SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 2007, 5 (3), 1-10

SA Tydskrif vir Menslikehulpbronbestuur, 2007, 5 (3), 1-10

Misconceptions about emotional intelligence:

Deploying emotional intelligence in ones life
dimensions
ANOB BADENHORST
anobe@swartberg.co.za
DAWIE SMITH
dsmith@uj.ac.za
Department of Human Resource Management
University of Johannesburg

ABSTRACT
Emotional intelligence (EI) has become a buzz-word over the past ten years, yet misconceptions with regard to
the concept abound. This leads to confusion among the general public, the scientific community, as well as to
unfounded claims being made as to what the development of EI can accomplish in a persons life. In this article
the aim is to clarify the concept EI by making a sharper demarcation between the Emotional Life Dimension and
the other life dimensions. Based on this clarification, the conceptualisation of EI in the literature is reviewed in
more depth.

Key words:
Emotional Intelligence, conceptual misconceptions

Emotional intelligence has become a buzz-word and part of
informed peoples vocabulary over the past ten years. Large
corporates as well as individuals are spending millions on
training and workshops to improve emotional intelligence.
A recent internet search done with emotional intelligence as a
keyword yielded 9 900 000 results. Yet there is still confusion
about the concept emotional intelligence (EI). Is EI in essence
to manage ourselves and our relationships with others so
that we truly live our intentions, as stated by Lynn (2005,
p. v.)? Does EI refer to the array of personal-management
and social skills that allows one to succeed in the workplace
and in life in general (Sterrett, 2000, p. 2)? Is emotional
aptitude (is) a meta-ability, determining how well we can
use whatever other skills we have, including raw intellect
(Goleman, 1996, p. 36)? Or is EI more simply involved in
the capacity to perceive emotions, assimilate emotion-related
feelings, understand the information of those emotions, and
manage them (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 1999, p.1)? This
apparent diversity in the conceptualization of EI leads to
confusion with regard to the territory of EI, as well as to EI
practitioners making claims that cannot be substantiated by
addressing EI alone.
Multiple theories with regard to the concept EI
In the EI field numerous theories, models or views of EI exist.
Theories of EI, upon which definitions of EI are based, are
often classified into two basic types: those proposing a narrow
definition of EI as an ability, based on the definition of Mayer
et al. (1999), and those utilising a broader definition of EI, of
which Golemans approach is the most well-known (Zeidner,
Matthews, Roberts, & MacCann, 2003). These two approaches are
also called academic versus popular (Emotional Intelligence
View 360, 2004), or ability versus mixed-model (Mayer et
al., 1999).
In their article Emotional Intelligence: Issues and Common
Misunderstandings, Emmerling and Goleman (2003, p. 9)
point out that, while some might argue that the goal of
research should be to identify and define a singular theoretical
framework to be labelled as the correct version of EI, another
approach would be to acknowledge that having multiple theories
can often serve to elucidate additional aspects of complex
psychological constructs. While this, on the surface, sounds like
a fair argument, the problem is that many EI theorists make
unfounded claims with regard to the scope of EI. This will be
explained further on.
Caruso (2004, p. 2) comes up with an equally valid statement
when he comments on Emmerling and Golemans article. He
writes:
If we, as researchers or practitioners, dont have a common
language we cannot hope to effectively communicate with each
other. We also risk alienating our clients as they struggle to
understand what it is we have been selling them.
The lack of a common language is evident from the widely
divergent definitions of EI quoted above. Caruso argues that,
although writing for the general public is different to writing for
the scientific community, the integrity of basic concepts, such as
EI, should remain intact. The broadening of the concept EI has
not been to the advantage of the EI field. One has to agree with
Carusos statement (2004, p. 4) that there have been too many
wild claims made in a frenzy to stake out territory during the
gold rush of emotional intelligence.
Criticism against the concept EI
A review of literature reveals that the broadening of the
definition of EI is one of the main criticisms levelled against
efforts to define the concept (Daus & Ashkanasy, 2003; Mayer
et al., 1999). This broadening of the definition might be a result
of the lack of a single, accepted definition of the concept, or
in Carusos terms, the lack of a common language. The lack of
consensus on a single definition may also be connected to the
other major criticisms of the concept, namely:
l EI overlaps with aspects of established personality theories and
traits, especially the five factor theory. Daus and Ashkanasy
(2003) note that the broad definitions of Goleman (1996)
and Bar-On (1997) do not appear to markedly differ from
traditional personality models or competency models,
and that the Emotional Competence Inventory of Boyatzis,
Goleman and Rhee (2000) tends to show quite substantial
overlap with the Big Five (see for example, Davies, Stankov,
& Roberts, 1998; Dadwa & Hart, 2000). Davis (2004, p.
10) also states that some of the competencies identified by
Goleman may not really be abilities at all (and thus would not
technically qualify as a kind of intelligence), but may reflect
personality traits instead.
l Measures of the construct are weak or problematic. The biggest
problem in this regard, according to Davis (2004), is that
self-report measures, the easiest ways to measure emotional
quotient (EQ), are also the weakest ways to do it. Measurements
of EI tend to be associated with the major EI models, and


 badenhorst, smith
this has allowed us to confuse EI models or theories with a
specific measurement approach (Caruso, 2004, p. 3).
l The degree to which EI is malleable, in contrast to the relative
fixity of IQ, is contested by critics. Closely related to this is the
view that EI is potentiality, and as such cannot be improved,
although this potential can be developed or left undeveloped,
as well as the issue of whether EI can be easily learned. Hein
(2001, p.4) differentiates between emotional intelligence
(EI), a persons innate potential, and EQ, a relative measure
of a persons healthy or unhealthy development of their
innate EI.
l Claims made about the importance of EI cannot be substantiated.
A lot of the debate revolves around the statement Goleman
made that EQ can be more important to success at work
than IQ (Goleman, 1996). This issue has been addressed
and clarified by Emmerling and Goleman (2003). However,
some claims are being made by EQ specialists about changes
being affected to a persons life by developing ones EI that
can clearly not be substantiated. Dann (2002, p. 31) for
instance claims that developing your EQ will help you if
you are concerned with: ....your life-work balance because
it must become more equitable and you need to renegotiate
how your time is spent. Vermeulen states on her web site
(www.theeqsite.co.za), that EQ is important because it
sets the stage for our ability to succeed at life, and that
If youre currently battling with any of the following then
EQ is for you: Are you unhealthy, unfit?...Does your life
lack purpose? Is it meaningless to you? Unsubstantiated
statements such as these could give rise to expectations that
cannot be met through developing emotional competencies
in isolation from the other life dimensions, as will be
explained further on.
Unless greater clarity with regard to the concept is attained,
the concept might be broadened to such an extent that the
significance of EI, and its contribution to a greater understanding
of the effective functioning of man, is lost.
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
The knowledge gap
Despite the huge amount of literature available on EI, there still
appears to be a knowledge gap:
l There is no single, universally accepted definition of EI.
It is evident that the EI field lacks a single, universally
accepted definition of the concept emotional intelligence. This
has been acknowledged by the major authorities on EI, such
as Emmerling and Goleman (2003), and Caruso (2004). This
leads to confusion among the audience (the general public
as well as the scientific community), as well as to unfounded
claims being made as to what the development of EI can
accomplish in a persons life.
l There sometimes appears to be inconsistency when applying
the stated definition of EI in developing EI.
In some instances there is also a considerable gap between
the stated definition of EI, and the application of that
definition when developing EI. Le Roux and De Klerk (2003),
for instance, start off with a fairly narrow definition of EI, but
broaden the concept when developing EI to include aspects
such as values and self-acceptance.
l EI is not clearly demarcated.
In the introduction to their book, titled: What is an
emotion: Classic Readings in Philosophical Psychology,
Calhoun and Solomon (1984, p. 6) state that, in approaching
emotion theory, one of the most basic problems has to do
with distinguishing between emotions and other mental
phenomena. The problem of clarity of the concept EI can
be addressed by demarcating the concept EI more clearly
from ones other life dimensions. Because EI is not clearly
demarcated from the other life dimensions, EI practitioners
sometimes attribute improvement in functioning or well-
being to the development of EI, while it should in fact be
attributed to the development of other life dimensions, e.g.
the Spiritual Dimension.
l There appears to be no documented holistic, integrated
framework of how EI fits into the total person that can be
applied when developing EI.
Authors such as Le Roux and De Klerk (2003), Vermeulen
(1999), Dann (2002) and Goleman (1996) rightly include non-
emotional aspects of the person, e.g. spirituality, morality,
physical state and social relationships when developing EI.
They do not, however, provide any conceptual framework
of how these aspects link to EI, or of how EI fits into the
functioning of the total person. Such a framework is provided
by Smith, but has not been formally noted in academic
literature.
The objective of the research
The primary objective of this article is to clarify the concept EI
by putting EI in perspective with regard to the total person. To
accomplish this objective, this article aims to:
l Position EI in the context of the eight life dimensions by making a
sharper demarcation between the various life dimensions. Special
emphasis will be placed on the spiritual life dimension, since
many EI specialists unknowingly confuse EI with spirituality.
Vermeulen (1999, p.9), for instance, states: Whats relevant is
that the spiritual is the only source capable of generating power
but its managed by our emotional lives. ... We know too our
emotions manage this force because when we feel good were
energetic. The irony, however, is that this should be the other
way around. We feel good emotionally when we experience
spiritual harmony, and for that matter, physical harmony.
l Illuminate the relationship between the Emotional Dimension
and the other life dimensions
l Illustrate the misconception and confusion about the definition
and scope of the concept EI in current literature
l Propose that the definition of Mayer, Caruso and Salovey (1999)
be accepted as the definition of EI
l Introduce the concept of emotional leadership
l Propose that a holistic model of leadership development be
applied when developing emotional leadership.
Potential contributions of this study
The potential contributions of this study are
l increased clarification of the concept EI by demarcating EI
more clearly from the other life dimensions;
l identification of some of the misconceptions about EI,
especially with regard to unfounded claims made by EI
practitioners;
l to provide some insight into the links between EI and the
other internal life dimensions; and
l documentation of Smiths framework as a foundation for the
development of EI.
METHODOLOGY
The research approach followed in this study was non-empirical.
Research methods used were a literature study and conceptual
analysis. A literature study was undertaken to provide an
overview of the definitions and scope of EI as applied in relevant
literature. To this extent, current publications such as text books,
theses, dissertations, and scientific journals, as well as those
from the popular press and information available on the internet
have been explored. Smiths PIPL perspective on EI forms an
essential part of this study and his written works, workbooks
for various workshops, as well as verbal communication were
studied. Conceptual analysis means to explore the meaning of a
specific construct or concept and can be defined as the analysis
of the meaning of words or concepts through clarification and
elaboration of the different dimensions of meaning (Mouton,
2004, p. 175). The meaning of the concept emotional intelligence
was explored.
 emotional intelligence
THE PERSONAL, INTERPERSONAL AND
PROFESSIONAL LEADERSHIP (PIPL)
PERSPECTIVE
Prof D.P.J. Smith developed Personal, Interpersonal and
Professional Leadership (PIPL), a relatively new multidisciplinary
paradigm, currently being taught at the University of
Johannesburg. Smith (2007a, p. 2) applies a systems theory
approach towards a comprehensive, holistic view of man.
According to Smith (2007a, p. 2), PIPL takes the integrated
total well-being of a person as its focus. PIPL is based on
anthropological premises, and grounded in existential reality
and phenomenology. It therefore investigates and attempts to
solve various phenomena that are characteristic of contemporary
man and society, i.e. modern mans problems of existence (Du
Toit, 2004). The scope of the article precludes an in-depth
discussion of the presuppositions of PIPL. Of importance for
this article, however, is the distinction made by Smith between
intelligence and leadership.
The American Heritage Dictionary (Second Edition, 1982)
defines intelligence as the capacity to acquire and apply
knowledge. A person is born with numerous intellectual
capacities and has the responsibility to optimally develop
his abilities and skills in these capacities. Smith defines
intelligence as an innate ability, potential or capacity. The
optimal development of abilities and skills and the utilization
of those abilities and skills in living an effective, successful
and happy life is called personal leadership (Smith, 2007a,
p. 8). Leadership requires commitment, willingness to grow,
constructive use of abilities, responsibility, adding knowledge
and a positive attitude. For instance, a person is born with a
specific mental or cognitive intelligence, potential or capacity.
The development and practical application of this intelligence
is called mental leadership.
Smiths Life Dimensions Model
As stated above, this article aims to position EI in the context
of the eight life dimensions by making a sharper demarcation
between the various life dimensions. Smith (2007a, p. 3)
distinguishes between four internal and four external life
dimensions. The internal life dimensions are the spiritual,
the physical, the mental and the emotional life dimensions.
The external life dimensions are the social, ones career, ones
financial dimension and the ecological life dimension. A model
of the life dimensions is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Smiths PIPL Life Dimensions Model

The dimensions of life and wellness define ones uniqueness,
and help us understand who we are. The spiritual dimension
is at the centre of a persons life. Ones locus of control and
the quality of ones life depend on the ability to balance ones
internal life dimensions with the external. Although these eight
dimensions can be distinguished from one another, they do not
function in isolation, but are in constant systemic interaction
with each other.
The focus of this article is the emotional dimension, one of the
internal life dimensions. As the distinction between the internal
and external life dimensions is fairly evident, the external life
dimensions will not be discussed. The emotional dimension will
be discussed first, whereafter the spiritual, physical, and mental
dimensions will each be considered separately. The relationship
between the emotional dimension and the other internal life
dimensions will be investigated.
The emotional dimension
This dimension refers to emotions and feelings. The focus of
this article on emotional intelligence requires a closer look at
the concept emotion. The word emotion appeared in the English
language in approximately 1660, and was borrowed from the
Middle French motion, derived from Old French emouvior,
meaning to agitate, to stir up. It can be traced to the Latin
word movre, to move out: ex-, out + movre, to move (Klein,
1966; American Heritage Dictionary, 1982; Barnhart, 1988). A
review of dictionaries reveals that the current meaning of the
word emotion includes: 1) an affective state of consciousness
that involves feelings or sensibilities, as distinguished from
cognitive and volitional states of consciousness (Simon &
Schuster, 2000; Websters New World Dictionary of American
English); 2) strong feeling, excitement, a state of agitation
or disturbance (Oxford English Dictionary, 1961; Simon &
Schuster, 2000; Websters New World Dictionary of American
English); and 3) a complex and usually strong subjective
response; any specific feeling, such as joy, sorrow, hate and love
(Simon & Schuster, 2000; American Heritage Dictionary, 1982;
Websters New World Dictionary of American English). The
scientific investigation of emotions by a number of disciplines,
including philosophy, theology, psychology, psychiatry, and
the neurosciences, contributed to the formation of an array of
divergent views of the concept emotion.
An excellent classification of the theories on emotion was made
by Calhoun and Solomon (1984). Working from a philosophical
perspective, they postulate that the modern debate about what
an emotion is continues between the Jamesian theory on the
one hand and the Aristotelian view on the other.
William James, an American philosopher and psychologist,
originally trained in medicine, proposed a definition of emotion
in an article published in 1885. He defined emotion as the
perception of physiological disturbances caused by an awareness
of events and objects in the environment (Calhoun & Solomon,
1984, p. 125). An object or event, for instance a snake, is
perceived. In preparation for flight, the muscles involuntarily
contract and respiration increases (physiological disturbances).
The emotion (fear) is the perception of these physiological
disturbances.
At the other end of the spectrum lies the theory of Aristotle,
developed almost two-and-a-half thousand years ago. Aristotle
saw beliefs, bodily motions and physiological changes as
inseparable elements of emotions. He avoids a sharp distinction
between mind and body, between the cognitive and physical
elements of emotions. Calhoun and Solomon state that the
Aristotelian view involves a concept of emotion as a more
or less intelligent way of conceiving of a certain situation,
dominated by a desire (for example, in anger, the desire for
revenge) (Calhoun & Solomon, 1984, p. 3).
 badenhorst, smith
Recent research in neurobiology and other neurosciences has
contributed greatly towards our understanding of emotions.
The neurologist Antonio Damasio (2004) bases his theory of
emotion on this research. Damasio differentiates emotions from
feelings, although he still sees the process of affect as a unified
and apparently singular process (2004, p. 27). He offers what he
calls a working hypothesis of emotion-proper in the form of a
definition, namely (Damasio, 2004, p. 53):
1. An emotion-proper is a complex collection of chemical
and neural responses forming a distinctive pattern.
2. The responses are produced in the normal brain when it
detects an emotionally competent stimulus (an ECS), the
object or event whose presence, actual or in mental recall,
triggers the emotion. The responses are automatic.
3. The brain is prepared by evolution to respond to certain
ECSs with specific repertoires of action. However, the list
of ECSs is not confined to those prescribed by evolution. It
includes many others learned in a lifetime of experience.
4. The immediate result of these responses is a temporary
change in the state of the body proper, and in the state
of the brain structures that map the body and support
thinking.
5. The ultimate result of the responses, directly or indirectly, is
the placement of the organism in circumstances conducive
to survival and well-being..
Damasio further postulates that feelings follow emotions, and
defines a feeling as the perception of a certain state of the body
along with the perception of a certain mode of thinking and of
thoughts with certain themes (Damasio, 2004, p. 86). Bearing in
mind that the emotional dimension encompasses both emotions
and feelings as defined by Damasio, this dimension can be seen
as complex collections of chemical and neural responses, trigged
by emotionally competent stimuli, of which the immediate
results are temporary changes in the state of the body and in
the state of the brain structures, plus the perception of such
bodily states along with the perception of modes of thinking
and thoughts with certain themes. The raison detre of emotions
and feelings is the placement of the organism in circumstances
conducive to survival and well-being.
Smith (2005a) sees the emotional dimension as the expression
of the integrated functioning of a multi-dimensional being. He
describes emotions as expressions of ones:
inner harmony or disharmony (spiritual dimension);
meaningful or meaningless life (spiritual dimension);
good or ill health ([hysical dimension);
positive or negative thoughts (mental dimension) and
fulfilling or unfulfilling relationships (social dimension).
Emotion is in most cases a feeling state of the inferred cognition
(automatic or learned cognition) of a stimulus or event. It can
be described in simple terms as how the person experiences a
situation.
The Spiritual Dimension
One of the presuppositions upon which PIPL is based is that
humans are spiritual beings (Smith, 2007a, p. 48). Zohar and
Marshall (2001, p. 4) postulate: We are driven, indeed we are
defined, by a specifically human longing to find meaning and
value in what we do and experience. The concept spirituality
is difficult to define. In a recent article Smith and Louw
(2007) states that there appears to be no universal definition
of spirituality, and that the degree to which one can define
the spiritual dimension from an intellectual perspective is
limited. A very extensive and representative literature study
of the conceptualisation of the spiritual dimension was done
by Smith and Louw (2007). It was concluded by Louw that
Smiths conceptualisation of the spiritual dimension makes
an extremely valuable contribution because, among other
reasons, it is comprehensive, descriptive and functional. Smiths
conceptualisation of spirituality, as documented by Louw, is
therefore accepted as the working definition of the spiritual
dimension for this article. He sees the essence of spirit as
beingness, i.e. where being finds expression (Smith & Louw,
2007), and describes the spiritual self as that vital part of us
that transcends our temporary existence (Smith & Katz, 2006,
p. 27). Smith developed PIPL as a functional science, with the
broad objective of guiding a person toward an awareness and
understanding of the essence of his own life and toward living a
fulfilled life (Smith & Louw, 2007). He therefore functionalises
the concept spirituality, and translates it into concepts accessible
to the ordinary person. Of particular importance for this
article are the primary manifestations of spirituality identified
by Smith (Smith & Louw, 2007), i.e.: love, living in the
present, simplicity, authenticity, gratitude, and stillness. Secondary
manifestations, which can be seen as outcomes of living
the primary manifestations of spirit, include connectedness,
centeredness, harmony, peace, a sense of meaning, a sense of
purpose, a sense of integration and wholeness, living what
matters most (values), transcendence, positive expectations,
an experience of profound beauty, wisdom, and intuition.
Smith and Louw (2007) present a discussion of the primary and
secondary manifestations of spirituality.
The interaction between the emotional dimension and
the spiritual dimension
The connection between the emotional dimension and the
spiritual dimension is not as well-researched as the connection
between emotions, and, for instance, the physical dimension.
A few studies on the effect of religiosity on emotional
intelligence have been undertaken recently, for instance by Paek
(2004). Smith (Smith & Louw, 2007) has identified a religious
orientation as one of the manifestations of spiritual leadership,
but the spiritual dimension clearly encompasses much more
than religiosity. In their article, entitled Linking emotional
intelligence, spirituality and workplace performance: Definitions,
models and ideas for research, Tischler, Biberman and McKeage
(2002) reviewed literature on both EI and spirituality. They
concluded that EI and spirituality appear to lead to similar
attitudes, behaviours and skills, and that many articles about
spirituality tend to focus on or include emotional components,
so that there often seems to be confusion, or at least intersection
and linking, between the two constructs. These authors do not
specify the definition of emotional intelligence on which they
based their research, but quote Golemans definition of EI, as
well as an even broader definition postulated by Martinez. They
propose several possible models of the linkage between EI and
spirituality. The current article proposes that literature with
regard to emotional intelligence often includes or focuses on
components of the spiritual dimension.
As defined earlier, a feeling includes an awareness of a certain
mode of thinking and of thoughts with certain themes. But where
do these thoughts come from? The emotionally competent
stimulus or activating event is perceived, interpreted (mental
dimension) and evaluated. This evaluation is based on
assumptions, attitudes, and beliefs. Our beliefs are based on our
values, one of the secondary manifestations of spirituality. Our
governing values and beliefs partly direct our behaviour and
emotional response to events.
Smith views the spiritual dimension as the core of the individual
deficiencies in this dimension will lead to problems in the other
life dimensions (Smith & Louw, 2007). It is self-evident that living
the primary manifestations of spirituality, as described by Smith
(in Smith & Louw, 2007), will have a profound effect on ones
emotional dimension. Smith (in Smith & Louw, 2007) describes
spiritual love as characterised by its unconditional nature: it is
non-judgmental, uncritical and accepting. This he translates in
practical terms into unconditional acceptance, looking for the
best in each person and in oneself, and treating others with
respect. Smith identifies authenticity as another of the primary
manifestations of spirituality. Several EI practitioners (Goleman,
1996; Dann, 2002; Cooper & Sawaf, 2000) regard authenticity
as an outcome of EI. Secondary manifestations, such as a deep
 emotional intelligence
centeredness, a sense of inner calm, harmony, peace, and inner
control enable us to be emotionally stable not becoming
emotionally upset so easily. Connectedness to others enables us to
express feelings such as caring, compassion and friendship, while
connectedness to oneself leads to a positive self-image and self-
acceptance. Having a sense of clear, direction-giving values helps
us to understand our own emotions more easily, while an attitude
of gratitude goes a long way in combating negative emotions.
Smith (2005a) illustrates the relationship between the
emotional dimension and the other life dimensions by means
of the metaphor of a motor car. The emotions represent the
heat indicator on the dashboard, while the engine represents the
body (physical dimension) and the spirit (spiritual dimension).
The driver represents the mind (mental dimension). The faster
the car is driven and the heavier the load, the higher the pressure
on the engine. The heat indicators on the dashboard (emotions)
will rise according to the heat and the speed. In order to control
or lower the speedometer and the heat indicator, the driver needs
to lower the speed or the pressure on the engine.
The physical dimension
This dimension encompasses the optimal wellness and health of
all the parts and systems of the body, as well as the manner in
which they function as a whole.
A persons state of health is often seen as the result of inherited
genes. During the twentieth century scientists were devoted to
linking specific genes to specific diseases (genetic determinism).
However, as Capra (2003) illustrates in his chapter, entitled:
Biotechnology at a turning point, the concept of genetic
determinism has been proven to be too simplistic. Holford
(1998, p. 12) points out that a persons genetic make-up seems
to be the result of highly complex interactions between the
codes of numerous genes and the persons internal chemical
environment. Furthermore, gene expression must be activated.
Genes are turned on and off in response to specific signals. Our
health is the result of the interaction between our genes and
our environment or circumstances. The environment includes
our internal chemical environment as well as our external
environment. Our bodies try to function optimally and adapt to
the stresses of life. Each person is born with a different genetic
resilience or adaptive capacity. If a persons total environmental
load exceeds his/her genetic capacity to adapt, disease may
develop. This implies that every person is in charge of his
own health. Although genes are inherited, the environment
can determine how those genes are expressed. Holford (2004)
describes the environment of your life as the sum total of
everything you eat, drink, breathe, think and exercise.
Smith developed PIPL as a functional discipline based on the
existential problems of modern man. He therefore focuses on
those aspects of the physical dimension that have the biggest
impact on quality of life, namely:
l cardiovascular health (According to Statistics South Africa
(2006) 64 092 people died in South Africa in 2004 of
cerebrovascular diseases, other forms of heart disease or
ischaemic heart diseases);
l physical strength; and
l flexibility (Smith, 2007b).
In the light of the high prevalence of obesity, hypokinetic diseases
and unbalanced lifestyles, Smith emphasises the importance of
nutrition and exercise for optimal physical health. Results of
recent studies by the South African Medical Research Council
indicate that nearly 50 percent of South Africans are overweight
or obese, while 22 percent of children in the age group 1 to 9
years are overweight or obese (Van Heerden, 2006). As every
person has to deal with aging, the biomarkers of aging are
also addressed by Smith in his PPL workshops (Smith, 2007c),
viz. muscle-to-fat ratio, strength, basal metabolic rate, aerobic
capacity, blood sugar tolerance, cholesterol, blood pressure,
bone density, and body temperature.

The interaction between the emotional dimension and
the physical dimension
The scientific investigation of the link between emotions and
physical health has sparked a lot of interest in recent years.
The link between emotions and health is well-documented
(see Karren, Hafen, Smith & Frandsen, 2006). As we defined
an emotion as a collection of chemical and neural responses,
triggered by an emotionally competent stimulus, of which the
immediate result is a temporary change in the state of the body
and in the state of the brain structures, it is self-evident that
the state of the body prior to experiencing the emotion
would have an effect on the emotion. Likewise, the release of
chemicals such as glucocorticoids into the bodily systems is
known to have a huge effect on physical health (Karren et al.,
2006, p. 45).
The state of the body prior to perceiving an emotionally
competent stimulus plays a role in experiencing an
emotion. To illustrate this role, the importance of the level
of neurotransmitters such as serotonin in the brain can
be considered. Neurotransmitters like serotonin, dopamine,
noradrenaline and oxytocin activate certain circuits in the
brain, producing a happy state (Illman & Carter, 2004, p. 44).
According to Ratey (2001), very high or very low levels of
serotonin can contribute to aggression and anger aggression
has therefore been treated successfully with selective serotonin
reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) such as Prozac. A person with an
abnormal level of serotonin may thus respond more severely to
an emotionally competent stimulus, becoming much angrier
than he would have, had his serotonin levels been normal.
Low levels of serotonin are also associated with depression.
Pert (1999, p. 267) states that the classical understanding of
depression is that there is a shortage of the neurochemical
serotonin secreted by the brain cells. It must be stressed
that the link between neurochemicals and emotions is not
a unilateral one. By definition emotions are chemical and
neural responses resulting in changes in the body and brain
structures. Thus, feeling happy, in turn, stimulates the
production of happy neurotransmitters.
One of the most universal emotional responses of modern
man is stress. Karren et al. (2006, pp. 45-47) describe twelve
phases of the typical stress response preparing the body
for fight or flight. While these processes are useful and
may even be essential for coping with a stress-provoking
situation, it is clear that continual stress is detrimental to
physical health. These authors (2006, p. 59) state that some
of the most common signs and symptoms of stress include
headaches, backache, insomnia, tightness in the neck and
shoulders, indigestion, loss of appetite or excessive eating, and
a pounding heartbeat. They provide an overview of research on
the effect of stress on various bodily systems, namely on the
brain, the endocrine system, the gastrointestinal system, and
the cardiovascular system. Holford and Cass (2001, pp. 10-18)
provide a brief overview with regard to the interaction between
neurochemicals and emotions. Excellent references for more
detailed information are Pert (1999), LeDoux (1999), Ratey
(2001), and Hammond (2005).
One aspect of the physical life dimension that we are able to
control under normal circumstances is nutrition. Nutritionists
are finding more and more evidence that what we eat and
drink, or do not eat and drink, influences our emotions.
Holford and Cass (2001, p. 106) quote research done at Kings
College Hospital, London, where it was found that 33 percent
of patients with psychiatric disorders, including depression,
were deficient in the B-vitamin foliate. They came to the
conclusion that if we are poorly nourished, we are actually
less able to cope with lifes challenges. Nutrients (e.g. amino
acids) are the building blocks of neurotransmitters. A lack of
the amino acid tryptophan may, for instance, lead to a low
serotonin level, and thus to feeling depressed (Holford &
Cass, 2001).
 badenhorst, smith
The physical dimension encompasses certain aspects of the
emotional dimension, but not all of it, while the emotional
dimension encompasses certain aspects of the physical
dimension, but also not all of it. However, it is clear that the two
dimensions are intricately linked.
The mental dimension
According to Reber and Reber (2001) there has been so much
bitter dispute as to the very nature of the human mind that it
has never been entirely clear what this pertains to. They conclude
that the term mental process is used to refer to a cognitive process.
These authors state that cognition has traditionally been used to
refer to activities such as thinking, conceiving and reasoning,
while most psychologists use cognition to refer to any class of
mental behaviours with underlying characteristics of an abstract
nature, involving symbolizing, insight, expectancy, complex rule
use, imagery, belief, intentionality, problem-solving and so forth.
Mental intelligence is often seen as synonymous to Intelligence
quotient (IQ), as measured by instruments such as the Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the Stanford-Binet Scale. IQ
tests measure abilities such as reasoning, imagination, insight,
judgement, adaptability, abstraction, learning and dealing with
novelty (Reber & Reber, 2001). These aspects of the human mind
can be referred to as intellect.
However, the mind encompasses much more than just intellect.
De Beauport (2002) regards the abilities measured by traditional
IQ tests as rational intelligence, and expands the concept
mental intelligence to also include associative intelligence, spatial
intelligence and intuitive intelligence. Smiths PIPL-perspective
on the Mental Dimension is far more inclusive, addressing
aspects such as the conscious mind as well as the subconscious
mind, the power of thought, conditioned mindset, belief windows,
attitude, and temperament (Smith, 2007c).
An important aspect of the mental dimensions bearing on the
emotions is the temperament of the person. Smith (2007d) has
done substantial research in this regard, upon which his PIPL-
Temperament Typology is based. He describes temperament
as the psychological outcome of ones DNA composition, the
chemical composition of ones blood, hormones that enhance or
inhibit certain physical and psychological function, the nature
of ones central nervous system and brain dominance (Smith,
2007d, p. 3). The manner in which temperament is expressed,
depends to a large extent on the dominant mindset of the person.
Mindset can be defined as a fixed mental attitude or disposition
that predetermines a persons responses to and interpretations
of situations (www.answers.com/topic/mindset). Smith (2007c,
p. 3:1) describes mindsets as deep beliefs, attitudes, prejudices,
views and norms that we hold about ourselves, people, our
environment and the world we live in.
The interaction between the emotional dimension and
the mental dimension
With regard to the emotional dimension, having mental abilities
enables us to:
l sense, experience and interpret events;
l assess situations on the basis of our feelings;
l express our feelings; and
l manage our feelings, e.g. through rational choice (Smith,
2005a).
Damasio (2004, p. 86) defines a feeling as the perception of a
certain state of the body, along with the perception of a certain
mode of thinking and of thoughts with certain themes. Thoughts
are clearly seated in the mental dimension, while the awareness of
these thoughts, along with an awareness of the state of the body,
creates a feeling (in the emotional dimension). The contents of
the thoughts have a direct bearing on the feeling.
The cognitive-behavioural school of counselling, represented
by theories such as Elliss rational-emotive behaviour therapy
(Ellis, 2004), and Becks cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT)
(Illman & Carter, 2004), is based on the premise that what we
think influences the way we feel. These theories focus on thoughts,
beliefs, assumptions and perceptions. They propose that the way
we feel about an event (an emotionally competent stimulus, or,
in Elliss terms, an activating event) depends largely on what we
think about the event. Ellis (2004) uses his ABC model to explain
this phenomenon, where:
A = an Activating event: what the person perceives (or an
emotionally competent stimulus);
B = Belief: what the person believes about what he perceives
(including thoughts, modes of thinking, belief systems);
C = Consequence: his reaction, including his feelings. This is
not a reaction to A, but to A plus B (Ellis, 2004, p. 32)
These theories attempt to help the individual who is experiencing
problems change the way he feels by changing his thoughts,
beliefs or assumptions to more helpful ones.
The way we express our feelings is influenced by our temperament
type. Smith (2007d) describes the difference in expression of
feelings for each of his four temperament types. An L1 person,
will, for instance tend to bottle up or repress feelings, while an
R2 person tends to be very expressive. Different temperament
types also react differently to stress.
Conversely, the way we feel also affects our way of thinking. Caruso
and Salovey (2004, pp. 17-19) refer to research done on the
interaction of mood and thinking. They point out that emotions,
both positive and negative, influence our way of thinking.
Positive emotions expand thinking, help generate new ideas, and
encourage us to consider possibilities. Negative emotions narrow
our field of attention and perception, leading to a clearer focus
that allows details to be examined more efficiently, and motivates
a more efficient search for errors. Damasio (2004, p. 85) confirms
this, stating that sadness, for example, is accompanied by low
rates of image production and hyperattentiveness to images,
rather than by the rapid image change and short attention span
that goes with happiness. An experiment conducted by Damasio
and his colleagues found a marked deactivation in the prefrontal
cortices while a person is experiencing sadness, and an increase in
activity in this region of the brain when a person is experiencing
happiness (Damasio, 2004, p. 101).
Misconceptions about emotional
intelligence (EI)
Defining EI
Mayer et al. (1999) define EI as the ability to a) perceive and
identify emotions; b) use emotions to facilitate thought; c)
understand emotions; and d) manage emotions. Goleman (1996,
p. 34) defines EI as: abilities such as being able to motivate
oneself and persist in the face of frustrations; to control impulses
and delay gratification; to regulate ones moods and keep distress
from swamping the ability to think; to empathize and to hope.
He suggests 20 independent and important EI competencies
clustered in four categories: Self-Awareness; Self-Management;
Social Awareness; and Relationship management. Some EQ
specialists broaden the concept even further, as illustrated by the
above-mentioned definition proposed by Lynn (2005).
Some of the definitions of EI can be challenged, because they do
not clearly demarcate EI from the other life dimensions, such as
the spiritual, mental and social dimensions. A summary of some
of the definitions of EI that are available in literature, followed
by an indication of the life dimensions actually involved, is
presented in Table 1.
It is clear that most of these definitions, with the exception
of the definition of Mayer et al. (1999), include aspects of life
dimensions other than the emotional life dimension. They
therefore do not clearly distinguish between the emotional and
other life dimensions.
 emotional intelligence 

Table 1 to use the information in directing your thoughts and

Definitions of EI actions so that you live effectively, are motivated, and
have a goal in mind (relation between thoughts, feelings
1) BAR-ON (1988) Traits Life Dimension and behaviour).
theory:
When applying the concept they include aspects such as values
l To be aware of, to understand l Includes aspects of the physical
and to express oneself and mental dimensions
and assumptions, self-knowledge, self-image, self-acceptance, and
l To be aware of, to understand l Includes aspects of the social and self-assertiveness, without providing a conceptual framework of
and to relate to others spiritual dimensions how these aspects are linked to EI.
l Ability to deal with strong l Relies strongly on the spiritual
emotions dimension
l To adapt to change l Relies strongly on the mental
Unfounded claims
l To solve problems of and spiritual dimensions. EI practitioners, in their endeavour to stake out territory, make
l a personal nature Could also involve the physical claims with regard to EI that are mostly unaccounted for. Some
l a social nature dimension. of the traits and competencies that EI specialists claim to develop
l Includes aspects of the mental, as a result of emotional intelligence intervention are listed in
and spiritual Dimensions.
solving problems of a social Table 2 below. A number was used to refer to each source. The
nature involves the social index to the sources occurs at the bottom of the table.
dimension.
Golemans full list of corporate emotional competencies, as
2) Mayer, Salovey and Caruso Life Dimension
presented in his 1998 book, reads as follows: emotional awareness,
(1999)
accurate self-assessment, self-confidence, trustworthiness,
l Become aware of ones own l Emotional dimension conscientiousness, adaptability, innovation, achievement drive,
feelings (ability to perceive l Emotional dimension commitment, initiative, optimism, understanding others,
ones emotions) l Emotional dimension
l Ability to use these emotions/ l Emotional dimension
developing others, service orientation, leveraging diversity,
the right mood to assist political awareness, influence, communication, conflict
thought (what and how one management, leadership, change catalyst, building bonds,
thinks) collaboration and cooperation, and team capabilities. In
l To understand the underlying looking at this list it is also fairly easy to see that it includes
causes of ones emotions
and to build ones emotional
nearly everything that is not IQ (see http://www.emotionaliq.
knowledge base org). (In fairness, this list has now been adapted, albeit only
l To reflectively regulate/manage slightly).
ones emotions and thereby
promote emotional decision Table 2
making and actions Competencies ascribed to the development of EI
3) Goleman, 1999, p. 318) Life Dimension
Trait/competency Ascribed to EI by
l Self-awareness: Knowing what l Emotional dimension and
we are feeling mental dimension authenticity 1; 2; 4
l Self-regulation: Handling our l Emotional dimension and
transparency 4
emotions mental dimension
l Motivation: Using our deepest l Spiritual dimension (Values) Intuition 1; 4; 6
preferences to move and guide l Emotional dimension value centered living 2; 4; 6
us toward our goals l Social dimension and emotional
Integrity 1; 3; 6
l Empathy: Sensing what people dimension
are feeling self-management, self control 2; 3; 7
l Social skills: Handling self-awareness 1; 2; 4; 5; 6
emotions in relationships
better thought process, problem solving 1; 2; 3
4) Cooper & Sawaf, (2000) Life dimension sense of presence, personal influence 1; 4; 5; 6
adaptability 2; 3; 4
l Emotional Literacy: being l Spiritual dimension
real and true to yourself, l Spiritual dimension and social self-knowledge, self-image, self-acceptance, 2; 6
inner guidance, Connection, dimension assertiveness, choices
Intuition, honesty l Spiritual dimension Balance 2; 3
l Emotional Fitness: Authentic l Spiritual dimension
communication 3; 6
Presence, resilience, trust
l Emotional Depth: Integrity, coping with stress 2; 4
Commitment, Purpose goal-setting 4; 6
l Emotional Alchemy: Intuitive
purpose, vision 1; 4; 5
flow, reflection, situational
transformation self-motivation 2; 6
trust, trustworthiness 1; 2; 4
Some EI specialists define EI in a narrow sense, but broaden the
Index of sources:
concept when applying it in developing EI. Le Roux and De Klerk (1) Cooper & Sawaf, 2000; (2) Dann, 2002; (3) Emotional Intelligence 360 View, 2004; (4)
(2003, p. 10), for instance, define EI in terms of abilities: Goleman, 1996; (5) Lynn, 2005; (6) Sterrett, 2000; (7) Vermeulen, 1999.
Emotional intelligence is a type of personal and social
intelligence, which includes the following:
l the ability to perceive, recognise, understand and react A number of quotes will indicate typical unfounded claims of
to the feelings of yourself and those of others (emotional EI practitioners:
awareness); l Emotions can serve as our inner moral and ethical compass
l the ability to distinguish between various feelings and to (Dann, 2002, p. 27).
name them (emotional literacy); l Competency for self-control: Authenticity. To have this
l the ability to express and control your feelings competency you would:
appropriately (emotional control); build trust through your reliability and congruent
(Then they start broadening their definition) behaviour;
l the ability to listen to others, to have empathy with them, act ethically;
and to communicate effectively in terms of emotions and stand up for your values (Dann, 2002, p. 143).
thoughts, and
 badenhorst, smith
l Some of Cooper & Sawafs (2000, p. xxxii) statements about
what EI can do for you:
executive EQ begins with intuition, responsibility, and
connection. Builds personal power including awareness,
inner awareness, inner guidance, respect;
emotional fitness strengthens your authenticity,
believability, and resilience;
evidence indicates that a persons fundamental values and
character in life stem above all, not from IQ, but from
underlying emotional capacities.
l Lynn (2005, p. vi) says about the power of EI: In essence
EI is about managing ourselves and our relationships
with others so that we truly live our intentions. EQ is the
distinguishing factor between finding and living our lifes
passions or just putting in time.
l And last, but not least, Vermeulens (1999, p. 9) statement that
our emotions manage the spiritual (quoted at the beginning
of this article).
It is clear that failing to acknowledge the role of the spiritual
dimension in the development of emotional leadership leads to
most of these misconceptions about EI.
Clarifying the concept ei: EI versus
emotional leadership
The lack of a single universally accepted definition of EI clearly
leads to a broadening of the concept, which in turn gives rise to
confusion of the audience and unfounded claims being made by
EI practitioners. This issue needs to be addressed urgently.
Caruso (2004, p. 3), in his argument for a common language,
proposes a dictionary of EI terms as a starting point. He suggests
defining the following three entries as the starting point,
summarizing their explanations in Table 3.
Table 3
Approaches to defining EI
Term Current Approach Related to
Trait approach Traits related to adaptation Models of personality
and coping (e.g. and dispositional traits
assertiveness)
Competency Acquired skills and Leadership competency
Approach competencies underlying models.
effective leadership (e.g.
influence)
Emotional Intellectual abilities using Models of general, or
Intelligence emotional information (e.g. standard, intelligence.
emotion identification)
Caruso (2004, p. 3) further states:
To be less subtle, what I am proposing is that for a model
to be considered and called emotional intelligence it must
combine emotion with intelligence. Calling traits such as
assertiveness or influence emotional intelligence just does
not seem to be helpful.
This statement is strongly endorsed. As illustrated above, all the
other definitions of EI include aspects of life dimensions other
than the emotional dimension. It is therefore advocated that
the definition of Mayer et al., (1999) as adhered to by Davis
(2004) and Salovey and Caruso (2004), should be the accepted
definition of EI. Emotional skills and competencies that underlie
effective leadership, as referred to above by Caruso, should
rather be termed emotional leadership.
Goleman (2004) proposes that: emotional intelligence and
EI competence are intimately related, but not of the same
order. Rather, one emerges from the other. According to him,
EI competences are based on EI, but require cultivation over
years throughout a persons life, or intentionally cultivating EI
competences with a proper model of learning. Goleman (2004)
further states that: EI mingles neocortical and subcortical
skills, combining affective and cognitive abilities. This article
proposes that emotional leadership not only combines affective
abilities (emotional dimension) and cognitive abilities (mental
dimension) but also abilities from all the other life dimensions,
drawing heavily on the spiritual dimension in particular.
DISCUSSION
Interpretation
It was initially stated that the main objective of this article
was to clarify the concept EI by putting EI in perspective
with regard to the total person. This was done by utilising
Smiths Life Dimensions Model. Demarcating the four internal
life dimensions, namely the spiritual, physical, mental and
emotional dimensions, clarifies what the emotional dimension
is, and, more importantly for this article, what it is not.
When studying relevant literature with a clearer concept of EI in
mind, the following become apparent:
l Misconceptions about the nature and scope of EI
abound. These misconceptions often lead to claims
made by EI practitioners about what the development
of EI can accomplish in a persons life, which cannot be
substantiated by developing EI alone. A review of claims
made by EI practitioners indicated that many of the traits and
competencies attributed to the development of EI should,
in fact, rather be attributed to the development of spiritual
leadership, as these traits involve the spiritual dimension and
not the emotional dimension.
l These misconceptions can partly be ascribed to the
lack of a single, universally accepted definition of EI. A
review of a number of definitions presented in the literature
showed that life dimensions other than the emotional
dimension are often included in the broader definitions of
EI. Based on the demarcation of the life dimensions, the
conclusion was drawn that only the narrow definitions of
EI, such as the definition proposed by Mayer et al. (1999),
are valid definitions of EI. Emotional skills and competencies
underlying effective leadership should rather be termed
emotional leadership.
l In addition to having no clear concept of the nature and
scope of EI, most EI practitioners also lack a conceptual
framework of how EI fits into the total person, or fail
to explicitly state their framework. Smiths Life Dimensions
Model provides such a framework, and the connection
between the emotional dimension and each of the other
internal life dimensions was illustrated. This is of particular
importance, as most of the EI practitioners are involved in
the development of EI.
Recommendations for developing emotional leadership:
the need for a conceptual framework of the emotional
dimension in perspective with regard to the total person
Although many EI specialists draw on the spiritual dimension
when developing emotional competencies, most do not
acknowledge the fact that the spiritual dimension is involved
in developing emotional leadership. Those specialists who
do, e.g. Vermeulen (1999), do not have a clear model of the
link between the two. The spiritual dimension is the core of
a person, and spiritual leadership has a profound effect on
emotional leadership, i.e. the optimal development of emotional
intelligence.
This article proposes that all the life dimensions need to be
taken into account when developing emotional leadership
competences within a holistic model of how EI fits into ones
life dimensions. Smiths Life Dimensions Model provides such
 emotional intelligence
a framework. In terms of this model, developing emotional
leadership should involve not only the emotional dimension,
but also include all the other life dimensions, as they each have
a bearing on emotional leadership.
The spiritual dimension is of particular importance for the
development of emotional leadership. This dimension forms
the foundation for emotional leadership. Most EI practitioners
agree that values and assumptions determine emotional needs
(Le Roux & De Klerk, 2003). These are manifestations of spirit.
It is essential that this dimension be specifically addressed when
developing emotional leadership. Developing the spiritual
dimension along with the emotional dimension will also help
to avoid what Hein (2003) calls the dark side of EI: to use
emotional intelligence to become hurtful, manipulative, greedy,
controlling, and arrogant; or depressed and suicidal.
Although not discussed in this article, it should be noted that
the external life dimensions, viz. the social, financial, career
and ecological dimensions, are also important. For instance,
the social dimension a persons social support system, or
lack of such a system, could have a meaningful impact on his
ability to cope with his emotions. To get along adequately with
others, we need more than emotional skills: the essence of good
interpersonal relationships (social dimension) is determined
primarily by what Smith (2007c) calls the three As: the ability
of authenticity (Cashman, 1998; McGraw, 2000), the ability of
acceptance (Rogers, 1961; Ruiz, 1999; McGraw, 2001; Buscaglia,
1984), and the ability to add value to self and others (Cashman,
19981; Covey, 1999).
Conclusion
It is in the interest of the EI community to clarify the
confusion surrounding the nature and scope of EI, otherwise
the significance of EI might be diminished. A single,
universally accepted definition of EI is needed. To evaluate
the different definitions presented in the literature, it is
necessary to distinguish clearly between emotions and other
life dimensions. Smiths Life Dimensions Model provides a
framework for demarcating the emotional dimension, and for
explaining how the emotional dimension is linked to the other
life dimensions. Based on this demarcation, it is clear that the
only definition of EI that defines intelligence exclusively with
regard to emotions is that of Mayer et al. (1999). All the other
definitions include aspects of the other life dimensions, mostly
of the spiritual dimension. The definition of Mayer et al. (1999)
should therefore be accepted as the universal definition of EI.
The other definitions that were reviewed, define emotional
leadership, rather than EI.
Smiths Life Dimension Model provides an extremely valuable
conceptual framework for the development of emotional
leadership. This model not only demarcates the emotional
life dimension from the other life dimensions, but also
provides insight into the connections between the different life
dimensions.
EI, or rather emotional leadership, is not the only factor
determining the effectiveness, success or well-being of a person:
it is not more or less important than leadership in any of the
other life dimensions. This article strongly endorses Smiths
view of man as a multi-dimensional being, while emotions
are seen as the expression of the integrated functioning of
this multi-dimensional being. Although emotions are very
important, they are, in Smiths metaphor of the motor car, only
the indicators of what is going on in the engine. If the engine
overheats due to too much pressure, the situation cannot be
rectified by replacing the heat indicator. It is therefore strongly
advocated that emotional leadership be developed within a
holistic framework, including all the other life dimensions, with
particular emphasis on the spiritual dimension.

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