Some abbreviations used: A = mass number, Ar = relative atomic mass, Z =

atomic number/proton number

1. The Structure of Atoms three fundamental particles

WHAT ARE ATOMS? and WHAT DO WE MEAN BY FUNDAMENTAL

PARTICLES? (subatomic particles)

An ATOM is the smallest particle of a substance, an element, which can have

its own characteristic properties AND cannot be split into simpler substances.

However, why do we have different elements?

Is an atom the simplest particle we need to know about to understand chemistry?

In order to answer these questions we must look a bit deeper into the fundamental
structure of matter, that is everything around you!

Atoms are the smallest particles of matter whose properties we study in

Chemistry.

Every element or compound is comprised of atoms. All the atoms are the same in
the structure of an element (ignoring isotopes) and two or more different
atoms/elements must be present in a compound.

Initially, once the concept of an atom was established, it was assumed that atoms
were indestructible and not divisible into smaller particles, but merely combined in
different proportions to give the range of compounds we know about.

However from experiments done in the late 19th and early 20th century it was
deduced that atoms are made up of three fundamental or subatomic particles
called protons, neutrons and electrons, which are listed below with their relative
masses and electrical charges.

WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF THESE SUBATOMIC

PARTICLES?

WHAT IS THE NUCLEUS? WHAT ARE NUCLEONS?

The three fundamental particles of which atoms are composed

The table gives the relative mass and electric charge of the three subatomic
particles known as the proton, neutron and electron
 Subatomic Relative Electric
Comments
particle mass charge
+1 (+
Proton 1 In the nucleus, a nucleon
positive)
Neutron 1 0 (zero) In the nucleus, a nucleon
NOT a nucleon. Electrons
1/
1850 or 1 ( are arranged in energy
Electron
0.00055 negative) levels or shells in orbit
around the nucleus

You can think of the mass of an electron as about 1/2000th of the mass of a proton or
neutron, so, a pretty small mass BUT they occupy most of the space of an atom!!!
You should also realise because of the relatively small mass of the electrons most
of an atom's mass is in the nucleus. You see values of 1/1836 quoted for the
relative mass of an electron, but don't worry about it, there are different ways/scales
on which an electron's mass has been calculated.

The actual mass of a proton or neutrons is ~1.67 x 10-31 kg and the electro's mass
is ~9.11 x 10-31 kg

What can we say about 'A Portrait of an Atom'? an image of what you can't
see!

The picture of 'atomic structure, illustrated below is the result of many developing
'atomic theory' backed up by successive generations of experimental results. This is
the best picture we have (at least for GCSE and A Level chemistry courses!).

However this diagram, which is based on the Bohr model of atomic structure,
although more realistic in terms of the real size of the nucleus compared to the atom
as a whole, so it is not convenient to give a brief diagrammatic picture of the
composition of an atom.

The central nucleus of protons and neutrons (most of the mass of an atom) is
extremely small even compared to the size of an atom. The rest of the 'almost empty
space' of an atom is occupied by the negative electrons, held by, and moving around
the positive nucleus in their energy levels or 'shells'.

The electrons are also pretty tiny in mass too, compared to a proton or neutron, but
the volume the electrons and their energy levels occupy, determines the size of the
atom.

Bohr theorised the negative electrons can only exist in certain specific energy levels
(shells) held in place by the positive nucleus (see section on the history of
development of the atomic model). These are shown in the above diagram, but fully
explained later on this page.

All of these theories must, and have been, backed up by repeated and varied
experiments.

As each new experiment was/is done, it must support the current theory or the
theory needs to be modified to take into account new discoveries.

Some of these important experiments are described further down the page.

Even new experimental findings written up in research papers should be thoroughly

peer reviewed, that is checked by scientists of at least equal academic ranking to
the researchers. That's how science works!

The size of an atom compared to other 'particles'

The size of an individual atom is around 0.1 nm or 1 x 10-10 m

(nm = nanometres, 1 nm = 10-9 m).

Most of the mass is in the centre of the atom, that is the nucleus, which has a radius
of around 1/10000th of the whole atom!

This means the radius of the nucleus is about 1 x 10-14 m (0.00001 nm), pretty small
!!, but still consists of most of the mass of an atom!!!

If you look at the table of size comparison below, its not until you get to a human hair
can we see clearly something with the naked eye. The width of a human hair is
approximately 106 times that of an atom (a million times bigger) and 1010 times
bigger than a nucleus (ten thousand million times bigger). You can of course see
cells under examination with an optical microscope, but these are over 500 000
times bigger than an individual atom. You can, however, observe atoms using an
electron microscope.
 A comparison data table of particles sizes/dimensions

Examples of atoms, molecules, nanoparticles and other 'things'

silver
or typi
typic titani cal typica
widt
carb sulp silv gluco al um viru l typic typical
water h
mater nucle on hur er se sma dioxi s carbo al eukary
molec hum
ial us ato ato ato molec ll de e.g. n bact otic
ule an
m m m ule prot nano cold nanot eria cell
hair
ein - viru ube
partic s
les
Symb Agn
ol- ****** C6H12 ***** **** ****** *****
C S H2O Ag Cn *******
formu ** O6 ** (TiO2 *** * **
la )n
Size
in nm
- 5000
diam 0.00 0.2 0.3 x 35- 30- 100 x 0-
0.16 0.2 0.2 5-10 5000 50000
eter 001 8 0.6 120 50 6 1000
or 00
lengt
h
longe 6x
0.5
st 1.6 2. 10-10
2 5-10 3.5- 3-5 5 to
lengt 1 x x 2x 8x 1 5
12 1.0
h or x
x 10- x x x 10-
diam 10-14 10- 10-10 10 10- -9 -8 -8 x 10-7 6 x 10-5
10 10 10 x 10 10 x 10-
eter 3x 4
m 10-10

Atoms, sub-atomic particles, notation and diagrams

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom decides what element that
atom is.

e.g. if the atom has 3 protons in the nucleus, it cannot be anything except
lithium!

Elements consist of one type of atom only determined by the proton number
(atomic number).
Some more concise and handy styles to show the atomic composition of the
same lithium atom

What subatomic particles make up atoms? What is their mass and

charge?
The diagram above of a 'portrait of an atom' gives some idea on the structure
of an atom (sometimes called the Bohr Atomic Model), it also includes some
important definitions and notation used to describe atomic structure
o The three fundamental particles you need to know are ...
o proton: particle mass = 1, electric charge = +1, the charged particle
in the nucleus
o neutron: particle mass = 1, charge = 0, uncharged particle in the
nucleus
o electron: particle mass = 1/1850 ~1/2000, electric charge = 1,
Electrons are NOT in the nucleus but exist in electronic energy
levels around the nucleus (a sort of orbit, often described as a
shell, see later).
o The nucleus of protons and neutrons is tiny, even compared to the tiny
atom!
So most of the volume of an atom is empty space, BUT it is
where the tiny electrons are.
In fact the diameter of the nucleus of protons plus neutrons is
about a ten thousandth of the diameter of the whole atom!
Since the nucleus is composed of positive protons and neutral
neutrons, the nucleus itself must be positive.
A neutral atom carries no overall charge because the number of
positive protons equals the number of negative electrons (both
singly charged + and -), and this information is given by the
atomic/proton number.
A neutral helium atom has 2 protons and 2 electrons and
 a uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons. 2+
balances 2- and 92+ balances 92-, easy!
Since a neutron is electrically neutral, the number of
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom cannot affect the total
positive nuclear charge of the protons or the number of
negative electrons in the atom.
Protons and neutrons are the 'nucleons' or 'subatomic' particles
present in the minute positive nucleus and the negative electrons are
held by the positive protons in 'orbits' called energy levels or shells.
o Although the nucleus must be positive because of the positive protons
(neutrons are neutral) an individual atom is neutral because the
number of electrons equals the number of protons so the charges
'cancel out'.
o If electrons are removed from an atom you get a positive ion from
excess positive charge, and, if electrons are added to an atom, you get
a negative ion from excess negative charge.
An ion, by definition, cannot be neutral.
Some important evidence for this 'picture' is obtained from alpha particle
scattering experiments (see Appendix 1).
The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus and is
also known as the proton number of the particular element and it is this
number that decides what element a particular atom is.
o Each element has its own atomic number, so all the atoms of a
particular element have the same atomic number.
It is the proton/atomic number (Z) that determines the number of
electrons an element has, its specific electron structure and therefore
the specific identity of a particular element in terms of its physical and
chemical properties.
It cannot be overemphasised that it is the electronic structure that
determines the chemical character of an element, hence the proton/atomic
number determines everything about a particular element.
The mass number (A) is also known as the nucleon number, that is the
number of particles in the nucleus of a particular atomisotope (notes on
isotopes definition and examples).
o Therefore the mass number or nucleon number = sum of the
protons plus neutrons in the nucleus.
o Since the mass of a proton or neutron equals 1, the mass number
equals the mass of a particular atom to the nearest whole number.
o Relative Atomic Mass is dealt with on a separate calculation page
The neutron number (N) = mass number proton/atomic number
In an individual atom the number of protons (+) equals the number of
electrons (), that is the number of positive charges is equal to the number of
negative charges to make the atom neutral.
In the example in the diagram for lithium7, 73Li is its nuclide atomic
notation ...
 o
o before the chemical symbol of the element Li
is the top left number = nucleon/mass number = 7 (protons +
neutrons)
and the bottom left number = proton/atomic number = 3
(protons in nucleus)
o Similarly for ...

o , atom of hydrogen1, symbol H, mass 1, just 1 proton and one

electron, but NO neutrons (unique, hydrogen-1 is the only atom with
NO neutrons)

o , atom of helium4, symbol He, mass 4, 2 protons, 4 2 = 2

neutrons and 2 electrons

o , atom of sodium, symbol Na, mass 23, 11 protons, 23 11 =

12 neutrons and 11 electrons

o atom of iron56, mass 56, 26 protons, 30 neutrons (56 26)

and 26 electrons
If the proton number and electron number are different, the atom has an
overall surplus or deficiency of electrical charge, resulting in an electrically
charged particle called an ion e.g.
o If an atom loses 1/2 electrons, the protons produce an excess of 1/2
units of positive charge.
The excess positive charge on the positive ion is written as + or
2+ etc.
o If an atom gains 1/2 electrons, the extra electrons produce an excess
of 1/2 units of negative charge.
The excess negative charge on the negative ion is written as -
or 2- etc.
o reading the symbol as above, BUT, taking into account the electrical
charge on the ion ..

o the positive sodium ion Na+,11 protons, 10 electrons (11-

1), 12 neutrons (23-11)

o the positive magnesium ion Mg2+,12 protons, 10 electrons

 (12-2), 12 neutrons (24-12)

o the negative chloride ion Cl,17 protons, 18 electrons (17+1),

20 neutrons (37-17)

o the negative sulfide ion S2-,16 protons, 18 electrons (16+2), 16

neutrons (32-16)
o for more details and examples see ionic bonding notes.
The electrons are arranged in specific energy levels according to a set
of rules (dealt with in section 3).
This description of an atom consisting of the relatively minute nucleus of
protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons in particular shells or energy
levels is sometimes referred to as the Bohr Model of the atom, after the
great Danish scientist Niels Bohr (18851962), one of the brilliant founders of
modern atomic theory.
Other examples of interpreting the nuclide notation and definition
reminders:
o Top left number is the nucleon number or mass number (A = sum of
protons + neutrons = nucleons)
o Bottom left number is the atomic number or proton number (Z =
protons in nucleus)
o Electrons = protons if the atom is electrically neutral i.e. NOT an ion.
o The neutron number N = A Z i.e. mass/nucleon number
atomic/proton number
Therefore from the following 'full' atomic symbols, assuming we
are dealing with electrically neutral atoms, the number of sub-
atomic particles for the following atoms will be as follows ...

Cobalt atom (isotope cobalt59), mass 59, 27 protons,

32 neutrons (59 27), 27 electrons

Californium atom (isotope californium246), mass 246,

98 protons, 148 neutrons (246 98), 98 electrons
So, at this point we had better explain, slightly belatedly, what
isotopes are!

2. ISOTOPES

WHAT ARE ISOTOPES? ARE THEY IMPORTANT?

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of

neutrons in the nucleus and therefore different masses (different nucleon
number or mass number).
 o Isotopes are atoms of the same atomic number but different mass
numbers.
Some elements have just one isotope but others may have up to
eight different isotopes.
Most elements have one or more stable isotopes, but many
other isotopes are unstable, disintegrate spontaneously (nuclear
decay) and are known as radioactive.
o This gives each isotope of a particular element a different mass or
nucleon number, but, being the same element they have the same
atomic number or proton number, but different nucleon number.
o Isotopes of a particular element are also chemically identical,
because they have the same number of electrons, hence the same
electron structure and will therefore behave in an identical manner to
each other.
o Study the diagrams of the isotopes of carbon further down the page.
o Relative Isotopic Mass is dealt with on a separate calculation page
(and see also mass spectrometry)
The phrase 'heavier' or 'lighter' isotope means 'bigger' or 'smaller' mass
number for a particular element.
There are small physical differences between the isotopes e.g. the heavier
isotope has a greater density or boiling point, the lighter the isotope the faster
it diffuses.
However, because they have the same number of protons
(proton/atomic number) isotopes of a particular element have the same
electronic structure and identical chemistry.
Examples of isotopes are illustrated and described below.
Caution Note: Do NOT assume the word isotope means the atom it is
radioactive, this depends on the stability of the nucleus i.e. unstable atoms
(radioactive) might be referred to as radioisotopes.
Many isotopes are extremely stable in the nuclear sense and NOT radioactive
i.e. most of the atoms that make up you and the world around you!

hydrogen1, hydrogen2, and hydrogen3 are the three

isotopes of hydrogen with mass numbers of 1, 2 and 3, with 0, 1 and 2
neutrons respectively. All have 1 proton, since all are hydrogen! Hydrogen1
is the most common, there is a trace of hydrogen2 (sometimes called
deuterium) naturally but hydrogen3 (sometime called tritium) is very
unstable and is used in atomic bombs nuclear fusion weapons.
o They are sometimes denoted more simply as 1H, 2H and 3H since the
chemical symbol H means hydrogen and therefore must have only one
proton (atomic number 1).

and or 3He and 4He, are the two isotopes of helium with mass
numbers of 3 and 4, with 1 and 2 neutrons respectively but both have 2
protons. Helium3 is formed in the Sun by the initial nuclear fusion process.
Helium4 is also formed in the Sun and as a product of radioactive alpha
decay of an unstable nucleus.
o An alpha particle is a helium nucleus (mass 4, charge +2) and if it
 picks up two electrons it becomes a stable atoms of the gas helium.
For more details see Radioactivity Revision Notes Part 4

and or 23Na and 24Na, are the two isotopes of sodium with
mass numbers of 23 and 24, with 12 and 13 neutrons respectively but both
have 11 protons in the nucleus and 11 surrounding electrons. Sodium23 is
quite stable e.g. in common salt (NaCl, sodium chloride) but sodium24 is a
radioisotope and is a gamma emitter used in medicine as a radioactive
tracer e.g. to examine organs and the blood system.

and are the two nuclear symbols for the two most common and
stable isotopes of the element chlorine. They both have 17 protons in the
nucleus and 3517 = 18 and 3717 = 20 neutrons respectively (and both
have 17 surrounding electrons).

and are the two nuclide symbols for the two most common and
stable isotopes of the element bromine. They both have 35 protons in the
nucleus and 7935 = 44 neutrons and 8135 = 46 neutrons respectively. By
coincidence, there are almost exactly 50% of each isotope present in naturally
occurring bromine.
The three known isotopes of carbon (the electron structure is fully
explained in the next section)

o
o
o

nuclide %
isotope protons neutrons electrons
symbol abundance
carbon 12 C 98.9%,
6 6 6 6
12 stable
carbon 13 C 1.1%,
6 6 7 6
13 stable
trace,
carbon 14 C
6 6 8 6 unstable
14
radioactive

o The table of information on the three isotopes of carbon is illustrated by

the diagrams above it.
o The electronic structure is also shown and is fully explained in the next
section 3.
o Two carbon isotopes are very stable, but carbon-14 slowly decays and
is used by archaeologists to radiocarbon date objects. (See
archaeological radiocarbon-14 dating)
o Now is an appropriate point to introduce the concept and definition of
relative atomic mass (Ar), which is required for very accurate
quantitative chemistry calculations.
o The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of all
the isotopes present compared to 1/12th of the mass of a carbon
12 atom (12C = 12.00000 amu i.e. the standard).
When you average the masses of the isotopes of carbon, taking
into account their relative abundance (%), you arrive at a relative
atomic mass of carbon of 12.011, Ar(C) = 12.011, though at this
academic level 12.0 is usually accurate enough!
See also chemical calculations on how to calculate relative
atomic mass
I've put this calculation on its own page because there is plenty
on atomic structure already on this page!

Anything on this page relevant to the calculation of RAM is
repeated on the page.
EXTRA NOTE ON 'ATOMIC' NOTATION representation of isotopes of
ions
Nuclide notation and ions
o Ions are NOT neutral, they have an net electrical charge caused by the
atom losing or gaining electrons to give a positive or negative ion.
o This process is called ionisation and there is never any change in the
number of protons or neutrons in the nucleus, just a change in the
number of orbiting electrons.

o sodium24 isotope ion, 11 protons, 13 neutrons, 10

electrons (one electron lost to form a singly charged positive ion)

o sodium23 isotope ion, 11, protons, 12 neutrons, 10

electrons (one electron lost to form a singly positive ion)

o isotope sulfur32 in the form of the sulfide ion, 16 protons, 16

neutrons, 18 electrons (two electrons gained to form the doubly
charged negative ion)
Knowledge of isotopes is important in modern science.
o Radioactive isotopes are used in medicine to trace aspects of body
chemistry due to their radioactive emissions, and in chemical synthesis
as tracers to follow how a reaction sequence occurs.
o Radioactive isotopes are used in radiotherapy to kill malignant cancer
cells.
For lots more details see the RADIOACTIVITY NOTES
DO NOT CONFUSE ISOTOPES and ALLOTROPES see
Appendix 3.

3. The Electronic Structure of Atoms rules to be learned

WHAT DO WE MEAN BY the electron configuration?, electronic structure of

atoms?

that is what is the arrangement of electrons in the shells or energy levels?

The Bohr model of the atom in its more elaborate form involves the maximum
numbers of electrons that each shell or energy level can hold and how the
shells are progressively filled with electrons from atom to another with
increase in proton/atomic number.
The electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around the nucleus
and with 'orbits' on average increasing in distance from the nucleus.
 o Electrons in an atom occupy the lowest available energy levels
(the innermost available shells).
o The lowest energy levels are always filled first, you can think of the
lower the shell, the nearer the nucleus, and numbered 1, 2, 3 etc. as
the shell gets further from the nucleus.
Each electron in an atom is in a particular energy level (or shell) and the
electrons must occupy the lowest available energy level (or shell)
available nearest the nucleus.
When the level is full, the next electron goes into the next highest level (shell)
available.
There are rules to learn about the maximum number of electrons allowed in
each shell and you have to be able to work out the arrangements for the first
20 elements (for GCSE students, up to at least 36 for Advanced level
students).
o The 1st shell can contain a maximum of 2 electrons (electrons 12)
o The 2nd shell can contain a maximum of 8 electrons (electrons 3
10)
o The 3rd shell also has a maximum of 8 electrons (electrons 1118)
o The 19th and 20th electrons go into the 4th shell, (required limit of
GCSE knowledge).
o Remember the total electrons to be arranged equals the atomic/proton
number for a neutral atom.
If you know the atomic (proton) number, you know it equals the number
of electrons in a neutral atom, you then apply the above rules to work
out the electron arrangement (configuration).
For elements 1 to 20 the electron arrangements/configurations are written out
in the following manner:
o Note that each number represents the number of electrons in a
particular shell, dots or commas are used to separate the numbers of
electrons in each shell. They are written out in order of increasing
average distance from the positive nucleus which holds these negative
electrons in their energy levels (shells).
o The electron configurations or electron arrangements are
summarised below with reference to the periods of the periodic table
and in order of increasing atomic number up to proton number 20.
For more see the Periodic Table and Electron Structure notes
below.
o Period 1 elements 1 to 2 (2 elements)
the electron arrangement is written out simply as 1 or 2, only the
1st shell or level involved.
o Period 2 elements 3 to 10 (8 elements)
have electron arrangements of 2,1 to 2,8 (since 1st shell is full
with 2 electrons i.e. the first number)
2,5 would mean two electrons in the 1st level (shell) and
five in the 2nd level (shell).
o Period 3 elements 11 to 18 (8 elements)
are denoted by 2,8,1 to 2,8,8 (1st & 2nd shells full with 2 & 8
electrons, ie 2.8)
2,8,3 would mean two electrons in the 1st level (shell),
 eight in the 2nd level (full shell) and three electrons in the
3rd outer level (shell).
o Period 4 first two elements 19 to 20
are written out as 2,8,8,1 and 2,8,8,2 (1st, 2nd, 3rd full shells
with 2,8,8 electrons)
2,8,8,1 would mean two electrons in the 1st level (shell),
eight in the 2nd level, eight electrons in the 3rd level
(shell) and one electron in the 4th outer level (shell).
Reminder this is as far as GCSE students need to know, after
that things get more complicated, BUT only for advanced level
students!
For example, after element 18, the 3rd shell can hold a
maximum of 18 electrons!
o The above is summarised in the diagram below

o
o The electron shell arrangements are quoted in numbers e.g. 2,4 for C
(carbon) but you need to be able to draw electron diagrams showing
the electronic structure of the atom.
In the above table, check out the atomic number, the lower
subscript on the element symbol, and apply the rules, and
hopefully it makes sense.
Some examples of electronic diagrams are given below and
GCSE/IGCSE/O level students need to be able to work and
draw the electronic structures of the first 20 elements.
You should notice that the number of shells used equals the
period number of the element in the periodic table.
They can be all worked by the 'shell filling' rules described
above.
o For the rest of Period 4 and other Periods you need a more
advanced electron configuration system up to at least Z=36 using s, p,
d and f orbital notation BUT for advanced level chemistry students only!

Examples: diagram, symbol or name of element (Atomic Number = number of

protons and the number of electrons in a neutral atom), shorthand electron
arrangement and a diagram to help you follow the numbers.

Filling 1st shell, electron level 1 2 elements only, Period 1 of

the Periodic Table

Filling 2nd shell, electron level 2 to to 3 of the

8 elements of Period 2

Filling 3rd shell, electron level 3 to

3 of the 8 elements of Period 3

The first 2 elements of the 4th shell to Kr

[2.8.18.8], start of Period 4

Only the first 2 of the 18 elements of Period 4 are shown above, the rule for 3rd shell
changes from element 21 Sc onwards (studied at Advanced level, so GCSE students
don't worry!)

A few more 'snappy' examples given atomic number, work out electron
configuration (abbreviated to e.c.)

Z = 3 e.c. 2,1 or Z = 7 e.c. = 2,5 or Z = 14 e.c. = 2,8,4 or Z = 19 e.c. = 2,8,8,1 etc.

up to Z = 20

4. Which electron arrangements are stable and which are not?

Both atoms and ions are considered

WHY ARE SOME ELECTRON ARRANGEMENTS ARE MORE STABLE

THAN OTHERS?
WHICH ELECTRON ARRANGEMENTS ARE THE MOST STABLE AND
WHICH ELECTRON ARRANGEMENTS THE LEAST STABLE?
HOW DO ELECTRON ARRANGEMENTS RELATE TO THE REACTIVITY
OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS?
When an atom has its outer level full to the maximum number of electrons
allowed, the atom is particularly stable electronically and very unreactive.
o This is the situation with the Noble Gases: He is [2], neon is [2,8] and
argon is [2,8,8] etc.
o There atoms are the most reluctant to lose, share or gain electrons in
any sort of chemical interaction because they are so electronically
stable.
o For all elements most of their chemistry is about what outer
electrons do or don't!
o [2], [2,8] and [2,8,8] etc. are known as the 'stable Noble Gas
arrangements', and the atoms of other elements try to attain this
sort of electron structure when reacting to become more stable.
o More details on Electron configuration notes for Advanced Level
Chemistry Students
The most reactive metals have just one outer electron.
o These are the Group 1 Alkali Metals, lithium [2,1], sodium [2,8,1],
potassium [2,8,8,1]
o With one outer shell electron, they have one more electron than a
stable Noble Gas electron structure.
o So, they readily lose the outer electron when they chemically react to
try to form (if possible) one of the stable Noble Gas electron
arrangements which is why atoms react in the first place!
o When Group 1 Alkali Metal atoms lose an electron they form a
positive ion because the positive proton number doesn't change, but
with one negative electron lost, there is a surplus of one + charge e.g.
sodium atom ==> sodium ion
 Na ==> Na+
is [2.8.1] ==> [2.8] electronically
in fundamental particles [11p + 11e] ==> [11p + 10e]
IONS are atoms or group of atoms which carry an overall
electrical charge i.e. not electrically neutral.
The most reactive nonmetals are just one electron short of a full outer
shell.
o These are the Group 7 Halogens, namely fluorine [2,7], chlorine
[2,8,7] etc.
o These atoms are one electron short of a stable full outer shell and seek
an 8th outer electron to become electronically stable yet again,
this is why atoms react!
o They readily gain an outer electron, when they chemically react, to
form one of the stable Noble Gas electron arrangements either by
sharing electrons (in a covalent bond) or by electron transfer forming a
singly charged negative ion (ionic bonding) e.g.
chlorine atom ==> chloride ion
Cl ==> Cl
is [2.8.7] ==> [2.8.8] electronically
in fundamental particles [17p + 17e] ==> [17p + 18e]
the positive proton number of Cl doesn't change but the chloride
ion carries one extra negative electron to give the surplus
charge of a single on the ion.
For more on electron structure and chemical changes and compound
formation see ...
o GCSE/IGCSE/AS notes on CHEMICAL BONDING
and for more on metal and nonmetal reactivity see
o GCSE/IGCSE notes REACTIVITY SERIES of METALS
o GCSE/IGCSE notes Group 1 ALKALI METALS
o GCSE/IGCSE notes GROUP 7 HALOGENS

5. The Periodic Table and Electronic Structure more patterns!

Selected Elements of the Periodic Table are shown below with atomic number
and chemical symbol.

HOW DOES AN ELEMENT'S ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT RELATE TO ITS

POSITION IN THE PERIODIC TABLE?
 The elements are laid out in order of Atomic Number that is the number
of protons in the nucleus.
It is important to realise that the 'chemical structure' of the periodic
Table (shown above), that is the chemical similarity of vertical groups
'like' elements (apart from the Noble Gases), was known well before the
electronic structure of atoms was understood.
o In other words the elements are laid out in vertical columns (groups)
and horizontal rows (periods) so that chemically (usually) VERY similar
elements appear under each other and there is a very good
electronic structure reason for this!
o However, it wasn't understood why they behaved in the same way
chemically e.g. similar compound formulae and reactions etc. nor was
it understood at first why Noble Gases were so unreactive towards
other elements.
o BUT, once the electronic structure of atoms was understood,
'electronic' theories could then be applied to explain the chemical
similarity of elements in a vertical Group of the Periodic Table.
Originally they were laid out in order of 'atomic weight' (now called
relative atomic mass). This is not correct for some elements now that we
know their detailed atomic structure in terms of protons, neutrons and
electrons, and of course, their chemical and physical properties in more
accurate and extensive detail.
For example: Argon (at. no. 18, electrons 2,8,8) has a relative atomic mass
of 40. Potassium (at. no. 19, electrons 2,8,8,1) has a relative atomic mass of
39. BUT Argon, in terms of its physical, chemical and electronic properties is
clearly a Noble Gas in Group 0. Likewise, potassium is clearly an Alkali Metal
in Group 1.
Hydrogen, 1, H, does not readily fit into any group
A Group is a vertical column of chemically and physically similar
elements e.g.
o Group 1 The Alkali Metals (Li, Na, K etc.) with one outer electron (one
more than a Noble Gas structure),
o Group 7 The Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I etc.) with seven outer electrons
(one short of a Noble Gas arrangement)
 o and Group 0 The Noble Gases (He, Ne, Ar etc.). The group number
equals the number of electrons in the outer shell (e.g. chlorine's
electron arrangement is 2.8.7, the second element down Group 7 on
period 3).
A Period is a horizontal row of elements with a variety of properties (left
to right goes from metallic to nonmetallic elements. All the elements use the
same number of electron shells which equals the period number (e.g.
sodium's electron arrangement 2.8.1, the first element in Period 3).
The ten elements Sc to Zn are called the Transition Metals Series and form
part of a period between Group 2 and Group 3 from Period 4 onwards.
Below are the electron arrangements for elements 1 to 20 set out in
Periodic Table format (Hydrogen and The Transition metals etc. have been
omitted). When you move down to the next period you start to fill in the next
shell according to the maximum electrons in a shell rule (see previous
section).
NOTE: In the most modern periodic table notation Groups 37 and 0 are
numbered Groups 3 to 18.

o The first element in a period has one outer electron (e.g. sodium
Na 2.8.1), and the last element has a full outer shell (e.g. argon Ar
2.8.8)
o Apart from hydrogen (H, 1) and helium (He, 2) the last electron number
is the group number (in the old notation) and the number of shells used
is equal to the Period number.
o The periodicity of elements i.e. the repetition of very chemically similar
elements in a group is due to the repetition of a the same outer
electron structure check out the last number from element 3
onwards.
o More GCSE/IGCSE notes on the Periodic Table
o and the electronic explanations of chemical bondingformulae
 o Advanced Level Chemistry electron configurations/arrangements
and the Periodic Table

APPENDIX 1. The history of the atom concept and the alpha particle scattering
experiment

(some of the theory ideas described here goes above GCSE/IGCSE level!)

The development of the 'atomic model' is an excellent example of how new

experiment evidence initiates the need to change an existing scientific model or even
come up with a different theoretical model, in this case for atomic structure.
You should appreciate that knowledge and understanding of atomic structure has
evolved over time.

The Greeks Leucippus and Democritus ~400 BC wondered what was the result of
continually dividing a substance i.e. what was the end product or smallest bit i.e.
what was left that was indivisible the word atomic is from Greek adjective meaning
'not divisible'.

The Greeks idea was not forgotten and later revived by Boyle and Newton but with
little progress.

However, in 1808 Dalton at the beginning of the 19th century, proposed his atomic
theory that all matter was made up of tiny hard particles/spheres called atoms.

Dalton also proposed (correctly) the theory that different types of atoms (elements)
combined together to give all the different substances of the physical world (all which
of course is true, except for the 'hard solid indivisible spheres'!).

He also produced the first list of 'atomic weights' (we now call relative atomic
masses) on a scale based on hydrogen given the arbitrary value of 1 since it was
lightest element known, and, as it happens, correctly so.

He was incorrect by stating that atoms were indivisible, but we now know that atoms
consist of electrons, protons and neutrons and that atoms can be 'taken apart' by
ionisation or nuclear changes e.g. radioactivity.

Until the discovery of the electron, atoms were thought of as hard indivisible
spheres, but brilliant 'JJ' changed all that. New experimental evidence may lead
to a scientific model being changed or replaced and with the discovery of the
electron, recognised as the first known 'sub-atomic particle', change was on the way.
J J Thomson Around 1897 proposed his 'plum
pudding model' theory based on the growing
evidence that atoms were themselves composed
of even smaller more fundamental particles like
the electron i.e. atoms were not hard indivisible
spheres.

His experiments had shown that atoms contained

small negatively charged particle called electrons
which could be removed from atoms using a
vacuum tube and applying a high potential
difference (voltage) to a very low pressure gas.
He showed that the mass of an electron was
much less than the mass of an atom. Therefore
the 'hard indivisible sphere' model of an atom was wrong.

From his experiments Thomson envisaged a plumb pudding atom consisting of a

positively charged 'pudding' (a sort of ball of positive charge) with just enough lighter
negatively charged electrons embedded in it to produce a neutral atom. Note that
both the positive charges and negative charges are evenly distributed through the
sphere of the atom (shown later by Rutherford and Bohr etc. to be completely
wrong).

The idea of positive particles balancing the negative particles was correct but the
relative size and nature of the nucleus and distribution of electrons were not, BUT it
was a more advanced model.

Ernest Rutherford, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden (the latter two were
students of Rutherford at Cambridge University) conducted alpha particle
scattering experiments (19021910, and described in detail below).

These experiments established

(i) minute nature of the nucleus even compared to the size of an atom

(ii) the nucleus was positive and the positive charge varied from
element to element.

Diagram of the Rutherford and GeigerMarsden scattering

experiment

When positive alpha particle beams are fired on very thin layers
of metals (e.g. very fine gold leaf) some rather surprising results
were made by scientists of the early 20th century.

By using a 360o charged particle detection system it was found that

...

3. most particles passed through undeflected (as if there was

nothing there!), this was expected.

2. a small proportion were deflected slightly (so there was something there!), this
again was not unexpected.

1. about 1 in 20,000 were 'bounced' back through an angle of over 90o, in other
words were reflected backwards, a totally unexpected result and quite shocked the
experimenters - not what they were expecting. This was because the JJ Thompson
model predicted the positive charge was spread out and not sufficiently concentrated
to cause, for some alpha particles a 180o deflection! So, whatever was there, was
substantial and positively charged to cause the repulsion 'bounce' of the positive
alpha particles, BUT what it was (the 'nucleus') it wasn't very big!

These results made it quite plain the JJ Thompson plumb pudding model was in
some way wrong ie the positive charge was NOT spread throughout the volume of
an atom.

From a detailed mathematical analysis of the scattering experiment results, the only
'atomic model' which could account for the pattern was an atom consisting of ...

1. mainly empty space (which is why most alpha particles passed through
undeflected), thus completely contradicting JJ Thompson's 'plum pudding' model.
Other experiments showed that the electrons were orbiting in energy levels around
the nucleus, but occupying virtually no significant volume in themselves as particles.

2a. a relatively minute positive centre (the nucleus) causing deflection (like
charges repel, alpha particles are positively charged and so were being repelled by
the 'later to be discovered' positive protons in the nucleus), we now know the
nucleus is positive due to protons,

2b. a tiny dense centre of similar or greater charge or mass to an alpha particle
(which we now call the nucleus), so most of the mass of an atom was in the central
nucleus, we know the mass is made of protons and neutrons.

3. Most of the atom is mainly empty space with a cloud of negative electrons
moving around the positive nucleus.

Putting these three points together formed the basis of the modern picture of the
'nuclear atom', in other words the nuclear atomic model.

Other experiments have shown that electrons are arranged in energy levels, sort
orbits around the nucleus, ideas first proposed by scientists such as Bohr.

So an atom is quite well represented by the Bohr model of the atom (picture below)
which moves the Rutherford nuclear model another step forward.

Bohr's suggestion that the negative electrons can only exist in certain specific energy
levels (shells) held in place by the positive nucleus complimented the Rutherford
model of the atom to gives a reasonably complete picture of an atom (at least for this
academic level!).

Bohr envisaged the electrons orbiting the nucleus in specific energy levels (or fixed
shells) at specific distances from the central nucleus with nothing in between. The
negative charge of the electrons was balanced by the positive charge (protons) of
the nucleus.

Diagram of a 'Bohr' lithium

atom

AND, most importantly, experimental results matched a theoretical mathematical

model of simple 'electronic' atoms like hydrogen.

So by now, earlier theories of atomic structure, e.g. the 'plum pudding' model
in which 'protons' and 'electrons' were scattered or arranged evenly across the
atom, were superseded by the nuclear models of Rutherford and Bohr.

It was the only model that could explain the scattering of the high speed alpha
particles by a small dense and positive atomic centre AND the behaviour of
electrons.

Experiments had shown that the outer bits could be knocked off atoms and these
had a very tiny mass and a negative charge, in other words the electron!

In 1913 Moseley studied the Xrays emitted by highly energisedionised atoms and
from the Xray spectra of elements (the K alpha line, K) he was able to deduce the
electric charge of the nucleus which we now know is equal to the atomic number of
protons in the nucleus.

Moseley showed that when atoms were bombarded with cathode rays (electrons) X
rays where produced which he investigated with an X-ray spectrometer.

It was found that the square root of the highest energy emission line (called the K
alpha line, K) gave a linear plot with the apparent atomic number,

Z = constant x K

but the plot of K against atomic weight (relative atomic mass) gave a zigzag plot,
suggesting this 'atomic number' was far more important the 'atomic weight' of an
element in terms of the atom's fundamental structure.

Note:

(i) The K alpha line, K is due to an electronic transition of the inner most electron
nearest the nucleus.

(ii) Sadly, Moseley was killed in action during the First World War at Gallipoli in 1915,
a great loss to science as well as his family and friends.

However, there was still the problem of why the atomic mass and atomic number
where different i.e. in the case of the lighter elements, the atomic weight was often
about twice the atomic number.

In 1919 Aston developed a cathode ray tube i.e. like those used by Wien and
Thompson etc. into a 'mass spectrograph', which we now know as a mass
spectrometer GCSEAS atomic structure notes.

This showed that atoms of the same element had different masses but there was no
experimental evidence that they had different atomic numbers (which of course they
didn't). These different atoms of the same element were called isotopes.

In 1920 Rutherford suggested there might be a 'missing' neutral particle and in 1932
Chadwick discovered the neutron by bombarding beryllium atoms with alpha
particles which produced a beam of neutrons.

These were shown to have a relative mass of 1 (same as a proton) and were
electrically neutral and quite penetrating into matter. This penetration and lack of
charge had made them difficult to detect.

Prior to this, Rutherford and others had conducted experiments to show that the
smallest particle in an atom was equivalent to a hydrogen atom without its electron,
that is the proton.

It was not until 1932 that the nature of the neutron was finally deduced by Chadwick
and this completely explained the nature of isotopes and backed up the ideas from
Moseley's work that the fundamentally important number that characterises an
element is its atomic number and NOT the atomic mass. The neutron discovery, ~20
years after the discovery of the nucleus, completed the 'modern' picture and theory
of the composition of an atom in terms of the three principal sub-atomic particles -
which is sufficient for the needs of us chemists!

Advanced level note on the discovery of neutrons:

Chadwick bombarded a thin metal foil of beryllium atoms (94Be) with alpha particles
(42He) and this produced a highly penetrating radiation that was unaffected by
electrical or magnetic fields.
9 Be + 4 He ====> 12 C + 1 n
4 2 6 0

This 'neutral' penetrating radiation was eventually identified as a beam of neutrons!

Note the carbon-12 atom produced balances the nuclear equation in terms of mass
(9 + 4 = 12 + 1) and positive proton nuclear charge (4+ + 2+ = 6+).

See section 2. Radioactivity Notes page on other experiments with mixed particle
beams and their separation.

See also Atomic structure and radioactivity

Appendix 2. Atomic structure diagrams some variations!

e.g. for the element lithium 73Li consisting of three protons and four neutrons

Appendix 3. Allotropes don't confuse with isotopes!

WHAT ARE ALLOTROPES?

As explained above, Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different
masses due to different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus. Same protons and
electrons. e.g. atomic number 6 = 6 protons = carbon, but there can be 6, 7 or 8
neutrons giving isotopes of carbon12, 13 or 14.
Oxygen atoms usually form 'stable' O2 oxygen molecules (also called dioxygen),
BUT they can form a very reactive unstable molecule O3 ozone (also called
trioxygen). The mass of the oxygen atoms in each of the molecules is mainly 16
(99.8%), and about 0.2% of two other stable isotopes of masses 17 and 18.
Whatever isotope or isotopes make up the molecule, it doesn't affect the
molecular structure or the respective chemistry of the O2 or O3 molecules.

However, what sometimes confuses the issue is the fact that oxygen O2 and ozone
O3 are examples of allotropes.

Allotropes are defined as different forms of the same element in the same
physical state.

The different physical allotropic forms arise from different arrangements of the atoms
and molecules of the element and in the case of solids, different crystalline
allotropes.

They are usually chemically similar but always physically different in some way e.g.

O2 (oxygen, dioxygen) and O3 (ozone, trioxygen) are both gases but have
different densities, boiling points etc.

Graphite, diamond and buckminsterfullerene are all solid allotropes of the

element carbon and have significantly different physical and in some ways chemical
properties! (details on bonding page)

Rhombic and monoclinic sulphur have different geometrical crystal structures,

that is different ways of packing the sulphur atoms (which are actually both made up
of different packing arrangements of S8 ring molecules). They have different
solubilities and melting points. There is also a 3rd unstable allotrope of sulfur called
plastic sulphur made by pouring boiling molten sulphur into cold water which forms
a black plastic material consisting of chains of sulphur atoms SSSSS etc..

It doesn't matter which isotopes make up the structure of any of an element's

allotropes described above, so to summarise by one example ...

oxygen16, 17 or 18 are isotopes of oxygen with different nuclear structures due

to different numbers of neutrons, but they behave chemically in an identical manner.

BUT O2 and O3 are different molecular structures of the same element in the
same physical state and are called allotropes irrespective of the isotopes that make
up the molecules. Allotropes can have different physical and chemical properties.