Lecture at Nanyang Technical Univerity

16th January 2015

Lessons learned from international

underground projects during 30 years

Professor emeritus Einar Broch

NTNU; Norwegian University of Science and Technology

Trondheim, Norway
 Geology of Norway
Two thirds: Precambrian rocks. Gneiss
dominating (granites, gabbros and quartzite).

One third: Paleozoic rocks. Gneisses,

mica-schists and greenstones + sandstones,
shales, limestones.

Typical hard rock province.

Folding, faulting and high tectonic stresses

influence the stability in tunnels and
underground caverns
TUNNELS AND UNDERGROUND WORKS FOR
HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

The development of underground hydropower

projects in Norway

Applying the experience from air cushions to gas

storage caverns

Roof stability of large underground powerhouses.

Lessons learned from water tunnels around the world

Concluding remarks
 Norwegian hydroelectric power capacity and
accumulated length of tunnels excavated for the period
1950 1990
 NORWEGIAN HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

99% of a total annual production of 125 TWh of

electric energy is generated from hydropower

Of the world's 600 - 700 underground powerhouses

200 are located in Norway

More than 4000 km of hydropower tunnels.

2 4 % of the tunnels are lined with concrete or

shotcrete
Development of
the general lay-
out of
hydroelectric
plants in
Norway.
 EARLY REASONS FOR GOING
UNDERGROUND
Traditional design was to bring the water to the
powerhouse through a steel penstock

Both the penstock and the powerhouse were above

ground structures.

Four Norwegian hydropower stations with unlined

pressure shafts were put into operation during the
years 1919-21 because of shortage of steel after the
war

Water heads varied from 72 to 152 m.

 DEVELOPMENT AFTER 1945

After the Second World War, underground location of

powerhouses was given preference based on safety
considerations

Rapid advances in rock excavation methods soon

showed that this was the most economic solution.

Underground solutions also gave freedom of layout

independent of the surface topography.

Underground location of the powerhouse is now

chosen whenever sufficient rock cover is available.
Early underground hydropower stations
Modern underground hydropower station
Steelfibre
reinforced
shotcrete arch

Rock bolt
supported crane
beam.
Exposing and illuminating the gneissic rock wall at
Tafjord K5 hydropower station
Extension of the Nedre Vinstra hydropower
station
Development of
the general lay-
out of
hydroelectric
plants in
Norway.

UNLINED
PRESSURE
SHAFTS
The development of unlined pressure shafts and
tunnels in Norway
 CONCRETE PLUG ACCESS TUNNEL

PRESSURE

Plan and
SHAFT
TAILRACE TUNNEL

cross section
TRASHRACK
GATE
TURBINE

of an

TRA

R
BE
NS

AM
underground

PO
RT
TU E CH
PLAN OF AN UNDERGROUND HYDROPOWER NNEL SUR G
&

hydropower
PLANT WITH UNLINED WATERWAY

plant with
CROSS SECTION THROUGH THE WATERWAY
unlined
waterways.

STEEL & CONCRETE

LINING LINING
Development of
the general lay-
out of
hydroelectric
plants in
Norway.

AIR CUSHION
SURGE
CHAMBER
 air
c ush
i on
su
53 rge c
m ham
ber
connection
tunnel
Plan and
unlined rock
A
profile of
headrace flow
the Ulset
plan
A
air
53 m
cushion
unlined rock el. 599
air cushion surge
el. 595 water bed

chamber
headrace
pressure
tunnel
section A - A
water-curtain
borehole

cavern
Plan and
connection
tunnel
profile of the
Torpa air
Plan
cushion
water-curtain
gallery surge
water-curtain
plug borehole
chamber
air pressure
4.44 Mpa (abs.)
water bed
connection
tunnel to
headrace

Vertical section
Main data for compressed air storage
 PRINCIPLES FOR STORING OF GAS IN
UNLINED ROCK CAVERNS

Internal storage pressure must be sustained by the

minimum in-situ rock stress to avoid hydraulic splitting

The ground water pressure and the gradient of the

water seepage towards the cavern provides
containment

Ground water infiltration from curtains of drill-holes

supplements the natural ground water

The Norwegian authorities require a safety margin of

15m water head above the storage pressure
 GAS STORAGE - GROUTING

If the rock mass is too permeable, grouting is

performed to obtain the required permeability.

As a rule, grouting shall be performed as pre-

excavation grouting of the rock mass ahead of the
cavern, around the periphery

Post- excavation grouting is limited to supplementing

pre-excavation grouting where required
 Unlined gas storage development in
Norway

Pressurised water tunnels up to 10 MPa

LPG storage pressure up to 1 MPa at rock

temperature

Refrigerated LPG storage down to 42

degrees C at atm. pressure

Air cushion chambers up to 8 MPa

 Xiaolangdi Powerhouse (China)
Span: 26 m, Length: 250 m, Heigth: 58 m

Flatlying sandstone, Q = 8 12, RMR = 59 66

Rock overburden: 85 115 m

Original roof support: 8 and 12 m long rock bolts,

spacing 1.5 m + 20 cm reinforced shotcrete

Added support: 345 pieces of 25 m long tendon

anchors, capacity 1500 kN
Flatlying sandstone in the roof of Xiaolangdi
powerhouse
 Xiaolangdi
powerhouse
in China
 Xiaolangdi Powerhouse (China)

Stability analyses of the cavern show:

Displacements in walls are greater than in roof
A natural 5 m thick crown arch is formed

The grouted rock bolts contribute to the reduction of

the roof subsidence.
Only small loads within limited lengths of the bolts

Self-supported natural crown arch is established

 Xiaolangdi Powerhouse (China)

Tensioned cables have marginal reduction effect on

roof settlement
Tension cables may increase wall displacement

The upward support force counteracts the forming of

an arch

Tensioned rock anchors may have a negative

influence on the stability of the roof in a cavern
Application of high tension cables apply upward
force to the cavern roof arch, thus might not work
as expected
Gjvik
Olympic
Mountain
Hall

Span: 61m
Gjvik Olympic Mountain Hall
Guavio tailrace
tunnel
(Colombia)
Guavio Tailrace Tunnel
 GUAVIO TAILRACE TUNNEL, COLUMBIA

7.Nov. 1983 water under high pressure in probe hole

25 m ahead of tunnel face
Leakage increased rapidly to 7 l/sec.

During following day two slides, leakages up to 40

l/sec and 70 l/sec

350 m3 of sand flushed into the tunnel

Tunnel face moved 4 m

Tunnel face was blocked by concrete

 GUAVIO TAILRACE TUNNEL, COLUMBIA

During following months several attempts to reduce

groundwater level

Many small inflows of sand , total 5,000 m3

Impossible to reduce pore water pressure below 20

bars (Annual rainfall 4,000-5,000 mm)
 GUAVIO TAILRACE TUNNEL, COLUMBIA

Decided to excavate 3.5 m diameter pilotunnel

and to grout a head of tunnel face.

15 months for excavation of 77 m pilot tunnel

Several slides and inflows, total 15,000 m3

Most serious water inflow 400 l/sec

Guavio Tailrace Tunnel
 Guavio Tailrace Tunnel

Final tunnel has diameter 8.5

Radial grouting and drainage.

Max. distance between grout holes 1.5 m
Max. distance between drain holes 3.0 m

All drilling through blow-out preventers

Total amount of grout for pilot tunnel and final tunnel

was 15,000 m3
Grouting and drainage pattern for
enlargement of the Guavio tunnel
 GUAVIO TAILRACE TUNNEL, COLUMBIA

The 77 m of tailrace tunnel was excavated by

roadheader in 1 m steps

Heavy steel ribs, spacing 1 m and shotcrete

Final support: circular concrete lining

Tunnelling through the 77 m difficult zone completed

after 3.5 years
 Guavio Tailrace Tunnel

Lysbilde_2.jpg
Plan and longitudinal section of the Lesotho
Highland Water Project.
Upper formation: Basalt, Lower formation: Sandstone
Dog-earing in sandstone due to high vertical
stresses in tunnel in Lesotho
 Dog-earing in sandstone due to high
vertical stresses in tunnel in Lesotho

Spalling developed very slowly several weeks after

the TBM excavation

Spalling always occurred were the ratio of the uniaxial

strength/vertical stress was lower than 2.5

Time dependent overstressing was also observed in

areas with ratios up to 4.0
Dog-earing in sandstone due to high
vertical stresses in tunnel in Lesotho
Plan and longitudinal section of the Lesotho
Highland Water Project.
Upper formation: Basalt, Lower formation: Sandstone
 Crazing due to weathering in
amygdaloidal basalts
The 45 km long, 5.0 m diameter Transfer tunnel was
basically dry during excavation.

After some time cracking was observed in the few wet

places
Caused by swelling smectite minerals and zeolites

Comprehensive system for evaluation of the rock and

the need for support
 Crazing due to weathering in
amygdaloidal basalts
Crazing due to weathering in
amygdaloidal basalts
Crazing due to weathering in
amygdaloidal basalts
Glendoe HPP in Scotland
Collaps in headracetunnel Glendoe HPP
Nessies oldemor
 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Hydropower tunnels are special because:
During excavation they are filled with air
During operation they are filled with water

Some rocks and particularly some gouge material in

weakness zones are sensitive to water.
Stability problems if not properly supported.

Worst case is full tunnel collapse, - has happened in four

projects: Norway(1989), Scotland(2009), Chile(2011),
Peru (2012).
 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Many rocks are not sensitive to water.

Leaving hydropower tunnels basically unlined gives

considerable cost savings.

Minot rock falls are accepted. Rock trap needed at the

end of the unlined tunnel.
 CONCLUDING REMARKS

Internal water pressure in hydropower tunnels can be

counter-acted by localising the tunnels or shafts deep
enough.
Considerable cost and time saving if steel lining can be
avoided.

From the operation of unlined air cushions we have

learned that also air and gas under high pressure can
be stored underground.

Only fantasy sets limits to the utilization of the

underground.