University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg

School of Information and Electrical Engineering

ELEN7043 Advanced Electromechanical Conversion

Laboratory Project

Modeling, Experimental Parameter Estimation

and Performance Analysis of a 0.75KW, 4 Pole
Synchronous Machine

Name : Lekhema Gerard Ratoka

Date submitted: 18th March 2014

Abstract

In this document, a mathematical time-domain model for a standalone 0.75 KVA, salient-
pole synchronous machine is developed. The model is developed with electrical and
mechanical parameters. The electrical and mechanical parameters are estimated
experimentally. The electrical parameters are resistances, self and mutual inductances.
The harmonic contents of the electrical parameters due to saliency are also considered
and approximated. The mechanical parameters are inertia and damping coefficient. The
developed model is programmed in MATLAB and the machine dynamic performance
simulated under excitation and no excitation conditions. The results obtained are
critically discussed and the accuracy of the developed model evaluated.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ......................................................................................................................... 2

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 5

2. Operational Theory ................................................................................................... 5

2.1 Armature and Field Windings ................................................................................. 5

2.2 Construction of Synchronous Generator ................................................................. 6

2.3 Synchronous Machine Design Trade-offs .............................................................. 7

3. The Synchronous Generator Model .......................................................................... 8

3.1 Electrical Equations ................................................................................................ 8

3.1.1 Voltage-Current Equations .................................................................................. 8

3.1.2 Electrical Torque Equations ............................................................................... 10

3.2 Mechanical Equations ........................................................................................... 10

3.3 Canonical State-Space Model ............................................................................... 11

4. The Generator Parameters....................................................................................... 12

4.1 Electrical Parameters ............................................................................................ 12

4.1.1 Rotor (Armature) and Stator (field) Resistances ............................................... 12

4.1.2 Rotor Self and Mutual Inductances.................................................................... 13

4.1.2 Stator Self and Mutual Inductances ................................................................... 14

4.2 Mechanical Parameters ......................................................................................... 15

4.2.1The Damping Coefficient (D) ............................................................................. 15

4.2.2 The Moment of Inertia (J) .................................................................................. 16

5. Generator Model Performance Analysis ................................................................. 17

5.1 Generator Run-up with Excitation ........................................................................ 17

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5.2 Generator Run-up without Excitation ................................................................... 20

6. Analysis of Results ................................................................................................. 21

7. Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 21

8. References ............................................................................................................... 23

Appendix A: Voltage-current equations of the synchronous machine ....................... 24

Appendix B: Measured Inductance Waveforms ......................................................... 25

Appendix C: Damping coefficient determination from recorded video ..................... 30

Appendix D: MATLAB Programs.............................................................................. 31

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1. Introduction

Synchronous machines account for the highest percentage of electrical power generation
systems around the world. The performance of these machines under transient and
steady-state conditions must be well-understood by a power engineer. To analyze the
machine performance, a mathematical model with electrical and mechanical parameters
must first be developed. The machine parameters such as resistance, inductance, inertia
and dumping coefficient can be measured and estimated experimentally. Several papers
have been published that study different techniques used to estimate the parameters of
synchronous machines [1]. The developed model is then simulated using software
packages such as MATLAB in order to determine the machine response under various
practical conditions.

The objective of the laboratory project is to study and analyze the performance of a
stand-alone 0.75 KVA, 4-pole synchronous generator. The generator can be mechanically
driven with a 2-pole induction motor and inverter for power generation. To achieve the
objective of the project, the following process is followed:

The background information on the operational theory and design principles of

synchronous machines is first investigated.

The approximate generator model is developed using electrical and mechanical

equations. The parameters of the equations are estimated experimentally.

The developed machine model is then used to simulate the performance of the
generator run-up under varying field excitation conditions.

Each of the above-mentioned steps will be discussed in this report. Furthermore, the
simulated generator performance will be critically analyzed. Finally, the accuracy and
usability of the methods applied will be evaluated.

2. Operational Theory

The synchronous machine as an AC generator converts mechanical energy from prime

mover (e.g. hydro or steam turbines, combustion engines, etc.) into electrical energy. The
machine is primarily comprised of field and armature windings. As the field winding is
rotated by the prime mover, the energy conversion (kinetic to electrical) takes place
between the field and armature windings through magnetic coupling.

2.1 Armature and Field Windings

The synchronous generators are classified as rotating armature type or rotating field type
based on the arrangement of the field and armature windings. In rotating armature type,
the armature winding is located on the rotor and the field winding on the stator.

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The machine under investigation in this project is a rotating armature type. This type of
configuration is applicable only to low power systems. In higher power applications, the
field is normally located on the rotor because field winding is less massive than armature
winding, operates at lower voltage and is terminated with only two slip rings [2]. It is
however noted that both system types exhibit identical characteristics.

The field winding of synchronous generator is supplied with direct current (DC) through
an exciter. In larger AC generators, brushless excitation which is comprised of rotating
solid-state rectifiers is used [3]. The DC in field winding produces a very strong magnetic
flux which links the armature winding through an air gap. For even distribution of linking
flux, the field winding is distributed over a certain number of poles. As the field is
rotated, the linking flux induces voltage in the armature as explained by Faradays law of
induction [2]. The induced voltage drives current in the armature circuit and this current
also produces the magnetic flux which opposes the flux in the field. Therefore in a three-
phase generator, the resultant flux generates the rated voltages in the coils of armature
windings.

The frequency of the generated voltage is proportional to the speed of the rotor. The
speed of the rotor is synchronous with the magnetic flux and is dependent on the number
of poles of the field as determined by equation 2.1 [2].
120
= (2.1)
Where N is the rotor speed in revolutions per minute
f is the mechanical frequency in revolutions per second
p is the number of poles

2.2 Construction of Synchronous Generator

Two types of synchronous machines used for three-phase power generations are
cylindrical rotor machines and salient-pole machines. The sectional view of these
machines is illustrated exhibited in figure 2.1. The cylindrical rotor machine is
constructed with a round (cylindrical) rotor which renders a uniform air-gap between the
stator and rotor (the effects of rotor and stator slots are insignificant and neglected). The
flux in the air-gap of this machine is evenly distributed and therefore the machine self-
inductances do no vary with relative position of the rotor and stator. The machine is used
in relatively high speed applications such as steam turbines generators because of the
compactness and high centrifugal force tolerance of cylindrical rotor [2]. The high speed
allows for a lower number of poles as confirmed by equation 2.1

The salient-pole machine is constructed with a rotor which has projecting poles and
concentrated field windings as illustrated in figure 1. The salient-pole rotor results in non-
uniform air-gap and non-uniform distribution of flux in the air-gap. As a result both self
and mutual inductances of the machine vary with relative position of the rotor and stator
[Say]. The rotor of salient-pole machine cannot tolerate high centrifugal forces due to its
construction nature. Therefore this machine is used in low speed applications such as

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those driven by water wheels. The machine requires a large number of armature poles in
order to achieve the desired voltage frequency (50 Hz).

Figure 2.1: Illustration of cylindrical rotor and salient-pole machines

2.3 Synchronous Machine Design Trade-offs

In order to evaluate the performance of the synchronous machine during the design
process, the machine model is developed using a set of mathematical equations with
electrical and mechanical parameters. A model which accurately resembles the
parameters of the machine is extremely complex. Therefore some approximations (trade-
offs) have to be made at the expense of other performance characteristics (e.g.
efficiency). The following approximations are incorporated in the design and
performance analysis of synchronous machines:

1. In order to approximate a sinusoidal magnetomotive force (MMF) in the air-gap,

the slotting effects are neglected. A sinusoidal MMF is important for maintaining
constant torque between the stator and rotor MMF [4]. This approximation has an
effect on the overall designed machine torque.

2. The high reluctance of the air-gap approximately linearizes the current-magnetic

flux relationship of the machine and minimizes saturation effects. Therefore when
modeling the machine, the saturation effects are neglected. In practical operation,
minor saturation does occur which contributes to the heating losses due to
hysteresis [5]. This approximation has an effect on the losses of the machine.

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3. The Synchronous Generator Model

The approximate generator model is developed using mathematical equations with

electrical and mechanical parameters. The mathematical equations are then re-formulated
into canonical state-space format. The windings layout of the synchronous generator is
shown in figure3.1A. Due to the fact that the field winding produces flux through similar
magnetic path for all positions of the rotor [J3], then field coils are lumped as illustrated
in figure 3.1B. The generator is a 3 phase rotating armature machine with armature
windings connected via slip rings and brushes. The field (stator) has 4 salient pole pairs.

Figure 3.1Winding layout of the synchronous machine

3.1 Electrical Equations

3.1.1 Voltage-Current Equations

The field and armature windings of a slip-ring machine can be represented (according to
Kirchhoffs voltage law) with the voltage-current relationship in matrix form as shown in
equation 3.1 [6].

= [R + pL] (3.1)
Where is the vector of terminal voltages
R is resistances of field and armature windings
p is time derivative operator
L is the vector of self and mutual inductances
is the vector of currents in field and armature windings

The machine inductances are dependent on both current and angle () between field and
armature windings. Therefore equation 3.1 can be expanded into equation 3.2.

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 = [R] + [Lp] + [ L] (3.2)
Where [Lp] = [L()p] is the transformer electromotive forces (EMFs)
[pL] = [pL()] is the motional EMFs

The motional EMFs term can be further expanded into equation 3.3

( )
[ ( ) ] = = = = = =
(3.3)

Where GS is the motional inductance matrix

N.B: w is the angular velocity and is placed before GS because it is has a high time
constant as compared to electric current.

Equation 3.2 is then rearranged with equation 3.3 to get equation 3.4

= [R] + [Lp] + [ ] (3.4)

Equation 3.4 is a generic voltage-current equation which can be used to model different
types of slip-ring synchronous machines. As portrayed in figure 3.1B, the synchronous
machine under analysis has 4 coils which are phase A, phase B, phase C and Field coils.
The voltage-current relationship of these coils is established by expanding equation 3.4 as
shown in appendix [A].

From appendix [A], the voltage, current, resistance, self-inductance and motional
inductance vectors can be determined as follows.

= ; =

0 0 0
0 0 0
[ ]=0 0 0


0 0 0

[ ]= ; [ ] = (3.5)

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3.1.2 Electrical Torque Equations

From the principles of electromechanical energy conversion, to change energy stored in

the air-gap by moving the rotor (change in geometry) requires torque to be applied. It has
been approximated that the machine exhibits linear magnetic flux-current relationship,
therefore co-energy which is equal to actual energy is used to calculate electrical torque.
The relationship between change in stored energy and change in angular position () is
given in equation 3.6 [6].

( , ) (, )
= = (3.6)
Where is the flux linkage
Ws is the actual energy in the air-gap
Ws is the co-energy

The co-energy is given by equation 3.7

1
= (3.7)
2

Substituting co-energy from equation 3.7 into equation 3.6 we get electrical torque as
given in equation 3.8.

1 ( ) 1
= = (3.8)
2 2

3.2 Mechanical Equations

The mechanical torque (Tm) from the prime mover which drives the synchronous
generator is equal to the electrical torque (Te) generated in the coupling field. The torque
is given by equation 3.9

= = + + + (3.9)

Where J is the moment of inertia

is the displacement angle between the stator (field) and rotor (armature) fluxes
D is the damping coefficient
K is the spring constant
T is the load torque

The generator shaft is fairly rigid and the counter torque due to spring constant can be
neglected. Also the machine is operated as stand-alone hence the load torque can be
omitted for now, but it will be introduced in the model when simulating the performance.

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Using the above approximations, equation 3.8 is simplified into equation 3.10.

= + (3.10)

3.3 Canonical State-Space Model

The state-space format is given in equation is given in equation 3.11[6].

= + + (3.11)
Where x is states vector
u is the input and induced voltage vectors

To reshuffle the electrical and mechanical equations into the canonical state-space
format, equation 3.4 is re-arranged as follows:

= [R] + [Lp] + [ ]

1
= [ ] [ ] (3.12)
[ ]

Equation 3.8 is substituted into equation 3.10 as follows:

1
= +
2

= (3.13)

For state-space reshuffling, the following conditions are made:

Let x1 = ; x2 = and x3 =

N.B.: The state variable x3 is a vector of 4 currents as determined in expression 3.5.

The state variable above are then substituted in equations 3.12 and 3.13

= (3.14)

= (3.15)

= [ [ ] [ ] ] (3.16)
[ ]

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The state-space canonical format is then determined as:
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
[ ]
0 0 0 0 0 0
= + +[ ] (3.17)
[ ] [ ] [ ]
0 0
[ ] 0 0
[ ] 0 [ ]
0

Equation 3.17 will be programmed in MATLAB and the model simulated to obtain and
analyze the response of the machine under various parameter changes.

4. The Generator Parameters

The electrical and mechanical parameters were experimentally estimated in the

laboratory.

4.1 Electrical Parameters

An LCR meter was used to measure the resistances, self and mutual inductances of the
machine. The test voltage and frequency of the LCR meter were set as 1.275V and 50 Hz.
A 3600 protractor is attached to rotor shaft of the machine and was used to measure
angular displacement as the rotor was manually rotated.

4.1.1 Rotor (Armature) and Stator (field) Resistances

The resistance of the three phases of the armature were measured in steps of 200 all
around the slip rings so that an average value could be determined. The average
resistance values are given in table 1.

Table 4.1: Resistance Values of Armature

Phase Measured on slip rings Measured at terminal to
include brushes effects
Phase A - Ra 2.1 4.13
Phase B Rb 2.1 3.28
Phase C Rc 2.1 4.56

Table 4.1 shows that the brushes of the machine are in very bad conditions and have to be
replaced. The measurement on the slip rings shows that the armature windings are
balanced. Therefore to account for ageing in brushes, the average value of phase
resistances is calculated as Ra=Rb=Rc=3.99

The stator (field) resistance was measured as 5.24 K

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4.1.2 Rotor Self and Mutual Inductances

The self and mutual inductances vary with rotor position because of stator saliency. Even
though the flux distribution in the air-gap is approximated to be sinusoidal, but the
harmonics introduced by the stator saliency have to be taken into consideration. The self
and mutual inductances were measured in steps of 100. The machine has 4 poles
accounting to 8 positive peaks and 8 negative peaks in the periodic waveform of phase
inductances in one revolution (3600). Therefore a span of 1800 was used to get a good
approximation.

The waveforms of self-inductances are depicted in figure B1 of appendix B. These

waveforms are periodic and resemble sinusoidal function which can be approximated
using equation 4.1 [6]. The cosine function is used because when taking the angle
between the d-axis and axes of rotor windings as reference, then the self-inductance is
maximum when = 00. The 300 phase shift between the inductances waveforms
confirms that the armature phase coils axes are 1200 apart and that the field coils axes are
900 apart.

+ cos( ) + cos(2 ) (4.1)

Where a0, a1 and a2 are fundamental, first and second harmonic components of
the waveform.

In order to curve-fit the waveforms in figure B1 of appendix B, The coefficients of the

function in equation 4.1 were determined using the following approximation method:

a0 is the offset taken as the average of measured values

a1 is the amplitude of the periodic wave
a2 is the 2nd harmonic value approximated as of offset (a0)
is multiplied with 4 to account for 4 poles
A phase shift is introduced to the wave to adjust the fitted wave horizontally

The measured and approximated (fitted) waveforms for the three phase self-inductances
are exhibited in Figure B2, B3 and B4 of appendix B. The determined values of self-
inductances for three phases are given in table 4.2.

Table 4.2: The Approximated Self-Inductances for Armature

Phase Self-Inductance
Phase A Laa 13.19 + 4cos[4 + 240] + 0.23cos[8 + 480] mH
Phase B Lbb 12.97 + 3.9cos[4 + 2640] + 0.25cos[8 + 1680] mH
Phase C Lcc 12.97 + 3.95cos[4 + 1630] + 0.26cos[8 + 3260] mH

The self-inductances are approximately equal and displaced by 1200 from each other.
This confirms the fact the rotor phase windings are balanced.

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Taking the angle between the d-axis and axes of rotor windings as reference, then the
mutual-inductance is zero when = 0. Therefore, the mutual-inductances can be
approximated with sine series function as depicted in equation 4.2[6].

+ sin( ) + sin(2 ) (4.2)

The mutual inductance was measured between two coils at the time. The coils were
connected in series for the first test and then terminals of the second coil were exchanged
for the second test. For the first test, the co-energy (WT1) stored in the two coils is given
by equation 4.3.
1 1 1 1 1
= = + + + (4.3)
2 2 2 2 2
Where L1 and L2 are the self-inductance of the two coils under test
M12 = M21 is the mutual inductance between the two coils
N.B. current (i1) is the same in both coils

For the second test, the co-energy (WT2) is given by equation 4.4
1 1 1 1 1
= = + (4.4)
2 2 2 2 2

Therefore the mutual inductance is determined by subtracting equation 4.4 from 4.3 to
get equation 4.5

= (4.5)
4

The coefficients of equation 4.2 for mutual inductances were determined using the same
approximation method which was used for self-inductances. The measured and
approximated (fitted) waveforms for the three phase mutual inductances are exhibited in
figure B5, B6 and B7 of appendix B. The determined values of mutual inductances are
given in table 4.3.

Table 4.3: The Approximated Mutual Inductances for Armature

Phase Mutual-Inductance
Between Phase A & B Lab 3.66 + 0.5sin(4 + 500) + 0.3sin(8 + 400) mH
Between Phase B & C Lbc 3.6 + 0.48sin(4 + 2930) + 0.32sin(8 + 1840) mH
Between Phase A & C Lac 3.61 + 0.47sin(4 + 1740) + 0.32sin(8 + 3120) mH

The phase coils are balanced, therefore: Lab = Lba; Lbc = Lcb; Lac = Lca
The mutual inductances are approximately equal and displaced from each other by 1200.

4.1.2 Stator Self and Mutual Inductances

The stator (field) self-inductance does not vary with angular displacement of the rotor.
This is because the rotor is approximately cylindrical (N.B.: the slotting effects on the
rotor are insignificant and neglected) and the air gap remains almost constant as the rotor
rotates.

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 It was confirmed during the experiment that the field self-inductance exhibits
insignificant variations when the rotor is rotated. The average value of field self-
inductance was determined as 27.4 H.

The mutual-inductances between field and armature phases exhibits a sinusoidal

waveform which can be approximated with cosine series function as depicted in equation
4.6[6].
+ cos( ) + cos(2 ) (4.6)

In order to curve-fit the measured waveform, the coefficients of the function in equation
4.6 were determined using the following approximation method:

f0 and f2 are converged to zero because mutual inductance is zero at 900 [6]
f1 is the amplitude of the periodic wave
is multiplied with 2 to account for 4 poles
A phase shift is introduced to the wave to adjust the fitted wave horizontally

Using the above approximations, equation 4.6 converges to equation 4.7

cos(2 ) (4.6)

The measured and approximated (fitted) waveforms for the mutual inductances between
field and armature are exhibited in figure B8, B9 and B10 of appendix B. The determined
values of mutual inductances are given in table 4.4.

Table 4.4: The Approximated Mutual Inductances between Field and Armature Phases
Field - Phase Mutual-Inductance
Between F & B Lfa 0.296cos(2 + 1140) H
Between Phase F & B Lfb 0.217cos(2 + 3590) H
Between Phase F & C Lfc 0.298cos(2 + 2810) H

Since the field winding is taken as a lumped coil, it then follows that: Lfa = Laf; Lfb = Lbf;
Lfc = Lcf

4.2 Mechanical Parameters

The mechanical parameters which were estimated experimentally are inertia (J) and
damping coefficient (D).

4.2.1The Damping Coefficient (D)

The procedure to measure D involved attaching a weight to the rotor of the machine with
a string; letting the weight fall freely to the ground under the influence of gravitational
acceleration and recording of the time taken for movement with a video camera. The set-

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up for the experiment is illustrated in figure 4.1 below. The captured video was then
analysed frame by frame to determine the incremental angular positions as the rotor was
rotating due to gravitational pull by weight.

90
Shaft Generator

Weight

Figure 4.1: Set-up for J and D measurement

The following parameters were measured or calculated

Weight of the object (W) = 5.12 N
The radius of the pulley (R) = 0.13 m
The torque exerted on the shaft = WR = 0.666 Nm
The frame rate of captured video = 30 frames/second

The QuickTime Player was used to analyse the video frame by frame and extract
angular positions with respect to time. From the angular positions extracted from the
video, the angular velocity was calculated and plotted in figure C1 of appendix C. From
the figure C1, it is observed that the constant value of angular velocity (1.75 rad/sec) is
obtained from 1.67sec to 3.4 sec. In this region, angular acceleration is zero. Therefore
equation 3.10 is reduced to equation 4.7

= (4.7)

Substituting the measured torque and the constant angular velocity, D is determined as
0.38 Ns/m

4.2.2 The Moment of Inertia (J)

The moment of inertia is calculated using equation 4.8 [7]

= (4.8)
4
Where is the density of steel (7900 kg/m3 for steel and 8960 kg/m3 for copper)
V is the total volume of rotor
d is the diameter of rotor

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The length and diameter of rotor were measured as: L = 0.15m, d = 0.127m.
The length and diameter of rotor shaft (excluding rotor coil section) were measured as:
L = 0.27m, d = 0.0477m.

The total volume of the rotor was calculated using equation 4.9.
= (4.9)
4

From equation 4.8 and 4.9, inertia was calculated as: 0.0629 kgm2

5. Generator Model Performance Analysis

From the generator nameplate, the excitation voltage is 156V and excitation current is 32
A. These values were used to simulate the performance of the generator. The canonical
state-space model developed in equation 3.17 is programmed in MATLAB in order to
simulate the performance of the generator under two conditions which are with and
without field excitation. The MATLAB code is provided in appendix D1.
The non-linear differential operator (de23tb) is selected because the developed
differential equations are highly non-linear with great dependence on angle and time.

5.1 Generator Run-up with Excitation

In order for generator to accelerate, there must torque applied from the prime mover. So
for simulation purposes, instant torque of 10N is introduced into the model. The
generator is taken as a standalone system with open circuits on the phase windings.
Therefore the phase currents Ia, Ib and Ic as represented by equation 5.1.
0
0
= = 0 (5.1)

The currents are also set to zero in the MATLAB code. The generator run up speed with
field excitation is plotted in figure 5.1.

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 30

25

20
speed (rad/sec)

15

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
time (s)

Figure 5.1: The speed response for generator run-up with excitation

The speed curve depicted in figure 5.1 shows that the generator quickly ramps up to a
speed of about 25 rad/sec (1500rpm) when a torque of 10N is applied. This is correct
because the generator is a 4 pole machine and its synchronous speed is 1500rpm.

It was observed that increasing the dumping coefficient (D) decreases speed and
increasing moment of inertia increase time constant (the time the machines takes to reach
the maximum speed). This was confirmed by increasing D to 0.78 Ns/m and J to 6.29
kgm2 and the results are plotted in figure 5.2. D and J normally increase when the load is
increased.
To determine phase voltages, equation 3.16 is substituted with equation 5.1 to get
equation 5.2. Equations 5.2 shows that output phase voltages are depended on shaft speed
and field current.

= [ ] + [ ] + [ ]

= ; = ; = (5.2)

Where w is the rotor speed.

The MATLAB program for phase voltages is attached in appendix D2. The phase
voltages are depicted in figure 5.3

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 14

12

10
speed (rad/sec)

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
time (s)

Figure 5.2: The effects of increasing D and J

Phase voltages
500

400

300

200

100
voltage (V)

-100

-200

-300

-400

-500
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Angle (rad/sec))

Figure 5.3: Phase voltage of generator with field excitation

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5.2 Generator Run-up without Excitation

For simulation without excitation, field current and voltage are set to zero in MATLAB
model. Figure 5.4 shows the speed response for run-up without excitation is the same as
speed run-up with excitation. Figure 5.5 confirms that no if will be induced in the field as
the result of armature rotating.

30

25

20
Speed (rad/s)

15

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
time (s)

Figure 5.4: Speed response of generator without field excitation

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
Current (A)

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
0 20 40 60 80 100
time (s)

Figure 5.5: Field current when armature is rotating without any excitation

Since if is zero, then the phase voltages will be zero as determined by equation 5.2

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6. Analysis of Results

It has been observed that the speed of generator is proportional to damping coefficient
(D). Therefore when designing the generator, D should be kept as low as possible by
using good bearings so that when load torque changes, it doesnt affect the performance
of the generator. Regular maintenance of bearings should also be put in place. It has also
been observed that the moment of inertia (J) affects the rate of change of speed. This
parameter should also be minimized during design by decreasing the quantity of steel
used but also bearing in mind that efficiency will be affected by this trade-off.

It was determined from the model that for speed of 1500 rev/min, the prime mover torque
should be 10N so that the generated voltage frequency is 50 Hz.

It has been observed that the phase voltages are heavily depended on speed, excitation
current and corresponding phase motional inductance as calculated in equation 5.2. Any
small variation in motional inductance significantly affects the amplitude of phase
voltage magnitude. This is confirmed by the fact that there is 20% variation between
motional inductances for the three phases. This results in average of 100 volts difference
between the phase voltages as shown in figure 5.3. Therefore measurement of inductance
is critical and brushes should be maintained so that they do not introduce additional error
in measurements.

It is observed from the figure 5.4 that generator run-up speed is not affected by status of
excitation. The generator still takes the same time to reach the same speed as in the
situation when there is excitation as shown by figure 5.1. This observation only holds for
stand-alone generator which is not connected to the grid. But if the generator is connected
to the grid, then the run-up speed without excitation must be higher than with excitation.
This is because with excitation, the electromagnetic torque is created in the coupling field
(air gap) and it is amplified by the electric torque demand from the load. Therefore, the
generator will accelerate much slower with field excitation than without field excitation.

7. Conclusion

The model of the 0.75 KVA, 4 pole synchronous generator was developed. The model
was developed using mathematical equations with electrical and mechanical parameters.
The parameters for the model were estimated in the laboratory using well-researched
approximations. The parameters were then substituted into the model and the model was
re-shuffled into state-space canonical form. The canonical form was programmed in
MATLAB and the performance of the generator simulated under field and no field
excitation conditions.

The results are fairly accurate because they can be backed up by existing
electromechanical equations. The process followed when developing the model can be
applied for any type of synchronous generator. The canonical state space model is also
generic and is easily programmable in MATLAB.

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The model is however not 100% accurate because the speed difference for run-up with
and without excitation couldnt be revealed. The future work will involve increasing the
accuracy of the model through optimized parameters estimating methods. The objectives
of the laboratory project were fulfilled.

22 | P a g e
8. References

[1] Horning, S. - Keyhani, A. - Kamwa, I. On-line Evaluation of a Round Rotor

Synchronous Machine Parameter Set Estimated from Standstill Time-Domain Data,
IEEE Transactions on Energy Convention, 12 (4), December 1997, pp. 289-296.

[2] Matsch Leander W, Morgan Derald J. Electromagnetic and Electromechnical

Machines, third edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New Mexico

[3] J.J Grainger, W.D Stevenson Jr, Power system analysis, 1994, McGraw-Hill, Inc,
Singapore

[4] Say G. M. Alternating Current Machines. Fourth Edition, 1976, Pitman Publishing
Limited, London

[5] Krause P.C, Wasynczuk O, Sudhoff S.D, Analysis of Electric Machinery and Drive
Systems, second edition, 2002, John Wiley and Sons, Inc

[6] W.A Cronje, Advanced Electromechanical Conversion Lecture Notes, University of

the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2014

[7] Moment of Inertia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_of_inertia
Last accessed 18 March 2014

23 | P a g e
Appendix A: Voltage-current equations of the synchronous machine

=( )+ + + + + + + +

=( )+ + + + + + + +

=( )+ + + + + + + +

= + + + + + + + +

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Appendix B: Measured Inductance Waveforms

Figure B1: Self-Inductnaces - ABC

20

18

16

14
Inductance (mH)

12

10 Self Inductance - Coil A

8 Self Inductance - Coil B

6 Self Inductance - Coil C

0
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

Angle (Degrees)

Figure B2: Phase A Self Inductance - Measured and Fitted

20

18

16

14
Inductance (mH)

12

10
Measured
8
Fitted
6

0
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

Angle (Degrees)

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 Figure B3: Phase B Self Inductance - Measured and Fitted
18

16

14

12
Inductance (mH)

10

8 Measured
Fitted
6

0
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

Angle (Degrees)

Figure B4: Phase C Self Inductance - Measured and Fitted

20

18

16

14
Inductance (mH)

12

10
Measured
8
fitted
6

0
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

Angle (Degrees)

26 | P a g e
 Figure B5: Phase AB Mutual Inductance - Measured and Fitted
5

4.5

3.5
Inductance (mH)

2.5
Measured
2
Fitted
1.5

0.5

0
0

100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

Angle (Degrees)

Figure B6: Phase BC Mutual Inductance - Measured and Fitted

5

4.5

3.5
Inductance (mH)

2.5
Measured
2
Fitted
1.5

0.5

0
0

100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

Angle (Degrees)

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 Figure B7: Phase AC Mutual Inductance - Measured and Fitted
5

4.5

3.5
Inductance (mH)

2.5
Measured
2
Fitted
1.5

0.5

0
0

100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

Angle (Degrees)

Figure B8: FA Mutual Inductance - Measured and Fitted

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1
Inductnace (H)

0 Measured
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

Fitted
-0.1

-0.2

-0.3

-0.4
Angle (Degrees)

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 Figure B9: FB Mutual Inductance - Measured and Fitted
0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1
Inductnace (H)

0.05

0 Measured
0

100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Fitted
-0.05

-0.1

-0.15

-0.2

-0.25
Angle (Degrees)

Figure B10: FC Mutual Inductance - Measured and Fitted

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1
Inductnace (H)

0 Measured
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

Fitted
-0.1

-0.2

-0.3

-0.4
Angle (Degrees)

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Appendix C: Damping coefficient determination from recorded video

Figure C1: Angular Velocity Vs Time

2

1.8

1.6
Angular Velocity (rad/sec)

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0.00 0.67 1.00 1.24 1.47 1.67 1.87 2.04 2.24 2.44 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.30 3.40 3.54
Time (sec))

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Appendix D: MATLAB Programs

D1: MATLAB Program for State-space Equations

function xdot=GeneratorModel (t,x)

%assignment of Values to Mechanical Parameters

J=0.0629; D=0.38;

%Mechanical Torque to initiate movement

Tm = 10;

%State Variables
% x(1) = theta; x(2) = thetadot; x(3) = current vector

%Assignment of value to electrical parameters

%field resistance
Rf=5.24e3;
%rotor resistances
Ra=3.99;Rb=3.99; Rc=3.99;

%Ohmic losses matrix

R=[Ra,0,0,0;0,Rb,0,0;0,0,Rc,0;0,0,0,Rf];

%Self and Mutual inductances

Laa= 13.19e-3 + (4e-3)*cos(4*x(1) + 0.41887902) + (0.23e-3)*cos(8*x(1) + 0.837758041);
Lbb= 12.97e-3 + (3.9e-3)*cos(4*x(1) + 4.607669225) + (0.25e-3)*cos(8*x(1) +
2.932153143);
Lcc= 12.97e-3 + (3.95e-3)*cos(4*x(1) + 2.86) + (0.26e-3)*cos(8*x(1) + 5.689773362);
Lff = 27.4;

Lab = 3.66e-3 + (0.5e-3)*sin(4*x(1) + 0.87) + (0.3e-3)*sin(8*x(1) + 0.698131701);

Lbc = 3.6e-3 + (0.48e-3)*sin(4*x(1) + 5.12) + (0.32e-3)*sin(8*x(1) + 3.211405824);
Lac = 3.61e-3 + (0.47e-3)*sin(4*x(1) + 3.04) + (0.32e-3)*sin(8*x(1) + 5.445427266);

Lfa = 0.29*cos(2*x(1) + 1.989675347);

Lfb = 0.217*cos(2*x(1) + 6.26);
Lfc = 0.298*cos(2*x(1) + 4.91);

%Self inductances Matrix

L=[Laa, Lab, Lac, Lfa;...
Lab, Lbb, Lbc, Lfb;...
Lac, Lbc, Lcc, Lfc;...
Lfa, Lfb, Lfc, Lff];

%Derivatives of self and mutual inductances

dLaa= -(16e-3)*sin(4*x(1) + 0.41887902) - (1.84e-3)*sin(8*x(1) + 0.837758041);
dLbb= -(15.6e-3)*sin(4*x(1) + 4.607669225) - (2e-3)*sin(8*x(1) + 2.932153143);

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dLcc= -(15.8e-3)*sin(4*x(1) + 2.86) - (2.08e-3)*sin(8*x(1) + 5.689773362);
dLff = 0;

dLab = (2e-3)*cos(4*x(1) + 0.87) + (2.4e-3)*cos(8*x(1) + 0.698131701);

dLbc = (1.92e-3)*cos(4*x(1) + 5.12) + (2.56e-3)*cos(8*x(1) + 3.211405824);
dLac = (1.88e-3)*cos(4*x(1) + 3.04) + (2.56e-3)*cos(8*x(1) + 5.445427266);

dLfa = -0.58*sin(2*x(1) + 1.989675347);

dLfb = -0.434*sin(2*x(1) + 6.26);
dLfc = -0.596*sin(2*x(1) + 4.91);

%motional inductnce matrix

Gs=[dLaa, dLab, dLac, dLfa;...
dLab, dLbb, dLbc, dLfb;...
dLac, dLbc, dLcc, dLfc;...
dLfa, dLfb, dLfc, dLff];

%Step input of terminal field voltage

vf=156;
va=0;
vb=0;
vc=0;

%System voltage matrix

v =[va;vb;vc;vf];

%field and armature currents state variables:

% Ia = x(3); Ib = x(4); Ic = x(5); If = x(6)

x(6) = 32;
x(3) = 0;
x(4) = 0;
x(5)= 0;

%current matrix
I=[x(3);x(4);x(5);x(6)];

Idot=inv(L)*v - inv(L)*R*I - inv(L)*x(2)* Gs*I;

%state equations definitions x(1) = theta, x(2) = speed

xdot(1)=x(2);
xdot(2)=-1/J*[D*x(2)-0.5*transpose(I)*Gs*I-Tm];
xdot(3)= Idot(1);
xdot(4) = Idot(2);
xdot(5) = Idot(3);
xdot(6) = Idot(4);
xdot=[xdot(1); xdot(2); xdot(3); xdot(4); xdot(5); xdot(6)];
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Code used to solve the differential equations
[t,x]=ode23tb('GeneratorModel1', [0,100],[0,0,0,0,0,0]);

plot(t,x(:,2)),ylabel('Speed (rad/s)'), xlabel('time (s)');

Appendix D2: The MATLAB program for phase voltages

%Angle range
theta = [0:0.0001:pi];

%Motional Inductances per each phase

dLfa = -0.58*sin(2*theta + 1.989675347);
dLfb = -0.434*sin(2*theta + 6.26);
dLfc = -0.596*sin(2*theta + 4.91);

%Field current
If = 32;

%Angular Speed of rotor

w = 25;

%Calculations
vA = w*If*dLfa;
vB = w*If*dLfb;
vC = w*If*dLfc;

plot(theta, vA,'r',theta, vB, 'b', theta, vC, 'g')

grid on
xlabel('Angle (rad/sec))');
ylabel('voltage (V)');
title('Phase voltages');

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