Bones

There are 206 bones in the adult body. The bones perform five main functions for the body:

Provide support: The skeletal system provides structural support for the entire body.
Individual bones or groups of bones provide a framework for the attachment of soft
tissues and organs.
Store minerals and lipids: Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body. (Ninety-
nine percent of the body's calcium is found in the skeleton.) The calcium salts of bone
are a valuable mineral reserve that maintains normal concentrations of calcium and
phosphate ions in body fluids. The bones of the skeleton also store energy reserves as
lipids (fats) in areas filled with yellow marrow.
Produce blood cells: Red blood cells, white blood cells, and other blood elements are
produced in the red marrow, which fills the internal cavities of many bones.
Protect body organs: Many soft tissues and organs are surrounded by skeletal elements.
For example, the rib cage protects the heart and lungs, the skull protects the brain, the
vertebrae protect the spinal cord, and the pelvis protects the delicate reproductive
organs.
Provide leverage and movement: Many bones function as levers that can change the
magnitude (strength) and direction of the forces generated by muscles.

Bone structure

Each bone in the skeleton contains two forms of tissue: compact (dense) bone that is relatively
solid, and spongy (cancellous) bone that forms an open network of struts and plates. Compact
bone is found on the external surface of the bone; spongy bone is located inside the bone.

The amount of compact and spongy bone depends on the shape of the bone. Compact bone is
thickest where stresses arrive from a limited range of directions. Spongy bone is located where
bones are not heavily stressed or where stresses arrive from many directions. Spongy bone is
much lighter than compact bone, which helps reduce the weight of the skeleton and makes it
easier for muscles to move the bones.

Bone development and growth

The growth of the skeleton determines the size and proportions of the body. Bones begin to
form in a fetus about six weeks after fertilization, and portions of the skeleton do not stop
growing until a person is about 25 years old.

Most bones begin as hyaline cartilage. The cartilage is gradually converted to bone through a
process called ossification. Bone growth begins at the center of the cartilage. As bones enlarge,
bone growth activity shifts to the ends of the bones (an area commonly called the growth
plate), which causes the bones to grow longer.
Bone growth "factoids"

Twenty percent of the adult skeleton is replaced each year.

Moderate amounts of physical activity and weight-bearing activities are essential to
stimulate bone maintenance and to maintain adequate bone strength.

Other elements of the musculoskeletal system

Joints: These are where two bones interconnect. Each joint reflects a compromise
between stability and range of motion. For example, the bones of the skull are very
stable but with little motion, whereas the shoulder joint allows for a full range of motion
but is a relatively unstable joint.
Tendons: These attach muscle to bone.
Ligaments: These attach bone to bone.
 Skeletal muscles: These muscles contract to pull on tendons and move the bones of the
skeleton. Skeletal muscles also:
o Maintain posture and body position;
o Support soft tissues;
o Guard entrances and exits to the digestive and urinary tracts; and, Maintain body
temperature.
Nerves: Nerves control the contraction of skeletal muscles, interpret sensory
information, and coordinate the activities of the body's organ systems.
Cartilage: This is a type of connective tissue. It is a firm gel-like substance. The body
contains three major types of cartilage: hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage,
and fibrocartilage.
o Hyaline cartilage is the most common type of cartilage. It provides stiff but somewhat
flexible support. Examples in adults include the tips of ribs (where they meet the
sternum [breastbone]) and part of the nasal septum. Another example is articular
cartilage, which covers the ends of bones within a joint. The surfaces of articular
cartilage are slick and smooth, which reduces friction during joint movement.
o Elastic cartilage provides support but can tolerate distortion without damage and return
to its original shape. Elastic cartilage can be found in the external flap of the ear, among
other places.
o Fibrocartilage resists compression, prevents bone-to-bone contact, and limits relative
movement. Fibrocartilage can be found within the knee joint, between the pubic bones
of the pelvis, and between the spinal vertebrae.

Cartilage heals poorly, and damaged fibrocartilage in joints such as the knee can interfere with
normal movements. The knee contains both hyaline cartilage and fibrocartilage. The hyaline
cartilage covers bony surfaces; fibrocartilage pads in the joint prevent contact between bones
during movement. Injuries to the joints can produce tears in the fibrocartilage pads, and the
tears do not heal. Eventually, joint mobility is severely reduced.

The different types of muscles :

a. smooth muscles
b. cardiac muscles
c. skeletal muscles