HlI2,HlI2,H1I2 (d) H3/2, HII2,H1I2 (b) Consuming unit power
213. Which one of the following turbines is used in underwater (c) Having unit velocity of flow
power stations? (d) Having unit radial velocity
(a) Pelton turbine 223. In centrifugal pump,cavitation is reduced by :
(b) Deriaz turbine (a) increasing the flow velocity
(c) Tubular turbine (b) Reducing discharge
(d) Turbo - impulse turbine (c) Throttling the discharge
214. Consider the following components of a centrifugal pump: (d) Reducing suction head
1. impeller 2. Suction pipe 224. Water is pumped through a pipe line to a height of 10m at
3. foot value and strains 4. delivery pipe the rate of 0.1 m3/s. If frictional and other losses amount
The correct sequence of these components through which to 5m, the pumping power required in kw will be :
the fluid flows is : (a) 14.7 (b) 8.7
(a) 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 (b) 3 - 2 - 1 - 4 (c) 9.7 (d) 10.8
(c) 1 - 2 - 4 - 3 (d) 2 - 4 - 1 - 3 225. The most probable value of speed ratio of kaplan turbine
215. The volute casing ofa centrifugal pump: is :
1. eliminates head loss due to change in velocity after (a) 0.45 (b) 0.15
exit from impeller (c) 2.0 (d) 1.18
2. directs the flow towards the delivery pipe 226. A series of normal flat vanes are mounted on the periphery
3. converts a part of velocity head to pressure head of a wheel, the vane speed being v. For maximum
4. gives a constant velocity of flow efficiency,the speed of liquid jet striking the vane should
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: be:
(a) 2and3 (b) 1 and 2 (a) 2v (b) 3v
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 4v (d) 5v
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227. The unit discharge, Quand unit speed,Nucurve for a turbine 233. If h, = atmospheric pressure head
is shown is shown in figure, then the curve 'A' shows: h, = vapour pressure head
h, = suction head
h = working head of turbine
A then cavitation factor is defined as :
ha + hv + hs ha - hv - hs
~Nu (a) h (b) h
(a) kaplan turbine (b) Pelton turbine (c) ha + h,+ h, (d) ha - h,- h,
(c) Francis turbine (d) Propeller turbine 234. Which of the following type of turbine requires a heavy
228. A pelton turbines work under a head of 405 m and runs at duty governor?
400 rpm. The diameter of its runner will be: (if'k., = 0.45) (a) Francis turbine (b) kaplan turbine
(a) 1.92 m (b) 2.91 m (c) (a) and (b) both (d) None of these
(c) 3.60 m (d) 4.30 m 235. Hydraulic radius is equal to :
229. Constant efficiency curves of turbines are drawn between Area
(on both of the axes) : (a) 2
(a) power and speed (b) efficiency and speed (wetted perimeter)
(c) efficiency and power (d) efficiency and head
230. Specific energy is minimum at a depth of flow is known wetted perimeter
(b)
(a) critical depth (b) normal depth area
(c) sub-critical depth (d) alternate depth (c) square root of area
231. In case of performance of turbines, the main Area
characteritics are associated with: (d)
wetted perimeter
(a) constant head and variable speed
-
(b) variable head and constant speed 236. It u = average velocity, L = length of plate, J.l= coefficient
(c) constant head only of viscosity for the viscous low between two parallel
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232.
(d) variable head only
Mushel characteristitics are studied in the performance
plates, the pressure drop per unit length is equal to :
-
of turbine : Mushel characteristics are related to : 12 J.lu 12J.l2ii
(a) constant speed (a) (b)
d2 d
(b) constant head
-
(c) constant efficiency 12 J.l2ii 6J.lu
(d) None of these (c) (d)
d2 d2
13
16
18
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121 (c) 141 (a) 161 (c) 181 (a) 201 (a) 221 (c)
122 (a) 142 (b) 162 (b) 182 (d) 202 (b) 222 (a)
123 (b) 143 (b) 163 (b) 183 (c) 203 (a) 223 (d)
124 (a) 144 (c) 164 (d) 184 (c) 204 (c) 224 (a)
125 (b) 145 (a) 165 (d) 185 (a) 205 (b) 225 (c)
126 (a) 146 (d) 166 (a) 186 (b) 206 (a) 226 (a)
127 (b) 147 (a) 167 (c) 187 (d) 207 (c) 227 (c)
128 (c) 148 (a) 168 (b) 188 (c) 208 (c) 228 (a)
129 (a) 149 (b) 169 (a) 189 (a) 209 (a) 229 (b)
130 (c) 150 (c) 170 (c) 190 (b) 210 (a) 230 (a)
131 (d) 151 (d) 171 (b) 191 (c) 211 (b) 231 (a)
132 (b) 152 (a) 172 (a) 192 (a) 212 (d) 232 (c)
133 (a) 153 (b) 173 (a) 193 (a) 213 (c) 233 (b)
134 (a) 154 (d) 174 (c) 194 (b) 214 (b) 234 (b)
135 (b) 155 (a) 175 (b) 195 (b) 215 (a) 235 (d)
136 (a) 156 (a) 176 (a) 196 (b) 216 (a) 236 (a)
137 (b) 157 (c) 177 (a) 197 (a) 217 (c)
138 (a) 158 (a) 178 (d) 198 (d) 218 (a)
139 (d) 159 (c) 179 (a) 199 (c) 219 (b)
140 (a) 160 (d) 180 (b) 200 (a) 220 (a)
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IIIIII~ HINTS & EXPLANATIONS , I
1. (d) For two-dimensional flow, continuity equation has to

be satisfied. From equation (ii) putting value of alfl in equation (iv)
au Ov 00_ Ov
ay
ax +v ay = 0 => & - - ay we get,
2. (d) Pressure drop across a straight pipe of length L is -x2t = - x2t + f'(y)
given by Since, f(y) = c
32J...lvavL => '" = -x2 yt + C
~p = D2 ...(i)
1
c is a numerical constant taking it zero.
Uo
Here, uav = 2 ...
(ii) '" =-x2 yt
For the equations of streamlines, '" = constant
From Eqs. (i) and (ii),
:. -x2yt = constant
16J...luoL
~p=---=-- For a particular instance, x2y= constant
D2
4. (a) In a two-dimensional velocityfluid with velocitiesu, v
3. (a) Given u x2t and v = - 2xyt along x and y directions.
Acceleration along x direction
We know, : = v = - 2xyt ...(i)
ax = aconvective+ 3temporalorlocal
a",
and - = -u = -
2
x t ...(ii) =u-+v-
au au +
au
w-+v-
au
ax ax ay az at
'------v----' ~
Integrating Eq. (i), we get convective acceleration temporal acceleration
'" = x2yt + f(y) ...(iii) au

Since, az = 0 : for 2-dimensional flow.
Differentiating Eq. (iii) w.r.t. y (iv) we get
au au
8\Jf
ay =-x2t+f'(Y) ...(iv) :. Convective acceleration = u ax + v ay .
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5. (c) For Newtonian fluid, 12. (b) A streamline and equipotential line in a flow field are
dy perpendicular to each other (because, when (slope) 1
Shear stress a: dy and (slope), are multiplied and we get, (slope), x
(slope), = -I
dy . . 13. (a) Assumption:
where, dy = velocity gradient
a
(i) Flow is steady y (i.e.) at D = 0
(ii) Fully developed the ~ D - 0 ; properties are not

rl 1------+1 V + dv ~ fluid flow at
y -y I------------W changing in the direction of the flow.
1
D~
dy Pl~ x
Now tOC-
dy
dx
oc--
dt dy
I+----L------+I
[dx / dy] ~ Pressure is constant along the vertical axis.
oc"":""'_-----'-
dt ~ Pressure along horizontal axis does change.
(dx/dy) ~P. P2.p] <0
where, = rate of change of shear strain.
dt Apply N2M (2nd) over the length I
6. (d) Continuity equation
=> P]m2 - (P, -I~PI) m2 - 2m lie
v v=O
~P Zr
au Ov Ow ---
Badboys2 => -+-+-=0

Ox Oy az
L 6L
Neither P nor I depend as on r.
Multiplying by density on both sides, we get,
r
So, - is independ at then (t = r where (is on stat)
Ov + OwJ=
p(auOx + Oy 0 E
az
This is the equation for compressible flow. At center r= 0, t =c x 0 =0
7. (b) Compressive flow Weber number Zr wr
t=--
Free surface flow Froude number D
Boundary layer flow Skin friction
coefficient ~ =~x twxr => TW = ~PD
L r D 4L
Pipe flow Reynolds number 21. (d) u=x+2y+2
Heat convection Nusselt number v=4-y
8. (b) The relation between head and power is given by au Ov
-+- = I-I =0
Pu = Power/Head 1.5 ax Oy
Powe~ Powe~ As it satisfy the continuity equation for
Thus, 1 1 ... (i) incompressible flow so this is incompressible
(HeadI)5 (Head2) .5
Given, power] = 1000 kW, Head] = 40 m
Head, = 20 m
Putting values in the Eq. (i) and solving, we get
Wz= H:-:] = ~[O-21 =-1
and since rotational component is not zero so flow is

Power, = 353.6 = 354 kW not irrotational.
10. (c) In case of two fixed parallel plates, when the flow is 24. (a) Stagnation head = 20 m
fully developed, the ratio vrnax/ vavgis given by Static head = 5 m
Dynamichead=20-5= 15m
vrnax =~ u2
vavg 2 Now, -2g = 15
Thus, vavg= (2/3) x vrnax.= 2 x 6/3 = 4 m/s u=17.15m/s
11. (d) p] = I bar, P2 = 30 bar
p = 9900 kg/nr'. 27.
v-u
(c) ~ = 5.75 10glO
(y)k + 3.75
m for v= u
Specific work done W = Vdp = -dp
W = dp (30-I)xI05
p
5.75 + 10glO (f) + 3.75 = 0
2.93 kl/kg .1_ = 0.223 => y = 0.223 R
m p 990xl000 R
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29. (a) Consider an element of disc at a distance r and having
width dr.
dr
\~:\\\" 1\('",,:, \,I,\,:, \\:~

Linear velocity at this radius = reo
,r,\"
du
Shear stress = Mdy
torque = shear stress x area x r = 't 2 7tr dr x r
du
= M- 2m2dr ~p
dy For 'to to be maximum L should be maximum so V
assuming that gap h is small so that velocity
distribution may be assumed linear should be maximum. In laminar flow, maximum
velocity will be
du rco
pVD
dy h attained when -- = 2000
M
rro 27tMCO
dT = M- 2m2dr = -- r3dr ~p 32M X 2000M2 64000M2
h h
L pDoD2 pD3
T= J2 7tMCOr3dr = M7tdco
d/2 4
Badboys2 o h 32h
'to =
16000M2
pD3
gra dilent = -du = 0.25 m/ sec meter
31. (b) Ve Iocrty
dy VL 6xl
Kinematic Viscosity, U = 6.30 x 10-4 m2/s 42. (b) R, = --;- = 0.15 X 10-4 4 x 105
du du Hence the boundary layer is laminar over the entire
Shear stress = fl - = pv - length of the plate.
dy dy
= 129.3 x 6.30 x 10-4 x 0.25 (Asp = rx; l x 0.15 X 10-4
129.3) 6= 5~lx0.15xl0-4 = 5 ..{~ = 5 6
= 0.02036 kg/rrr' = 7.91 x 10-3 m = 7.91 mm
w 6xO.5
39. (b) Momentum of issuing jet is M = -QV2 Rex= 0.15 X 10-4 = 2 x 105 (for middle point of plate)
g
M= 7td2V;
W - 1.328
CD---- _ 1.328 -2
- 1 x 10-3
g 4 ~RcL ~4x 105 .
from continuity equation

6V2
FD = 2 x 1 x 1 x Cf--
= ~D2V =~d2V 2
Q 4 '4 2
1226(6)2
IfH is the head causing the flow, then = 2 x 1 x 1 x 2.1 x 10-3 x ---
V2 6LV2 2
H= _2 +--' = 92.69 x 10-3 N
2g 2gD 45. (a) Kinematic viscosity, U = 2.25
dia of pipe, d = 20 em
Rate of flow = 1.5 liters/sec
Now to find the flow we must know the reynolds
number
vd
Re=- v
15000
So U= 47.75 em/sec.
, (~)x(20)2
dM
-=0 ud 20x47.75
d6 Now
,
Re = - =
v 2.25
= 424.4
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R, = 424.4, means Reynoldsnumber ofthis flow is less 62. (b) Let H = height of water column,
then 2000(424.4< 2000)
H _ _E__13.6x103 x60x10-2 x9.81
Hence the flow is "Laminar"
then, - pg - 1000x 9.81
48. (a) Given here, = 2xy, considering the following
relation, =8.16m
-a<l> a\jl = 816 em
=>4= -=-- 65. (a) Given: Depth (h) = 5 km = 5 x 1000 = 5000 m
ax ay Specific gravity = 1.3
a\jl (a<l> a\jl '1 _ a<l> P = pgh = 1.3 x 9.8 x 5000
=> - - I -- -) -- P=63700Pa
ax -" ay' ax ax Valueof'P' IS closed to 63765 Pa'
67. (b) Weight of wood piece (m) = 5 kg
a<l>= ~(2xy) = 2y = _ a\jl Weight of wood piece = weight of liquid displaced
ax ax ay
S = 60% of volume (v) x 1000
Similarly,
=~xl000
a<l>= 2x = _ a\jl 100
ay ax S = 600 v
2 513
On integrating, f a\jl
ax
= -2x => \jI = - 2x + C (y)
z
v=-=-m
600 120
a\jl density of wooden piece (p] = Mass(m)
- = 0+ C' (y) Volume(v)
ay
f c'(y) = f 2y 5
=-=600kg/m
1
3
2y2 _2x2 2y2 120

C (y) = -2 +cl> lthen, 'I' = --+-+Cl
2 2 density of wood piece
= y2 _ x2 + c1 or y2 - x2 + constant Specific gravity of wood = d . f
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\jI ensity 0 water
49. (a) If flow in 2D, continuity equation becomes,
=~=0.6
ay av 1000
-+- =0 69. (d) Hydrostatic force on vertical walls,
ax ay
So, for (i), u = x2 cos y, V = - 2x sin y PI = pgHI (i)
P2 = pgll, (ii)
ay av Here, heights of vertical walls,
ax + ay = 2xcosy-2xcosy =0 HI =H2=4m
au av then _!l_ = pgHl =!!L
for (ii), ax + ay = 1 - 1 = 0 'P2 pgH2 H2
au av 2yt _!1_=i=l
for (iii) ax + ay = yt-T = yt - yt = 0 P2 4
70. (b) From Newton's Law of viscosity, (J.!)
au av 1 1 Shear stress (r) = J.!x velocity gradient
for (iv) -+- = -+x--= x
ax ay x x du
't = J.!x-
57. (c) Given: Pressure intensity (P) = 1.006 MN/m2 dy
Specific gravity = 1.025, 't N
density (p) = 1.025 x 103 J.!= du =-2
_ m
Let 'H' be the depth of point below water surface in sea
we know that, dy S
P=pgH
J.!= J:_s = [MLr2][T]
6
H = _E_ = 1.006x10 = 100.04m ~ 100 m m2 [L2]
pg 1025x9.8 J.!= [ML- 1 T- 1]
58. (b) Given: specific gravity of oil = 0.7 72. (d) Given: Atmospheric Pressure (Patm)= 1.03kg! em?
Pressure (p) = 0.14 kgf I em- Vapourpressure (Pv) = 0.03 kg I cm2
Density of oil (Poil) = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m' Air pressure (Pa) = ?
P = Patm-P v = 1.03-0.03 = 1kg/ern-
H=_E_= 0.14x9.81 74. (b) (fauge pressure (Pg) = 21 bar
pg 700x9.81
Atmospheric pressure (PatIn)= 1.013bar
0.14 x 9.81 x 10000 Absolute pressure (Pab)= 't
700 x9.81 Pab= Pg + Patm
= 21 + 1.013
1400 =22.013 bar
= 700 = 2 m of oil.
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75. (a) Given: diameter of pipe (D) = 20 em 1
kinematic viscosity (v) = 0.0101 stoke = +-
Reynold'snumber (Re)= 2320 2
Let v = velocity of flowing water, 94. (b) Given: kinematic viscosity (v) = 0.25 stokes
diameter of pipe (D) = 10em
Re = vD = vx20 for a critical velocity, Reynold's number should be
v 0.0101 between 2000 and 4000 .
2320 = v x 20 =? v = 2320 x 0.0101 PvD
Reynold's number ( Re) = --
0.0101 20 Il
v = 1.1716 em/s ~ 1.117 cm/s
76. (a) Given: Mass ofliquid = 5 tonnes = 5 x 103 kg Re= vD = vD
volume= 10m3 Il v
. .. mass of liquid P
mass density of liquid (p) = ---~-
volume 2
2000= vxl0x10 =?V= 2000xO.25 =0.5m/s
= 5 x 103 = 5 x 102 0.25 IOx102
10 96. (a) Given: specific gravity = 0.85
= 500 kg/m' Viscosity (u) = 3.8 poise
78. (b) Given: diameter of glass tube (d) = 3 mm N
surface tension (crT)= 0.0736 N/m = 0.38-2 s
contact angle for water (a) = 0 m
Diameter (D) = 5 cm
4crT cosa flow velocity (v) = 2 m/s
Then capilary rise (H) = wd density (p) = 0.85 x 1000 = 850 kg/m''
4 x 0.0736 x cos 0 4 x 0.0736 x 1 pvD
Reynold's number (Re) =--
kg-f xd 9.81 x 10-6 x 3 Il
= 10.4 mm (approx.)
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80. (c) Initial volume(vI) = 20 m3
Initial presssure (P1) = 100Pa
850 x 2 x 5 x 10-2
0.38
Final volume (v ) = 40 m3 = 223.7 = 224
(p
Final pressure 2)= 50 Pa 104. (a) Given: fluid velocity (v) = 20 m/s
Change in volume (dv) = V2- VI = 40 - 20 = 20 m3 pipe diameter (d) = 1 m
Change in pressure (dP) = PI - P2= 100- 50 = 50 Pa dynamic density (p) = 0.150 kg/m'
fluid viscosityru) = 0.0000122
change in pressure
Bulk modulus of elasticity (k) = V oume
lumetrifIC stram
. pvd 0.15x20x1
Reynold's number ( Re ) = - = ----
Il 0.0000122
= dP =~=50Pa =2458901.6
dv 20 ~ 245902
vI 20 105. (b) Given: Average velocity (Vavg) = 5m/s
82. (c) Given: Gauge Pressure (Pg) = 25 bar 1
Atmospheric pressure (Patm) = 1.03 pipe radius (R) = 10 em = 10m = O.1m
g=9.81 m/s2
Absolute pressure (Pabs) = Pg + P t 1
=25+ 1.03 am another radius (r) = 5 cm = 20 m = 0.05 m
= 26.03 bar According to velocity distribution,
86. (b) Given: Side of the cube ~a)= 5 em = 5 x 10-2m Umax. =2V avg. =2x5=10m/s
Volume of cube (v) = (a)
=(5 x 10-2)3
= 125x l0-6m3 Vavg =Umax [1- ~:] =1+ (~~O~n
Buoyant force acting on the cube
=v.pg
= 125x 10---6 x1000x 10 (Assuming g = 10m/s2) = 10[1- 0~~~5]= 10[0.75]
= 125x 10-2
= 1.25 N Vavg. = 7.5 m/s
124. (a) Given: discharge (Qd) = 0.05 m3/s, f= 0.0025
ap (Rf -R~) Specific gravity = 0.7
93. (a) Average velocity (Vavg) = ax 81l
diameter of pipe (d) = 0.2 m
length of pipe (L) = 1000m
ap(Rf -R~) Considering the following formula for head loss,
Maximum velocity (Vmax) =
ax 41l H _ 4fLv2
Vavg. L- 2gd
for discharge (Qd) = Area x velocity
Vmax.
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A-I72 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

149. (b) Given: wheel speed (N) = 600 rpm
005=Axv= =~d2 xv Speed ratio (k) = 0.44
. 4
net head (H) = 300 m
0.05 = ~(0.2)2 xv
4 Speed ratio (k) = b
,,2gH
4 x 0.05
v= 1.59m/s u _ 1tDN
1tx (0.2)2 where, - 60
N H dl (H) 4xO.0025xl000x(I.59)2 k= 1tDN

ow, ea oss L = 2xl0x0.2
60~2gH
= 6.32 m (which is near to 6.44 m)
0.44 = 3.14 x D x 600
4fL V2
125. (b) Head loss (HL) = --- 60J2 x 9.8 x 300
2gd
HL ocv2 0.44 x 60.J2 x 9.8 x 300
D=--------
3.14 x 600
HLI vr HLI (v)2 1 = 1.07 m or 1.08 (approx.)
--=-:::::>--=--=-
HL2 v~ HL2 (2v)2 4 159. (c) Water lifted I s (Qd) = 0.013 m3/s
depth (h) = 32 m
HL2 = 4 X HLI = 4 times Power consumption (P ) = 6 kw
127. (b) Given: MaximuI? velocity (vmax) = 6 m/s water density (p) = 1O~Okg/m-'
We know that the Ratio pgQd h
Maximum velocity ( v max.) _ i overall efficiency (110) = 1000 x Pc
Mean velocity (v mean) - 2 1000 x 9.8 x 0.013 x 32

1000x 6
vmax. =i
Badboys2 vmean 2
= 0.679
= 67.91 == 69% (approx.)
6 3 2x6 over all efficiency (110) is nears to the value 69%.
--=-:::::>vmean =--=4m/s 173. (a) Diameter of pipe (d) = 2 decimeter, Length (L) = 5
vmean 2 m
km
134. (a) Given: mean diameter of runner (DQ1)= 200 mm Average speed of water (v) = 2m/s
Least diameter of jet (dL) = 1 em = 10 mm con stan t head (H) = 5 m
. . ( ) Dm 200 Darcy's friction factor (t) = 0.01
jet ratio m =-=-=20 Let Pabs= absolute discharge pressure at pump exit.
dL 10
2
1 20 Pabs 4tLv
Number of buckets (Nb) = 15+2m = 15+2 HL (head Loss) = pg = 2gd
= 15 + 10 = 25
p _ 4fLv2p 4 x 0.01 x 5000 x (2)2 x 1000
136. (a) Given: jet ratio (m) = 18
abs - 2d 2 x 0.2
Number of buckets = 15 + 0.5 m
Pbs = 5.503 bar
= 15 + 0.5 x 18 177. (a) (ftven: Initial parameters:
= 15 + 9 Q1 = 1200 m3/s, N1 = 1000 rpm
= 24 Final parameters:
Q2 = ? , N2 = 1500 rpm
138. (a) Given: Power developed (P) = 3000 kw
for centrifugal pump, Q a: N
Head (H) = 5 m
discharge (Qd) = 75 m3/s Ql Nl
-=-:::::>--=--
1200 1000
Q2 N2 Q2 1500
Overall efficiency of turbine ('10) = ( p )
pgQdH _ 1200 x 1500
Q2 - 1000 1800 m3/s
1000
P xl000 3000 x 1000 179. (a) Difference of mercury level (H) = 10 mm
pgQdH 1000x9.8x75x5 = 10 x 1O-3m
density of water (Pwater)= 1000 kg/m '
= 0.815 ~ 0.82 ~ 82%
142. (b) Given: Area of jet of water (A) = 0.002 m2 density of mercury (Phg)= 13600 kg/m '
Striking velocity (v) = 15 mls gauge pressure (pg) = (PHg- Pwater)gH
blade velocity (vb) = 6 m/s =(13600-1000) x 9.8 x 10 x 10-3
Force exerted on the blades = p A v (v- Vb) = 1234.8 Pa~ 1236 Pa(approx.)
= 1000 x 0.002 x 15 (15 - 6) 180. (b) As we know that,
= 270 N Force = Pressure x Area
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=dxgxHxA FA = Pressure x Area
=dgHA
181. (a) Given: kinematic viscosity of air = 1.6 x 10-5 m2/s = w x ~(2d)2 x 2h = 2whnd2
considering the following relation, 4
Il a: (T)1I2 ... (i) Case II : When container place with its large diameter
upwards: then force (FB) will be :
p o: T1 ...(ii) FB = Pressure x Area
2
VOC(T)3/2 =wx~(d)2 x2h= wnd h
we get, kinematic viscosity at 70 C 4 2
= 2.2 x 10-5 m2/s
FA 2whnd2 = 4
187. (d) Given u = ')..xy3 - x2 y, v= xy2 -"43Y 4 FB wnd2h
For the case of incompressible flow, 2
204. (c) Given: Velocity distribution is given as :
au+av=o
ax ay ~=(x..JI/7
au UO 8
ax = ')..y3 -2xy, au
ay = 2yx = 3y
3
displacement thickness (8*) is given as :
')..y3- 2xj + 2yx - 3y3 = 0

')..y3 - 3y =0
y5 (')..- 3) = 0
')..-3=0
')..=3
190. (b) Given: diameter of pipe (d) = 0.04 m
line velocity (vrnax) = 1.5 mls
Ratio of average velocity with maximum velocity is 2.
8 1 [7 817]8
Badboys2 Then, Vavg: Vmax = 2: 1
vrnax 1.5
[Y]o- 81/7 S"y 0
8 1 [7S"x8 7
vavg. =-2-=T=0.75m/s
8/7]
=8- 1/7 =8-S"8
8
Area (A) = ~d2 = ~(0.04)2 224. (a) Given:
4 4 height (H) = 10m
=0.0004nm2 flow rate (Q) = 11m3Is
discharge (Qd) = A x vavg. Losses due to friction and others (HLf) = 5m
=O.0004nx 0.75
Pumping power (p)= PgQ(H+HLf )kw
3n 3 1000
=0 0003nm3/s = --m Is
. 10000 = 1000 x 9.8 x O.l (10 + 5) kw
195. (b) Considering Bernoulli's equation, between section (A) 1000
and section (B), P = 14.7 kw
226. (a) For maximum efficiency,
2
PYA Pv~ jet velocity = 2 x wheel speed
PA +--+pgzA = PB +--+pgzB =2v
2 2
Here, PA=PB=P, YA=O'ZA =HI' ZB=(H-h)
228. (a) Given: Head (H) = 405 m
speed (N) = 400 rpm
y2 ~ = 0.45
Hence, P + 0 + pgH = P +E..___!!_+
pg(H - h)
2 ndN rtd x 400
Speed of wheel (Il) = -6-0 = -6-0-
y2
pgH = E..___!!_+
pg(H - h) 20
2 u=-nd ....(i)
y2 3
pgH = E..___!!_
+ pgH - pgh and also u = kn ~2gH = 0.45 ../2 x 9.81 x 405
2
u = 40.1 mls ....(ii)
y2 equation (i) and (ii),
pgh = E..___!!_
2 20
- x n x d = 40.l
2gh =v~
3
d = 40.1 x 3 = 1.92 m
YB =figh 20 x 3.14
199. (c) Case I : When container placed with its large diameter
down ward: then force (FA)will be :
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1)llf)I)'Jf~rl'If)~
1~~f.I~I~I~11I~f.
STEEL steel is slightly better than that of semi-killed steel.
Iron contains carbon in two forms: (free form) and Effect of Alloying Elements on Steel
(combined form). But in steel, carbon is present in Alloying Effect on Steel Element
chemically combined form which is limited up to 1.5%. Chromium It promotes hardness, toughness and
Beyond this percentage of carbon, categorized into cast corrosion resistance.
iron. Silicon Improves elasticity,magnetic permeability
Or we may say steel is a mixture of iron and chemically and decrease hysteresis losses.
combined carbon from 0.15%-1.5%. Some other elements Nickel Improves corrosion resistance, toughness,
are also present in steel like sulphur, silicon, phosphorous ductility, deep hardness and tensile
and manganese etc. strength.
Classification of Steel: Cobalt Improves toughness, hardness, tensile
These steel are known as plain carbon steel. According to strength and thermal resistance.s
percentage of carbon, it may be classified as under: Manganese Minimise the bad effect of sulphur and
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(a) Dead Mild Steel - below 0.15% carbon. increase strength and toughness also.
(b) Mild Steel (low carbon steel) - carbon from 0.15%-0.3%. Tungsten Increases toughness, hardness, shock
(c) Medium Carbon Steel- 0.3%-0.8% carbon. resistance, wear resistivity and red hot
hardness, etc.
(d) High Carbon Steel- 0.8%-1.5% carbon.
Molybdenum Improves thermal resistance, wear
Classification of Steel according Manufacturing Process:
resistance, red hot hardness and hardness
(a) Killed Steel: It is a well de-oxidised steel and the steel has etc.
been completely deoxidised by the addition of an agent Vanadium Promotes elastic limit, shock resistance,
such as silicon or aluminium, before casting, so that there ductility and tensile strength etc.
is practically no evolution of gas during solidification.
Titanium Promotes hardness.
Killed steels are characterised by a high degree of chemical
homogeneity and freedom from porosity. The main Niobium Decrease hardness and promotes fine
gram growth, impact strength and
disadvantage of killed steels is that it suffers from deep
ductility etc.
pipe shrinkage defects. This steel is denoted by 'K'.
Aluminium It acts as a de-oxidizer and promotes fine
(b) Semi-Killed Steel: It is a secondary level
growths
de-oxidised steel than the killed steel and does not show
the degree of properties like killed steel. Most of steel Copper It Increase corrosion resistance and
strength etc.
carrying carbon 0.15% to 0.25% comes in this category.
Generally it is free from blow holes and having a sound Boron It improves hardenability.
outer surface. It is most widely used in structural work. Steel Alloys: Along with the carbon, all steels may be alloyed
(c) Rimmed Steel: Generally dead mild steel or we may say by mixing some other elements in various proportions
steels having 0.5% carbon are rimmed and partially de- to improve following most common properties of steel.
oxidised. Due to rimmed, it consists a good surface finish. Some of them are given below:
It is mostly used in rolling, deep drawing and spinning, etc. (a) To improve hardness, toughness, wear resistance, corrosion
It is denoted by 'R'. resistance, ductility and red hot hardness, etc.
Capped steels: Capped steel starts as rimmed steel but (b) Sometimes alloying is done to improve grain structure.
part way through the solidification the ingot is capped. Classification:
This can be done by literally covering the ingot mold or Steel alloys may be classified into many types on the
by adding a deoxidizing agent. The top of the ingot then basis of different properties. Some of them are given
forms into a solid layer of steel, but the rim of the rest of below:
(a) Internal Structure: On the basis of internal
the ingot is thinner than in rimmed steel. Also there is less
structure steel alloys.
segregation of impurities. The yield of rimmed and capped
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Production Engineering A-175

(b) According to Application: Structural steel, Tool excess of 7%, along with more than 0.60% carbon.
steel and Special Alloys steel. High speed steel may use with almost 2-3 times higher cutting
(c) Principle Alloying Element: Nickel steel, speed than high carbon cutting tool. High speed steel may
Manganese steel, Tungsten steel and Chromium retain its hardness upto 600C approximately.
steel etc. According to the alloying elements, high speed steel may be
Special Steel Alloys divided into following:
(a) Plain High Speed Steel: It contains 18% tungsten, 4%
Stainless Steel: It is alloy of steel containing chromium as chromium, 1% vanadium, 0.7% carbon with rest
principal alloying element along with other elements like Nickel percentage of iron(Fe). It consists good red hot
and Manganese, etc. Generally, chromium present in stainless hardness, wear and shock resistivity. It is commonly
steel is about 12%. The chromium present in stainless steel used for making cutting tools for lathe machines,
reacts with oxygen present in atmosphere and makes a strong planner machines, shaper machines and drilling
layer of chromium oxide which is a highly corrosive resistant machines, etc. Such HSS tool could machine (tunn)
in nature. On the basis of structure, stainless steel may be mild steel jobs at speed only up to 20 - 30 mlmin.
classified into following:
(b) Cobalt High Speed Steel: It contains about 20%
(a) Austenitic Stainless Steel: Austenitic steel (not temperable): tungsten, 12% cobalt, 4% chromium, 2% vanadium,
Cr= 16.5 - 26%, Ni = 7 - 25%, Mo if used 1.5 - 4.5%, 0.8% carbon and rest iron. It improves red hardness
C = max 0.07%. It contains about 10%-12% chromium, 7%- and retention of hardness of the matrix.
10% Nickel, 2% Manganese and 1%-2% Silicon and some
(c) Vanadium High Speed Steel: It is simply plain high
other elements in minor quantity like Molybdenum and
speed steel containing higher percentage of vanadium
Titanium etc. Its hardness and strength may be improved
which provides better abrassive resistance than plain
by cold working only, not by any heat treatment etc. It is
high speed steel. It forms special carbides of
highly corrosion resistant and non-magnetic in nature.
supreme hardness, increase high temperature wear
These alloys are highly resistant to many acids including
resistance, retention of hardness and high temperature
hot and cold nitric acid and at temperature above 1200F,
strength of the matrix.
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are stronger and scale-less than any other plain chromium
(d) Molybdenum High Speed Steel: It contains 6%
alloys. It consists good ductility and weldability, etc.
molybdenum, 6% tungsten, 4% chromium, 2% vanadium
(b) Martensitic Stainless Steel: Martensitic steel (temperable) : and rest iron. It shows better cutting properties. It
Cr = 12 - 18%, Mo ifused = 1.3 - 2%, C = max 0.25%. It improves red hardness, retention of hardness and
contains 10%-14% chromium along with 0.08%-1.5% carbon high temperature strength of the matrix, form special
and some other elements. The carbon dissolves in carbides of great hardness. Tungsten High Speed
austenite which when quenched, provides martensitic Steel: It contains 0.73% carbon, 18% tungsten, 4%
structure. It consist comparatively less corrosion resistivity chromium, 1% vanadium andrestiron(Fe).1t improves
and good strain resistivity. It responds good for heat red hardness, retention of hardness and high
treatment. temperature strength of the matrix, form special
(c) Ferritic Stainless Steel: Ferritic steel (partial temperable) carbides of great hardness.
Cr = 12 -30%, Mo if used = 1.3 - 2.5%, C = max 0.08%. It
contains about 12%-18% and 25%-30% chromium without
HEATlREAlMENTPROCESS USED IN ENGINEERING
any other major alloying elements. Sometimes (1%-15%) PRACnCE
manganese and upto 1% silicon is added. Generally, low Heat treatment is an operation or combination of operations
carbon steel is employed to make ferritic stainless steel. It involving heating at a specific rate, soaking at a temperature for a
consists poorer ductility and formability along with good period of time and cooling at some specified rate. The aim is to
weldability having good corrosion resistivity. It is mostly obtain a desired microstructure to achieve certain predetermined
used in utensils, cutlery, surgical instruments and furnace properties (physical, mechanical, magnetic or electrical).
parts, etc. The important principle of heat treatment are as follows:
(a) Phase transformation during heating.
High Speed Steel (H.S.S.): It is a well known tool steel and
(b) Effect of cooling rate on structural changes during cooling.
possesses the best combination of all properties. Ferritic -
(c) Effect of carbon content and alloying elements.
austenitic steel ( partial temeperable) : Cr = 17 - 27%, Ni = 4 -
Objectives of heat treatment (heat treatment processes):
6%, Mo ifused = 1.3 - 2%, C = max 0.10%. Which are essential
(a) To increase strength, harness and wear resistance (bulk
for a good cutting tool for working at higher speed. These are
hardening, surface hardening).
hardness, toughness, wear resistance, hot hardness. High
(b) To increase ductility, toughness and softness (tempering,
speed and cutting feed may result in production of high
recrystallization, annealing).
temperature at job and tool steel. So, it requires to be retain its (c) To obtain fine grain size (recrystallization annealing, full
properties like hardness and toughness etc. at generated high annealing, normalizing).
temperature. This property of retaining hardness and toughness (d) To remove internal stresses induced by differential
etc. at elevated temperature is known as red hot hardness. High deformation by cold working, non -uniform cooling from high
speed steels belongs to the Fe-C-X multicomponent alloy temperature during casting and welding (stress relief
system where X represents chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, annealing).
vanadium and cobalt. Generally, the X component is present in
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A-176 Production Engineering

(e) Toimprove surface properties (surface hardening, corrosion the heat treatment more uniformly. The properties of
resistance-stabilizing treatment and high temperature normalized steels depend on their chemical composition
resistance-precipitation hardening, surface treatment). and the cooling rate, with the cooling rate being a function
(t) To improve cutting properties of tool steels (hardening and of the size of the part. Although there can be a
tempering). considerable variation in the hardness and strengths of
(g) To improve magnetic and electrical properties (hardening, normalized steels, the structure usually contains a fine
phase transformation). microstructure. This process is almost similar to annealing
(h) Toimprovemachinability(fullannealing and normalizing).
except in this process metal is heated 40-50C above its
The process of heat treatment may be classified into following
critical temperature and holding time is very shorter than
types:-
annealing like (15 minutes) and then cooled down at room
(a) Annealing: Annealing is basicallyknown as metal softening
temperature in still air.
process in which the metal heated upto its critical
This process improves impact strength of metal and
temperature or 30-50C above its critical temperature and
then allows to cool at a specific rate like in full annealing removed internal stress of metal. It also increase mechanical
process metal allowed to get cool in furnace. Normally at properties of metal like softness, mechanibility and refine
the rate of 10-30C per hour decrement of temperature of grain structure of metal.
furnace. (c) Hardening: In this process, metal is heated 30-50C more
Annealed is done for one of the following purpose:- than its critical temperature and hold at that temperature up
to a specific time, then cooled rapidly by quenching in
(a) To reduce hardness.
water, oil or salt bath. This process increase hardness of
(b) To relive internal stresses.
metal.
(c) To improve machinability.
(d) Spheroidizing: Spheroidizing: - To produce steel in its
(d) To facilitate further cold working by restoring ductility. softest possible condition with minimum hardness and
(e) To produce the necessary microstructure having maximum ductility, it can be spheroidized by heating just
desired mechanical, magnetic and other properties. above or just below the A 1 eutectoid temperature and then
Badboys2 Types of annealing process: holding at that temperature for an extended period of time.
Spheroidizing can also be conducted by cyclic processing,
(a) Full annealing: It is defined as the steel to austenite
phase and then cooling slowly through the in which the temperature of the steel is cycled above and
transformation range when applied to steel. Full below the A 1 line. This process breaks down lamellar
annealing is called as annealing. structure into small pieces that form small spheroids
through diffusion in a continuous matrix. Surface tension
(b) Box annealing: Annealing a metal or alloy in a
causes the carbide particles to develop a spherical shape.
sealed container under condition that minimize
Because a fine initial carbide size acceleratessperoidization,
oxidation. The material is packed with cast iron chips,
the steel is often normalized prior to spheroidizing. This is
burnt charcoal. It is also called as black annealing or
the process of producing a structure in which the
pot annealing.
cementite is in a spheroidal distribution. If the steel is
(c) Bright annealing: Annealing in a protective medium heated slowly to a temperature just below the critical range
is to prevent surface discoloration is called bright and held for a prolonged period of time, then structure will
annealing. The protective medium is obtained by the be obtained the globular structure obtained given improved
use of an inert gas, such gas, argon or nitrogen or by machinability of steel.
using reducing gas atmosphere. (e) Tempering: This process may be defined as opposite of
(b) Normalizing: Normalizing: Steel is normalized by hardening. In this process, hardened steel is re-heated
heating 50 to 60C (90 to 110F) into the austenite-phase below critical temperature and allows to cool as slow rate
field at temperatures somewhat higher than those used which increase the softness and decrease the hardness
by annealing, followed by cooling at a medium rate. For and brittleness. This process increases toughness and
carbon steels and low-alloy steels, normalizing means air ductility of steel. This process enables transformation of
cooling. Many steels are normalized to establish a some martensite into ferrite and cementite.Tempering is
uniform microstructure and grain size. The faster cooling used to reach specific values of mechanical properties, to
rate during normalizing results in a much finer relieve quenching stresses, and to ensure dimensional
microstructure, which is harder and stronger than the stability. It usually follows quenching from above the
coarser microstructure produced by full annealing. Steel is upper critical temperature; however, tempering is also used
normalized to refine grain size, make its structure more to relieve the stresses and reduce the hardness developed
uniform, make it more responsive to hardening, and to during welding and to relieve stresses induced by forming
improve machinability. When steel is heated to a high and machining. The exact amount ofmartensite transformed
temperature, the carbon can readily diffuse, resulting in a into ferrite and cementite will depend upon the temperature
reasonably uniform composition from one area to the next. to which the metal is re-heated. When the hardened steel
The steel is then more homogeneous and will respond to is reheated to a temperature between 100-200C, then
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carbon is precipitated out from martensite to form a carbide complete hardening and selected portion hardening. Even
called epsilon. This leads to the restoration of BCC heat treated parts can be skin hardened through this
structure in the matrix. Further, heating between 200C- process.Alloyshaving Chromium,Aluminium, Molybdenum
350C enables the structure to transformation to ferrite and and Vanadium responds best by this process. This process
cementite. can be achieved by using gas nitriding and salt bath
Classification of Tempering: The tempering process may
nitriding. But in both process, steel is heated below critical
be classified as given below:-
temperature. But this process is comparatively slower than
(i) Low temperature tempering: In this tempering process,
other hardening process. This process is mostly used for
steel is re-heated after hardening between temperature
range 150C-200C. This process mostly used for hardening drills remains and milling, cutting tool in which
tempering carbon tool steel, low alloy steel, surface the hardness at this shank is normally required less than
hardened parts and measuring tools, etc. This process this cutting edge.
increase toughness and ductility and reduce internal (h) Cyaniding: This is also a case hardening process which
stress. is used for low and medium carbon steels. In this process,
(ii) Medium temperature tempering: In this process, carbon and nitrogen absorbed at surface which cause the
hardened steel is re-heated between temperature range hardness at the surface only. In this process, steel is
300-450C and retained at this temperature for a heated in between range of 800-950C temperature in a
specific time and then allowed to cooled down at room molten salt bath. The types and proportion of cyanide salt
temperature. In this process, martensite and austenite in preparing the molten salt bath depends upon the
transformed into secondary troosite, which causes amount of carbon contents needed at the metal surface.
increase toughness and reduction of hardness. This Mostly a mixture of sodium cyanide, sodium chloride and
process also improves ductility but reduce its strength. sodium carbonate is used in equal ratio. The hardness
This process is used for the steel which supported to induced in the case of metal is due to the formation of
used with impact load like hammer, coils and cheals, compounds of nitrogen and carbon absorbed at surface. In
Badboys2 etc. this process, a low temperature is used normally 120-
(iii) High temperature tempering: In this process, 1500C.
hardened steel is re-heated between temperature range
(i) Induction Hardening: Induction hardening is a form of
500-650C, then holding for a certain time and after
heat treatment in which a metal part is heated by induction
which allows to cooled down at room temperature.
heating and then quenched. The quenched metal undergoes
This process removes internal stress completely and
a martensitic transformation, increasing the hardness and
provide a micro structure which have good strength
brittleness of the part. Induction hardening is used to
and toughness. This process is mostly used for crank
selectively harden areas of a part or assembly without
shafts, gears and connecting rods etc.
affecting the properties of the part as a whole. Induction
(f) Case Hardening: This process is also known as heating is a non-contact heating process which utilises the
Carburising. In this process, the hardness is increased principle of electromagnetic induction to produce heat
only at outer surface. In this process, steel is heated upto inside the surface layer of a work-piece. By placing a
red hot and then immersed into high carbon reason which conductive material into a strong alternating magnetic field
causes a production of surface having high carbon electrical current can be made to flow in the material
contents. This results increase hardness surface. The thereby creating heat due to the I2R losses in the material.
carbon is infused into surface of steel by diffusion from In magnetic materials, further heat is generated below the
carbon monoxide gas at elevated temperature ranges curie- point due to hysteresis losses. The current generated
between 870-950C due to having carbon contents at flows predominantly in the surface layer, the depth of
surface of steel. The hardness increased up to limited this layer being dictated by the frequency ofthe alternating
depth of steel and below this outer surface, a soft and field, the surface power density, the permeability of the
tough core maintained automatically. Case hardening is
material, the heat time and the diameter of the bar or
any of several processes applicable to steel that change
material thickness. By quenching this heated layer in water,
the chemical composition ofthe surface layer by absorption
oil or a polymer based quench the surface layer is altered
of carbon, nitrogen, or a mixture of the two and, by
to form a martensitic structure which is harder than the
diffusion, create a concentration gradient on the surface.
base metal. Itis fastest method of hardening in which metal
The processes commonly used are carburizing and quench
contain medium or high cast are hardened by this process.
hardening, cyaniding, nitriding, and carbonitriding.
In this process, metal are placed under a high frequency
(g) Nitriding: It is also a case hardening but carbon is (2000 cycles/sec) alternating current. When this high
replaced by Nitrogen. It provides equal advantage for both frequency current is passed through the metal, the carbon
carbon-alloy steel and other alloys steel. It can be used for
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contents present in metal itself increases its hardness after part design, maintain proper hardness and doing
passing the current. The metal itself is quenched into tempering on proper timing.
liquid bath. This process takes 1-5 seconds only. This can (c) Soft Spots: This defect may arise due to localised
be done on a specific area and to whole components de-carburisation, heterogeneous initial structure or
normally automobile parts like crank shaft, gears and formation of bubbles during quenching process. This
tappet pins are hardened by this process. The depth of defect may be controlled by quenching properly in
hardness and degree of hardness depends upon the suitable solution and ensuring the heterogeneous
voltage and frequency of current. In hardening of large structure of metal.
component, slower frequency current is used. (d) Coarse Grain Structure Formation: This defect may
arise due to heating at elevated temperature to a long
(j) Flame Hardening: In this process, a high intensity
period then specified. This can be controlled by
oxy-acetylene flame is used to heat the steel. After heating
heating at specified temperature up to proper time.
steel above critical temperature steel is quenched to air or
(e) Shape Distortion: This defect caused by non-uniform
water bath. Jet can be used but this process is limited with
heating. This can be controlled by heating gradually
medium and high carbon steel. This process can be made up to specified temperature.
manual or fully computerised and automatic. Flame
(f) Holes Formation: This defect is caused due to
hardening consists of austenitizing the surface of steel by bubble formation during quenching which can be
heating with an oxyacetylene or oxyhydrogen torch and controlled by carefully quenching and using specified
quenching immediately. A hard surface layer of martensite quenching media / solution.
forms over a softer interior core.
METAL CASTING
(k) Laser Beam Hardening: It is a surface hardening process
and almost similar to flame and induction hardening. In this Metal casting is a process in which molten metal is poured (in
process, medium and high carbon steel is coated with liquid state) into a mould. There molten metal acquiresthe desired
absorbtive media like Zinc or Manganese Phosphate and shape and size. Which is made previously in the mould after
some time when metal gets solidified it is removed from mould.
Badboys2 then a Laser Beam is passed through that which causes
production of heat inside the metal and after passing the
Casting is the oldestmethod of shaping metal and non-metals. In
earlier time most popular casting method was "Sand Casting" in
laser beam, metal is quenched into water or oil bath. It is which desired shape article is pressed in to sand and when the
a faster method and can be easily done on complete or article removed from sand it leaves an impression or cavity in the
localised area of metal. This process can be manual or fully sand. Which is exactly according to the shape of article after
automatic. removal of article molten metal is poured in this cavity formed in
(I) Heat Treatment of Non-Ferrous Metal: The mainly used the sand. The article used to make cavity in sand is known as
heat treatment process for Non-ferrous metal is strain pattern and the cavitymade in sand is known as mould.
hardening, dispersion hardening but most popular method Advantage of Casting
is age hardening / precipitation hardening. 1. Casting is a cheap, fast and economicalmethod ofproducing
Age Hardening: In this process, non-ferrous alloys are any shape of metal and Non-metals.
heated into a single phase solid solution. On account of 2. Large and heavy structures can be made easily by casting
their decreasing solid solubilitywith lowing the temperature method.
their structure is transformed into two distinct phase. After 3. For identicalmass productioncasting is verysuitablemethod.
which these metal allows to cooled down at rapid rate 4. Dueto productionofminimum scrap,wastageofraw material
which caused structure is a super-saturated solid solution. isminimised.
When this alloy metal is heating at a predetermined 5. Complex shape can be made easily by casting method with
temperature again the solute atoms precipitate of super- low production cost and in less time investment.
saturated solid solution. This process results in increasing 6. Casting is suitable for metal, non-metal and alloys.
7. Insertion of any objectof same material or dissimilar metal is
hardness. This one of the reason due to which this
easier in casting method.
process is known as precipitation hardening also.
8. Some mechanical properties achieved in casting process are
Defects in Heat Treatment Process: Due to some reasons, distinct from any other manufacturing method.
some defects may arise during heat treatment process. Someimportant terms
(a) Oxidation: If during heat treatment process, (A) Mould. (B) Pattern (C) Core.
atmosphere is oxidising then oxidation may occurs, (A) Mould: It may be defined as a shape made up of sand, Die
Steel, Ceramic, and rubber etc. in which desired cavity is
which can be prevented by controlling heating
produced with the help of suitable pattern. According to the
atmosphere or using carburesing agents.
material used, in making cavity, the material can represent
(b) Cracks: Sometime, cracks in metal during quenching, the mould's name like, ifsand is prime material then it will be
this may happens due to having unproper designs of known as sand mould, and rubber mould if rubber is prime
object, too much hardness or delay in tempering after material in masking mould. Sand mould may further be
quenching. This defectmay be controlled by improving classified in following types :
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(i) Green sand mould :- The mold contains well prepared etc. These patterns are made slightly over size, for over
mixture of sand, water (moisture) and binder (clay), as weight, material so that extra metal can be used for matching
name resemble green is not actually green colour but etc. Most commonly used patterns are listed below.
normally natural sand used in wet condition having Patterns may be classified according to the following factors:
suitable percentage of moisture and clay.
(a) Shape and size and casting
(ii) Skin dried mould:- It is more expensive mould having
(b) Number of casting to be made
additional binding material with Green sand, which
(c) Method of moulding to be used
enables it less collapsibility, but higher finishing and
(d) Parameters involved in the moulding operations
produce better dimensional accuracy. This additional
(i) Solidpattern :-
bonding material used in this mould is dried by using
torch etc.
(iii) Dry- Sand Mould :- It is mould silica sand which is
mixed with organic binder and baked in suitable ovan.
Where its moisture content is reduced due to which it
provides lower collaspibility. These moulds are used
for better dimensional accuracy because its formation
is more time consuming. Where as additional heat and
bonding material, involvement causes reduction in Solid patterns are made in single piece having simple
production quantity and increase in production cost. geometrical dimensions, it is easy to fabricate having
(iv) No-Bake Mould:- The sand is mixed with liquid resin separately defined parting line, runner and Gate etc.
and allowed to get hardened at room temperature. (ii) Split pattern :-
(v) Vacuum Moulding:- (V-Process) is a variation ofthe
sand casting process for most ferrous and non-ferrous )
metal in which un-bonded sand is held in the flask
with a vacuum. The pattern is specially vented so that
a vacuum can be pulled through it. A heat softened
() :':;c pattern
Badboys2 thin sheet (0.003 to 0.008 Inch) of plastic film is draped

over the pattern and a vacuum is drawn (27-53 KPA).
A special vacuum forming flask is placed over the
pattern and is filled with a free-flowing sand. The sand
() f,...,.....
~~."
~g pattern
is vibrated to compact the sand and a sprue and

pouring cup are formed in the cope. Another sheet of When model have difficult geometrical dimensions then
plastic is placed over the top of the sand in the flask patterns are made in two parts that meet along the
and a vacuum is drawn through the special flask, this parting line of mould using two separate pieces allows
hardens and strengthens the un-bonded sand. The the mould cavities in the cope and drag to be made
vacuum is then released on the pattern and the cope is
separately and the parting line already determined.
removed. The drag is made in same way then molten
(iii) Match Plate Pattern :-
metal is poured, white cope and drag are kept under a
vacuum because plastic vaporises but the vacuum A match plate pattern is similar to a split pattern except
keeps the shape of sand till the metal gets solidified. that each half of the pattern is attached to opposite
After which vacuum is turned off and the sand runs sides ofa single plate. The plate is usually made up of
freely, releasing the casting. wooden material. This pattern design ensures proper
Advantage of Vaccum Moulding Process: alignment of mold cavities in cope and drag and the
1. Produced very Good Surface finish. runner system can be included on the match plate.
2. Cost of bonding material is eliminated. Match plate patterns are used for larger production.
3. No- Production of toxic fumes and provide excellent
permeability.
r- Cope Pattern
4. No - Moisture generated defect.

S. Better life of pattern because sand did not touch the
pattern surface.
Disadvantage:
1. Lowers, the production rate.
2. Takes more time hence increases production cost.
(B) Pattern: Pattern may be defined as a solid hollow shaped
item used to make cavity in the mould or we can say the
replica of shape what we desire to cast patterns are made by
various metals and non-metals depending upon the
requirement like, wood, wax, aluminium, ferrous and ceramics
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A-ISO Production Engineering

(iii) Machining Allowance: It is also known as finishing
allowance. After casting process every casting needs
some machining or finishing operations in which a
considerable amount of material needs to be removed
from casting surface to compensate the loss of material
from the surface of casting, some additional amount of
material is provided in addition of draft allowance, this
percentage of extra material over casting surface is
known as machining allowance. This allowance is
provided both inside walls and out side walls of
Fig. (cope and drag pattern) castings.
(iv) Cope and drag pattern :- (iv) Shake Allowance: Before withdrawal of pattern from
A cope and drag pattern is similar to a match plate mould, the pattern is wrapped all around the faces to
pattern, except that each half ofthe pattern is attached enlarge the mould cavity slightly which facilitates its
safe removal and causes the enlargement in mould size.
to a separate plate and the mould halves are made
So it is desirable that the original pattern dimensions
independently just as with match plate pattern. This
should be reduced to account for this increase in
match plate helps in proper alignments of mould
dimensions or we can say that shake allowance is
cavities in the cope, drag and runner, etc. Match plate
provided in (-ve) to the original size of pattern.
patterns are used for larger production and often used
(v) Distortion Allowance: The tendency of distortion is
when the process is automated. not common in all castings. Only castings which have
Cope pattern an irregular shape and some such design that the
construction is not uniform through out will distort
during cooling on account of setting up of thermal
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stresses in them. Such an effect can be easily seen in
some dome shaped or 'U' shaped castings. To eliminate
this defect an opposite distortion is provided in the
pattern, so that the effect is neutralised and the desired
casting can be achieved.
Colour Coding in Pattern
._______ Although colour coding is not accepted but the most
Drag Pattern
commonly used coding are given below.
Fig. Match Plate Pattern (i) Red ~ machining surface
Design of Pattern (ii) Black ~ un-machining surface
Pattern as we know very well a master/ shape used to make (iii) Yell ow ~ core prints
cavities in mould of desired shape and size. During pattern (iv) Red strips on yellow base ~ Seats for loose pieces.
designing we have to keep the following parameter in mind (v) Black strips on yellow base ~ Stop ofts.
as given under, like material selection for pattern making. C (vi) No - colour ~ parting surface.
patterns are made from wood, aluminium, plastic, rubber, (C) Core: Core is generally made up of sand having bonding
ceramics and Iron etc. In general, pattern making process resin in proper quantity these core's are used for making
involves drawing making of desired object, to be made by hollow section inside the casting.
casting along with addition of various allowance A good core must have following properties.
measurements with the dimensions. Most of the dimensional (a) It should have good permeability, so that gas can
allowances to be added in pattern making are listed below: easily escape during casting process.
(i) Shrinkage Allowance: Shrinkage on solidification is (b) It should be made good refractory material so that it
the reduction in volume caused when metal loses can withstand the high temperature and pressure of
temperature after casting. The shrinkage allowance is flow of molten metal.
provided to compensate the reduction in volumetric (c) It should have high collapsibility i.e. it should be able
dimensions. Aluminium permissible shrinkage to disintegrate quickly after solidification of casting
allowance is 0.013 mm- 0.01 mm. metal.
(ii) Draft Allowance: At the time of withdrawing the pattern (d) The binding material or core material should not
from the sand mould. It may damage the edge etc. so produce additional gases during casting process.
for making withdrawn easy, all patterns are given a Classification ofCore:-
(i) Horizontal Core
slight taper on all vertical surface i.e. the surfaces
(ii) Vertical core
parallel to the direction of their withdrawal from the
(iii) Balanced core
mould. The taper is known as draft allowance.
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Production Engineering A-1Sl

(iv)hanging over core can be controlled by providing risers or heads. These are
(v) Wire core attached to the casting at the right location so that they can
Core molding: Cores are made separately in a core box made up continuously supply hot molten metal to the shrinking casting
of wood or metal. cores are made by two ways (i) manually by untill it is completely solidified. Delivery of molten metal is
hand and (ii) by using core making machines. mostly accomplished by Gating System. Where as reserve
Characteristics of cores: metal is supplied by risers or heads. Both functions can be
(i) Permeability: Cores are made more permeable than the mold
served by either of two. Hence no clear - cut distraction can
to achieve, good permeability. Coarse sand & fine sand in a
be made.
specific quantity are mixed with molasses.
(ii) Collapsibility:- Core should possess good collapsibility so Classification:
that it can be easily removed from the casting after (i) Parting Gate
solidification without making any damage to the casting. (ii) Branch Gating
(iii) Strength:- Core should possess enough strength so that it (iii) Step Gate
should not be de-shaped during placing in mold or during (iv) Horizontal Gating
the molten metal pouring. Design of gating system:
(iv) Thermal Stability:- The following formulas should be kept in mind while
Core material should have good thermal stability so that it designing of gating system.
can withstand the high temperature during casting process. (a) Bernoulli's equation
SOLIDIFICATION AND COOLING p v2

- = - + h = constant
pg 2g
In this process molten metal loses heat to the surrounding
Where, p = pressure, v = velocity of liquid h = head, p =
atmosphere and changes its state from liquid to solid, if
density of liquid
conductivity of mould is higher it acts as the center of nucleation
(b) ContinuityLaw:
and crystal growth commences from the mold and extends towards Flowrate Qr=A, VI =A2 V2
the center. We can say, solidification occurs by nucleation of
Badboys2 minute crystals or grains, which then grow under the influence of
where, A = Area of cross - section
V = Velocity ofliquid (molter n metal)
crystallographic and thermal conditions. The size ofthese grains Time taken for pouring:
get affected by the composition of alloy and its cooling rate. volume of mould cavity
During solidification heat is being extracted from the molten metal Pouring time (t) = Ag ~2gH
as soon as it enters the mold. This heat is called super heat. The
= area of gate
Where, A_g_
latent heat of fusion is also evolved during solidification and it Design or Sprees:
must be transferred to the surrounding mold before complete
solidifications can be achieved. Thus there are three stages of
Area of ratio (R)= ~ = ~:
cooling i.e. liquid-solid and solid
Solidification Properties
(i) Fluidity: The ability of filling all parts of mold cavity is known
as fluidity.
(ii) Hot cracking: During cooling process a part of casting may
be placed under tension and these tensile stresses are greater
when the metal is weak and thus ultimately metal gets cracks.
Ifthere is a relatively large reduction in temperature during
subsequent solidifications, thermal contraction may cause
cracking.
(iii) Effect of Inocculation: It is a process in which the properties
and structures of casting are enchanced by adding another where, A3 = area of sprees at bottom
material (metal or non-metal) to the molten metal before Al = area of sprees at tope
Some most important formulas used:
pounng.
(a) Time taken to pour
RISER AND GATING DESIGN (t ) Volume of mould cavity
Riser is a cavity made in mold to compensate the shrinkage arises Ag~2gH
in casting and acts as a reservoir of molten metal.
Gating: Gating design must control the phenomenon in such A3 ~
(b) Aspiration effect: A2 = ~h;
a way that no part of the casting is isolated from active feed
channels during the entire freezing cycle, it is reffered to as a (c) Solidification time:
directional solidification. The degree ofprogressive solidification
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inside the mould, often pouring after cooling process when
molten metal gets solidified casting comes out after breaking
the mold.
where, c = constant, V = volume, A = surface area Trimming: During casting process some extra material remains
(A/V) casting attached with casting, this excess material removed from casting
(d) Relative freezing time (Rp) = (A IV)river is known as trimming.
(b) Die casting: - In this process cope and drag are replaced
with metal die. Molten metal is poured into cavity, made in
R) Vriver
(e) Volumeratio ( V =V . metal dies.
castmg
(c) Pressure - Die Casting: - In this process molten metal poured
a in metal die along with a specific pressure. This pressure
(f) Caini's formula: R p = -- +c application enhance casting finishing and increase
RY-b
where, a = Freezing characteristic constant production rate.
b = Contraction ration from liquid to solid (d) Slush Casting: - In this method molten metal is poured into
c = Relative freezing rate of river and casting the mould and began to solidify at the cavity surface. When
the amount of solidified material is equal to the desired wall
CLASSIFICA nON OF CASTING thickness, the remaining slush is poured out the mould. As
(a) Sand Casting: In this process a cavity is made in a sand a result slush casting is used to produce hollow part without
mold by using desired pattern and then after molten metal usmg core.
poured into mould. Which is after solidification known as (e) Plaster Mold Casting - In this method sand is replaced with
casting. There are two main types of sand used for moulding plaster of paris is rest the process is similar to sand casting
Green Sand and dry sand. In green sand un-burned sand method.
mixed with proper amount of clay as it binds and moistens (f) Investment Casting: - In this method a mould is made of
and when the sand is mixed with binding material other than ceramic by using a wax pattern. When molten metal is poured
Badboys2 clay and moisture is known as Dry Sand. into mould wax get melted and replaced by molten metal. It is
mostly used for casting of (S.S), Aluminium alloy and
Application of Sand Casting:
magnesium alloys etc.
1. It is mostly used for cheapest casting process to maintain
(g) Centrifugal Casting: - In this process mold kept rotating at
low production cost.
high speed and molten metal poured from centre of axis of
2. Complex geometrical shape can be easily made by the mould. Then molten metal due to its moment of inertia moves
process. towards inner wall of moving mould and due to light weight
3. Sand casting method is used for producing very heavy parts of impurities present in molten metal segregated and collected
like fly wheel of power press, Railway wheel etc. near the axis of rotation, which enables to make more pure
4. Many large structures are produced by this method like casting having higher accuracy and lowest impurities.
engine blocks, engine manifolds cylinder heads and (h) Continuous Casting: - In continuous casting process molten
transmission cases etc. metal is poured from a specific height in a vertical mould.
This vertical mould kept cooling facilities so that the casting
Steps involved in sand casting:
continuously cooled down. This process is mostly used for
(i) Mould making: - In the process expendable sand is packed
casting pipes, rod and sheet of brass, bronze copper,
around the pattern, which is a replica of the external shape aluminium and Iron etc.
of the casting when the pattern is removed, the cavity that
(i) Shell mould casting: - This process is similar to sand casting
will form is used for casting. Any internal feature of casting
method except the molten metal is poured into an mold having
that cannot be made by pattern that is made by separate thin walled shell created from applying a sand resin mixture
cores. around a pattern. The pattern used in this method can be re-
(ii) Clamping: - Once the mould has been made, it must be use to make many mold. This process is mostly used for
prepared for the pouring of molten metal. So the surface of casting carbon steel, alloy steel etc.
the mould cavity is first lubricated to facilitate the removal
of the casting, then the cores are positioned and the mould CASTING DEFECfS:
halves are closed and securely clamped together. It is (i) Un - filled section: - This happens due to insufficient metal
essential that the mould halves remains securely closed to pouring at lower temperature than required.
prevent the loss of any material. (ii) Blow holes or porosity: - This defect happens, if molting
(iii) Pouring: This process involves pouring of molten metal in temperature is too high and non -uniform cooling on the
to mould in such a way that all section of mould fills properly. permeability of molding sand is low.
This can be checked by rising level of molten metal in the (iii) Shrinkage: - Some time after solidification the casting gets
risers. reduced in size at surface or internally which is known as
(iv) Cooling: This process involves cooling of molten metal shrinkage defect. Normally it happens due to improper
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cooling rate, improper gating, rising and type of material C = Specific heat of molten metal
also. 8p = Molten metal pouring temperature
(iv) Hot tears: - Too much shrinkage mostly causes cracks 8f= Cooling temperature of metal
internally and on external surface known as hot tears. It 80 = Initial temperature of mould
happens due to improper cooling, and over ramming of
molding sand, etc. (i) Hot forging: Hot forging may be defined as a process in
(v) Mis-Run: - When molten metal fails to reach at every section which metal is heated up to its plastic state and then a
of mold then some sections remains un-filled known as mis- suitable external pressure is applied to achieve desired shape
run. and size. The deformation of shape of metal depends on the
(vi) Cold shut: - When molten metal comes from two or more type of force applied on it. If the force is applied along its
paths into the mould and during meeting these different length the cross-section will increase on the cost ofreduction
flow if not fuse together properly is known as cold shut. of its length. Similarly if the force is applied against its length
(vii) Inclusions: - Any un-wanted metallic / non-metallic waste the length will increase and the cross-sectional area will
present in casting is known as inclusion thus inclusions decrease. Forging may be used to bend the work piece.
may be slag of sand oxides or gases etc. Without change its length along with using suitable die-
(viii)Cuts and washes: - These defects occurs due to erosion of and punch etc. In forging process external force may be
sand from the mould or core surface by molten metal. applied by hand hammer, power operated hammers, and
(ix) Shot metal: - This defect appears in the form of small metal presses etc. If the force applied bymannually by hammers
shots embedded in the casting which are exposed on the this process is known as smithy process.
fractured surface of the latter. It happens when the molten Classification of forging: Forging may be classified into
metal is poured into mould particularly when its temperature following types
is relatively lower. It may splash the small particle separated (a) Upsetting
from the main stream during the spray and thrown ahead (b) Drawing out or drawing down
and solidified quickly to form the shots. (c) Bending
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HEAT FLOW RATE DURING SOLIDIFICATION
(d) Setting down
(e) Forge Welding
Heat flows from the hoter portion to cooler portion ofthe casting. (a) Up setting: In this process cross-section of work piece is
Rate of heat flow per unit Area ~ 1 =- k ( :) ky/ hrm'

increased with corresponding reduction in its length.
~~~ force application

Where k = Thermal conductivity in KJlhrmk.
dt
dx = thermal gradient in units of temperature (T) and
distance (x). if metal is cooling against a large mold wall and heat
flow is normal to the mold surface thickness (x) of solid metal
deposited will be proportional to the square root oftime (t) or x =
Metal attains plastic state when an external force is applied
K} .Jt along its length accross of its cross-section. Which results
in increase in its dimensions at right angle to the direction
2 of applied force with a corresponding reduction in its length,
Volume
Solidification time o:
( S ~ Ar
unace ea J
parallel to the direction of applied force. Normally bar stocks
are used for being jumped by a desired amount so that this
part can be given a desired shape through the jumped further
operations. The jumping operation can be performed in any
.: K = Constant
localised area i.e., the particular part in the bar shape, where
said increase in cross-section is desired is heated till it
acquires a plastic state. Than the length which do not
required to be jumped cooled abruptly by quenching in
water, and the hot portion is placed under suitable load.
This operation may carried out manually ifthe work peice is
small enough to handle and when heavy force is required
Where Pm = metal density (such as in large work peice) heavy hammer is used called
P =densityofmolten metal as sledge hammer. The objects of cooling the bar length,
L = latent heat ofliquid metal. which is not to be jumped out is two fold. Firstly to localised
the reduction in length to the desired extent and secondly
K
a = Thermal diffusityofmould = - to prevent the bar from bending during up setting due to
pc heavy blows.
Cm = Specific heat of mould
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(b) Drawing out or drawing down: This process is exactly a and borax for mild steelmelts at high temperature and
reverse process to that of up setting orjumping in the sense form slag containing the iron oxide, ash etc. This slag
that, contrary to the latter, it is employed when a reduction forms a layer over the hot surface thus preventing it
in thickness or width on is desired with a corresponding from comming in further contact with air. Which the
increase in its length. In this process specific shape oftools result, further oxidation of iron is checked.
also required to achieve the desire shape, known as pair of There are three types ofweldedjoints in common which are
sewageand fullerthe selectionof the abovetools is governed Butt weld: When two bare are made tojoin end to end
by the shape of the cross-section of the stock, the Rod or bywelding, such that joint formation is at right angles
bar heated up to pre-determined length to the plastic state to the lengths of the work piece it is known" as butt
followedby the cooling of the unwanted length for drawing weld.
by sudden quenching in water. If the bar is of rectangular or Scarf weld: This is alsoknown as lap weld. It is known
square cross section it is laid flat on the anvit face and so for the reason that the ends of the metal pieces to
hammered by the peen of cross-peen hammers by the limit. be joined are made to overlap each other and then
Ifthe reduction is to be done both in width as well as in hammered. Thus the weldformationis at an inclination
thickness the operation is repeated by turning the bar at with the top and bottom faces of the joined pieces.
90. The desired result can be more quickly achieved by Also due to the distinct end preparation it is easy to
keeping the bar on the edge or hom of the anvit and then apply correct pressure by hand hammering in proper
drawing. direction.
(c) Bending: Bending of bars, flats and other simillar stock "V" weld: It is also known with so many names e.g. split,
material is usually done in smithy shop, this can be done to splice or fork etc. It is employedwhere a highly strong
produce different types of bent shapes such as angle, ovals weldedjoint is neededparticularlyin heavyworkwhere
and circles etc. Any desired angle or curvature can be made the greater thickness ofthe job enables the formation
through this operation. For making a right angle bend that of =v: easily, to ensure perfect joining of metals the
particular portion of stock, which is to be subjected to scarf of one piece should be made rough byproviding
bending, is heated and jumped on the outer surface. This steps on it.
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compensates for the elongation ofthe outer surface due to
hammering during bending. This operationis carried out on
the edge of a rectangular block. After bending, the outside (i) b..tt VIA9Id (ii) scerf VIA9Id (iii) V-\I\9Id
bulging is finished by means of a flatter and the inside by Differentweldingjoin
means of a set hammer, this process can be made by
mannually or by using forging. Machine along with jigs HOT EXTRUSION
and fixture.
The process of extrusion consists of corresponding a metal
(d) Setting down: In the operationthrough which the rounding
inside a chamber to force it out through a small opening
ofa comer is removed, to make it square, by means ofa set
hammer. By putting the face of the set hammer over the called die.Any plastic material can be extrudedsuccessfully.
round portion, formed by fullering or bending ofthe comer Most of the process used for extruding metals are
and hammering it at the top reduction in thickness takes hydraulically operated horizontal presses. A large number
place resulting in a sharp and square comer. Finishing is of extruded shapes are in common use, such as tubes, rods,
the operation through which the un-evenness of a flat structural shapes and lead covered cables. The principle of
surfaceis removed bymeans of a flatter or a set hammer and operation are the same for both hot and cold extrusion, and
round stems are smoothened to the correct shape and choice of one ofthese is governed by factors like the metal
required size by means of sewage after the job has been to be extruded, thickness of extruded section size of raw
shaped roughly to the finished size through other material being used, capacity of press, and type of product
operations. etc.billets of 125mm to 175mm in diameter and 300 to 675
(e) Forge welding: In this process two peice of simillar metals mm length are in general used as raw material forextrusions
are heated properly up to sufficientwelding heat andjoined of steel needs adequate lubrication around the billet. This
together by application of external heat, two important is done by providing a coating of fine glass powder over
considerations are always made in order to get a sound the surface of hot billet. The process of extrusion suits best
weldedjoint.
to the non ferrous metals and alloys although some steel
(i) Proper end preparation of the metal peices to be joint
alloys like stain less steel are also extruded.
(ii) Rising the temperature of the prepared ends to the
The extrusion process can be classified as follows
correctweldingheat. The surfacesto bejoined together
should be quite clean i.e., they should be free from (1) Direct or forward extrusion
scale, dirt or ash. Otherwise this presence will lead to (2) Indirect or backward extrusion
the failureof thejoint. In additionto this a fluxis applied Direction Extrusion: As shownin the figurebelow,In this process
on the hot metal which helps in over coming the above billetofraw metal to be extrudedis heatedto its forgingtemperature
difficulties. This flux usually stand for wrought iron and forced in the machine chamber, this force push forward the
billet and billet passed through the die. The length of extruded
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Production Engineering A-1S5

part will depend upon the size of the billet and cross-section of The rod is fed up to stops through straightening rolls, cut to size
the die. The extruded part is then cut to the required length. The and pushed into the header die. The rod is gripped in the die and
over hanging extruded length is fed is to a long support called the punch operates on the projected part to apply pressure and form
run out table. the head. The bending operation may be completed in a single or
two strokes. Automatic machines for producing bolts and screw
are also available in which all the operations like cutting stock to
size, shank extrusion, heading trimming and threading etc. are
performed simultaneously to produce finished components. The
processis also successfullyadoptedfor producing rivets and nails.
COLD EXTRUSION
The most common cold extrusions process is impact extrusion, in
Fig. Forwarded extrusion process
It is a usual practice to leavethe last nearly 10% length of billet as which soft and ductile metal is used to formed various product
un-extruded. This portion is known as discard which contains like tubes for tooth paste, lotions, shaving cream, paints and
the surface impurities of billet. condenser cans etc. The raw material used is in slug form having
been either turned from a bar or punched out of a strip. The
Indirect Extrusion: As shown in followingfigure ram or plunger operation is performed with the help of a punch and a die. The
used is hollow type, and as it pressed the billet against the back prepared slug is in the die and struck from top by the punch
wall of the close chamber, the metal is extruded back in to the operating at high pressure and speed. The metal flows up along
plunger. As the billet does not move inside the chamber, there is the surface ofthe punch, forming a cup shaped component.When
not friction between them. As such, less force is needed in this the punch moves up. Compressed air is used to separate the
method in compressionto the directextrusion.Amore complicated
component from the punch. In the mean while a fresh slug is fed
type of equipment is required because plunger becomes weak
into the die. The production rate is quite high about
due to the reduction in the effective area of cross-section and
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60 components per minute. Mostlywall thickness produced from
difficulty is exprienced in supporting the over heating extruded
0.7 mm to 0.1 mm but only soft and ductile material can produced
part.
bythis processlike lead,tin, aluminium,zinc, and respectivealloys
etc. Uniform diamensions, low scrap production and high
production capacity is main advantage ofthis process. Although
Die and punch are used in like drawing process but its high
production rate, and tolerance of the order of 0.762 mm up to
12.7 mm diameter and 0.127 mm upto 25 mm dia can be easily
obtained.
WELDING
Welding is a process ofjoining two or more than two similar or
Fig. BackwardExtrusions dissimilar metals together with or without use of pressure, and
Advantage and limitations of hot extrusion
filler materials. Without use of external heat we get success in
1. Due to application of higher pressure a very dense structure
welding of Gold and Silver only till today but in future the use of
is produced.
temperature in welding may be reduced considerably. Welding
2. Better surface finish is produced having higher dimensional
process may be classified as follows:
tolerence.
3. Low tool cost involves and fast in production rate. (i) Homogeneous welding: In this method two similar metals
4. Most suitable for production of parts having uniform cross- are joined together by welding and use of filler of same
section having fine surface finish and high dimensional material ifrequired. For example, mild steel with mild steel
accuracy. welding this process is also known as autogenous welding.
5. Excessesive length object is creak problem in handling the (ii) Hetrogeneous welding: In this method, welding is done
extruded rod during extrusion. with two dissimilar metals and the filler metal used in this
COLD FORGING processis usuallykept, oflow meltingpoint than the parental
metals. For example copper and brass, mild steel and cast
This is a cold up-setting process adopted for large scale iron etc.
production of small cold up set parts from wire stock. A few
Classification fo Welding According to Application of
examples of such parts are small bolts rivets, screws, pins nails
Pressure
and small machine parts. Small balls for ball bearings are also
made by this method. (a) Non-pressure welding/fusion welding: In this process of
The machine, tool, and dies are almost simillar as in hot forging. weldingthe temperature ofjoining edge of metals are heated
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up tomeltingpoint andwhen it startsto meltthe fillermaterial The work piece is to be weld placed between these electrodes
is filled between joints. For example-Gas welding, Arc and a high ampere current is passed through them for a limited
welding, Electric beam welding and Thermit welding etc. time till the metal get fused at the place of welding and then
(b) Pressure welding: In this process of welding two edge to applied sufficientpressurewhich make completethe weldingjoint.
be joined are heated up to their plastic state and then This process is mostly used in thin metal sheet welding like
sufficientpressure is applied till the weld is performed. But domestic utensils, cabinets like structure etc.
no-fillermaterial is used commonlyin there weldingprocess. Important Factors Related to Spot Welding
For example-Forge welding, Resistance welding etc. 1. Welding pressure control: For good welding a sufficient
Classification of Welding on the Basis of Heat Source pressure application for enough time is very important and
this pressure applied for welding is known as welding
(a) Chemical welding: According to chemical method, heat is pressure. This pressure should be applied on job on
produced by oxidation or may be burning of coal and gas accurate time of plastic state of metal. Time for pressure
etc. Heat is also produced by chemical reaction of two or application depends upon the thickness and properties of
more salts together. For example iron oxide and aluminium metals to be welded.
powder produced heat by chemical reaction. This method
2. Time management: It is the total time consumed while
of heat generation are employed in forge welding, gas
completing different stages of welding and it is known as
welding and thermit welding. cycle time also. This cycle time must be adjusted in such a
(b) Electric welding: These proceses use electrical energy to manner so that the metal should acquire sufficient plastic
produce heat required to melt the work piece. Electrical stage required for good welding and cut the supply
energy based joining process may further classified as automatically after completing the heating stage. Time
follows: control may be managed by different methods like das pot
(i) Electric arc welding: In an open circuit when circuit breaker, electronic circuit etc.
resistance of air gap between two terminals of 3. Surface penetration: The surface to be welded should be
conductors is less than the quantity of current/voltage free from all/dust or any un-wanted materials. So that the
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terminal to another. This is calledjumping of electrons can make proper.
and due to this arc a high temperature generates at 4. Electrodes: The electrodes must possess mainly these
bothterminals which is about 3700C-4000C. characteristics i.e. high electrical and thermal conductivity
(ii) Resistance welding: In this method heat is produced and it should have sufficient mechanical strength to
when sufficient quantity of current is passed through with stand high pressure to which they are subjected.These
are made water cooled. The surface of electrodes must be
a conductor having proper resistances. For example
easily cleanable so that the resistance between the surface
spot welding, projection welding etc.
of electrodes and work metal should be kept minimum.
(iii) Induction welding: In this method heat is producedby Electrodes are mainly made up of copper alloys with
use of high frequency current to produce sufficient molybdenum and tungsten.
eddy current in the workpiece to be weld.
Spot welding process may further be classified into following
(c) Mechanical method: This method is rarely used in modem types depending on their application.
practice because the heat production in this method is very (a) Rocker arm type: The machineusedin spotweldingprocess
low as compared to energy applied as heat produced by consists of one fixed electrode and other movable electrode
friction or heavy blow/impact load etc. which is mounted on a rocker arm and moved in up and
down direction by mechanical arrangements. In some
CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTANCE WELDING
machine mechanicalarrangement is poweredwith hydraulic
(A) Spot welding: Welding machine used in this type of system to make more automated system.
welding consists of two cylindrical pointed electrodes, out of (b) Press type: In this types machines are used in heavy or
them one electrode is kept fixed and other electrode is movable. thick sheet welding and movable electrode is operated
electrically or by compressed air.
(c) Portable Guns: In many places it is not feasibleto transport
Movable hence for that purpose a portable machine is required. This
+-- Electrode
Spot welding Portable Gun carries two electrodes and the transformer is
supported generally on over head rails. Mainly it is used in
automobile industry.
(B) Seam Welding
Itis series of closely spaced or single line spot welding. The weld
shape for individual spot may be of any shape like round or
Fig. Spot welding rectangular. In this process, two circular disc shaped electrodes
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Production Engineering A-1S7

are used out of which one is kept moving and other kept only In resistance butt welding the metal to be weld should have equal
movable but not joined with any moving arrangement. The work cross section and properly faced at their respective ends. For
piece is placed between these electrodes and current is passed welding wires and rods up to 12.7 mm diameter the machine may
through these electrodes. This current carrying electrode when be used as spring operated and for larger diameter high pressure
rotates the work piece moved forward and a continuous line of is mostly applied hydrauliceley or pneumatically. Resistance butt
spot welding performed. welding may be used to increase length of pipes, rodes, wires and
bars of highly conductive material like copper, brass and aluminium
etc.
(E) Resistance Flash Welding
It is almost similar to resistance butt welding except that it is
Continuous line operated comparatively on less current. In this method, current is
of welding joint
switched on before abutting the ends of bar etc. and then the
movable clamp is transported towards the fixed clamp containing
another metal piece maintaing small gap between both mating
Fig.Line diagram of Seam welding ends.
The machine used in seam welding is almost similar to spot welding
except it contains circular disc shaped electrodes attached with
revolving mechanism between two circular disc like electrodes
one powered by rotating force is known as drive and
another kept movable is known as driven. The pressure applied
on driving wheel electrode by hydraulically or phenumatically.
The seam welding is mostly used for metal having sufficient
electrical resistivity. For example mild steel, tin plates and many
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dissimilar metals like steel with brass and bronze.
Work Piece
Seam welding may be further classified as circular type, Movable clamp Fixed clamp
longitudinaltype, universaltypeandportabletype.
(C) Projection Welding Fig. Resistance flash welding
This welding is almost similar to spot welding except of having Due to this small gap, a flash developed between the ends which
any projection on both faces of electrodes. So it is most effectively produce a high heat at both ends and metal at both ends gets
used in mass production of multi point spot welding in single melted, after this melting sufficient pressure is applied on movable
stroke as desired projection. clamp and both ends get fused and welding joint gets completed.
(D) Resistance Butt Welding The flash developed at the ends of work piece only on a small
part of it, so comparatively less electric current consumed. It is
Resistance butt welding has similar working principle of welding more faster process then the resistance butt welding and no facing
as in spot welding except that electrodes are in clamp shape in
at ends of metal required in this method. During welding, slug
which one clamp is fixed type and another is movable type. The
and remaining molten metal comes out from the weld joint, so
job to be weld are normally bars, pipes, wires etc. One piece to be
weld joint made by this method is more stronger than resistance
weld kept in fixed clamp and other clamped in movable clamp.
butt welding joint.
Both metal pieces are faced (finished at ends) properly. Then
movable clamp containing working metal (steel pipe) is so adjusted These resistance butt and flash welding processes are limited on
that both ends meet together which are to be welded. After properly the capacity of clamping size of welding machine and the material
meeting ends of metal , the current is switched to till corresponding coming out from the joints need extra machining etc. which may
ends of metals are reached to the fusion point. increase production cost of welding.
PERCUSSION WELDING
This method of welding involves the use of stored electrical energy
either in reactors, capacitors or storage batteries etc.
In percussion welding the heat for welding is secured
simultaneously over the complete area of abutting surface from
iWork Piece
an arc produced by rapid discharge of stored electrical energy
followed immediately by application of pressure.
-:
Movable clamp / Percussion welding permits welding harden steels without
Fixed clamp affecting heat treatment and dissimilar metals can be weld
Fig. Resistance Butt welding successfully like steel with Mg etc.
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A-ISS Production Engineering

MUL TI IMPULSE WELDING welding due to development of magnetic field around. It
generally happens in D.C. arc welding due to having fixed
This method is also known as pulsating welding, it is applicable
to spot welding, seam welding and butt welding processes. etc. polarity. Arc blow generally occurs in three directions
Pulsating welding process consists of applying the current in a forward, backward and side.
series of impulses which may be a fraction of cycle or no. of 7. Arc crater: It may be defined as the penerat ions of arc in
cycles. This process has certain advantage, for example more base metal, it depends upon arc length, electrode width and
thicker materials can be easily welded with same equipments thickness of base metal.
increase electrode life and spettering of welding reduced
8. Spatter: Molten metal dispersed around the welding beads
considerably.
in small drops form is known as spatters.
ELECfRIC ARC WELDING 9. Chipping: Removing the spatters and slage etc. formed on
In this method no external pressure is applied, only the metal to welding bead on metal surface during welding is known as
be welded are heated up to welding temperature and a pool of chipping. The slage is formed as a by-product due to use of
molten metal fills the gap in between the joints, then these joints coated electrode in welding process.
allow to cool in air and weld get completed. 10. Edge preparation: For making different types ofjoint, some
In some types of electric arc welding an additional filler material is side of work metal has to be grinded in specific shape and
applied known as electrode and heat is produced by electric Arc size. The grinding at edge/side of work piece is known as
about 3400C. At initial stage electrode requires potential about edge preparation.
60 - 100 volt and in running condition when a regular arc is 11. Weaving of electrodes: This term is related with forward
produced, it requires only 15 - 45 volt normally to maintain the
motion of welding electrode on the surface of welding plane.
welding operation.
Weaving means tilting of electrode simultaneously along
Important Terms Related with Electric Arc Welding with forward motion of electrode. This is used for increasing
1. Open circuit voltage: This voltage may be called the voltage width of deposition of molten metal over weld.
at electrode when no Arc is formed and machine is in
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Motion of Electrode
switched on condition generally it remainsant 60 -100 volt.
2. Arc voltage: This voltage may be defined as the voltage of
an electrode on electrode when regular Arc is formed during
welding operation.
Arc voltage = Cathode drop + volumn drop + Anod drop
i.e. V=V epa
+V +V Fig. Different weaving styles
3. Duty cycle: Duty cycle is the time duration up to which that As per requirement of joint, there are different weaving
specific machine can supply a specific current and voltage styles as shown in above figure.
for a specific time duration without making any hazard to a 12. Arc length: Arc length may be defined as the distance of
welding machine.
electrode tip from work metal during welding process.
4. Power factor: It is the relation in between the current used Actually it is better known by practices about the correct
and total current supplied to machine. length of Arc. The distance between the electrode tip and
Current used kW work metal depends upon the voltage and current used for
Power factor = various welding process. Normally about 3 mm distance is
Current supplied kVA
assumed as correct distance, less than 2 mm is counted as
5. Polarity: This term is mainly associated with D.C. arc short Arc length and above 3 mm upto 6 mm is known as
welding because, D.C. current has fixed polarity i.e. + ve long Arc length.
and - ve terminal and for the A.C. they interchanged at
13. Blow holes: It is a type of defect formed during welding
every cycle. It may be classified as follows. process due to presence of any impurity or air bubbles or
(i) Straight polarity: Work piece made positive terminal any space remains un-filled by molten metal during welding
and the electrode is made negative terminal, it is used process.
for more thick plates etc. 14. Buckling: It is also a type of defect. When work metal is
(ii) NegativepolaritylReverse polarity: Work piece is made twisted or deshaped in un-wanted direction during welding
negative terminal and electrode is made positive the process is known as buckling.
terminal, it is used for thin plates welding. 15. Hard facing: Hard facing may be defined as the process of
hardening the surface by welding process.
The polarity have a considerable effect in welding because
heat generated at positive terminal is much more than the 16. Heat affected zone: During welding process some time weld
negative terminal. Heat generated at positive terminal is metal looks separated from work metal, it happens due to
improper heating. This effect is called Heat affected zone or
about 2/3rd higher than negative terminal.
we may say the place had been effected by improper welding
6. Arc blow: It may be defined as the deviation of arc during heat.
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17. Padding: This is the process of making number oflayers of Metal Arc Welding
metal on a used part of metal to increase its dimensions.
The basic principle of metal arc welding is the development of
18. Penetration: It may be known as depth of fusion during electric arc between the metal electrode and work metal.
welding process.
The metal electrode (bare or coated) having sufficiently high
19. Slag: When a flux coated electrode is used in welding ampere current when kept at proper distance to job an electric arc
process then a layer of flux material is collected over welding is developed or we can say the high ampere current value over
bead which contains the impurities of weld material. This come to the resistance offered by air gap between the electrode
layer is known as slag. It is removed by chipping of weld. and job having different polarity of current. And a certain amount
Classification of Electric Arc Welding of electrons jump over the work metal surface from electrode which
(A) Metal arc welding: In this welding process the arc is made produced a high temperature near about 3400C. This high
between work metal and electrode (may be bare or coated temperature is utilised in melting the work metal up to molten
electrode). Base electrode is made up of same material but stage at joining points and the electrode also melts
using it having certain disadvantages such as welded simultaneously. Melting of work metal at joining make a pool of
surface may be subjected to oxidation. To prevent the molten and alongwith in the molten filler metal cover this pool of
oxidation of welding surface, coated electrodes are used. metal. This covering of molten electrode over pool of molten metal
(B) Carbon arc welding: This process is mainly employed with is known as " welding bead".
D.C. supply only due to having specified polarity in D.C.
Electrical Energy:
supply. A carbon electrode with negative polarity produce
arc when close to work metal connected with positive Both A.c. and D.C. electrical energy are widely used in arc welding
polarity current. process. Both have some advantages and disadvantages which
Straight polarity connections are made to prevent carrying regulate the use of particular electrical energy for a specific
over of carbon contents over metal surface during carbon welding. Use of electrical energy also depends on the material of
electrode fusion. Otherwise deposition of carbon contents work metal properties of material to be weld like thickness of
may result in a brittle and bad weld. metal etc.
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Carbon arc welding is mostly for steel sheet and casting
holders consist of magnetic coil which guide
the Arc. This welding process is operated manually or by
machine or both.
Properties of A.C. and D.C. Arc Welding
S.No. Properties A.C. welding process D.C. welding process

1. Installation cost Less initial cost investment. Higher initial investment.
2. Maintenance Economical and easier. Critical and costiler.
3. Current value Mostly suitable with higher current value Better suitable with lower current value.
4. Arc In some cases it is comparatively difficult Comparatively easier to develop an arc it
to develop an arc and maintaing of arc consists almost every time problem of Arc
is little difficult than D.C. arc welding. It blow etc. In D.C. welding process
consists very rarely problem of arc like maintaining of arc is comparatively
arc blow etc. easier.
5. Power supply It is most preferred withA.C. mains supply It is easily used with A.C. and
any D.C. power supply also.
6. Polarity Its polarity is interchanged with every change It has fixed polarity.
of cycle of power,
7. Electrode Bare electrodes are not suitable, so only flux In this process bare and coated both types
coated electrodes are mostly used. of electrodes, can be used easily.
8. Arc length Maintaining small arc is difficult, only Maintaining of small arc is easier than
iron powder electrodes are exceptional. A. C. Arc welding.
9. Welding By this process welding of thin sheet is Thin sheet can be easily welded by this
capabilities difficult. Welding capability is limited up to process. It has distinct polarities so it is
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only ferrous metals generally due to change easier to weld different metals also other
in polarity in every cycle. than ferrous metal.
to. Welding distance Voltagedrops are less as compared to D.C. It has relatively more voltage drops so
supply at a distance from main supply. So for welding is preferred to do at nearest to the
distance welding from power mains supply D.C. mains supply.
A.C. welding is mostly preferred.
GAS WELDING
It may also be considered under non-pressure fusion welding. controlledbyextremelymounted screw.It consistsofa small
The source of heat required for fusion of metal is achieved by storage chamber due to which the out going pressure is out
flame of suitable gas combustion. It consists of a flow of any of effect of pressure variation inside the cylinder. This type
suitable gas under specific pressure which gives a flame after of regulator consists of pressure gauges mounted on
burning in presence of oxygen etc. regulator which shows the pressure of gas inside the
cylinder and out going gas pressure.
Tools and Equipments
Acetylene gas purifier: These are used in low pressure acetylene
In gas welding process different tools and equipments are used. gas generators. It is used for detecting impurities like sulphides
Some of the mainly used are mentioned below: and phosphomines etc from the acetylene gas to improve the
Welding torch - or blow pipe may be defined as the equipment properties of acetylene gas.
designed for mixing oxygen and combustible gas (acetylene etc.) Water seal or hydraulic back pressure value: It is used in low
in required proportion and injecting for combustion and making pressure acetylene generator system. It is mounted between
flame or we may say that with this equipment we can acquire an welding torch and acetylene generating cylinders/tank.
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acetylene gas welding) to develop a suitable flame for welding
Important Applications:
(i) Itreduces the back fire hazards
Classification:
(ii) It works as non-return value against atmospheric air and
(a) According to pressure of acetylene gas
oxygen when the pressure of acetylene gas is reduced than
(i) High pressure welding torch the atmospheric pressure inside the tank.
(ii) Low pressure welding torch Safety valve: It is a safety device used to provide safety against
(b) According to number of tips used with torch high pressure of gas than the recommended range.
(i) Single tip welding torch Welding table: It is used for placing jobs during welding
(ii) Multiple tips welding torch operations. It is made up of mild steel and top is made by some
refractorymaterial/refractory brisk etc.
(c) According to fuel used
Welding torch lights: Itis an instrument which produces spark
(i) Acetylene welding torch
used for lightening weldingtorch. In practice, electronicgas lights
(ii) Hydrogen welding torch are commonly used other gas welding equipments are welding
(d) According to application goggles, apron, gloves, and wire brush etc.
(i) Mannual welding torch Gases used in welding process:
(ii) Automatic welding torch 1. Oxygen (02) It does not go through combustion itself but
Hose pipe: Itis used for supply gases from pressure regulator to very helpful in combustion process with different gases. It
welding torch. These are made up of rubber coating overthreaded is storedin metalliccylindersat about 120 kg!em?in liquefied
net pipe. It should have sufficient strength, light in weight, state. It is prepared by following two methods mainly
economical, and non-reactive with gas which they tend to carry. (a) Byliquefication of air
These are fixed with welding torch with the hose pipe clamp.
(b) By electrolysis of water
Pressure regulator: Itis a pressure controlling devices used for
2. Acetylene (C2H2): It is highly inflamable gas and produces
supply of desired pressure of gas to loose pipe connected with
about 3600C temperature.
welding torch. Itis mounted directly over gas cylinders.
Production method:
Classification:
(a) Combination of carbon and hydrogen: In this processtwo
(a) Single stage regulator: Itregulates pressure of gas at one
stage only. It has to be regulated from time to time as the carbon electrodes are used to produce arc in presence of
internal pressure inside cylinder varies. hydrogen gas which make C2H2 in which a little amount of
methane and ethane gases are found.
(b) Two stage regulator: It is desired to regulate pressure of
gases at two stages. One is auto-controlled and other is (b) Natural gas de-composition: It is most popular method
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producting acetylene gas in modern life. In this method 5. Copper silver Welding of copper made
natural gas is treated by electric arc which produces alloy articles
acetylene and hydrogen. 6. Brass Mainly in gas welding and
(c) By calcium carbide: "In this method calcium carbide is brazing etc.
reacted with water as resultant acetylene gas and lime are 7. Cast iron For cast iron welding
produced. Properties:
1. It should be economical and easily available.
CaC2+ 2~O ~ Ca(OH)2 + C2~
2. It should have low melting point than the filler metal.
Calcium Water Lime
3. It should have sufficient quality of dissolving impurities of
Acetylene
molten metal and light inweight so that it can float above the
carbide welding metal in molten condition.
The reactor vessels used for producing acetylene are called 4. It should be easily removable after welding.
generator. According to pressure of generated gas, the generator
5. It should not produce any deflect in weld.
may be classified as under
(i) Low pressure Generator: Containing gas pressure of about S.No. Flux Application
0.1 kg/cm-. 1. Borax (Na2B407) Used with mild steel and low
(ii) Medium Pressure Generator: Containing gas pressure of
carbon steel etc.
about 0.1 to 1.5 kg/cm-.
2. Cast iron flux Used with cast iron, high carbon
(iii) High Pressure Generator: Containing gas pressure of more
than 1.5 kg/cm-. steel, ferrous silicon and silver
Properties of Acetylene: steel etc.
(i) It is colourless gas and lighter than air. 3. Brazing flux Used with copper, brass and
(ii) It explodes at about 300C itself in presence of oxygen.
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4. Alumina
bronze etc.
Aluminium and its alloys etc.
in more than 40% cases it creates problems in respiratory
system. FLAME
(iv) It can be converted, into liquid state at about 1C
It is produced by combustion of gases and due to oxidation,
temperature and 49 kg/ern? pressure.
different temperature are achieved. A flame can be adjusted for
Properties of Hydrogen Gas:
different temperature range. So these different flames have a
(i) It is highly inflamable gas and produces about 2400C
distinct role in gas welding process.
temperature.
(ii) It is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. Middle
(iii) It is generally used for cutting and welding soft metal like- :.:J- ~c:n_e_......~Outer ~~~:,-----~~)
aluminium, magnesium and lead etc. I, , Zone
(iv) Retort gas: It is a mixture of number of in flam able gases ---
Inner Zo~~"'--
./
- ----
./
....
J
-i-----T-
produced by decomposition of oil at about 740C in a retort. Middle Outer
Zone Zone
Natural Gas: It is a colourless and odourless gas which is a
mixture of hydrocarbons and achieved from oil mines. Fig. National flame Fig. Carburising flame
Propane and butane: These are produced from oil refineries. Some Inner Zone
other gases also used in gas welding process. For example coke
oven gas, petrol or kerosene gas, argon and helium etc.
r-----J< -----~~~
Filler material or Electrode: Filler material may be defined as the
material rod required to fill the gap between the metal in molten
vy-----i Middle Zone Outer Zone
state. Dry various metal electrodes are used with different welding Fig. Oxidising flame
processes. Classification of Flame
S.No. Welding Rods Applications 1. Neutral flame: It is achieved when acetylene and oxygen
L Low carbon steel Mild steel etc. are used in equal quantity. It consists of only two specified
parts of flame, one is inner and outer envelop. It is most
(copper coated)
widely used in gas welding, it produces above 3200C
2. High carbon steel For making hard weld etc. temperature.
3. Stainless steel Stain less steel goods
2. Carburising flame: This flame can be achieved by
welding increasing acetylene gas quantity in flame it consists three
4. Aluminium Aluminium goods welding distinct flames and acetylene feather can be easily detected
in this flame, it is generally used in hard facing, nickel, and
monel welding etc.
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3. Oxidising flame: It can be achieved by increasing SOLDERING AND BRAZING
percentage of oxygen in natural flame. It is generally used
In this method of joining metals, particularly in the shape of sheet
with brass welding.
thin wire form, or thin wire with thin sheet like electronic part with
Common Difficulties in Flame Formation PCB. In this method a low melting filler material is used and no
1. Breaking offlame: Looks like burning gas with maintaining fusion takes place in work piece. These filler metal used in this
some distance from tip of welding torch. It can be rectified process is known as solder. These are made in various composition
by reducing pressure of gas etc. depending upon the application and requirement of strength of
2. Flickering offlame: In this fault, flame shows flickering. It joint. Some important compositions are as follows:
happens due to increase in moisture contents in acetylene
1. Tin 67% : lead 33%
and it can be removed by removing moisture contents from
2. Tin 50% : lead 50%
acetylene gas.
3. Popping: In this fault as usual sound like pit-pit comes from 3. Tin 30% : lead 67%
welding torch. It can be rectified by regulating the pressure In some process of soldering alloy of copper and zinc to which
of gas. silver is also added sometimes is known as hard solder. Germal
4. Back fire: In this fault flame disappear suddenly with an silver, used as a hard solder for steel in an alloy of copper, zinc
abnormal sound, it happens due to following reasons. and nickel, in general the classification of solder in the above two
(a) Using welding torch less than its recommended catagories is according to their melting point. Soft solders usually
pressure melt at a temperature below 350C and hard solder above 600C
(b) When tip of welding torch get two close to job the operation performed by using a soft solder is known as soft
(c) Over heating of tip etc. soldering and when using a hard solder is known as hard
WELDING METHODS soldering. In this process work piece is cleaned properly and
than a solder ion tool is used in heated condition, which melts the
1. Leftward welding: In this process most ofheat is absorbed
solder and then a suitable flux is applied to joining point. This flux
by filler material rod so it is preferred in welding thin upto 6
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works to prevent the formation of oxidation. Normally zinc chloride
is used as soldering flux. The soldering tool is made up in two
types one is total iron made which is used by heated in furnace
and another is copper tiped placed between electrical elements
and the tip is heated electrically.
Brazing: Brazing is almost similar to the joining process of
soldering except hard solder material is used in place of soft solder
and work piece is heated up to red hot in brazing but in soldering
+- Work Piece
process work piece remains cools only soldering material is melted
and spreaded over the work piece to make soldering. But in brazing
process work piece is heated up to red hot condition and then
e\O after hard solder material is allowed to melt with flux over the joint
/~\o~ o'~ to be weld. So that solder material get melted and filled the small
~\~ev
gap between the joint of work piece to be brazed.
Fig. Leftward welding
2. Rightward welding: In this technique most of heat offlame SPECIAL WELDING TECHNIQUIES
is absorbed by base metal so it is preferred in welding thick Some of the special welding techniques are given as follows :
sheet generally 6 mm to 25 mm thick. Rest of flat, vertical, (a) TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas welding):
horizontal and overhead welding methods are similar as It is also known as Gas Tungsten Arc welding (GTAw).
described in electric arc welding method. This process utilizes a non - consumable tungsten
Welding electrode that provides a very intense current to the
~ torch
welding arc. This welding arc provides the required heat to
melt the metal. This electric arc is struck between a non -
consumable electrode and the metal work piece. The
tungsten and weld puddle arc given a protective enviroment
and also cooled with the help of an inert gas (eg. argon). A
welding rod is also ted at joints alongwith filler material
.-V':'ork and melted with the base metal.
piece
Fig. Rightward welding

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(iv) It requires minimum post weld cleaning
Applications:
It can be applied for deep groove welding of plates and
Direction of travel castings. All commercial metals can be welded by this
process. It also finds its application in automotive repair.
MIG can also be incorporated into robotics. Some more
applications are rebuilding equipment, overlay of wear
resistant coating, welding pipes, reinforcement of the
surface of a worn out rail road tracks.
WELDING DEFECTS:
Copper backing bar

There are various types of welding defects which are given
as follows:
Gas Tungsten are (TIG) welding (GTAW)
Advantages :
1. It produces, perfect, precise welds with suitable Weld defects
selection of proper welding rods and wires.
2. It has the capability to weld various metals. Most of ~
the common metals or alloyslike mild steel, Stainless
steel, titanium, aluminium and copper. (a) Undercut (b) Cracks
3. It uses a lesser amount of amperage as compared with
other processes.
4. It is a clear welding process and does not leave any
deposite over weld pead.
5. It has a high value of controlability
6. TIG welds are strong, ductile and resistant to
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(b) MIG (Metal Inert Gas welding) : (e) Lack of fusion (f) Lack of penetration
It is generally regarded as a high deposition rate
welding process. In this process, consumable (a) Slag inclusions:
electrodes are used, which is generally in the form of Various types of oxides, fluxes and electrode material are
coiled wire fed by a motor drive to argon shielded arc. trapped in the welding zone. Dueto this trapping, inclusions
Wire is consistently fed from a spool. A high value of are produced. These inclusion can be removed by grinding
current densities arc utilized. The diameter of wire is process or any other suitable mechanical process.
kept generallywithin the range of 0.80 mm to 2.30 mm. (b) Under-cut:
The consumable electrode in this process serves two It can be defined as the notch which is formed due to the
purposes (i) its acts as a source for the arc column (ii) melting away the base/parent metal at the toe ofthe weld.
It also acts as the supply for the filler material. The
It generally increases the stress and also reduces the fatigue
strength of the material. It can be prevented by cleaning
shielding gas in this process, forms the arc plasma,
the metal before welding. It can be repaired with smaller
stabilizes the arc on the metal being welded, shields
electrode.
the arc and molten weld pool, and allows smooth
(c) Porosity:
transfer of metal from the weld wire to molten weld Porosity is devloped when gas bubbles are entraped during
pool. cooling of weld pool. It is also devloped due to chemical
reactions happened during welding. It can be controlling
the welding speed.
(d) Incomplete fusion:
It is developed when the insufficient heat is provided and
the travelling speed of weld torch or electrode is very fast.
It is developed due to low amperage, steep electrode angle
short arc gap, lach of pre-heat etc. It can be repaired by
removing and rewelding.
(e) Overlap: Overlaping in welding is caused due to
improper welding technique, steep electrode angle and fast
travel speed. It can be prevented by using a proper welding
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding technique.
Adavantages : (f) Underfill: It is developed when joint is not completely
(i) It can work in all positions according to the need. filled by with weld metal. It is caused by improper welding
(ii) it has a high deposition rate technique. It can prevented by applying proper welding
(iii) It requires less shilled labour technique for the weld type and position.
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(g) Spatter: It is developed due to high power arc, (b) Magnetic particle testing:
magnetic arc blow and damp electrodes. It can be prevented It is used to defect surface discontinuities in materials like
by reducing arc power, arc length and by using dry iron, cobalt, nickel and their alloys. A magnetic field is
electrodes. produced into the component to be tested. The
(h) Incomplete penetration: It occurs due to low amperage, magnitization of the component can be done directly or
low preheat, tight root opening, short arc length and fast indirectly. It the defects are present in the component after
tra vel speed. magnetization, then the defects will create a leakage field.
(i) cracks: The development of cracks results in the pre- After magnetization, iron particles are applied to the surface
mature failure of the parts when they are subjected to of the component. The particles will be attracted and
dynamic loading conditions. There arc many types of aggregate near leakage fields, thus giving an indication of
cracks, some ofthem are given as: defect. It is used in gas pipe welding.
(a) Longitudinal cracks (c) Ultrasonic testing: (UT)
(b) transverse cracks In this testing, ultrasonic waves are propagated in the
(c) crater cracks component to be tested. The very short ultrasonic wave of
frequencies ranging from 0.1- 15 MHz and upto 50 MHz are
(d) under bead cracks
used for the purpose of defection of internal flows or cracks.
(e) toe cracks
In ultrasonic testing, electrical pulses are converted into
These cracks occur when the joint is at elevated
mechenical vibrations and the returned mechanical vibrations
temperature or after the solidification of weld metal. These
arc converted into electrical pulses. Adevice called transducer
can be prevented by altering the design in joint, altering
converts electrical energy into mechanical vibrations.
the parameters, procedures, preheating the component etc.
In this testing,a propr (Connected to ultrosonic machine)
(NOn NON - DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (FORWELDING) is passed over the surface of the component to be tested.
As the wave travels through the materical, from the
It is defined as the process of testing the welded
defective location, the wave get reflected. The transducer
components for discontineities, cracks, inclusions, spatters
picks up the signals and CRT (cathode Ray Tube) screen
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penetrations, undercuts, porosity etc. In this type of test, records the pulse - height pattern. The spacing between
the component is not destructed and after testing the pulses and height of pulses are interpreted for the purpose
component, it can be further used. of finding the correct location of cracks in the component.
Some important kinds ofNDT (non-destructive testing) (d) Radiographic testing: (RT)
are given as : In this testing, the hidden flows are defected by using the
(a) liquid penetrant test: ability of short wave length electromagnetic radiation to
It is also known as Dye penetrant test or penetrant test. It penetrate various materials. Radiographic Testing method
is utilized for the purpose of detecting the surface detects, reveals the surface and sub-surface defects.
porosities, cracks etc in welding components. In this test,
the material (component) is first cleaned and coating is MACHINING
applied with a fluorscent dye solutions. The excess solution Machining may be defined as a process of removing extra
after some time (dwell time) is removed. The bleedout is material from the work piece to achieve a desired shape and
easily detected in visible dyes while fluorescent dyes are dimensions by using any cutting tool. Metal may be removed
view with an ultrovoilet lamp. either in chips form or in fine powder form like metal removed
form is tabulated as under:
S. Name of Narne of operation Removed Metal form

No. Machine to be carried out (Either Chip / Powder)
1 Lathe Turning, Drilling, Inner Metal removed in form
turning, Threading and of chips
Taper turning, etc.
2 Drill Machine Drilling, Tapping, etc. Chips
3 Shaper Shaping Chips
4 Milling Machine Milling and Boaring, etc. Chips

5 Planer Planning, Turning, etc. Chips
6 Broaching Machine Broaching Chips
7 Grinding Machine Grinding Powder
8 Polishing Machine Polishing Very fme powder
9 Buffing Machine Buffing and Polishing, Very fme powder

etc.
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The common features of machining process are listed below:- MACHINE TOOL CONTROLS
1. The material of tool should be harder than the work piece On observing machine tools, we find that it contains many
to be machined. levers, hand wheels, stop switches, drivers etc. All of which are
2. The tool should be strong enough and hold rigidity on a known as the control of machine tool which performs a specific
proper support so that it can withstand the heavy pressure function in every machine tool. All their controls specified are
during machinery. of the following types:
3. The shape of cutting tool should be designed in such a 1. Mannual control. 2. Semi-automatic control.
manner that cutting edge produce maximum pressure on 3. Automatic control. 4. Numerical control.
work piece. Importantfactors requiredin today's scenarioasfollowing:
4. There is always a relative motion oftool with regard to the (a) Quick metal removal.
work or that of the work with regard to the tool or both in (b) High class surface finish with economic tooling cost.
relation to each other. (c) Minimum idle time of machining at lower power
Basic Elements of Machine Tool consumption.
All machine tools do one similar work that of removal of Cutting Action
material from work piece and all these machine tools have some For cutting action, a relative motion between the tool and work
common elements as given below:- piece is necessary. The relation motion between tool and work
1. Frame Structure. piece can be maintained either by keeping work piece stationary
2. Slides and Guideways. and moving to tool or by keeping tool stationary and moving
3. Spindles and Spindle bearing, etc. work piece. The cutting action can be classified into following
4. Machine Tool Drive. types:-
1. Orthogonal cutting and 2. Oblique cutting.
Work Piece ....---------.._ Work Piece

1- --, Movement )- --. Movement
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-..- _.-.-.-.-.-.-.-- _o_._._._._.-c-.- _.-.-
\
----0--
-c-
~
Cutting Tool
Movement
(a) Orthogonal Cutting (b) Oblique Cutting
Turning on Lathe in Cutting Process
As shown in above figure, two types of tool shapes are used machining operations. This property may be known as red
in orthogonal cutting process. We see that the cutting edge is hot hardness.
rectangular and the turning face of work piece is made flat. This 6. It should be easily fabricated into tool shape.
type of cutting is known as two-dimensional cutting. while in Classification of Cutting Tools
oblique cutting process, the tool's cutting edge is made like Cutting tools may be classified as follows on the basis of
triangular / inclined. This process is known as three-dimensional having number of cutting point / edges:-
cutting.
1. Single Point Cutting Tools: These cutting tools contain
CUTTING TOOLS only one cutting edge/point. For example, turning, parting
Cutting tools may be defined as the tools required for cutting. and grooving tools for lathe machine, shaper tools and
The cutting tools used in power operated machines are planer tools, etc.
commonly harder and having more red hot hardness than 2. Multi Point Cutting Tools: These cutting tools contain
manually operated tools. These tools are designed to acquire more than one cutting edge / points. For example, drill bit,
more useful cutting using minimum power consumption. broach and milling cutter, etc.
Properties of Good Cutting Tool Material On the basis of motion cutting may be broadly classified as
1. It should be tough enough and having good strength. follows:-
2. It should have good resistance against shock, wear, 1. Linear or Reciprocating Motion Tools: For example,
corrosion, cracking and creep, etc. shaper tools, lathe tools and planer tools, etc.
3. It should have good response for hardening, tempering 2. RotaryMotion Tools:For example, drill bit, milling cutter,
and annealing, etc. grinder wheels and honning tool, etc.
4. It should be economical and easily available. Common Cutting ToolMaterials
5. It should have capability to retain these physical and Depending upon their physical, chemical and mechanical
mechanical properties at elevated temperature during properties, etc. some metal and alloys in common use are
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mentioned below:- bronze and cast iron, etc. It can be employed for two times
1. High Carbon Steel: High carbon steel shows different more speed than common High Speed Steel tools.
hardness with different percentage of carbon contents. It 5. Cemented Carbide:These are generally used in sintered
shows BHN hardness from 400-750 with different tips form made up of powder metrology process. These are
percentage of carbon. It contains carbon percentage 0.6%- directly manufactured into desired shape and size and
1.5%normally. mounted on suitable holders (either by brazing or by
But high carbon steel start losing its hardness above clamping, etc.). These holders are normally made by
200C. So, its application is limited in slow moving / medium carbon steel. It gives better results than satellite
operating tools, hand tools and wood working machine and high speed steel. It can be used with four times more
tools, etc. For example, hammers, cold chisels, files, anvil, cutting speed than high speed steel tools and can retain
saws, screw drivers, center punch and razors, etc. its hardness up to 1200C temperature.
2. Diamond: Diamond is the hardest and brittle material but 6. Ceramics or Cemented Oxides: These are made by
its use is limited due to its high cost. It consists great wear applying sintering process with aluminium oxides and
resistance but low shock resistance. So, it is used in slow boron nitride in powder form. It is also made up in
speed cutting of hard materials like glass cutting tool, readymade tips form. Which is used after mounted on a
grinder wheel, dressing tool and other cutting tools, etc. suitable tool holder (either by brazing or by fastening).
3. High SpeedSteel: It is most commonly known cutting tool These can easily retain their hardness up to 1200C
material. It contains 18W, 4Cr, 1% V. In some tools, temperature and can work 2-3 times faster than tungsten
additional cobalt with 2%-15% is also added to increase its carbide tips. Sometimes these ceramics give more
hardness up to 600C. It contains sound ability to bear satisfactory results in finishing, etc. than tungsten
impact loading and perform intermittent cutting. carbide, etc.
4. Stellite:It contains 40%-50% cobalt, 15%-35%chromium + Cutting ToolGeometry
12.25%vanadium + 1%-4% carbon normally and it consists The different angles provided in cutting tool also plays a
good shock resistance, wear resistance and hardness. significant role in machining process along with the material of
Badboys2 Normally, it retains its hardness up to 920C temperature tools. Here we give a sketch of single point cutting tool
and it is used for comparatively harder materials like hard designed for different turning processes.
~nd cutting angle
Nose Radius ~ Face Shank

Side cutting ~
angle _....3....._ ___;;""-L- ---1
Top View
Side Rake
angle
-:r Top rake angle
End relif
~ angle
Side Clearance
angle
Front View
Front clearing
angle
Side View
Cutting Tool Angles

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Rake angle: The angle between face of tool and a plane The grains of metal in front of cutting edge of tool start
parallel to its base. If this inclination is towards the shank, it elongation the line AB and continue to do so until they are
is known as back rake angle or top rake angle and if measured completely deformed along CD. The region between ABCD is
along with side is known as side rake angle. These angles known as shear zone.
reduce the strength of tool's cutting edge. But along with
reducing the strength, these angles also through away the chip Types of Chips
from the cutting edge, which causes reduction of pressure on Chips may be classified as given under:-
cutting edge of tool. 1. Discontinuous or Segmental chip.
Negative rake: When these angles are made in reverse 2. Continuous chip.
direction to the above are known as negative rake angle. 3. Continuous chip with built-up edge.
Obviously these angles strengthen the tools but reduce the
1. Discontinuous Chip
keenness of cutting edge but these angles are used for extra
hard surfaces and hardened steel parts, etc. and used generally
carbide tips, etc.
Lip angle: Lip angle may be defined as the angle between face
and the flank of tool. As the lip angle increases, cutting edge
will go stronger. It would be observed that since the clearance
angle kept constant, this angle varies inverse to the rake angle.
So, when the strong cutting edge is required like for harder
material, rake angle is reduced and lip angle increased.
Clearance angle: As the name resembles, this angle is made
in tool to provide clearance between job and cutting edge of Work Piece
tool. If the angle is provided in side of cutting edge, it is known
as side clearance angle and if this angle is given at front of
tool it is known as front clearance angle.
Badboys2 Relief angle: This angle formed between the flank of tool and Discontinuous Chip Formation
a perpendicular line drawn from the cutting point to the base
of the tool. These type of chips formed in small pieces as shown in
Cutting angle: The total cutting angle of the tool is the angle figure. This type of chips are produced during machining
formed between the tool face and a line through the point of brittle material like cast iron and bronze, etc.
which is a tangent to the machined surface of the work at that
In machining of brittle materials, shear plane gradually
point. Obviously, its correct value will depend upon the
position of tool in which it is held in relation to the axis of the reduce until the value of compressive stress acting on the
job. shear plane becomes too low to prevent rupture along with
as the tool advance formed in work piece. At this stage,
CHIP FORMA nON
any further advancement of tool results in the fracture of
Chip may be defined as a thin strip of metal removed from the
metal ahead of it, that's why it results in production of
work piece as the tool progressed into work piece. Like in lathe
machine, where job is kept moving and a study tool advanced segmented chips. In this type of chip formation, excessive
into it, the metal's thin strip removed from work piece due to load has to withstand by tool which results in poor surface
its plastic deformation but as the length of chip increase a finish of work piece.
stress compress the chip and after a limit, this chip gets 2. Continuous Chip Formation
fractured and removed from work piece. The shearing of metal
chip formation does not, however, occurs sharply along a
straight line.
Continuous
Chip
Work Piece
Work Piece
B
Continuous Chip Formation

Chip Formation
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As shown in figure, the chip formed in a continuous
ribbon form and breaks after a certain length. It happens
when ductile material is machined. In this chip formation,
minimum load forced on the tool's cutting edge. So, that
a better finish is achieved and minimum wear and tear Built-up
occur in tool edge. Edge
3. Continuous Chip with built-up Edge
This type of chip is generally formed during machining
ductile material and a high friction exists at the chip tool
interface. Due to high friction, a high temperature generates Work Piece
at melting point of chip and cutting edge of tool. Due to
generation of high temperature, chip formed at high
temperature. As the cutting proceeds, the chip flows over
this edge and up along the face of tool. Periodically, a small
amount of the built-up edge separates and leaves with the Showing Built-up edge
chip or embedded in the turned surface. Due to this, chip Due to built-up edge chip formation, surface finish achieved is
formed is not smooth. When the tool is operating with a rough and chance of production in crater on the surface of
built-up edge a short distance, back from the cutting edge, work piece.
the wear takes the form of cratering of tool face caused by
CUITING FORCE
the extreme abrasion of chip. This type of chip formation
may be reduced by using proper coolant. Cutting force is a very important factor in tool designing like
we consider a lathe turning tool, it is a single point cutting tool.
The force acting on the tool is the vector sum of three
component cutting force mutually at right angle. The resultant
cutting force is denoted by (R).
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Work Piece
-:
_._._._._._._._._._ .. _._._.-._._._._._._._ .. ~_.
I R
Tool
where, and in case of orthogonal cutting process, as stated that Fn is

Fn = force normal to machine surface almost zero. So, value of
Ff = force acting parallel to the axis of work piece
R= IF2f
'\j
+ F2
t
F, = tangential force along work piece
Out of these three components, force Ft is the largest and Fn According to A.S.M.E. cutting manual, tangential cutting force
the smallest. In case of orthogonal cutting, only two component will be as given below:-
Pt =K
--p K a TC Ld
force come into play since the value of Fn is zero in that case.
where,
In single point cutting turning process, the component Fn- Ff
P, = tangential cutting force
and F, can be easily determined with the help of suitable force
~ = constant depending upon the material
dynometer. Thus resultant R can then be calculated from the
Ka = constant depending upon the true rake angle of tool
following relationship:-
T = average chip thickness
R = '\jIF n2 + F f2 + F t2 L = length of cutting edge in active engagement
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c and d are exponents depending upon the material being out.
(Ft cos $ + Fc sin $) sin $
The variable T and L are introduced in order to embrace the
nose angle. Nose radius feed per revolution and depth of cut. bx t
Stress in Metal Cutting Shear Strain
As we know that when tool applied a force on work piece and It has been defined as the deformation per unit length. In metal
resulting chip formation, the chip production occurs due to cutting, the diagram for measuring shear strain is taken from a
stress and strain development. To compute the stress and shear plane, we have
strain developed on chip, we consider a single point cutting
AB AD+DB
tool as given below:- Shear Strain, y = CD = CD
cosu
= tan ($ - a) + cos $ = -----
sin $ cos ($ - a) .
Work Done in Cutting
The work done in cutting process may be calculated by adding
work done in shearing and work done in overcoming friction
arise. If
W = total work done
Ws = work done in shearing
Wf = work done in overcome friction
A Wm = (work done in cutting + work spent in feeding)
Strain in Cutting Ao = (cross-sectional area of chip before removal)
The values are calculated for the conditions at the shear plane Now, assuming that there is no work loss, then total work done
where the two normal force Fs and Ns are existing. must be equal to the work supplied, then total work done, we
Badboys2 Let, have
Fs = force across the shear plane W = Ws + Wf ... (1)
As = area of shear plane Now, we assume that total work supplied is used in cutting but
$ = shear angle partly used in feeding the tool, then we have
b = width of chip Wm = work consumed in cutting + work spent in feeding
t = thickness of chip Wm = Fc x v, x Ft x feed velocity
Fc = cutting force Now, assuming that the Ft is very minor in comparison of Fc.
Ft = tangential force
So, neglecting the feeding work, we have
Fn = force normal to shear plane
Wm = Fc x Vc ... (2)
F Assuming that there is no work loss, we have
(Z) = AS (kg F/mm2)
s Wm = W ... (3)
So, putting value in equation in (3), we have
F 2 FcxVc=Ws+Wf ... (4)
and (as> (mean normal stress) = __!!_ (kg F/mm )
As as we know,
where, Ws = Fs x Vs (shear force x shear velocity)
Fs = Fc cos $ - Ft sin $ Wf = F x Vf (friction force x velocity of chip flow)
Fn = Ft cos $ + Fc sin $ then,
Ao FcxVc=FsxVs+FxVf ... (5)
A = -.- (where Ao = area of chip before removed) if the forces are taken in kg and velocity in metre per minute,
s sin o
the work done will be in kgf m/min. Then,
Fs Fc cos$ - Ft sin $ Total work done in cutting per unit time
So, mean shear stress (t) = A= bxt W= ...
s Volume of the metal removed m unit time
sine
(Fc cos $ - Ft sin $) sin $

bxt
and mean normal stress, So, we have Iw = Fe
Ao
I
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Horse Power Calculation face and therefore the chip does not get hardened.
4. The chip separates from work piece at the shear plane.
. . Work done in cutting / minute Accounting all above Lee and Shaffer's had developed a
H.P. required for cuttmg = 4500
slip-line field for stress zone, in which no deformation
would occur even if it is stressed to its field point. From
Fe x Ve
Power = H.P. ... (1) all these, both of them had derived the following
4500 relationship:
Fe x Vc kw 1t
... (2) = - + a - 1 = 45 + a - 1

4500 x 1.36 4
Source of Heat in Metal Cutting or we can say,
1<1>+1-0,=451 ... (1)
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MACHINING

(i) Drilling:
Drilling is the process or operation used for manufacturing
circular holes. These holes are produced by a specific type
of end cutting rotating tool which is generally termed as
drill. The machine used for the purpose of drilling is known
3 as drill machine. The operationsperformedby drill machine
WorkPiece in addition to producing holes are tapping, reaming, boring,
counter boring, spot facing etc.
Working principle: A large amount of force is exerted
by the rotating edge of the drill on the workpiece and then
Area (1) = Primary deformation area
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the hole is produced. During driling operation, the metal is
Area (2) = Tool chip interface removed by shearing and extresion.
Area (3) = Tool work piece interface
Assuming that all work done is converted into heat, then the
heat generated we have (Q), where ~-- Tool (Drill)
Wm = Fe x v, 001 feed motion
then we have,
IQ= Fe x Vel
EARNST-MERCHANT THEORY
It is based on the principle of minimum energy consumption.
It states that during cutting the metal, shear should occur in the
direction in which the energy requirement for shearing is
minimum. The other assumption made by them includes=
1. The behaviour of metal being machined is like that of an
ideal plastic. LIP
2. At the shear plane the shear stress is maximum is constant
and independent of shear angle (<1. Working Principle (Drilling)
They deduced the following relationship:
I~=%-~+II Typesof drilling machine:

(a) Based on construction
-e Portable
LEE AND SHAFFER'S THEORY ~ bench drilling machine
~Radial
It is a theory about analysation the process of orthogonal metal
-e upright
cutting by applying theory of plasticity for an ideal rigid plastic
~ Multi-spindle
material. The principal assumptions made for this include:
~Automatic
1. The work piece material ahead of the cutting tool behaves
~ Turret
like an ideal plastic material.
-s-Deep hole
2. The deformation of metal occurs on a single shear plane.
(b) Based on feed
3. There is a stress field within the produced chip which
Hand and power driven portable drilling machine
transmits the cutting force from the shear plane to the tool
Geometryof drill
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Lip angle + Lip relief angle + Helix angle = 90
nDN
F. Cutting speed (Vc ) = 1000 rpm
Ft = sm<l> "2 (ii) Milling:
2<1>
= po int angle Milling is a maching process in which rotary cutters arc
utilized for the purpose of removing material from the work
F = feed = mmlrev.
piece. In this process, the workppiece is feeded in a
Flute Helix angle Drill axis direction at an angle with the fool axis.
(1) L_:~:~m~di~;!:
~ -r-,,__..~~ ;r-..... /
Tip
PRINCIPLE OF MILLING
Rotational Milling
Margin direction cutter
Cutting lip ~I 1'- Chisel edge
-, / VI
'. V'I
Q)
c
Point)'
(2) ::~.' ~~ ~ I angle \-
..0
\
Q) Work Work
Chisel :; piece Piece
edge
\
angle <,
Face down milling
(Drill Geometry)
~ Working principle: The working principle of milling is
Rahe angle: - It is the angle formed between the axis of drill
on the based of rotating motion. During milling operation,
and leading edge ofland.
a milling cutter spins about an axis and the workpiece is
Point angle :- It is also termed as cutting angle. It is the
feeded. While the feeding of workpiece, cutter blades
Badboys2 angle formed between the lips which are opposite in nature
of a drill calculated in a plane containing the axis of drill
remove the material in each pass. Various operations can
be performed such as face milling. End milling, keyway
and lips.
cutting, dovetail cutting, T-slot cutting, circular slat cutting,
Feed angle :- The angle produced by cutting edge which
up-milling and down milling peripheral milling, slab,
tries to strike the cutting edge for the purpose of breaking
slotting, side & straddle, milling etc.
it.
Types of milling machines:
=> Horizontal milling machine
(a) Horizontal spindle: It is utilized for peripheral milling
operations.
=> vertical milling machine
(a) verticle spindle: It is used for face milling operations
=> column and knee milling machine
C => Turret type milling machine
=> Universal type milling machine
BC F/2 F
tan<l>=-=-=- => Bed type milling machine
AB nr 2m => Planar type milling machine
Clearance angle: this angle is formed between the flank => CNC milling machines
and a plane which is perpendicular to the axis ofthe drilL Cutting parameters in milling:
Clearance angle for ductile material ranges from 8 - 12 and
Cutting speed (V)
that for brittle material ranges from 6 - 9 . L Rotational speed (N R ) = nD
Machining time and cutting speed:-
where, D = diameter oftool
L
Machinetime (Tm) = N x F NR = Rotational speed (rev.! min)
V = cutting speed (m/min.)
where, L = length of drill's axial travel (mm) 2. Rotational speed in milling can also be related with
N = speed of drill (rpm) the desired cutting speed at work piece surface.
F = Feed/rev. (mm)
Tm = machining time (min.) Fr
NR=--
L=t+A nt x fc
t = thickness of work-piece where, F r = feed rate (mm/min.)
A = drill approach = 0.30 nt = Number of teeth on cutter
D = drill diameter fc = chip load (mmltooth)
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3. Material Removal Rate (M.R.R) = we x de x F r
D-2d (2d)
where, de = depth of cut (mm) cos<Pc=-D-=I- D
we = width ofcut(mm)
4. In case of slab milling: As we know that, sin2<pe+ cos2<Pe= 1
.. . ( tm ) =--
I+A sin2 <Pc= 1- cos2 <Pc
Machining time
Fr
sin <Pc= ~1- cos2 <Pc
where, tm= machining time (min.)
A= Approach distance
2
=)d(D-d) .
sin ?2d)
o, = ~l-ll-D)
5. In case of face milling:
1+2A
t =-- sin o == 1_[D2+4d2-2.D.2d]
m F c D2
r
where, A = Apporach distance On solving, we get,
A = ~w c (D - w c) (for partial face milling)
sin o, = ~~( 1- ~)
A=D (For conventional face milling)
2 => Mean chip thickess :
MECHANICS OF MILLING OPERATIONS O+Smax
Mean chip thickness (S~ = 2
S = Smax
m 2
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sm = F ~dD(1- Dd)
t
Volume of removed metal, (V R) : ~ x Vc

Let, fr is feed rate / (Feed / rev.)
where, Am = mean chip area
F, = Feed / tooth
Ve = cutting velocity
Ft --~
=> Some important milling operations in brief:
Nt (a) Slab milling: During operation, the width of cutter
extends beyond the work piece on both of the sides.
where, N, = Number of teeth
(b) Slot milling: In this type, the width of the work piece
S= Ftsin<p
is more than the width of the cutter, by creating a slot.
when, <p=<Pc'then, S = Smax.(maximum)
(c) Side milling: In this operation, the milling cutters
when, <p= 0, then, S = 0
provide machining along the side ofthe work piece.
Smax= r, sin <Pc
(d) Straddle milling: In this operation, the milling cutters
OR provide machining along both sides of the work piece.
Now considering, ilORP, coso, = OP
(e) Up - milling: It is also known as conventional milling.
In this type, the wheel rotates in the opposite direction of
feeding. In starting, the chips produced by cutter tooth are
very thin and then increases its thickness. Tool life is short
chip length is relatively longer.
(f) Down - milling: It is also known as down milling. In
this type, the wheel rotates parallel to the feeding. The
D-2d chips are thick in the starting and leaves out thin. The
-2- D-2d 2 length of the chip is relatively shorter. Tool life is relatively
=---=--x-
D 2 D longer.
2 (g) Face milling: During operation, the axis ofthe cutter
makes a 90 angle with developed surface. The surface is
generated is due to combined result of operations of cutter
teeth located on both periphery and the cutter face.
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=> Conventional face milling: In this type, the diameter
k = Return stroke time
of the tool is kept larger than the width of the work piece.
As we know that, Cutting stroke time
=> Partial face milling: In this type, the milling cutter is in
overhanging position from one side of the work-piece. Return stroke = K x cutting stroke time
=> End milling: In this type, the diameter of milling cutter ke
is less than the width of the work piece. =>kxT =--
1000V c
=> Profile milling: In this type, outside periphery of the Time taken to complete one double stroke, (T 2J
flat part of work-piece is cut.
=--+--
e ke
SHAPING: (WORKING PRINCIPLE) 1000V 1000V
It is described as a process in which metal is removed from T _ e + ke _ e(k + I)
metal work piece surface in horizontal, vertical and angular 2s - 1000V - 1000V
planes. In these operations, a single point cutting tool is
utilized, which is held on the ram that provides a Now, N = _1_= 1 1000V
reciprocating motion to the tool. A single point cutting tool T2s e(k + 1) e(k + I)
is clamped in the tool post which is mounted on the 1000V
machine's ram. The motion ofthe ram is the reciprocating
TO and FRO, which resulting the tool cuts the material in
the forward stroke. There is no cutting during return or
bachward stroke.
Machining time: (T.J
Shaping operations are generally used for producing slots,
As we know that,
grooves and keyways. It also produces contour of can
Time taken to complete one double stroke (T 2s)'
cave or conven or a combination of these.
T _ e(k+ 1)
2s - 1000V
Badboys2 Let, b = breadth of work piece, (mm),

f= feed rate (mm/double stroke)
Now, Total number of double strokes needed to complete
b
the work =f"
(Horizontal (vertical (Inclined
surface) surface) surface) Hence, Time taken to complete the cut
b) eb(k+l)
(Working principle)
=> T2s x ( f" = 1000Vf
Classification of shaping machine: (iv) Lathe machine (working principle)
(i) Horizontal type A Lathe is defmed as a machine tool on which work piece is
(ii) Vertical type rotated on its own axis for the purpose ofperforming various
(iii) crank type operations like cutting, knurling, turning, facing etc. In a
(iv) Hydraulic type lathe machine, the work piece is helded between the chucks
which revolve. The tool post consists of a cutting tool
(v) Universal type
which is fed against the work piece for required depth and
Mechanisms used in shaping machines:
also in required direction. The material from the work - piece
(i) crank and slotled lever mechanism
is removed in the form of chips and the required shape is
(ii) Hydraulic shaper mechanism
obtained.
(iii) Whitworth quick return mechanism Some parts of a lathe:
Cutting speed: In is defined as the ratio oflength of cutting (a) Bed (b) Legs
stroke to the time required by the cutting stroke. (c) Head stock (d) Tail stock
Let, V = cutting speed, m/min. (e) Gear- box (t) carriage
N = Number of douple strokes ofthe ram/min.
K = ratio of return time to cutting time
1= length of cutting stroke Workpiece
Time required by cutting stroke (T c)
\
I
cutting stroke length (m) (
cutting speed (m / min) ( Tool
\ /'"
T = e
c V x 1000
Working Principle of Lathe machine
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Some operations performed on Lathe in brief: Types of grinding machine/operations:
=> Turning: In this operation, straight, curved and The following are the grending machines:
conical workpieces are produced. (a) Surface grinding
=> Facing: In this operation, the flat surface is developed (b) cylindrical or External grinding or centre - type grinding
at the end of the work piece.
(c) Internal cylindrical grinding
=> Boring: In this operation, a hole or a cylindrical cavity
(d) centerless grinding
is entarged which are manufactured by another process
=> Threading: In this operations, threads are produced (e) Form and profile grinding
internally or externally (t) Plange cut grinding
=> Knurling: In this operation, a regurlarly shaped => In surface grinding. It utilizes a rotating abrasive wheel
roughness is developed on cylindrical surfaces. for the purpose of removing material and thus resulting in
Machining properties / cutting parameters: a flat surface
=> Feed: It is defined as the distance through which the => In cylindrical grinding, It is utilized for the purpose of
cutting tool advances between two consecutive cuts.
grinding cylindrical surfaces and work-piece shoulders.
=> Depth of cut : It is defined as the advancement of
cutting tool into the job in a transverse direction => In internal cylindrical grinding, It is used for the
=> Cutting speed : It is defined as the speed through purpose of grinding the internal diameter ofthe work piece
which the spindle rotates. and also tapered holes
=> In form and profile grinding, the grinding wheel does
. ( ) 7tDN
(a) Cuttmg speed V =-- not transverse the work-piece and having the exact shape
1000 as of the finished product.
where, D = diameter of workpiece (rum)
=> In plunge - cut grinding, It is used to grind the work -
N = rotational speed (rpm)
pieces having projections, multiple diameters or other
(b) Machining time: (T) = _L_ irregular shapes.
n
FxN Various types of grinding wheel:
where, L = length of work-piece Wheel
Grinding faces
Badboys2 F = feed rate (mmlrev.)
N = rotational speed (rpm) IE
wheel diameter
)! .--r---------r---,
thickness
(c) Depth of cut : (tc)

(D-d)
= -2-
I I I
Type 1 (straight)
L; r--? 1=
Type 2 Rrecessed
'"
t
(one side straight)
where, d = diameter of work piece after machining
D = diameter of work - piece before machining
Diameter of Recessed
(d) Metal Removal Rate (MRP) = 7tD tc FN
c )
Types of Lathes :
(a) Centre or Engine lathe
(b) Bench lathe ~ I I ~
(c) Speed lathe Type 3 Recessed Type 4 (Tapered face
(d) Tool room lathe (Both sides straight) straight wheel)
(e) Automatic lathe
(t) Turret lathe Grinding face Grinding face Thickness
(g) Capstan lathe J, t ~II~
(h) Computer - controlled lathe
Grinding: Grinding is a machining purpose used for the
purpose of removal of the metal with the help of applying
LI...........__
_-----'--'II O'----------r----r----O
Type (cylindrical or Type 6 (straight cup wheel)
abrasives which are bonded to form a rotating wheel. It is wheel ring)
generally utilized for good surface finishing, grinding of
craks and burns etc. It can be utilized for flat, conical and Grinding face
cylindrical surfaces.
Type 7 (Flaring cup wheel) Type 8 : Saucer wheel
Type 9 : Dish wheel

WorkTable
=> Type 1, Type 2 and Type 3 are utilized for cylindrical,
internal centreless and surface grinding.
Grinding Principle
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=> Type 4 is usually used for thread grinding of a gear (g) Type of grinding to be done
teeth. Grinding wheel parameters :
=> Type 5 is utilized for producing flat surfaces. => Depth of cut : Itis defined as a thickness of the material
=> Type 6 is utilized for grinding flat surfaces by applying removed through grinding wheel in a single transverse
grinding wheel. stroke.
=> Type 7 is utilized for the purpose of grinding tools.
=> Type 8 is utilized for the purpose of sharpening of Depth of cut(Tc) = (dl ~d2)
circular or band saw.
=> Type 9 is utilized for the purpose of grinding various d, = diameter ofthe work-piece before grinding
kinds of tools in the tool room. d2 = diameter of the work-piece after grinding
Characteristics of grinding wheel => Feed: Feed is described as the motion of the work-
The performance of a grinding wheel depends on the piece longitdinally per revolution in cyclindrical
following factors: grinding.
(a) Abrasives: Abrasives are used due to its two main Feed (f) = k..> A (where A is constant)
mechanical properties i.e. hardness and toughness. It also where, A = face width of wheel in mm
has a sharp edges. Some ofthe properties of abrasives are = 0.4 to 0.6 (finish grinding)
indentation, fracture r resistance, wear resistance etc. There = 0.6 to 0.9 (Rough grinding)
are generally two types of abrasives which are as :
fxN .
=> Natural abrasives: These are sand stone, corundum => Work travel : work travel = --m/ mm.
. 1000
diamond and gasnet etc.
=> Synthetic abrasives : These are manufactured and where, N = Rotational speed (m/min).
have well defined properties of roughness and hardness. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES IN BRIEF
Eg : silicon carbide and aluminium oxide.
(b) Bond: It has the property of adhesiveness. Due to Manufacturing process is defined as the conversion of
this property, the abrasive grains are cemented together raw material into finished or find product.
Badboys2 for the purpose offormation of grinding wheel. As per the Classification of manufacturing processes:
(i) Primary shaping processes:
demand, it serves the imparting of hardness or softness
properties to the grinding wheel. ~ casting
Some bonds are given as follows: ~ Powder metallurgy
=> vitrified bond ~ Plastic technology
(ii) Forming processes:
=> silicate bond
c> shellac bond ~ Forging
~ Extresion
=> Rubber bond
~ Rolling
=> Oxy chloride bond
c> Resinoid bond ~ Sheet metal working
(c) Grit: It is also termed as grain size. After passing the ~ Rotary swaging
materials through screens, the size of the grain grit is ~ Explosive forming
determined with the number of meshes / linear inch. It ~ Electromagnetic forming
(iii) Machining Processes :
influences the stock removal rate and surface finish. Grain
size selection depends upon the type of grinding, type of ~ Turning
material; material removal rates (MRR) and required surface ~ Drilling
finish. ~ Milling
(d) Wheel grade: The wheel grade is measured by the ~ Grinding
strength ofthe bonding material. These are generally two ~ Shaping and Planning
~ Non - Traditional machining such as : ultra sonic
kinds of wheels used which are hard wheel (Strong bond
and abrasive grains can with stand with larger forces) and machining, Electro-chemical maching etc.
soft wheels (ifthe material to be grinded is hard then the (iv) Joining Processes
abrasives grains are wear out and resulting losing of sharp ~ Pressure welding
edges for cutting is lost, this process is known as glazing.) ~ Resistance welding
Selection of grinding wheel: ~ Diffusion welding
The grinding wheels are selected depending upon the ~ Soldering
following given factors. ~ Brozing
(a) Material's properties (v) Surface finishing processes
(b) Required quality of surface finish ~ Honing
(c) Accuracy in dimensions ~ Lapping
(d) Method ofgriding i.e. either dry or wet ~ Electro-plating
(e) Rigidity, size and machine type ~ Plastic coating
(t) Speed and feed of wheel ~ Metallic coating
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~ Sanding with a drill which is a cutting tool having cutting edges
~ Tumbling ~ Boring: In this type, the hole (pre-existing is enlarged
by using drilling operation.
COMMONLY USED MACHINES AND TOOLS:
~ Reaming: In this type, a preexisting hole produced by
(i) Lathe machine: drilling or boring is finished and sized.
~ Cylindrical turning : It involves the reduction of ~ Counter-boring: In this type, the pre existing drilled
diameter of work-piecebyremoving material along the axis hole is enlarged cylindrically at the end of the hole.
of work - piece from the cylindrical job's surface. (iv) Shaper machine:
~ Taper turning: In this type, material is removed at an ~ Horizontal surfaces : In this type, a flat surface is
angle to the work-piece axis. And thus diameter of the generated on a workpiece by holding it in a vise.
workpiece is increased or decreased. ~ Vertical surfaces: In this type, the end of a workpiece,
~ Eccentric turning: In this type, the axis of work-piece squaring up a component are produced.
does not coincide with the main axis. ~ Angular surfaces : In this type, an angular cut at an
~ Knurling : In this type, a diamond shaped impression angle other than 90 with the horizontal or vertical plane.
is embossed on the work piece. (v) Planer machine:
~ Facing: In this type, flat surface is developed by ~ Horizontal surfaces: In this type, the tool is feeded
machining the ends ofthe work-piece. crosswise for the purpose of completing the cut, while the
~ Parting - off: In this type, the work piece is cut after work piece is provided a reciprocating motion along with
obtaining required shape and size. the table.
~ Chamfering: In this type, the end ofthe work - piece ~ Vertical surfaces: In this type, the tool is feeded down
is bevelled.
ward for the purpose of completion of the cut, while the
(ii) Milling Machine:
work piece is provided reciprocating motion along with the
~ Plain milling: In this type, a flat, horizontal surface is
table.
made paraller to the axis of rotation of plain milling cutter
~ Angular surfaces : In this type, the tool is feeded at
~ Side milling : In this type, a flat vertical surface is
an angle for the purpose of completion ofthe cut, while the
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milling cutter.
work - piece is provided reciprocating motion along with
the table.
~ Facemilling: In this type,facemilling cutter is utilized
(vi) Grindingmachine:
with rotating motion about a perpendicular axis to the work
~ Cylindrical surfaces: In this type, cylindrical surfaces
-piece.
of a work piece are fmishedby utilizing cylindricalgrinders.
~ End milling: In this type, a flat surface is developed.
~ Tapered surfaces : In this type, tapered surfaces of a
The developed flat surface may be horizontal, vertical or at
an angle with the table. work piece are finished by using cylindrical grinders
~ Thread milling: In this type, threads are produced by ~ Horizontal surfaces : In this type, the horizontal
utilizing a single or multiple thread milling cutter. surfaces of work pieces are finished by utilizing the surface
~ Form milling: In this type, irregular contours are grinders.
generated with the help ofa form cutter. ~ Threaded surfaces: In this type, threads are produced
(iii) Drilling machine : by utilizing a thread grinding machine along with single or
~ Drilling: In this type, a cylindrical hole is developed multiple rib wheels.
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EXERCISE ...,
1. For TIG welding, which ofthe following gases are used? 12. In oxy-acetylene welding:
(a) Hydrogen and carbon dioxide (a) Pressure is applied
(b) Argon and helium (b) Filler metal is applied
(c) Argon and Neon (c) Both Pressure and filler metal arc applied
(d) Hydrogen and oxygen (d) Neither pressure, nor filler metal is applied
2. The pre-heating of parts to be welded and slow cooling of 13. What should be the size of weld in case of buss welded
the welded structure will lead to reduction in : joint?
(a) Twice the throat of weld
(a) residual stresses and incomplete penetration
(b) Half ofthe throat
(b) cracking and incomplete fusion
(c) Equal to the throat of weld
(c) cracking and residual stress
(d) None of these.
(d) cracking and underfill 14. Welding process in which two pieces to be joined are over
3. Which one ofthe following is a solid state joining process? - llaped and placed between two electrodes in known as :
(a) Gas-Tungsten arc welding (a) percussion welding (b) spot welding
(b) Resistance spot welding (c) seam welding (d) projection welding
(c) Friction welding 15. The abbriviation ERW in ERW pipes stands for:
(d) Submerged arc welding (a) electrically resistance welded
4. Arc stability is better with: (b) elastic reinforced with wire
(a) ACwelding (b) DC welding (c) extra reinforcement welded
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these (d) electrically reinforced and welded
Badboys2 5. In which type ofwelding, molten metal is poured forjoining 16. T - joint weld is used:
the metals? (a) where longitudinal shear is present
(a) Arc welding (b) Thermit welding (b) where sever loading is encountered and the upper
(c) MIG (d) llG surface of both piece must be the same plane
6. The gases used in tungsten inert gas welding are: (c) To joint two pieces of metal in the same manner as
rivet joint metals
(a) argon and helium (b) neon and helium
(d) Tojoin two pieces perpendicularly
(c) neon and argon (d) ozone and neon
17. Half corner weld is used:
7. Amount of current required in electric resistance welding
(a) where longitudinal shear is present
is regulated by changing the: (b) where sever loading is encountered
(a) Input supply (c) tojoin two pieces of metal in the same manner as rivet
(b) Primary turns of the trasnformers joint metals
(c) Seondary turns of the transformers (d) none of these
(d) All ofthese 18. The range of optimum pressure applied in electric
8. The material used for coating the electrode: resistance welding is given by :
(a) Protective layer (b) Blinder (a) 0-5MPa (b) 5-lOMPa
(c) De- oxidiser (d) Flux (c) 10-25 MPa (d) 25 - 50 MPa
9. The electric resistance welding operates with: 19. Electronic components are often joined by :
(a) Low current and high voltage (a) soldering (b) brazing
(b) High current and low voltage (c) welding (d) adhesive
(c) Low current and Low voltage 20. The method ofjoining two similar or dissimilarmetals using
(d) High current and High voltage a special fussible alloy is :
10. Fluxes are used in welding in order to protect the molten (a) Soldering (b) brazing
(c) Arc welding (d) All of these
metal and the surfaces to be joined from:
21. The taper provided on pattern for its easy and clean
(a) oxidation
withdrawl from the mould is known as :
(b) carburizing
(a) Taper allowance (b) Distortion allowance
(c) unequal temperature distribution (c) Pattern allowance (d) draft allowance
(d) distortion and warping 22. Sand are graded according to their:
11. Twostainless steelfoilsof 0.1 mm thickness are to bejoined. (a) clay content
Which of the following processes would be best suited? (b) gram SIze
(a) Gas welding (b) TIGwelding (c) clay content and grain size
(c) MIG welding (d) Plasma arc welding (d) None of these
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A-20S Production Engineering C)
23. Sweep pattern is used for moulding parts having: 35. Which ofthe following among the given options is a single
(a) Triangular shape point cutting tool?
(b) Elliptical shape (a) Milling cutter (b) Hack saw blade
(c) Uniform symmetrical shape (c) Turning tool (d) Grinding wheel
(d) Complicated shapes having intricate details 36. Which process involves increasing ofthe cross - sectional
24. In foundaries, a square pan fitted with a wooden handle is area by pressing or hammering in a direction parallel to the
known as: original ingot axis?
(a) Bellow (b) Slick (a) up setting (b) Peening
(c) Shovel (d) Riddle
(c) Swaging (d) Setting down
25. An aluminium cube of 20 em side has to be cast along a
37. Which of the following is not a type of industrial forging?
cylinderical riser. If the volume shrinkage during
(a) Drop forging (b) Roll forging
solidification is 6%, then shrinkage volume of cube after
(c) Blast forging (d) upset forging
solidification will be :
(a) 400cm3 (b) 480cm3 38. Which of the following statement is correct?
(c) 500cm3 (d) 540cm3 (a) Hot rolling produces a stronger shaft than cold rolling
26. With a solidification factor of 0.97 x 106 s/m-', the (b) Cold rolling produces a stronger shaft than hot rolling
solidification time in (seconds) for spherical casting of200 (c) Shafts are not made by rolling process
mm diameter is : (d) Angle of twist of shaft is inversely proportional to
(a) 539 (b) 4311 shaft diameter
(c) 1078 (d) 918 39. Which ofthe following is commonly used die material?
27. Hot chamber die-casting machines are used for alloys with (a) Tungsten (b) Molybdenum
(c) Cast iron (d) Hot work tool steel
(a) Law melting temperature 40. Reaming operation can be performed on :
(b) High melting temperature (a) Drilling and milling machine
(c) Low thermal conductivity (b) Lathe and drilling machine
(d) low electric resistance
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(c) Shaper and drilling machine
28. Which of the following processes is commonly used to (d) Shaper and milling machine
manufacture powder coated steel central heating radiators? 41. In a drilling machine the metal is removed by :
(a) sand casting (b) Bending (a) shearing and extrusion
(c) Shaping (d) Press work
(b) Extrusion
29. In an orthogonal cutting process, the cutting force and
(c) Shearing
thrust force are 1200 Nand 600 N respectively. It the rake
(d) shearing and compression
angle of the tool is zero, then what will be the coefficient of
42. Which is not the part of drilling machine
friction in fool- chip interface?
(a) Spindle (b) Tool holder
(a) 2 (b) -Ii (c) Table (d) Cross-slide
(c) 112 (d) u Ji 43. Lathe beds arc produced by which of the following
30. Which one of the following cutting tool bits are made by production processes?
powder metallurgy process? (a) Rolling (b) casting
(a) carbon steel tool bits (c) Drawing (d) Forging
(b) Stellite tool bits 44. When work piece is fed in the same direction and that of
(c) less tool bits the cutter tooth at the point of contact, that type of milling
(d) Tungsten carbide tool bits is known as:
31. Which one of the following is a single point cuting tool? (a) Down milling (b) upmilling
(a) hacksawblade (b) millingcutler (c) slot milling (d) slab milling
(c) pasting tool (d) grinding wheel 45. Disign of jigs and fixtures need careful attention to:
32. The lip angle of a single point cutting tool is : (a) Idle time reduction
(a) 10-30 (b) 300t060 (b) Disign for safety
(c) 50-60 (d) 60-80 (c) Swarf clearance
33. A milling machine has a metal removal rate 25 cm3/min. for
(d) All of these
a steel work piece. The depth of cut is 4.5 mm and width of
46. TheA.P.F (atomic Packing Factor) for BCC structure is:
cut is 90 mm. Then the required table feed will be :
(a) 0.52 (b) 0.68
(a) 61.7 mmlmin. (b) 51.7 mmlmin.
(c) 0.74 (d) 0.84
(c) 65.4mm1min (d) 48.8mm1min.
34. For cutting tool material, which is correct order of 47. Which of the following surface hardening processes needs
increasing hot hardness quenching?
(a) H.S.S, carbide, diamond (a) Induction hardening
(b) Carbide, H. S. S, diamond (b) Flame hardining
(c) Diamond, carbide, H.S.S (c) Nitriding
(d) Carbide, diamond, H.S.S (d) case carburizing
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Production Engineering A-209 C)
48. In iron-carbonequilibriumdiagram,the x-axisis represented 60. Diamondweight is expressedin terms of carats. One carat is
by: equal to
(a) carbon percentage (a) 20mg (b) 200mg
(b) Temperature (c) 400mg (d) 1mg
(c) Nickel percentage 61. When a body recovers its original dimensions on removing
(d) None of these the load then it is called
49. In annealing heat treatment process, the hypocutectoid (a) plastic (b) brittle
steel is: (c) elastic (d) None of these
(a) Heated from 40 C to 50 C above the critical 62. Abilityofmaterial to under go large permanent deformations
temperature and then cooled slowly in the tumace. in tension is called
(b) Heat from 40 C to 50 C above the upper critical (a) plasticity (b) stiffness
temperature and then cooled suddenly in a suitable (c) toughness (d) hardness
coolingmedium 63. Shock resistance steel should have
(c) Heated from 40 C and 50 C below the critical (a) high wear resistance (b) low wear resistance
temperature and then cooled in still air (c) toughness (d) low hardness
(d) Heated below or close to the lower critical tempeature 64. Essential gradient of any hardened steel is
(a) carbon (b) pearlite
and then cooled slowly.
(c) martensite (d) cementite
50. 18 : 8 stainless steel consists of:
65. Steel containing 18% chromium and 8% nickel is called
(a) 18%vanadium, 8% chromium
(a) austinitic stainless steel
(b) 18%chromium,8.1nickel (b) ferritic stainless steel
(c) 18%tungsten, 8% nickel (c) martensitic stainless steel
(d) 18%tungsten, 8% chromium (d) None of these
51. On high rate of cooling, austenite converts into: 66. Steel having combination 88.7% ferrite and 13%cementite
(a) martensite (b) Ferrite is known as
(c) Ledeburite (d) Pearlite (a) martensite (b) austenite
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52. Which ofthe followingis correctfornormalazing operation?
(a) It relieves internal stresses
(c) pearlite (d) All of these
67. A metal which is brittle in tension can become ductile
(b) It produces a uniform structure (a) in presence of notches
(c) After heating, the material is allowed to cool in (b) in presence of emprillement agents such as hydrogen
atmosphere (c) under hydrostatic condition
(d) The rate of cooling is slow (d) None of these
53. The crystal structure of austenite is : 68. Etching solution used for medium and high carbon steel,
(a) Simplecubic (SC) pearlite steel and cast iron is
(b) Body centred cubic (BCC) (a) Nital- 2% RN03 is ethyl alcohol
(c) Face centered cubic (FCC) (b) 1% hydrofluoric acid in water
(d) Hexagonal closed packed (HCP) (c) 50% NH2, OH and 50% water
54. Austenite decomposes into territe and cementite at a (d) picral- 5% pieric acid and ethyl alcohol
temperature of: 69. Steelcontaining 15to 20% nickel and 0.1% carbon is called
(a) 1148C (b) 727C (a) ferritic stainless steel
(c) 1495C (d) 1539C (b) austenitic stainless steel
55. Alloy steel as compared carbon steel is more (c) martensitic stainless steel
(a) strong (b) tough (d) None of these
(c) fatigue resistant (d) All of these 70. Chrome steel is widely used for
56. Shock resistance of steel is increased by adding (a) connecting rod (b) cutting tool
(a) Aluminium (c) handtool (d) motor car crank shaft
(b) Cobalt
71. Carbon steel castings are
(c) Nickelchromium (d) Carbon
(a) easily weldable (b) tough and ductile
57. Carbon steel is
(c) brittle (d) All of these
(a) produced by adding carbon in steel
72. Vandium when added to steel it
(b) an alloy of iron and carbon with varying quantities of
(a) decreases tensile strength
phosphorus and sulpher
(b) increases tensile strength
(c) purer than the cast iron (c) remain constant
(d) None of these (d) None of these
58. The raise yield point oflow carbon steel 73. High speed steel should have
(a) Phosphorus is added (b) Silicon is added (a) wear resistance (b) hardness
(c) Carbon is added (d) Sulphur is added (c) toughness (d) both (a) and (b)
59. Stress-concentration occurs when a body is subjected to 74. Alloy steel containing 36% Nickel is known as
(a) Extensive stress (b) reverse stress (a) Stainless steel (b) High speed steel
(c) fluctuating stress (d) non-uniform stress (c) Die steel (d) HS.S.
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75. Case hardening process is 90. Temperature at which the change starts on heating the steel
(a) carburizing (b) cynidity is called
(c) nitridity (d) All of these (a) uppr critical temperature
76. Normalising of steel is done to (b) point of recalesense
(a) remove strains caused by cold working (c) lower critical temperature
(b) refine grain structure (d) All of these
(c) remove dislocation causedin the internal structure due 91. Heat treatment process used to soften the hardened steel is
to hot working. (a) annealing (b) hardening
(d) All of these (c) tempering (d) quenching
77. Steel containing pearlite and ferrite is 92. Eutectoid based composition of carbon steel at room
(a) ductile (b) soft temperature is called
(c) hard (d) tough (a) martensite (b) ferrite
78. Percentage of carbon in carbon steel is (c) comontite (d) pearlite
(a) 0-1% (b) 0.1-1.5% 93. In steel, main alloy causing corrosion resistance is called
(c) 1.5-4.2% (d) 1- 3% (a) cobalt (b) vandium
79. Cutting tools are manufactured by (c) carbon (d) chromium
(a) High speed steel (b) Nickel steel 94. Hardness of Steel depends on
(c) Chormesteel (d) None of these (a) Carbon percentage
80. Silicon Steel is widely used in (b) Silicon percentage
(a) electrical industry (b) connecting rod (c) Shape and distribution of carbide in iron
(c) cutting tool (d) All of these (d) None of these
81. Steel containing 11- 14% chromium and 0.35% carbon is 95. Advantage of austempering is
called (a) mere uniform microstructure is obtained
(a) ferritic stainless steel (b) quenching eracts are avoided
(b) martensitic stainless steel (c) None of these
Badboys2 (c) austenitic stainless steel (d) All of the above
(d) All of these 96. Delta iron exists in the temperature range of
82. Nitriding is a process for (a) 1400C-1530C (b) 768Cto 900C
(a) softening (b) hardening (c) 1400C-1550C (d) 350-786C
(c) tempering (d) All of these 97. Induction hardening have high
83. Temperature at which the first tiny new grains appears is (a) carbon percentage (b) cemiteteformation
called (c) power factor (d) frequency
(a) melting temperature (b) criticaltemperature 98. Sorbite is obtained by
(c) pointing temperature (d) recrystallinetemperature (a) quenching of steel in oil
84. Annealing of steel is done to (b) heating above its critical temperature
(a) improvemachinability (b) softeners of metal (c) reduction of silicon percentage
(c) release internal stress (d) All of these (d) annealing of steel
99. Temperature at which the changes end on heating the steel
85. Machining properties of steel are improved by adding
is called
(a) Carbon
(a) uppercriticallimit (b) lowercriticallimit
(b) Chromimum
(c) melting point (d) point ofrecalesence
(c) Silicon 100. Heat treatment process is
(d) Sulphur, lead and phosphorus (a) hardening by quenching(b) annealing
86. To make low carbon steel tougher and harder (c) tempering (d) All of these
(a) Carbon is added (b) Carbon reduced 101. Ifsteel is slowlycooled in furnace, the structure obtained is
(c) Silicon added (d) Aluminium added called
87. Chilling heat treatment and alloy adding (a) ferrite (b) sorbite
(a) decreases machinability (c) martensite (d) pearlite
(b) increase machinability 102. Steel having combination of6.67% carbon and 93.33% of
(c) increase carbon percentage iron is known as
(d) None of these (a) austenite (b) pearlite
88. Ifsteel is cooled in still air, the structure obtained is called (c) cementite (d) martensite
(a) sorbite (b) pearlite 103. By normalising of steel, its
(c) toorsite (d) mortensite (a) ductility decrease
89. Heat treatment process used for castings is (b) ultimate tensile strength increase
(a) hardnening (b) normalising (c) field point increases
(c) annealing (d) tempering (d) All of the above
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104. An alloy steel contains 119. Wood for pattern is considered dry when moisture content is
(a) more than 0.5% Mn and 0.5% Si (a) 5% (b) zero
(b) more than 0.15% Mn and 0.5% Si (c) less than 15% (d) less than 30%
(c) less than 0.5% Mn and 0.15% Si 120. For steel casting following type of sand is better.
(d) more than I%MnandO.05 Si (a) coarse grain (b) fine grain
105. In carbon steel castings the percentage of (c) medium grain (d) None of these
(a) carbon between 1.5 - 2.5% 121. Trowel is
(b) carbon below 1.7% (a) pointed tool
(c) various carbon between 0.5 - 1.5% (b) wooden hammer
(d) more than 1.5% carbon (c) tool used to repair corner
106. In steel as the percentage of carbon increase the following (d) long, flat metal plate fitted with a wooden handle
has decrease 122. Shrinkage allowance is made by providing
(a) ductility (b) tensile strength (a) cores
(c) hardness (d) toughness (b) taper in casting
107. Silicon steel is widely used in (c) addition in dimension of pattern
(a) chemical industry (d) all of above
(b) mechanical parts making 123. Casting process in which molten metal poured into mould
(c) electrical industry under pressure is known as
(d) die and puncher (a) sand casting (b) slush casting
108. Weld decay is the phenomenon found with (c) vacuum casting (d) pressure die casting
(a) mild steel (b) wrought iron 124. Casting process in which mould kept revolving is known as
(c) cast iron (d) stainless steel (a) slush casting (b) vacuum casting
109. Annealing of white cast iron results in the production of (c) centrifugal casting (d) die casting
(a) nodulariron (b) cementite 125. Facing sand used in foundary work comprises of
(c) malleable iron (d) cast iron (a) Silica and Clay (b) Clay, sand and water
Badboys2 11O. Solder is an alloy of (c) Clay and abumina (d) Silica and aluminium
(a) copper and tin (b) lead and copper 126. Accuracy of shell moulding is of the order of
(c) lead with zinc (d) lead and tin (a) O.oInvm (b) 0.1 nvm
111. The manufacturing process in which metal change its state (c) 0.003m1mtoO.005m1m (d) None of these
from liquid to solid. 127. Mark the most suitable material for die casting in the following
(a) Casting (b) Machining (a) copper (b) Nickel
(c) Steel (d) Cast iron
(c) Forging (d) Turning
112. In which casting consumable pattern is used. 128. In general, the draft on casting is of the order of
(a) 10-15m1m (b) 10-5m1m
(a) Sand casting (b) die-casting
(c) 20-10mlm (d) 1-IOmlm
(c) PD.C (d) Investment casting
113. In case of Investment casting 129. The purpose of riser in a casting process
(a) wax pattern used (a) act as feeding way in mould
(b) wooden pattern used (b) act as reservoires
(c) metallic pattern used (c) feed molten metal from basis to gate
(d) any of these can be used (d) None
114. The casting process by which hollow casting produced 130. Match plate pattern is
without using core is known as (a) Green sand moulding (b) Pitmoulding
(a) Sand casting (b) Die casting (c) machining moulding (d) Pit moulding
(c) Centrifugal casting (d) Slush casting 131. For making ornaments and toys casting process used is
115. For non sysmetric shape suitable casting method is (a) die casting (b) Investment casting
(a) Sand casting (b) Slush casting (c) sand casting (d) slush casting
(c) investment casting (d) all of these 132. True centrifugal casting is used to get
116. The purpose of adding wood flour to foundry sand is to (a) chilled casting
improve
(b) accurate casting
(a) collapsibility (b) strength
(c) dynamically balanced casting
(c) mouldability (d) all of these
(d) Solid casting
117. Surface finish of casting depends upon
(a) mold degassing (b) pattern fmish 133. Draft on pattern for casting is providing for
(c) casting process (d) all of these (a) Sapteremoval from mould
118. Cores are used to make casting (b) adding shrinkage allowance
(a) Hollow (b) moresolid (c) providing better finishing in casting
(c) more economic (d) moreweak (d) for machining allowance
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134. The gate is provided in mould to 146. Consumable patterns are made of
(a) provide a reservoires (a) wax (b) polystyrene
(b) constant flow (c) ceramics (d) none of above
(c) feed mould according to rate of cooling 147. Limestone used in melting of cast iron acts as
(d) all of above (a) flux (b) catalyst
135. Sand slinger gives (c) alloying element (d) none of these
(a) better packing of sand 148. Electric indirect arc furnace is normally used for melting of
(a) non-ferrous alloys (b) cast steel
(b) uniform sand density
(c) ferrous alloys (d) all of these
(c) better packing of sand near flask
149. The draw back with metallic patterns is
(d) none of above
(a) costly (b) heavy in weight
136. As the size of casting increases, it is often better to use (c) difficult to shape (d) all of these
increasingly 150. There is no need of withdrawal of pattern from the mold if
(a) Coarse grain (b) fine grain is used
(c) mediumgrain (d) none of these (a) solid pattern (b) split pattern
137. Black colour marking in pattern is used to indicate (c) thermoplastic pattern (d) consumable pattern
(a) machined surface (b) un-machined surface 151. Polystyrene used as consumable pattern material has a
(c) parting surface (d) None relative density of
138. Loam Sand comprises of percentage of sand and mould (a) 1.2-1.25 KN/m3 (b) 0.2-0.25 KN/m3.
(a) 10: 50 (b) 20 : 80 (c) 0.2-1.0 KN/m3 (d) all ofthese
(c) 50 : 18 (d) 80:20 152. In small castings which of the following allowance can be
139. The ratio between the pattern shrinkage allowances of steel ignored
and iron is approx. (a) draft allowance (b) shrinkage allowance
(a) 2: 1 (b) 1: 1 (c) matching allowance (d) rapping allowance
(c) 1:2 (d) 1: 10 153. Small patterns are often used for
Badboys2 140. Sweep pattern is suitable for __ casting (a) bends (b) pipework
(a) small (b) medium (c) drainage pelting (d) all ofthese
(c) large (d) any of these 154. Permeability of sand decreases when
141. Fluidity is greatly influenced by the temperature of (a) moisture percentage increases
(a) tapping (b) melting (b) compactness increases
(c) solidification (d) pouring (c) bonding contents increases
(d) all of above
142. Chills are used in mould to
155. Providing more than adequate machining allowance
(a) achieve directional solidification
(a) increase machining cost
(b) reduce the possibility of blow holes
(b) reduce machining cost
(c) reduce freezing time
(c) reduce casting weight
(d) smoothens metal flow for reducing splatter (d) all of above
143. Which ofthe followingmaterialrequiresthe largestshrinkage 156. By compacting, sand density
allowance,while making a pattern for casting. (a) increases (b) decreases
(a) Aluminium (b) Brass (c) have no effect (d) None
(c) cast Iron (d) carbon steel 157. Compacting of sand affects its
144. The height of the down - sprue is 175 mm and its cross - (a) strength (b) permeability
sections area at the base is 200 mm-, the cross-sectional (c) density (d) all of these
area ofthe horizontal runner is also 200 mm/. Assuming no 158. The draft allowance to be provided on a pattern depends on
losses the correct choice for the time (in second) required to (a) vertical length of pattern
fill a mould cavityof volume 106 mm-, will be (use g = 10m! (b) intricacyofpattern
S2) (c) molding method
(a) 2.67 (b) 8.45 (d) all of above
(c) 26.72 (d) 84.50 159. Contraction allowance in cast steel casting will be least for
145. Two castings of the same metal have the same surface are casting, having dimensions
one casting is in the form of a sphere and the other is a cube. (a) upt0600mm (b) 600-1000mm
What is the ratio ofthe solidification time for the sphere to (c) 1000-1800mm (d) above1800mm
that of the cube. 160. Distortion in casting can be reduced by
3 6 (a) modifying design
(a) (b) 1t (b) sufficientmachining allowance
4
(c) improving foundary facility
5 31t (d) all of above
(c) (d)
41t 8
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161. Clay content of green sand is usually 173. Which of the following defect may occur due to improper
(a) 5-10% (b) 18-30% design of gating system.
(c) 5-30% (d) 10-50% (a) Cold sheets (b) mis-run
162. The water percentage in green sand is kept normally (c) rough surface (d) all of these
174. Sprue are generally
(a) 6-8% (b) 5-10010
(a) uniform in size (b) tapered downwards
(c) 10-20010 (d) 20-30%
(c) tapered upward (d) None
163. Clay used for foundary sand should be 175. The design of gate should be able to
(a) kaolinite (b) mont-morillonite (a) avoid erosion of cores and moulding cavity
(c) illite (d) all of these (b) prevent scum slag and eroded sand particles from
165. Main contents of moulding sand are entering the mould cavity
(a) Silica sand, clay and water (c) minimise turbulence and dross formation
(b) Silica sand, dust and carbon (d) all of above
(c) Sand, coal powder and water 176. In Magnesium alloy casting, normally solidification
(d) Green Sand and water shrinkage is of
(a) 1% (b) 2 %
165. is used in magnesium moulding process.
(c) 4 % (d) 10%
(a) boric sulphur (b) molasis
177. Solidification time for riser should be
(c) charcoal (d) all of these (a) less than that of casting
166. Graphite is sprinkled on the surface of green sand mold to (b) more than casting
(a) exclude the burn out effect (c) same as casting
(b) minimize surface defects (d) none of above
(c) improve surface finish 178. Forging of steel is done at a temperature of
(d) reduce the number of blow holes. (a) 800C (b) lO00C
Badboys2 167. Hot tears in casting are caused due to
(a) too much ramming of mold
(c) lO00F (d) 1200C
179. Process used for making Nut and Bolts is
(b) grain size of sand (a) hot piercing (b) upsetting
(c) size of casting (c) hot drawing (d) none of these
(d) rate of poring of molten metal 180. Process of shaping metal sheet by processing them against
168. Rough surface may appears due to a desired shape is known as
(a) large grain size sand (a) upsetting (b) spinning
(b) lowramming (c) rolling (d) all of these
(c) high permeability 181. Porosity of metal is largely eliminated in _
(d) anyone of above (a) cold working (b) hot working
169. Scabs may be caused by (c) annealing (d) casting
(a) low permeability of sand
182. Production of countours in flat blank is term as
(b) high moisture content of sand
(a) piercing (b) punching
(c) intermittent running of molten metal over sand surface
(c) blanking (d) upsetting
(d) all of the above
183. Forging temperature used for plain carbon steel is
170. The advantage of shell moulding is
(a) 800C (b) lO00C
(a) less sand requirement
(b) dimensional accuracy (c) 11OOC (d) 1300C
(c) good finish 184. Gear shaping is related to
(d) high productivity (a) upsetting (b) hot
171. Hardness of the mould is affected by (c) template (d) drawing
(a) ramming of moulding sand 185. Mass production generally done by
(b) percentage of moisture (a) Casting (b) Machining
(c) binder percentage (c) Hobbing (d) All of these
(d) all of above 186. Effect associated with cold forging is
172. Blow holes in casting are due to (a) shrinking (b) elongation
(a) high moisture content of sand (c) strain hardening (d) all of these
(b) low permeability of sand 187. Crank shaft is made by
(c) excessive fine grains and gas producing ingredients (a) hot forming (b) coldforming
(d) any of above (c) machining (d) casting
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188. For extrusion process 199. Notching is the operation of
(a) complex section are produced from bar stocks (a) removal of excess metal from the edge of strip to make
(b) the strength of finished product is improved due to it suitable for drawing without wrinkling
cold working (b) cutting in a single line across a part of the metal strip
(c) Good surface finish and close tolerence is generated allow bending or forming in progressive die operation
(d) all of these while the part remains attached to the strip
189. Seam less tube can be produced by (c) both (a) and (b)
(a) steam hammer forging (b) piercing (d) none of these
(c) casting (d) none of these 200. Process consists of pushing the metal inside a chamber to
force it out by high pressure through an orifice which is
190. Process of extrusion is like
shaped to provide the desired form of the finished part, is
(a) a tooth paste coming from tube
called
(b) air press from nozzle
(a) piercing (b) forging
(c) extrusion (d) cold peening
(d) none of these
201. Parts of circular cross section which are symmetrical about
191. Material good for extrusion is the axis of rotation are made by
(a) Low carbon steel (b) Cast iron (a) hot forging (b) hot spinning
(c) S.S. (d) HS.S. (c) cold forging (d) none of these
192. Upsetting or cold heading machine is a 202. Mechanical properties of the metal improve in hot working
(a) rolling process (b) extrusion process due to
(c) forging process (d) none of these (a) grain growth (b) recrystallisation
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193. The major problem in hot extrusion is (c) recovery of grains (d) refmement of grain size
(a) design of punch (b) design of die 203. If there are bad effects of strain hardening on a cold formed
(c) wear of punch (d) wear and tear of die part the part must be
194. Process of increasing the cross-section ofa bar and reducing (a) tempered (b) annealed
its length is called (c) hardned (d) normalised
(a) drawing down (b) drifting 204. A tooth paste tube can be produced by
(c) spinning (d) upsetting (a) hollow backward extrusion
195. Cold working (b) forging
(a) requires much higher pressure than hot working
(c) solid forward extrusion
(b) increase hardness
(d) none of these
(c) distort grain structure
205. The true strain for a low carbon steel bar which is doubled
(d) all of these in length by forging is
196. Cold working process can be applied on the component (a) 0.307 (b) 0.5
having diameters up to
(c) 0.693 (d) 1
(a) 20mm (b) 25mm
206. The process of hot extrusion is used to produce
(c) 30mm (d) 50mm
(a) certain rods made of aluminium
197. Which of the following is a gear finishing operation
(b) steel pipes for domestic water supply
(a) hobbing (b) milling
(c) stainless steel tubes used in furniture
(c) saving or burnishing (d) none of these
(d) large size pi pes used in city water main s
198. Roll forging
207. Extrusion process can effectively Reduce the cost ofproduct
(a) causes a steadily applied pressure instead of impact
through
force
(a) Saving in tooling cost
(b) is a forging method for reducing the making it longer
(b) Saving in administrative cost
(c) is used to force the end of a heated bar into a desired
shape (c) material saving
(d) none of these (d) all of these

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208. Hot press forging 220. Temperature of oxy-hydrogen flame as compared to oxy-
(a) causes a steadily pressure instead of impact force acetylene flame is
(b) is used to force the end of a heated bar into a desired (a) less
shape (b) more
(c) same
(c) is a forging method for reducing the diameter of a bar
(d) depends on oxygen percentage
and in the process making it layers
221. Oxidising flame is obtained by supplying
(d) all of these (a) more oxygen and less volume of acetylene.
209. In hot working (b) both oxygen and acetylene kept in same volume.
(a) annealing operation is not necessary (c) acetylene volume kept more than oxygen volume
(b) power repowerments are low (d) None of these
(c) surface finish is good 222. Oxidising flameas comparedto neutral flame has inner core
(a) shorter in size (b) less luminous
(d) grain refinement is possible
(c) more luminous (d) both (a) and (b)
210. In a solid extrusion die, purpose of knock out pin is 223. Maximum flametemperature occurs
(a) shopping the part to extrude through the hose (a) at inner core of flame (b) at outer core of flame
(b) ejecting the part after extrusion (c) attipofflame (d) next to the inner core
(c) allowing the job to have better surface finish 224. Maximum used flame in gas welding method is
(d) reducing the waste of material (a) oxidising (b) neutral
211. In electric resistance welding, two copper electrodes used (c) carburising (d) None of these
to cooled by 225. Strongest brazing joint is
(a) air (b) water (a) Lapjoint (b) Buttwelding
Badboys2 (c) both (a) and (b) (d) None of these (c) Scrafwelding (d) None of these
212. An example of fusion welding is 226. Melting point of the filler metal in brazing should be above
(a) 400C (b) 420C
(a) Thermitwelding (b) Arc welding
(c) 6(X)C (d) 800C
(c) Forge welding (d) Gas welding
213. Welding process in which flux is used in form of gannual is 227. Seam welding is continuous
(a) spot welding process
(a) D.C.Arc welding (b) Spot welding
(b) type of projection welding
(c) Thermitwelding (d) SubmergedArc welding
(c) multi-spot welding
214. In arc welding face shield used to protect eyes from
(d) None of these
(a) Spatters
228. Welding process preferred for cutting and welding for non-
(b) Spark
ferrous metal is
(c) Infra-red and ultraviolet rays
(a) MIGwelding (b) TIGwelding
(d) None of these
(c) Inert gas welding (d) None of these
215. Gases used in tungsten gas welding are
229. The welding process in which electrode do not consumed
(a) Carbon dioxide and H2(b) CO2 and oxygen
is
(c) Argon and helium (d) Acetylene and nitrogen
(a) MIG welding (b) TIGwelding
216. Open circuit voltage for Arc welding is of the order of
(c) Argon welding (d) None of these
(a) 20-40V (b) 10-20V
230. The welding process in which electrode get consumed is
(c) 40-50V (d) 40-95V
(a) MIGwelding (b) TIGwelding
217. Welding of steel structure on site work of a building easily
(c) Spot welding (d) None of these
made by
231. Grey cast iron is usually welded by
(a) Spot welding (b) Buttwelding
(a) resistance welding (b) gas welding
(c) Arcwelding (d) Any of the above
(c) spot welding (d) arc welding
218. Tig welding is preffered in followingmetal welding
232. In arc welding using direct current amount of useful arc
(a) Silver (b) Aluminium
heat at the anode and cathode respectively are
(c) Mild steel (d) All of these
(a) two third of one third (b) One third and two third
219. In arc welding temperature generated is of the following
(c) equal (d) none of these
order.
233. Multipoint welding process is
(a) lOOOC (b) 1800C
(a) seam welding (b) spot welding
(c) 3500C (d) More than 4000C
(c) projection welding (d) percussion welding
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234. Amount of current required in electrical resistance welding 247. In arc welding current used is
regulated by changing the (a) AC. current at low frequency
(a) polarity (b) AC. current at high frequency
(b) input supply (c) D.C. current
(c) by altering no. ofturns of primary winding (d) All of these
(d) by changing no. of turns of secondary winding 248. An arc is produced between a bare metal electrode and the
235. Welding of chromium molybdenum steels cannot use work in welding process known as
(a) Oxygen acetylene welding
(a) Gas welding (b) Submerged arc welding
(b) Thermitwelding
(c) D.C.welding (d) None of these
(c) Soldering
249. Seam welding used for metal sheets having thickness in the
(d) Electric arc welding
range
236. Spot-welding, projection welding and seam welding are
classification of (a) below3 mm (b) 3-5mm
(a) Thermitwelding (b) Resistance welding (c) 3-6mm (d) 0.025-3mm
(c) Arc welding (d) Spot welding 250. In Arc welding, range of temperature generated at arc is
237. An arc is produced between a bare metal electrode and (a) IOOOC - 2000C (b) 2000C- 4000C
workin (c) 4000C-6000C (d) None of these
(a) D.C.welding (b) Submerged arc welding 251. Projection welding is a
(c) Spot welding (d) None of these (a) type of arc welding
238. In arc welding, two low welding speed results in (b) type of continuous spot welding
(a) Excessivepilling up of weld metal (c) type of gas welding
(b) Electrode waistage (d) none of these
(c) Over hauling without penetration edge 252. In resistance welding voltage used for heating is
Badboys2 (d) All of these
239. Fillers material is essentially used in
(a) below 10V (b) 10V
(c) higher than 10V (d) None of these
(a) Spot welding (b) Gas welding 253. In arc welding, penetration is minimum for
(c) Seamwelding (d) Projection welding
(a) DCSP (b) OCRP
240. Rate of welding steel by carburising flame as compared to
(c) AC. (d) None of these
neutral flame is
254. In electrical resistance welding, pressure applied varies in
(a) less (b) same
the range
(c) more (d) all of the above
(a) 50-100kgF/cm2 (b) 100-150kgF/cm2
241. Carburising flame is used to weld
(a) Brass and bronze (c) 150-200 kg F/cm2 (d) 250-550kgF/cm2
(b) Steel, and copper 255. Which of the following current is preferred for welding of
(c) Hard surfacing materials such as satellite non-ferrous metal by arc welding?
(d) Any of above (a) DC (b) AC. at high frequency
242. Filler material is used in (c) AC. at low frequency (d) None of these
(a) Spot welding (b) Butt welding 256. Main criterion for electrode diameter selection is
(c) Seamwelding (d) None of these (a) Thickness of work piece
243. Cleaning of metal in electrical resistance welding is (b) Typeof work piece metal
(a) important (b) not important (c) Welding pressure applied
(c) have no effect (d) none of these (d) Welding process applied
244. An example of fusion welding is 257. In projectionwelding diameterofthe projectionas compared
(a) Spot welding (b) Gas welding
to thickness of the sheet is approximately
(c) Projection welding (d) All of these
(a) same (b) half
245. Welding process using a pool of molten metal is
(c) double (d) 1.5times
(a) TIGwelding (b) MIGwelding
(c) Submergedarc welding(d) None of these 258. Number of zones of heat generation in spot welding are
246. In spot welding the electrode tip diameter (d) should be (a) 1 (b) 2
equal to (c) 3 (d) None of these
259. In spot welding tip of electrode made up of
(a) Less than .[t (b).[t
(a) Sinteredmetal (b) Carbide
(c) j15i (d) (c) Copper (d) Brass
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260. Material used for coating the electrode is called 272. In MIG welding helium or argon is used in order to
(a) binder (b) oxidiser (a) act as flux (b) act as shielding medium
(c) flux (d) slag (c) providing cooling effect(d) all of these
261. In arc welding, arc is created between work piece and 273. Oxygen to acetylene ratio in carburising flame is
electrodes due to (a) 0.5: 1 (b) 0.9: 1
(a) type of current (c) 1: 1 (d) 1: 2
(b) electronsjumping from electrode to workpiece 274. A lathe machine special in
(c) high resistivity due to presence of air (a) Diameter oflathe
(d) none of these (b) Gross weight of machine
262. During Arc welding with increaseof thickness ofmaterial to (c) Speed of lathe
be welded, welding current have to (d) Swing oflathe
(a) decrease (b) increase 275. Lathe machine bed made up of
(c) remain constant (d) none of these (a) alloys (b) cast iron
263. In resistance welding pressure released (c) mild steel (d) prg Iron
276. Shanks of tapes drills are provided standard tapes known
(a) after welds gets cool
as
(b) when work gets heated
(a) tapes shank (b) morse tapes
(c) just after the weld completed
(c) chapman tapes (d) None of these
(d) none of these 277. The length of a hacksaw blade is measured from
264. Welding process used for joining round bars is (a) extreme end to extreme end
(a) Thermitwelding (b) Projection welding (b) centre of hole at one end to the center of holes at the
(c) Seamwelding (d) Butt welding other end
265. Welding in which the metals to be joined are heated to a (c) the formula L = 16 x width
Badboys2 molten state are allowed to solidify in presence of a filler (d) None of the above
materials is called 278. A plug gauge is used for measuring
(a) Spot welding (b) Fusion welding (a) out side bore (b) cylindrical bores
(c) spherical holes (d) tapes bores
(c) D.C.welding (d) None of these
279. Standard milling arbores size is
266. In a welding process, flux is used to
(a) Permit perfect cohesion of metal 1_!_"
(a) 1" (b)
(b) remove oxides of metal formed at high temperature 4
(d) none of these (c) _!_" (d) Anyone of above
2
267. In electrical resistance welding
(a) Voltagekept high and current also high 280. Standard taper generally used on milling machine spindles
is
(b) Voltagekept high and current kept low
(a) Morsetaper (b) Shellr'sistaper
(c) Voltagekept low and current kept high
(c) Champman taper (d) None of these
(d) None of these
281. Sintered and tungsten carbides can be machined by
268. In forehand gas welding operation, the angle between the (a) Conventional process (b) Grinding only
rod and work piece is kept around (c) E.DM. (d) None
(a) 15 (b) 10-20 282. The binding material used in cemented carbide tool is
(c) 30 (d) 45 (a) chromium (b) cobalt
269. Material best weldable with itselfis (c) sulpher (d) nickel
(a) copper (b) aluminium 283. Discontinous chips are formed during machining by
(c) mild steel (d) all of these (a) mild Steel (b) aluminium
270. Arc length in electric Arc welding is the distance between (c) cast Iron (d) brass
284. Continous chips are formed while machining of
tip of the electrode and
(a) cast iron (b) mild steel
(a) work piece (b) bottom of crates
(c) aluminium (d) None of these
(c) centre of crates (d) none of these
285. To prevent tool from rubbing the work, angle provided on
271. Oxygen to acetylene ratio in case ofneutral flame is tool is
(a) 0: 1 (b) 1:2 (a) reliefangle (b) rake angle
(c) 0.8:2 (d) 2: 1 (c) clearance angle (d) None of these
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A-21S Production Engineering

286. In metal machining due to burnishing friction, heat is 300. Cutting speed should be kept low while machining
generated in the (a) Soft material
(a) friction zone (b) friction less zone (b) Regular shape material
(c) work-tool contact zone (d) None of these (c) Casting
287. A single point tool has (d) All of above
(a) rake angle (b) cutting angle 301. The type of chip produced when cutting ductile material is
(c) clearance angle (d) None of these (a) continous (b) discontinous
288. Angle on which the strength of the tool depends is (c) built up edge (d) None of these
(a) cutting angle (b) lip angle 302. The average cutting speed for machining a cast iron by a
(c) rake angle (d) clearence angle high speed tool steel tool is
289. Velocity oftool relative to workpiece is called (a) 10m/min (b) 20m/min
(a) average velocity (b) cutting velocity (c) 30m/min (d) None of these
(c) shear velocity (d) chip velocity 303. Relief angle on high speed tools generally vary in the range
290. The angle provided to prevent rubbing between workpiece (a) 0-5 (b) 5_10
and cutting tool is known as (c) 10-20 (d) 20 to 30
(a) relief angle (b) rake angle
304. In metal machining, due to friction between the moving chip
(c) lip angle (d) None of these
and the tool face, heat is generated in the
291. Cutting tool used in lathe, shaper and planer is
(a) Shear zone (b) Friction zone
(a) Multi point cutting tool
(c) Work-tool contact zone (d) None of the above
(b) Two point cutting tool
305. Material having lowest cutting speed is
(c) Single point cutting tool
(a) Bronze (b) Aluminium
(d) Multi point cutting tool
(c) High carbon steel (d) Cast iron
292. Angle between the tool face and the ground and surface of
306. Cutting tools used on milling machining machine is
fank is called
Badboys2 (a) rake angle (b) lip angle
(a) Single point
(c) Multi point
(b) Double point
(d) Any of above
(c) clearance angle (d) cutting angle
307. The cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the direction
293. Velocity of tool along the tool face is called
of tool travel in
(a) Chip velocity (b) Cutting velocity
(a) oblique cutting (b) orthogonal cutting
(c) Shear velocity (d) None of these
294. The depth of cut depends upon (c) both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
(a) tool material 308. Orthogonal cutting system is also called
(b) cutting speed (a) Single-dimensional cutting system
(c) regidityofmachining tool (b) Two-dimensional cutting system
(d) All of these (c) Three dimensional cutting system
295. The metal in machining operation is removed by (d) Any of above
(a) distortion of metal 309. In metal cutting operations, chips are formed due to
(b) shearing the metal across a zone (a) stress deformation
(c) tearing chips (b) shear deformation
(d) cutting the metal across a zone (c) sharpness of cutting edge
296. Tool life is most affected by (d) linear transformation
(a) tool geometry (b) cutting speed 310. With increase of cutting speed, the built up edge made
(c) feed and depth (d) None of these (a) larger in size (b) smaller
297. Tool signature (c) remains same (d) None of these
(a) description of tool shape 311. Cutting ratio is the ratio of
(b) the plane of tool (a) Chip thickness to depth of cut
(c) design and description of various angles provide on (b) Chip velocity to cutting velocity
tool (c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) brandlmodle none of tool (d) None of the above
298. Tool signature comprised of 312. Continous chips formed when machining speed is
(a) property of tool (b) speed of cutting tool (a) lower (b) constant
(c) 7-various elements (d) 6-elements (c) higher (d) None of these
299. Depth of cut for roughing operation as companied to 313. Which of the following tool material has highest cutting
finishing operation is speed?
(a) same (b) more (a) HS.S. (b) Carbon steel
(c) less (d) None of these (c) Tool steel (d) Carbide tools
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314. Tool cutting forces, with increase in cutting speed 328. With high speed steel tools, the maximum safe operating
(a) increase linearly (b) decrease linearly temperature is in order of
(c) remains constant (d) None of these (a) below200C (b) above300C
315. Chip breakers are provided on cutting tool is (c) 200C (d) None of these
(a) for operator's safety 329. Best method of increasing the rate of removaling metal is
(b) better finish (a) increase feed rate (b) increase depth of cut
(c) permit short ships (c) increase speed of tool (d) increase cutting angle
(d) forminimizing heat generation 330. In a cutting operation, the largest force is
316. Maximum cutting angles are used for machining (a) Radial force
(a) cast iron (b) mild steel (b) Longitudinal force
(c) aluminiumalloys (d) None of these (c) Tangential force
317. When radial force in cutting is two large will cause (d) Force along shear plane
(a) better finish (b) poor finish 331. Metal in machining operation is removed by
(c) decrease tool life (d) increase tool life (a) distortion of material (b) shearing of metal
318. Segmentedchips are formedwhile machining (c) fracturing of metal (d) any of above
(a) softmaterial (b) tough material 332. When material is ductile and cutting speed is slow then
chips formed are
(c) brittlematerial (d) high speed steel
(a) Continuous (b) Discontinuous
319. As cutting speed increase the built up edge
(c) Powder shape (d) None of these
(a) reduced (b) increase
333. During machining process when ductile metal is cutting at
(c) becomelarger (d) None of these
medium speed then chips formed are
320. In tool signature, the largest nose radius is indicated
(a) Continuous
(a) in starting (b) at the end (b) Discontinuous
(c) in middle (d) All of these (c) Continuous with built up edge
Badboys2 321. In equation YIn = C, value ofn depends on
(a) Material of workpiece (b) Material of tool
(d) Power shape
334. Chip formedwhen Ductile Metalmachined with high speed
(c) Cutting position (d) All of these (a) Continuous chips
322. The relationship betweentool life (T) and cutting speed (Y) (b) Discontinuous chips
m/min is given as (c) Continuous chips with built up edge
yn (d) Fragmented chips with built up edge
(a) v r-c (b) -=C
T
335. Material having hight cutting speed is
(a) Bronze (b) Aluminium
(c) Cast Iron (d) High carbon steel
(c) rY
=C (d) vr=-c 336. An angle provided between tool face and line tangent to
the machined surface at cutting points called as
323. Chips are broken effectively due to which ofthe following (a) rake angle (b) lip angle
property (c) cutting angle (d) clearance angle
(a) Elasticity (b) Toughness 337. Angle provided in a single point cutting tool to control chip
(c) Workhardening (d) Stress produced flow is
224. Continous chips are formed when machining (a) Siderake angle (b) End relief angle
(a) brittle metal (b) ductilemetal (c) Backrake angle (d) Sliderelief angle
(c) high speed (d) All of these 338. Velocityof chip relative to work-piece is acting
325. Finishing obtained on workpiece mostly affected by (a) Along the shear plane
(a) Cutting speed (b) Feed rake (b) Normal to shear plane
(c) Lubricant used (d) Depth of cut (c) Normal to tool place
326. Machinability tends to decrease with (d) Along the tool face
(a) increase in strain-hardening 339. The coefficient of friction between chip and tool can be
(b) increase in tensile strength reduced by reducing the
(c) increase in carbon contents (a) loweringrake angle (b) feed of tool
(c) width of tool (d) dept of cut
(d) None of these
340. In metal machining due to plastic deformation of metal
327. Machinability tends to increase with
maximum heat is generated in the
(a) increase in hardness
(a) Friction zone
(b) decrease with decrease hardness
(b) Shear zone
(c) remain same as hardness varies
(c) Point of contact of cutting tip and work piece
(d) proper stress releaving and proper heat treatment (d) All of above
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Handbook To SSC JE Mechanical-1

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Recruitment Exam Guide

Recruitment Exam Guide

1. Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials A-I - A-40

2. Theory of Machines & Machine Desig A-4I - A-82

3. Thermal Engineering A-83 - A-135

4. Fluid Mechanics and Machinery A-136 - A-173

5. Production Engineering A-174 - A-220

SECTION A : MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Concurrent Parallel Non-concurrent

A-2 Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials

3. Coplanar parallel force: All the forces act in a plane and

4. Coplanar non-concurrent, non-parallel: In this case, the Psina

a, ~, y = Angles included between three forces P, Q and R

Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials A-3

From fig : tan <I> = : = Il => <I> = tan -1(FIR)

Badboys2 Surface/ Support

A-4 Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials A-5

1 Stress developed in one direction ~ uniaxial state of stress

If the body is rotating 0) rad/s along a circular path of radius r,

A-6 Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials

100 120 10]

Zxz = 10 (i.e., shear stress acting onx face along Z direction) : La :

Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials A-7

directly propotional to longitudinal strain For K=oo

A-8 Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials

Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials A-9

Badboys2 E = Young's modulus of elasticity

(c) Overhanging beam:

Let, LI' L2, L3 = Lengths of bars

A-tO Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials

Assumptions for Thin Cylindrical Vessels Bending Moment Sign Convention

along = 4t' ahoop = 2t

Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials A-l1

width should be varied linearly.

(crb)max Y D ~ diameter of log (given)

A-12 Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials

~ Square with DiagonalsVertical:

in a circular cross-section 1'max =

Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials A-13

Deflection downwards (-ve) 9 (-ve ML ML2

A-14 Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials

L : distance of cross-section from fixed end

doesn't give doesn't give J L R

A For hollow shafts, Zp = 1: D3 (1 - K4)

Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials A-15

Column is defined as a vertical structural member which is

A-16 Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials

Both Ends Both Ends Fixed and Fixed and n2E

Badboys2a4 nr4 na4 a4

(Pe)l = 4n 072 = 4n(0.72) _

Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials A-17

Now, Let o. (maximum principal stress) and o, ora3 (minimun

A-IS Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials

[(at +a~ +(J~ )-2y(ala2 +a2 a3 +a3aI)] ~ a~

Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials

I.. EXERCISE ..., A-19

1. If M 1 and M2 are two masses of two bodies, 'R' is the

A B C (a) 8L = wL (b) 8L = 2wL

A-20 Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials

19. If (')1' (')2and (')yare maximum principal stress, minimum

Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials A-21

(a) ! [crt + cr~+ cr~+ J..l(

32. Poisson's ratio is described as the ratio of: 1 1