What is a Link?

A link refers to the connectivity between two devices. It includes the type of cables
and protocols used in order for one device to be able to communicate with the other.

2) What are the layers of the OSI reference model?

There are 7 OSI layers: Physical Layer, Data Link Layer, Network Layer, Transport
Layer, Session Layer, Presentation Layer and Application Layer.

3) What is backbone network?

A backbone network is a centralized infrastructure that is designed to distribute

different routes and data to various networks. It also handles management of
bandwidth and various channels.

4) What is a LAN?

LAN is short for Local Area Network. It refers to the connection between computers
and other network devices that are located within a small physical location.
5) What is a node?

A node refers to a point or joint where a connection takes place. It can be computer
or device that is part of a network. Two or more nodes are needed in order to form a
network connection.

6) What are routers?

Routers can connect two or more network segments. These are intelligent network
devices that store information in its routing table such as paths, hops and
bottlenecks. With this info, they are able to determine the best path for data transfer.
Routers operate at the OSI Network Layer.

7) What is point to point link?

It refers to a direct connection between two computers on a network. A point to point
connection does not need any other network devices other than connecting a cable
to the NIC cards of both computers.

8) What is anonymous FTP?

Anonymous FTP is a way of granting user access to files in public servers. Users
that are allowed access to data in these servers do not need to identify themselves,
but instead log in as an anonymous guest.

9) What is subnet mask?

A subnet mask is combined with an IP address in order to identify two parts: the
extended network address and the host address. Like an IP address, a subnet mask
is made up of 32 bits.

10) What is the maximum length allowed for a UTP cable?

A single segment of UTP cable has an allowable length of 90 to 100 meters. This
limitation can be overcome by using repeaters and switches.

11) What is data encapsulation?

Data encapsulation is the process of breaking down information into smaller

manageable chunks before it is transmitted across the network. It is also in this
process that the source and destination addresses are attached into the headers,
along with parity checks.

12) Describe Network Topology

Network Topology refers to the layout of a computer network. It shows how devices
and cables are physically laid out, as well as how they connect to one another.

13) What is VPN?

VPN means Virtual Private Network, a technology that allows a secure tunnel to be
created across a network such as the Internet. For example, VPNs allow you to
establish a secure dial-up connection to a remote server.

14) Briefly describe NAT.

NAT is Network Address Translation. This is a protocol that provides a way for
multiple computers on a common network to share single connection to the Internet.

15) What is the job of the Network Layer under the OSI reference model?

The Network layer is responsible for data routing, packet switching and control of
network congestion. Routers operate under this layer.

16) How does a network topology affect your decision in setting up a network?
Network topology dictates what media you must use to interconnect devices. It also
serves as basis on what materials, connector and terminations that is applicable for
the setup.

17) What is RIP?

RIP, short for Routing Information Protocol is used by routers to send data from one
network to another. It efficiently manages routing data by broadcasting its routing
table to all other routers within the network. It determines the network distance in
units of hops.

18) What are different ways of securing a computer network?

There are several ways to do this. Install reliable and updated anti-virus program on
all computers. Make sure firewalls are setup and configured properly. User
authentication will also help a lot. All of these combined would make a highly
secured network.

19) What is NIC?

NIC is short for Network Interface Card. This is a peripheral card that is attached to a
PC in order to connect to a network. Every NIC has its own MAC address that
identifies the PC on the network.

20) What is WAN?

WAN stands for Wide Area Network. It is an interconnection of computers and

devices that are geographically dispersed. It connects networks that are located in
different regions and countries.

21) What is the importance of the OSI Physical Layer?

The physical layer does the conversion from data bits to electrical signal, and vice
versa. This is where network devices and cable types are considered and setup.

22) How many layers are there under TCP/IP?

There are four layers: the Network Layer, Internet Layer, Transport Layer and
Application Layer.

23) What are proxy servers and how do they protect computer networks?

Proxy servers primarily prevent external users who identifying the IP addresses of an
internal network. Without knowledge of the correct IP address, even the physical
location of the network cannot be identified. Proxy servers can make a network
virtually invisible to external users.

24) What is the function of the OSI Session Layer?

This layer provides the protocols and means for two devices on the network to
communicate with each other by holding a session. This includes setting up the
session, managing information exchange during the session, and tear-down process
upon termination of the session.
25) What is the importance of implementing a Fault Tolerance System? Are
there limitations?

A fault tolerance system ensures continuous data availability. This is done by

eliminating a single point of failure. However, this type of system would not be able
to protect data in some cases, such as in accidental deletions.

26) What does 10Base-T mean?

The 10 refers to the data transfer rate, in this case is 10Mbps. The word Base refers
to base band, as oppose to broad band. T means twisted pair, which is the cable
used for that network.

27) What is a private IP address?

Private IP addresses are assigned for use on intranets. These addresses are used
for internal networks and are not routable on external public networks. These
ensures that no conflicts are present among internal networks while at the same time
the same range of private IP addresses are reusable for multiple intranets since they
do not see each other.

28) What is NOS?

NOS, or Network Operating System, is specialized software whose main task is to

provide network connectivity to a computer in order for it to be able to communicate
with other computers and connected devices.

29) What is DoS?

DoS, or Denial-of-Service attack, is an attempt to prevent users from being able to

access the internet or any other network services. Such attacks may come in
different forms and are done by a group of perpetuators. One common method of
doing this is to overload the system server so it cannot anymore process legitimate
traffic and will be forced to reset.
30) What is OSI and what role does it play in computer networks?

OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) serves as a reference model for data

communication. It is made up of 7 layers, with each layer defining a particular aspect
on how network devices connect and communicate with one another. One layer may
deal with the physical media used, while another layer dictates how data is actually
transmitted across the network.

31) What is the purpose of cables being shielded and having twisted pairs?

The main purpose of this is to prevent crosstalk. Crosstalks are electromagnetic

interferences or noise that can affect data being transmitted across cables.

32) What is the advantage of address sharing?

By using address translation instead of routing, address sharing provides an inherent

security benefit. Thats because host PCs on the Internet can only see the public IP
address of the external interface on the computer that provides address translation
and not the private IP addresses on the internal network.
33) What are MAC addresses?

MAC, or Media Access Control, uniquely identifies a device on the network. It is also
known as physical address or Ethernet address. A MAC address is made up of 6-
byte parts.

34) What is the equivalent layer or layers of the TCP/IP Application layer in
terms of OSI reference model?

The TCP/IP Application layer actually has three counterparts on the OSI model: the
Session layer, Presentation Layer and Application Layer.

35) How can you identify the IP class of a given IP address?

By looking at the first octet of any given IP address, you can identify whether its
Class A, B or C. If the first octet begins with a 0 bit, that address is Class A. If it
begins with bits 10 then that address is a Class B address. If it begins with 110, then
its a Class C network.

36) What is the main purpose of OSPF?

OSPF, or Open Shortest Path First, is a link-state routing protocol that uses routing
tables to determine the best possible path for data exchange.

37) What are firewalls?

Firewalls serve to protect an internal network from external attacks. These external
threats can be hackers who want to steal data or computer viruses that can wipe out
data in an instant. It also prevents other users from external networks from gaining
access to the private network.

38) Describe star topology

Star topology consists of a central hub that connects to nodes. This is one of the
easiest to setup and maintain.

39) What are gateways?

Gateways provide connectivity between two or more network segments. It is usually

a computer that runs the gateway software and provides translation services. This
translation is a key in allowing different systems to communicate on the network.

40) What is the disadvantage of a star topology?

One major disadvantage of star topology is that once the central hub or switch get
damaged, the entire network becomes unusable.

41) What is SLIP?

SLIP, or Serial Line Interface Protocol, is actually an old protocol developed during
the early UNIX days. This is one of the protocols that are used for remote access.

42) Give some examples of private network addresses.

10.0.0.0 with a subnet mask of 255.0.0.0
172.16.0.0 with subnet mask of 255.240.0.0
192.168.0.0 with subnet mask of 255.255.0.0

43) What is tracert?

Tracert is a Windows utility program that can used to trace the route taken by data
from the router to the destination network. It also shows the number of hops taken
during the entire transmission route.

44) What are the functions of a network administrator?

A network administrator has many responsibilities that can be summarize into 3 key
functions: installation of a network, configuration of network settings, and
maintenance/troubleshooting of networks.

45) Describe at one disadvantage of a peer to peer network.

When you are accessing the resources that are shared by one of the workstations on
the network, that workstation takes a performance hit.

46) What is Hybrid Network?

A hybrid network is a network setup that makes use of both client-server and peer-
to-peer architecture.

47) What is DHCP?

DHCP is short for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. Its main task is to
automatically assign an IP address to devices across the network. It first checks for
the next available address not yet taken by any device, then assigns this to a
network device.

48) What is the main job of the ARP?

The main task of ARP or Address Resolution Protocol is to map a known IP address
to a MAC layer address.

49) What is TCP/IP?

TCP/IP is short for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. This is a set of
protocol layers that is designed to make data exchange possible on different types of
computer networks, also known as heterogeneous network.

50) How can you manage a network using a router?

Routers have built in console that lets you configure different settings, like security
and data logging. You can assign restrictions to computers, such as what resources
it is allowed access, or what particular time of the day they can browse the internet.
You can even put restrictions on what websites are not viewable across the entire
network.

51) What protocol can be applied when you want to transfer files between
different platforms, such between UNIX systems and Windows servers?
Use FTP (File Transfer Protocol) for file transfers between such different servers.
This is possible because FTP is platform independent.

52) What is the use of a default gateway?

Default gateways provide means for the local networks to connect to the external
network. The default gateway for connecting to the external network is usually the
address of the external router port.

53) One way of securing a network is through the use of passwords. What can
be considered as good passwords?

Good passwords are made up of not just letters, but by combining letters and
numbers. A password that combines uppercase and lowercase letters is favorable
than one that uses all upper case or all lower case letters. Passwords must be not
words that can easily be guessed by hackers, such as dates, names, favorites, etc.
Longer passwords are also better than short ones.

54) What is the proper termination rate for UTP cables?

The proper termination for unshielded twisted pair network cable is 100 ohms.

55) What is netstat?

Netstat is a command line utility program. It provides useful information about the
current TCP/IP settings of a connection.

56) What is the number of network IDs in a Class C network?

For a Class C network, the number of usable Network ID bits is 21. The number of
possible network IDs is 2 raised to 21 or 2,097,152. The number of host IDs per
network ID is 2 raised to 8 minus 2, or 254.

57) What happens when you use cables longer than the prescribed length?

Cables that are too long would result in signal loss. This means that data
transmission and reception would be affected, because the signal degrades over
length.

58) What common software problems can lead to network defects?

Software related problems can be any or a combination of the following:

client server problems
application conflicts
error in configuration
protocol mismatch
security issues
user policy and rights issues

59) What is ICMP?

ICMP is Internet Control Message Protocol. It provides messaging and

communication for protocols within the TCP/IP stack. This is also the protocol that
manages error messages that are used by network tools such as PING.
60) What is Ping?

Ping is a utility program that allows you to check connectivity between network
devices on the network. You can ping a device by using its IP address or device
name, such as a computer name.

61) What is peer to peer?

Peer to peer are networks that does not reply on a server. All PCs on this network
act as individual workstations.

62) What is DNS?

DNS is Domain Name System. The main function of this network service is to
provide host names to TCP/IP address resolution.

63) What advantages does fiber optics have over other media?

One major advantage of fiber optics is that is it less susceptible to electrical

interference. It also supports higher bandwidth, meaning more data can be
transmitted and received. Signal degrading is also very minimal over long distances.

64) What is the difference between a hub and a switch?

A hub acts as a multiport repeater. However, as more and more devices connect to
it, it would not be able to efficiently manage the volume of traffic that passes through
it. A switch provides a better alternative that can improve the performance especially
when high traffic volume is expected across all ports.

65) What are the different network protocols that are supported by Windows
RRAS services?

There are three main network protocols supported: NetBEUI, TCP/IP, and IPX.

66) What are the maximum networks and hosts in a class A, B and C network?
For Class A, there are 126 possible networks and 16,777,214 hosts
For Class B, there are 16,384 possible networks and 65,534 hosts
For Class C, there are 2,097,152 possible networks and 254 hosts

67) What is the standard color sequence of a straight-through cable?

orange/white, orange, green/white, blue, blue/white, green, brown/white, brown.

68) What protocols fall under the Application layer of the TCP/IP stack?

The following are the protocols under TCP/IP Application layer: FTP, TFTP, Telnet
and SMTP.

69) You need to connect two computers for file sharing. Is it possible to do this
without using a hub or router?

Yes, you can connect two computers together using only one cable. A crossover
type cable can be use in this scenario. In this setup, the data transmit pin of one
cable is connected to the data receive pin of the other cable, and vice versa.
70) What is ipconfig?

Ipconfig is a utility program that is commonly used to identify the addresses

information of a computer on a network. It can show the physical address as well as
the IP address.

71) What is the difference between a straight-through and crossover cable?

A straight-through cable is used to connect computers to a switch, hub or router. A

crossover cable is used to connect two similar devices together, such as a PC to PC
or Hub to hub.

72) What is client/server?

Client/server is a type of network wherein one or more computers act as servers.

Servers provide a centralized repository of resources such as printers and files.
Clients refers to workstation that access the server.

73) Describe networking.

Networking refers to the inter connection between computers and peripherals for
data communication. Networking can be done using wired cabling or through
wireless link.

74) When you move the NIC cards from one PC to another PC, does the MAC
address gets transferred as well?

Yes, thats because MAC addresses are hard-wired into the NIC circuitry, not the
PC. This also means that a PC can have a different MAC address when the NIC
card was replace by another one.

75) Explain clustering support

Clustering support refers to the ability of a network operating system to connect

multiple servers in a fault-tolerant group. The main purpose of this is the in the event
that one server fails, all processing will continue on with the next server in the
cluster.

76) In a network that contains two servers and twenty workstations, where is
the best place to install an Anti-virus program?

An anti-virus program must be installed on all servers and workstations to ensure

protection. Thats because individual users can access any workstation and
introduce a computer virus when plugging in their removable hard drives or flash
drives.

77) Describe Ethernet.

Ethernet is one of the popular networking technologies used these days. It was
developed during the early 1970s and is based on specifications as stated in the
IEEE. Ethernet is used in local area networks.
78) What are some drawbacks of implementing a ring topology?
In case one workstation on the network suffers a malfunction, it can bring down the
entire network. Another drawback is that when there are adjustments and
reconfigurations needed to be performed on a particular part of the network, the
entire network has to be temporarily brought down as well.

79) What is the difference between CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA?

CSMA/CD, or Collision Detect, retransmits data frames whenever a collision

occurred. CSMA/CA, or Collision Avoidance, will first broadcast intent to send prior
to data transmission.

80) What is SMTP?

SMTP is short for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. This protocol deals with all Internal
mail, and provides the necessary mail delivery services on the TCP/IP protocol
stack.

81) What is multicast routing?

Multicast routing is a targeted form of broadcasting that sends message to a

selected group of user, instead of sending it to all users on a subnet.

82) What is the importance of Encryption on a network?

Encryption is the process of translating information into a code that is unreadable by

the user. It is then translated back or decrypted back to its normal readable format
using a secret key or password. Encryption help ensure that information that is
intercepted halfway would remain unreadable because the user has to have the
correct password or key for it.

83) How are IP addresses arranged and displayed?

IP addresses are displayed as a series of four decimal numbers that are separated
by period or dots. Another term for this arrangement is the dotted decimal format. An
example is 192.168.101.2

84) Explain the importance of authentication.

Authentication is the process of verifying a users credentials before he can log into
the network. It is normally performed using a username and password. This provides
a secure means of limiting the access from unwanted intruders on the network.

85) What do mean by tunnel mode?

This is a mode of data exchange wherein two communicating computers do not use
IPSec themselves. Instead, the gateway that is connecting their LANs to the transit
network creates a virtual tunnel that uses the IPSec protocol to secure all
communication that passes through it.

86) What are the different technologies involved in establishing WAN links?

Analog connections using conventional telephone lines; Digital connections using

digital-grade telephone lines; switched connections using multiple sets of links
between sender and receiver to move data.
87) What is one advantage of mesh topology?

In the event that one link fails, there will always be another available. Mesh topology
is actually one of the most fault-tolerant network topology.

88) When troubleshooting computer network problems, what common

hardware-related problems can occur?

A large percentage of a network is made up of hardware. Problems in these areas

can range from malfunctioning hard drives, broken NICs and even hardware
startups. Incorrectly hardware configuration is also one of those culprits to look into.

89) What can be done to fix signal attenuation problems?

A common way of dealing with such a problem is to use repeaters and hub, because
it will help regenerate the signal and therefore prevent signal loss. Checking if cables
are properly terminated is also a must.

90) How does dynamic host configuration protocol aid in network

administration?

Instead of having to visit each client computer to configure a static IP address, the
network administrator can apply dynamic host configuration protocol to create a pool
of IP addresses known as scopes that can be dynamically assigned to clients.

91) Explain profile in terms of networking concept?

Profiles are the configuration settings made for each user. A profile may be created
that puts a user in a group, for example.

92) What is sneakernet?

Sneakernet is believed to be the earliest form of networking wherein data is

physically transported using removable media, such as disk, tapes.

93) What is the role of IEEE in computer networking?

IEEE, or the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, is an organization

composed of engineers that issues and manages standards for electrical and
electronic devices. This includes networking devices, network interfaces, cablings
and connectors.

94) What protocols fall under the TCP/IP Internet Layer?

There are 4 protocols that are being managed by this layer. These are ICMP, IGMP,
IP and ARP.

95) When it comes to networking, what are rights?

Rights refer to the authorized permission to perform specific actions on the network.
Each user on the network can be assigned individual rights, depending on what must
be allowed for that user.
96) What is one basic requirement for establishing VLANs?
A VLAN is required because at switch level there is only one broadcast domain, it
means whenever new user is connected to switch this information is spread
throughout the network. VLAN on switch helps to create separate broadcast domain
at switch level. It is used for security purpose.

97) What is IPv6?

IPv6 , or Internet Protocol version 6, was developed to replace IPv4. At present, IPv4
is being used to control internet traffic, butis expected to get saturated in the near
future. IPv6 was designed to overcome this limitation.

98) What is RSA algorithm?

RSA is short for Rivest-Shamir-Adleman algorithm. It is the most commonly used

public key encryption algorithm in use today.

99) What is mesh topology?

Mesh topology is a setup wherein each device is connected directly to every other
device on the network. Consequently, it requires that each device have at least two
network connections.

100) what is the maximum segment length of a 100Base-FX network?

The maximum allowable length for a network segment using 100Base-FX is 412
meters. The maximum length for the entire network is 5 kilometers.
St1. What are the two types of transmission technology available?
(i) Broadcast and (ii) point-to-point

2. What is subnet?
A generic term for section of a large networks usually separated by a bridge
or router.

3. What are the possible ways of data exchange?

(i) Simplex (ii) Half-duplex (iii) Full-duplex.

4. What is SAP?
Series of interface points that allow other computers to communicate with
the other layers of network protocol stack.

5. What is frame relay, in which layer it comes?

Frame relay is a packet switching technology. It will operate in the data link
layer.

6. What is terminal emulation, in which layer it comes?

Telnet is also called as terminal emulation. It belongs to application layer.

7. What is Brouter?
Hybrid devices that combine the features of both bridges and routers.

8. What is point-to-point protocol?

A communications protocol used to connect computers to remote networking
services including Internet service providers.

9. How Gateway is different from Routers?

A gateway operates at the upper levels of the OSI model and translates
information between two completely different network architectures or data
formats.

10. What is MAC address?

The address for a device as it is identified at the Media Access Control (MAC)
layer in the network architecture. MAC address is usually stored in ROM on
the network adapter card and is unique.

11. Difference between bit rate and baud rate.

Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted during one second whereas baud
rate refers to the number of signal units per second that are required to
represent those bits.
baud rate = bit rate / N
where N is no-of-bits represented by each signal shift.

12. What are the types of Transmission media?

Signals are usually transmitted over some transmission media that are
broadly classified in to two categories.
a) Guided Media:
These are those that provide a conduit from one device to another that
include twisted-pair, coaxial cable and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling
along any of these media is directed and is contained by the physical limits
of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic that accept and
transport signals in the form of electrical current. Optical fiber is a glass or
plastic cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.
b) Unguided Media:
This is the wireless media that transport electromagnetic waves without
using a physical conductor. Signals are broadcast either through air. This is
done through radio communication, satellite communication and cellular
telephony.

13. What is Project 802?

It is a project started by IEEE to set standards to enable intercommunication
between equipment from a variety of manufacturers. It is a way for specifying
functions of the physical layer, the data link layer and to some extent the
network layer to allow for interconnectivity of major LAN
protocols.
It consists of the following:
802.1 is an internetworking standard for compatibility of different LANs and
MANs across protocols.
802.2 Logical link control (LLC) is the upper sublayer of the data link layer
which is non-architecture-specific, that is remains the same for all IEEE-
defined LANs.
Media access control (MAC) is the lower sublayer of the data link layer that
contains some distinct modules each carrying proprietary information
specific to the LAN product being used. The modules are Ethernet LAN
(802.3), Token ring LAN (802.4), Token bus LAN (802.5). 802.6 is distributed
queue dual bus (DQDB) designed to be used in MANs.

14. What is Protocol Data Unit?

The data unit in the LLC level is called the protocol data unit (PDU). The PDU
contains of four fields a destination service access point (DSAP), a source
service access point (SSAP), a control field and an information field. DSAP,
SSAP are addresses used by the LLC to identify the protocol stacks on the
receiving and sending machines that are generating and using the data. The
control field specifies whether the PDU frame is a information frame (I -
frame) or a supervisory frame (S - frame) or a unnumbered frame (U - frame).

15. What are the different types of networking / internetworking devices?

Repeater:
Also called a regenerator, it is an electronic device that operates only at
physical layer. It receives the signal in the network before it becomes weak,
regenerates the original bit pattern and puts the refreshed copy back in to
the link.
Bridges:
These operate both in the physical and data link layers of LANs of same
type. They divide a larger network in to smaller segments. They contain logic
that allow them to keep the traffic for each segment separate and thus are
repeaters that relay a frame only the side of the segment containing the
intended recipient and control congestion.
Routers:
They relay packets among multiple interconnected networks (i.e. LANs of
different type). They operate in the physical, data link and network layers.
They contain software that enables them to determine which of the several
possible paths the best for a particular transmission is.
Gateways:
They relay packets among networks that have different protocols (e.g.
between a LAN and a WAN). They accept a packet formatted for one
protocol and convert it to a packet formatted for another protocol before
forwarding it. They operate in all seven layers of the OSI model.

16. What is ICMP?

ICMP is Internet Control Message Protocol, a network layer protocol of the
TCP/IP suite used by hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram
problems back to the sender. It uses the echo test / reply to test whether a
destination is reachable and responding. It also handles both control and
error messages.

17. What are the data units at different layers of the TCP / IP protocol suite?
The data unit created at the application layer is called a message, at the
transport layer the data unit created is called either a segment or an user
datagram, at the network layer the data unit created is called the datagram,
at the data link layer the datagram is encapsulated in to a frame and finally
transmitted as signals along the transmission media.

18. What is difference between ARP and RARP?

The address resolution protocol (ARP) is used to associate the 32 bit IP
address with the 48 bit physical address, used by a host or a router to find
the physical address of another host on its network by sending a ARP query
packet that includes the IP address of the receiver.
The reverse address resolution protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its
Internet address when it knows only its physical address.

19. What is the minimum and maximum length of the header in the TCP
segment and IP datagram?
The header should have a minimum length of 20 bytes and can have a
maximum length of 60 bytes.

20. What is the range of addresses in the classes of internet addresses?

Class A 0.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255
Class B 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.255.255
Class C 192.0.0.0 - 223.255.255.255
Class D 224.0.0.0 - 239.255.255.255
Class E 240.0.0.0 - 247.255.255.255

21. What is the difference between TFTP and FTP application layer
protocols?
The Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) allows a local host to obtain files
from a remote host but does not provide reliability or security. It uses the
fundamental packet delivery services offered by UDP.
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the standard mechanism provided by
TCP / IP for copying a file from one host to another. It uses the services offer
by TCP and so is reliable and secure. It establishes two connections (virtual
circuits) between the hosts, one for data transfer and another for control
information.

22. What is difference between baseband and broadband transmission?

In a baseband transmission, the entire bandwidth of the cable is consumed
by a single
signal. In broadband transmission, signals are sent on multiple frequencies,
allowing multiple signals to be sent simultaneously.

23. What is logical link control?

One of two sublayers of the data link layer of OSI reference model, as
defined by the IEEE 802 standard. This sublayer is responsible for
maintaining the link between computers when they are sending data across
the physical network connection.
24. What is multicast routing?
Sending a message to a group is called multicasting, and its routing
algorithm is called multicast routing.

25. What is IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol)?

It is any routing protocol used within an autonomous system.

26. What is EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol)?

It is the protocol the routers in neighboring autonomous systems use to
identify the set of networks that can be reached within or via each
autonomous system.

27. What is BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)?

It is a protocol used to advertise the set of networks that can be reached with
in an autonomous system. BGP enables this information to be shared with
the autonomous system. This is newer than EGP (Exterior Gateway
Protocol).

28. What is Gateway-to-Gateway protocol?

It is a protocol formerly used to exchange routing information between
Internet core routers.

29. What is NVT (Network Virtual Terminal)?

It is a set of rules defining a very simple virtual terminal interaction. The NVT
is used in the start of a Telnet session.

30. What is OSPF?

It is an Internet routing protocol that scales well, can route traffic along
multiple paths, and uses knowledge of an Internet's topology to make
accurate routing decisions.

What Is a Network Protocol?

Protocols serve as a language of communication among network devices.
Network protocols like HTTP, TCP/IP, and SMTP provide a foundation that
much of the Internet is built on. Find out more about these protocols and how
they work.

Firewalls
A network firewall guards a computer against unauthorized network access.
Firewalls are one of the essential elements of a safe home or business
network.

Networking Basics: Ethernet

Ethernet is a physical and data link layer technology for local area networks
(LANs). Ethernet is reliable and inexpensive, the leading standard worldwide
for building wired LANs.

OSI model

Layer Function Protocols Network

Components
Application used for applications specifically written to run over DNS; FTP; TFTP; Gateway
the network BOOTP; SNMP;RLOGIN;
User Interface
allows access to network services that support SMTP; MIME; NFS;
applications; FINGER; TELNET; NCP;
directly represents the services that directly support APPC; AFP; SMB
user applications
handles network access, flow control and error
recovery
Example apps are file transfer,e-mail, NetBIOS-
based applications

Presentation Translates from application to network format and Gateway

vice-versa Redirector
Translation
all different formats from all sources are made into
a common uniform format that the rest of the OSI
model can understand
responsible for protocol conversion, character
conversion,data encryption / decryption,
expanding graphics commands, data compression
sets standards for different systems to provide
seamless communication from multiple protocol
stacks
not always implemented in a network protocol

Session establishes, maintains and ends sessions across NetBIOS Gateway

the network Names Pipes
"syncs and
sessions" responsible for name recognition (identification) so
only the designated parties can participate in the Mail Slots
session RPC
provides synchronization services by planning
check points in the data stream => if session fails,
only data after the most recent checkpoint need
be transmitted
manages who can transmit data at a certain time
and for how long
Examples are interactive login and file transfer
connections, the session would connect and re-
connect if there was an interruption; recognize
names in sessions and register names in history

Transport additional connection below the session layer TCP, ARP, RARP; Gateway
manages the flow control of data between parties SPX Advanced Cable
packets; flow
across the network Tester
control & error- NWLink
divides streams of data into chunks or packets; the Brouter
handling NetBIOS / NetBEUI
transport layer of the receiving computer
reassembles the message from packets
ATP
"train" is a good analogy => the data is divided into
identical units
provides error-checking to guarantee error-free
data delivery, with on losses or duplications
provides acknowledgment of successful
transmissions; requests retransmission if some
packets dont arrive error-free
provides flow control and error-handling
 Network translates logical network address and names to IP; ARP; RARP, ICMP; Brouter
their physical address (e.g. computername ==> RIP; OSFP; Router
addressing; MAC address)
IGMP; Frame Relay
routing responsible for
IPX Device
o addressing
o determining routes for sending
NWLink ATM Switch
o managing network problems such as NetBEUI Advanced Cable
packet switching, data congestion and OSI Tester
routing
if router cant send data frame as large as the DDP
source computer sends, the network layer DECnet
compensates by breaking the data into smaller
units. At the receiving end, the network layer
reassembles the data
think of this layer stamping the addresses on each
train car

Data Link turns packets into raw bits 100101 and at the Logical Link Control Bridge
receiving end turns bits into packets. error correction and flow Switch
data frames to bits
handles data frames between the Network and control
ISDN Router
Physical layers manages link control and
the receiving end packages raw data from the defines SAPs Intelligent Hub
Physical layer into data frames for delivery to the
802.1 OSI Model NIC
Network layer
responsible for error-free transfer of frames to other 802.2 Logical Link Control Advanced Cable
computer via the Physical Layer Tester
this layer defines the methods used to transmit and
receive data on the network. It consists of the
wiring, the devices use to connect the NIC to the
wiring, the signaling involved to transmit / receive
data and the ability to detect signaling errors on
the network media

Media Access Control

communicates with the
adapter card
controls the type of
media being used:
802.3 CSMA/CD (Ethernet)
802.4 Token Bus (ARCnet)
802.5 Token Ring
802.12 Demand Priority

Physical transmits raw bit stream over physical cable IEEE 802 Repeater
defines cables, cards, and physical aspects IEEE 802.2 Multiplexer
hardware; raw bit
stream defines NIC attachments to hardware, how cable is ISO 2110 Hubs
attached to NIC
ISDN Passive
defines techniques to transfer bit stream to cable
Active
TDR
Oscilloscope
Amplifier

OSI Model Concepts

The standard model for networking protocols and distributed applications is
the International Standard Organization's Open System Interconnect
(ISO/OSI) model. It defines seven network layers.
Short for Open System Interconnection, an ISO standard for worldwide
communications that defines a networking framework for implementing
protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next,
starting at the application layer in one station, proceeding to the bottom layer,
over the channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy.

Layer 1 - Physical
Physical layer defines the cable or physical medium itself, e.g., thinnet,
thicknet, unshielded twisted pairs (UTP). All media are functionally
equivalent. The main difference is in convenience and cost of installation and
maintenance. Converters from one media to another operate at this level.
Layer 2 - Data Link
Data Link layer defines the format of data on the network. A network data
frame, aka packet, includes checksum, source and destination address, and
data. The largest packet that can be sent through a data link layer defines
the Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU). The data link layer handles the
physical and logical connections to the packet's destination, using a network
interface. A host connected to an Ethernet would have an Ethernet interface
to handle connections to the outside world, and a loopback interface to send
packets to itself.
Ethernet addresses a host using a unique, 48-bit address called its Ethernet
address or Media Access Control (MAC) address. MAC addresses are
usually represented as six colon-separated pairs of hex digits, e.g.,
8:0:20:11:ac:85. This number is unique and is associated with a particular
Ethernet device. Hosts with multiple network interfaces should use the same
MAC address on each. The data link layer's protocol-specific header
specifies the MAC address of the packet's source and destination. When a
packet is sent to all hosts (broadcast), a special MAC address (ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff)
is used.
Layer 3 - Network
NFS uses Internetwork Protocol (IP) as its network layer interface. IP is
responsible for routing, directing datagrams from one network to another.
The network layer may have to break large datagrams, larger than MTU, into
smaller packets and host receiving the packet will have to reassemble the
fragmented datagram. The Internetwork Protocol identifies each host with a
32-bit IP address. IP addresses are written as four dot-separated decimal
numbers between 0 and 255, e.g., 129.79.16.40. The leading 1-3 bytes of
the IP identify the network and the remaining bytes identifies the host on that
network. The network portion of the IP is assigned by InterNIC Registration
Services, under the contract to the National Science Foundation, and the
host portion of the IP is assigned by the local network administrators. For
large sites, the first two bytes represents the network portion of the IP, and
the third and fourth bytes identify the subnet and host respectively.
Even though IP packets are addressed using IP addresses, hardware
addresses must be used to actually transport data from one host to another.
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to map the IP address to it
hardware address.
Layer 4 - Transport
Transport layer subdivides user-buffer into network-buffer sized datagrams
and enforces desired transmission control. Two transport protocols,
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP),
sits at the transport layer. Reliability and speed are the primary difference
between these two protocols. TCP establishes connections between two
hosts on the network through 'sockets' which are determined by the IP
address and port number. TCP keeps track of the packet delivery order and
the packets that must be resent. Maintaining this information for each
connection makes TCP a stateful protocol. UDP on the other hand provides
a low overhead transmission service, but with less error checking. NFS is
built on top of UDP because of its speed and statelessness. Statelessness
simplifies the crash recovery.
Layer 5 - Session
The session protocol defines the format of the data sent over the
connections. The NFS uses the Remote Procedure Call (RPC) for its session
protocol. RPC may be built on either TCP or UDP. Login sessions uses TCP
whereas NFS and broadcast use UDP.
Layer 6 - Presentation
External Data Representation (XDR) sits at the presentation level. It converts
local representation of data to its canonical form and vice versa. The
canonical uses a standard byte ordering and structure packing convention,
independent of the host.
Layer 7 - Application
Provides network services to the end-users. Mail, ftp, telnet, DNS, NIS, NFS
are examples of network applications.
The OSI Model Stack
The OSI model divides the complex task of computer-to-computer
communications, traditionally called internetworking, into a series of stages
known as layers. Layers in the OSI model are ordered from lowest level to
highest. Together, these layers comprise the OSI stack. The stack contains
seven layers in two groups:
Upper layers 7. application 6. presentation 5. session
Lower layers - 4. transport 3. network 2. data link 1. physical
Benefits of the OSI Model
By separating the network communications into logical smaller pieces, the
OSI model simplifies how network protocols are designed. The OSI model
was designed to ensure different types of equipment (such as
network adapters, hubs, and routers) would all be compatible even if built by
different manufacturers. A product from one network equipment vendor that
implements OSI Layer 2 functionality, for example, will be much more likely
to interoperate with another vendor's OSI Layer 3 product because both
vendors are following the same model.
The OSI model also makes network designs more extensible as new
protocols and other network services are generally easier to add to a layered
architecture than to a monolithic one.
What Is a MAC Address?
The MAC address is a unique value associated with a network adapter. MAC
addresses are also known as hardware addresses or physical addresses.
They uniquely identify an adapter on a LAN.
MAC addresses are 12-digit hexadecimal numbers (48 bits in length). By
convention, MAC addresses are usually written in one of the following two
formats:
MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS

MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS
The first half of a MAC address contains the ID number of the adapter
manufacturer. These IDs are regulated by an Internet standards body (see
sidebar). The second half of a MAC address represents the serial number
assigned to the adapter by the manufacturer. In the example,
00:A0:C9:14:C8:29
The prefix
00A0C9
indicates the manufacturer is Intel Corporation.
MAC vs. IP Addressing
Whereas MAC addressing works at the data link layer, IP addressing
functions at the network layer (layer 3). It's a slight oversimplification, but one
can think of IP addressing as supporting the software implementation and
MAC addresses as supporting the hardware implementation of the network
stack. The MAC address generally remains fixed and follows the network
device, but the IP address changes as the network device moves from one
network to another.
IP networks maintain a mapping between the IP address of a device and its
MAC address. This mapping is known as the ARP cache or ARP
table. ARP, the Address Resolution Protocol, supports the logic for obtaining
this mapping and keeping the cache up to date.
DHCP also usually relies on MAC addresses to manage the unique
assignment of IP addresses to devices.
artViva Questions
1. What are functions of different layers?
Functions of each Layer:
Physical Layer(Layer 1):This layer defines the physical and electrical
characteristics of the network. Helps to pass strings(data) of ones and zeros
down the wire.
Device:Hub, NIC, Repeater.. etc

Data Link Layer:

It defines the acess strategy for sharing the physical medium. Helps convert the
bits into frame.
Devices: Bridge, Switch

Network Layer:
Layer 3 is the Network Layer, providing a means for communicating open
systems to establish, maintain and terminate network connections.
Device:Router

Transport Layer:
The main function of this Layer is to ensure data reliability and integrity.

Session Layer:
It provides two communicating presentation entities to exchange data with
eachother.

Presentation Layer:
Application data is either unpacked or packed only in this layer. Protocol
conversions, encryption/decryption and graphics expansion all takes place here.

Application Layer:
This is where you find your end-user and end-application protocols, such as
telnet, ftp, and mail(pop3 and smtp).
2. Differentiate between TCP/IP Layers and OSI Layers
The Session layer permits two parties to hold ongoing communications called a
session across a network.
Not found in TCP/IP model
In TCP/IP,its characteristics are provided by the TCP protocol.
(Transport Layer)
The Presentation Layer handles data format information for networked
communications. This is done by converting data into a generic format that
could be understood by both sides.
Not found in TCP/IP model
In TCP/IP, this function is provided by the Application Layer.
e.g. External Data Representation Standard (XDR)
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME)

The Application Layer is the top layer of the reference model. It provides a set
of interfaces for applications to obtain access to networked services as well as
access to the kinds of network services that support applications directly.
OSI- FTAM,VT,MHS,DS,CMIP
TCP/IP- FTP,SMTP,TELNET,DNS,SNMP
Although the notion of an application process is common to both, their
approaches to constructing application entities is different

TRANSPORT LAYER
OSI
It takes the information to be sent and breaks it into individual packets that are
sent and reassembled into a complete message by the Transport Layer at the
receiving node
Transport Layer protocols include the capability to acknowledge the receipt of a
packet; if no acknowledgement is received, the Transport Layer protocol can
retransmit the packet or time-out the connection and signal an error

TCP
Defines two standard transport protocols: TCP and UDP
TCP implements a reliable data-stream protocol
connection oriented
UDP implements an unreliable data-stream
connectionless
TCP is responsible for data recovery
by providing a sequence number with each packet that it sends
TCP requires ACK (ackowledgement) to ensure correct data is received
Packet can be retransmitted if error detected

NETWORK LAYER
Like all the other OSI Layers, the network layer provides both connectionless
and connection-oriented services. As for the TCP/IP architecture, the internet
layer is exclusively connectionless.
3. Why header is required?
(answer below)
4. What is the use of adding header and trailer to frames?

IPv4 Packet Header

The Internet Protocol (IP) uses a Datagram service to transfer packets of data
between end systems using routers.
The IPv4 packet header consists of 20 bytes of data. An option exists within the
header that allows further optional bytes to be added, but this is not normally used
(with the occasional exception of something called "Router Alert"). The full header
is shown below:

The header fields are discussed below:

Version (always set to the value 4 in the current version of IP)

IP Header Length (number of 32 -bit words forming the header, usually five)

Type of Service (ToS), now known as Differentiated Services Code Point

(DSCP) (usually set to 0, but may indicate particular Quality of Service needs
from the network, the DSCP defines the way routers should queue packets
while they are waiting to be forwarded).
Size of Datagram (in bytes, this is the combined length of the header and the

data)
Identification ( 16-bit number which together with the source address

uniquely identifies this packet - used during reassembly

of fragmented datagrams)
Flags (a sequence of three flags (one of the 4 bits is unused) used to control

whether routers are allowed to fragment a packet (i.e. the Don't Fragment,
DF, flag), and to indicate the parts of a packet to the receiver)
 Fragmentation Offset (a byte count from the start of the original sent packet,
set by any router which performs IP router fragmentation)
Time To Live (Number of hops /links which the packet may be routed over,

decremented by most routers - used to prevent accidental routing loops)

Protocol (Service Access Point (SAP) which indicates the type of transport

packet being carried (e.g. 1 = ICMP; 2= IGMP; 6 = TCP; 17= UDP).

Header Checksum (A 1's complement checksum inserted by the sender and

updated whenever the packet header is modified by a router - Used to

detect processing errors introduced into the packet inside
a router or bridge where the packet is not protected by a link layer cyclic
redundancy check. Packets with an invalid checksum are discarded by all
nodes in an IP network)
Source Address (the IP address of the original sender of the packet)

Destination Address (the IP address of the final destination of the packet)

Options (not normally used, but, when used, the IP header length will be

greater than five 32-bit words to indicate the size of the options field)

5. What is encapsulation?

Encapsulation, closely related to the concept of Protocol Layering, refers

to the practice of enclosing data using one protocol within messages of
another protocol.
To make use of encapsulation, the encapsulating protocol must be open-ended,
allowing for arbitrary data to placed in its messages. Another protocol can then be
used to define the format of that data.
Encapsulation Example
For example, consider an Internet host that requests a hypertext page over a dialup
serial connection. The following scenario is likely:
First, the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used to construct a
message requesting the page. The message, the exact format of which is
unimportant at this time, is represented as follows:

Next, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is used to provide the

connection management and reliable delivery that HTTP requires, but does
not provide itself. TCP defines a message header format, which can be
followed by arbitrary data. So, a TCP message is constructed by attaching
a TCP header to the HTTP message, as follows:
Now TCP does not provide any facilities for actually relaying a message
from one machine to another in order to reach its destination. This feature
is provided by the Internet Protocol (IP), which defines its own message
header format. An IP message is constructed by attaching an IP header to
the combined TCP/HTTPmessage:

Finally, although IP can direct messages between machines, it can not

actually transmit the message from one machine to the next. This function
is dependent on the actual communications hardware. In this example,
we're using a dialup modem connection, so it's likely that the first step in
transmitting the message will involve the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP):

5. Why fragmentation required?

Every packet-based network has an MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit) size.
The MTU is the size of the largest packet which that network can transmit.

Packets larger than the allowable MTU must be divided into multiple smaller
packets, or fragments, to enable them to traverse the network.
6. What is MTU?
In computer networking, the maximum transmission unit (MTU) of a
layer of a communications protocol is the size (in bytes) of the
largest protocol data unit that it can pass onwards. MTU parameters
usually appear in association with a communications interface
(NIC, serial port, etc.). The MTU may be fixed by standards (as is the
case with Ethernet) or decided at connect time (as is usually the case
with point-to-point serial links). A higher MTU brings greater efficiency
because each packet carries more user data while protocol overheads,
such as headers or underlying per-packet delays remain fixed, and
 higher efficiency means a slight improvement in bulk protocol
throughput.
7. Which layer imposes MTU?
Layer 2 (Data Link Layer)

Differentiate between flow control and

congestion control.
Flow control vs. congestion control:

Flow control mean preventing the source from sending data that thesink
will end up dropping because it runs out of buffer space.
This is fairly easy with a sliding window protocol--just make surethe
source's window is no larger than the free space in the sink's buffer. TCP
does this by letting the sink advertise its free buffer
space in the window field of the acks.

Congestion control means preventing (or trying to prevent) the source

from sending data that will end up getting dropped by a router because its
queue is full. This is more complicated, because
packets from different sources travelling different paths can converge on
the same queue.

In a connection-oriented network:

Admission control and policers can be used to avoid congestion. Before

a source starts sending data, it sets up a connection, which requires
permission from the routers/switches along the path. If
the requested resources are unavailable, the connection is not
set up. Once the connection is set up, policers at the edge of the network
can make sure the source does not send more than it was
allowed to.

In a connectionless network:

Congestion is unavoidable, because the routers are not warned ahead of

time that a source will be sending packets along some path.
Congestion can, however, be managed, if sources are informed when
their packets encounter congestion and they slow down.
8. Differentiate between Point-to-Point Connection and End-
to-End connections.
In networking, the Point-to-Point Protocol, or PPP, is a data
linkprotocol commonly used to establish a direct connection between
two networking nodes. It can provide connection authentication,
transmission encryption privacy, and compression. PPP is used over
many types of physical networks including serial cable, phone line, trunk
line, cellular telephone, specialized radio links, and fiber optic links such
as SONET. Most Internet service providers(ISPs) use PPP for
customer dial-up access to the Internet

The end-to-end principle states that, whenever possible, communications

protocol operations should be defined to occur at the end-points of a
communications system, or as close as possible to the resource being
controlled. According to the end-to-end principle, protocol features are only
justified in the lower layers of a system if they are a performance
optimization.
Example : example is that of file transfer. Every reliable file transfer
protocol and file transfer program should contain a checksum, which is
validated only after everything has been successfully stored on disk. Disk
errors, router errors, and file transfer software errors make an end-to-end
checksum necessary.

9. What are protocols running in different layers?

OSI MODEL, LAYERS & PROTOCOLS
7 Application
Web Browser, Email, Print Serivces, SIP, SSH and SCP, NFS,
RTSP, Feed, XMPP, Whois, SMB; DNS; FTP; TFTP; BOOTP;
SNMP;RLOGIN; SMTP; MIME; NFS; FINGER; TELNET; NCP;
APPC; AFP; SMB

6 Presentation
XDR, ASN.1, SMB, AFP, NCP, MIDI, HTML, GIF, TIFF, JPEG,
ASCII, EBCDIC

5 Session
TLS, SSH, X.225, RPC, NetBIOS, ASP, Winsock, BSD

4 Transport
TCP, UDP, RTP, SCTP, SPX, ATP
Gateway, Advanced Cable Tester, Brouter

3 Network
IP, ICMP, IGMP, BGP, OSPF, RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, ARP, RARP,
X.25, NETBEUI
Brouter, Router, Frame Relay Device, ATM Switch, Advanced
Cable Tester, DDP
2 Data Link
Ethernet, Token ring, StarLAN, HDLC, Frame relay, ISDN, ATM,
802.11 WiFi, FDDI, PPP, Bridge, Switch, ISDN Router, Intelligent
Hub, NIC, Advanced Cable Tester, ARCNET, LocalTalk, FDDI,
ATM. NIC Drivers: Open Datalink Interface (ODI), Network
Independent Interface Specification (NDIS)
1 Physical
NIC, Twisted Pair, Coax, Fiber Optic, Wireless Media, Repeater,
Multiplexer, Hubs, (Passive/Active), TDR, Oscilloscope,
Amplifier, Carrier pigeon

TCP LAYERS
4 Application (OSI - Layers5 through 7)
HTTP, FTP, DNS
(Routing protocols like BGP and RIP, which for a variety of
reasons run over TCP and UDP respectively, may also be
considered part of the Internetwork layer)

3 Transport (OSI - Layers4 and 5)

TCP, UDP, RTP, SCTP
(Routing protocols like OSPF, which run over IP, may also be
considered part of the Internetwork layer)

2 Internetwork (OSI - Layer 3)

For TCP/IP this is the Internet Protocol (IP)
(Required protocols like ICMP and IGMP run over IP, but may
still be considered part of the Internetwork layer; ARP does not
run over IP)

1 Link (OSI - Layers 1 and 2)

Ethernet, Wi-Fi, MPLS, etc.
10. What is Protocol Stack?
A protocol stack (sometimes communications stack) is a particular
software implementation of a computer networkingprotocol suite. The
terms are often used interchangeably. Strictly speaking, the suite is the
definition of the protocols, and the stack is the software implementation
of them.
In practical implementation, protocol stacks are often divided into three
major sections: media, transport, and applications. A particular operating
system or platform will often have two well-defined software interfaces:
one between the media and transport layers, and one between the
transport layers and applications.
11. Differentiate between TCP and UDP.
12. Differentiate between Connectionless and connection
oriented connection.

Connection Oriented
Connection-Oriented means that when devices communicate, they perform
handshaking to set up an end-to-end connection. The handshaking process may be
as simple as syncrhonization such as in the transport layer protocol TCP, or as
complex as negotiating communications parameters as with a modem.
Connection-Oriented systems can only work in bi-directional communications
environments. To negotiate a connection, both sides must be able to communicate
with each other. This will not work in a unidirectional environment.

Connectionless
Connectionless means that no effort is made to set up a dedicated end-to-end
connection.
Connectionless communication is usually achieved by transmitting information in
one direction, from source to destination without checking to see if the destination
is still there, or if it is prepared to receive the information. When there is little
interferance, and plenty of speed available, these systems work fine. In
environments where there is difficulty transmitting to the destination, information
may have to be re-transmitted several times before the complete message is
received.
Walkie-talkies, or Citizens Band radios are a good examples of connectionless
communication. You speak into the mike, and the radio transmitter sends out your
signal. If the person receiving you doesn't understand you, there's nothing his radio
can do to correct things, the receiver must send you a message back to repeat your
last message.
IP, UDP, ICMP, DNS, TFTP and SNMP are examples of connectionless protocols
in use on the Internet.

13. Why frame sorting is required?

14. What is meant by subnet?

A subnet (short for "subnetwork") is an identifiably separate part of an

organization's network. Typically, a subnet may represent all the
machines at one geographic location, in one building, or on the same
local area network (LAN). Having an organization's network divided into
subnets allows it to be connected to the Internet with a single shared
network address. Without subnets, an organization could get multiple
connections to the Internet, one for each of its physically separate
subnetworks, but this would require an unnecessary use of the limited
number of network numbers the Internet has to assign.

15. What is meant by Gateway?

A node on a network that serves as an entrance to another network. In
 enterprises, the gateway is the computer that routes the traffic from a
workstation to the outside network that is serving the Web pages. In
homes, the gateway is the ISP that connects the user to the internet.
In enterprises, the gateway node often acts as a proxy server and a
firewall. The gateway is also associated with both a router, which use
headers and forwarding tables to determine where packets are sent, and
a switch, which provides the actual path for the packet in and out of the
gateway.
16. What is an IP address?
An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical label that is assigned to
devices participating in a computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol
for communication between its nodes.[1] An IP address serves two
principal functions in networking: host or network interface identification
and location addressing.
17. What is MAC address?
In computer networking, a Media Access Control address (MAC
address) is a unique identifier assigned to most network adapters or
network interface cards (NICs) by the manufacturer for identification, and
used in the Media Access Control protocol sublayer. If assigned by the
manufacturer, a MAC address usually encodes the manufacturer's
registered identification number. It may also be known as an Ethernet
Hardware Address (EHA), hardware address, adapter address, or
physical address.
18. Why IP address is required when we have MAC
address?
(refer to above two answers)
19. What is meant by port?
An interface on a computer to which you can connect a device. Personal
computers have various types of ports. Internally, there are several ports
for connecting disk drives, display screens, and keyboards. Externally,
personal computers have ports for connecting modems, printers, mice,
and other peripheral devices.
Almost all personal computers come with a serial RS-232C port or RS-
422 port for connecting a modem or mouse and a parallel port for
connecting a printer. On PCs, the parallel port is a Centronics interface
that uses a 25-pin connector. SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
ports support higher transmission speeds than do conventional ports
and enable you to attach up to seven devices to the same port.
In TCP/IP and UDP networks, an endpoint to a logical connection. The
port number identifies what type of port it is. For example, port 80 is
used for HTTP traffic.
20. What are ephemerical port number and well known port
numbers?
 Ephemeral ports are temporary ports assigned by a machine's IP stack,
and are assigned from a designated range of ports for this
purpose. When the connection terminates, the ephemeral port is
available for reuse, although most IP stacks won't reuse that port
number until the entire pool of ephemeral ports have been used. So, if
the client program reconnects, it will be assigned a different ephemeral
port number for its side of the new connection.

Well-known port numbers are assigned to particular services throughout

the Internet, by IANA, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority. The
well-known port numbers are in the range 0 through 1023.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) 21
Telnet 23
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) 80
HTTP with Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) 443
CORBA Internet Inter-ORB Protocol (IIOP) 683
CORBA IIOP with SSL684
21. What is a socket?
Sockets is a method for communication between a client program and
a server program in a network. A socket is defined as "the endpoint in a
connection." Sockets are created and used with a set of programming
requests or "function calls" sometimes called the sockets application
programming interface (API). The most common sockets API is the
Berkeley Unix C interface for sockets. Sockets can also be used for
communication between processes within the same computer.
22. What are the parameters of socket()?
int socket(int domain, int type, int protocol)
23. Describe bind(), listen(), accept(),connect(), send() and
recv().
int bind(int socket, const struct sockaddr *address,socklen_t
address_len);
bind() function shall assign a local socket address address to a socket
identified by descriptor socket that has no local socket address
assigned. Sockets created with the socket() function are initially
unnamed; they are identified only by their address family.
int listen(int s, int backlog);
The listen() function marks a connection-mode socket (for example,
those of type SOCK_STREAM), specified by the socket argument s, as
accepting connections, and limits the number of outstanding connections
in the socket's listen queue to the value specified by the backlog
argument. The socket s is put into 'passive' mode where incoming
connection requests are acknowledged and queued pending acceptance
by the process.
 int accept(int s, struct sockaddr *addr, socklen_t *addrlen);
The accept() function accepts a connection on a socket. An incoming
connection is acknowledged and associated with an immediately created
socket. The original socket is returned to the listening state.

int connect(int socket, const struct sockaddr *address,socklen_t

address_len);
The connect() function shall attempt to make a connection on a socket.

ssize_t send(int socket, const void *buffer, size_t length, int flags);
The send() function shall initiate transmission of a message from the
specified socket to its peer. The send() function shall send a message
only when the socket is connected (including when the peer of a
connectionless socket has been set via connect()).

ssize_t recv(int socket, void *buffer, size_t length, int flags);

The recv() function shall receive a message from a connection-mode or
connectionless-mode socket. It is normally used with connected sockets
because it does not permit the application to retrieve the source address
of received data.
24. What are system calls? Mention few of them.

A system call is a request made by any program to the operating system

for performing taskspicked from a predefined setwhich the said
program does not have required permissions to execute in its own flow
of execution. System calls provide the interface between a process
and the operating system.

System calls for low level file I/O <map name="boxmap-p8"> <area
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System calls for low level file I/O
o creat(name, permissions)

o open(name, mode)
 o close(fd)
o unlink(fd)
o read(fd, buffer, n_to_read)
o write(fd, buffer, n_to_write)
o lseek(fd, offest, whence)
System Calls for process control
o fork()

o wait()

o execl(), execlp(), execv(), execvp()

o exit()

o signal(sig, handler)

o kill(sig, pid)

System Calls for IPC

o pipe(fildes)

o dup(fd)

25. What is IPC? Name three techniques.

Inter-process communication (IPC) is a set of techniques for the
exchange of data among multiple threads in one or more processes.
Processes may be running on one or more computers connected by
a network. IPC techniques are divided into methods for message
passing, synchronization, shared memory, and remote procedure
calls (RPC).
26. Explain mkfifo(), open(), close() with parameters.
int mkfifo(const char *path, mode_t mode);
The mkfifo() function creates a new FIFO special file named by the
pathname pointed to by path. The file permission bits of the new FIFO
are initialised from mode. The file permission bits of the mode argument
are modified by the process' file creation mask.

int open(const char *path, int oflag, ... );

The open() function shall establish the connection between a file and a
file descriptor. It shall create an open file description that refers to a file
and a file descriptor that refers to that open file description. The file
descriptor is used by other I/O functions to refer to that file. The path
argument points to a pathname naming the file.

int close(int fildes);

 The close() function shall deallocate the file descriptor indicated by
fildes. To deallocate means to make the file descriptor available for
return by subsequent calls to open() or other functions that allocate file
descriptors. All outstanding record locks owned by the process on the
file associated with the file descriptor shall be removed (that is,
unlocked).

27. What is meant by file descriptor?

file descriptor is an index for an entry in a kernel-resident data structure
containing the details of all open files. In POSIX this data structure is
called a file descriptor table, and each process has its own file descriptor
table. The user application passes the abstract key to the kernel through
a system call, and the kernel will access the file on behalf of the
application, based on the key. The application itself cannot read or write
the file descriptor table directly.
In Unix-like systems, file descriptors can refer to files, directories, block
or character devices (also called "special files"), sockets, FIFOs (also
called named pipes), or unnamed pipes.
28. What is meant by traffic shaping?
Traffic shaping (also known as "packet shaping" or ITMPs: Internet
Traffic Management Practices) is the control of computer network traffic
in order to optimize or guarantee performance, lower latency, and/or
increase usable bandwidth by delaying packets that meet certain
criteria.[1] More specifically, traffic shaping is any action on a set of
packets (often called a stream or a flow) which imposes additional delay
on those packets such that they conform to some predetermined
constraint (a contract or traffic profile).[2] Traffic shaping provides a
means to control the volume of traffic being sent into a network in a
specified period (bandwidth throttling), or the maximum rate at which the
traffic is sent. Traffic shaping is always achieved by delaying packets.
29. How do you classify congestion control algorithms?
By the type and amount of feedback received from the network: Loss;
delay; single-bit or multi-bit explicit signals
By incremental deployability on the current Internet: Only sender needs
modification; sender and receiver need modification; only router needs
modification; sender, receiver and routers need modification.
By the aspect of performance it aims to improve: high bandwidth-delay
product networks; lossy links; fairness; advantage to short flows;
variable-rate links
By the fairness criterion it uses: max-min, proportional, "minimum
potential delay"
30. Differentiate between Leaky bucket and Token bucket.

31. How do you implement Leaky bucket?

The leaky-bucket implementation is used to control the rate at which

traffic is sent to the network A leaky bucket provides a mechanism by
which bursty traffic can be shaped to present a steady stream of traffic to
the network, as opposed to traffic with erratic bursts of low-volume and
high-volume flows.
32. How do you generate bursty traffic?
Bursty traffic refers to an uneven pattern of data transmission: sometime
very high data transmission rate while other time it might be very low.
33. What is the polynomial used in CRC-CCITT?
x16 + x12 + x5 +1
34. What are the other error detection &
correction algorithms?
Parity check

LRC Longitudinal Redundancy Check

CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check

FC Fire codes

BCH Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem

RS Reed-Solomon
 HC Hamming codes

Turbo Codes

VCC Virerbi Convilutional Coding for Forward error Correction (FEC)

Golay
35. What is difference between CRC and Hamming code?

36. Why Hamming code is called 7,4 code?

encodes 4 bits of data into 7 bits by adding 3 parity bits.

37. What is odd parity and even parity?

When using even parity, the parity bit is set to 1 if the number of ones in
a given set of bits (not including the parity bit) is odd, making the entire
set of bits (including the parity bit) even. When using odd parity, the
parity bit is set to 1 if the number of ones in a given set of bits (not
including the parity bit) is even, making the entire set of bits (including
the parity bit) odd. In other words, an even parity bit will be set to "1" if
the number of 1's + 1 is even, and an odd parity bit will be set to "1" if
the number of 1's +1 is odd.
38. What is meant by syndrome?

39. What is generator matrix?

40. What is spanning tree?

A spanning tree of that graph is a subgraph which is a tree and connects
all the vertices together. A single graph can have many different
spanning trees. We can also assign a weight to each edge, which is a
number representing how unfavorable it is, and use this to assign a
weight to a spanning tree by computing the sum of the weights of the
edges in that spanning tree. A minimum spanning tree (MST)
or minimum weight spanning tree is then a spanning tree with weight
less than or equal to the weight of every other spanning tree. More
generally, any undirected graph (not necessarily connected) has
a minimum spanning forest, which is a union of minimum spanning
trees for its connected components.
41. Where Prims algorithm does finds its use in Networks?

42. Differentiate between Prims and Kruskals algorithm.

Kruska's builds a minimum spanning tree by adding one edge at a time.
The next line is always the shortest (minimum weight) ONLY if it does
 NOT create a cycle.

Prims builds a mimimum spanning tree by adding one vertex at a time.

The next vertex to be added is always the one nearest to a vertex
already on the graph.

Prim always joins a "new" vertex to an "old" vertex, so that every stage
is a tree. Kruskal's allows both "new" to "new" and "old" to "old" to get
connected, so it risks creating a circuit and must check for them every
time. So Kruskal's has a larger complexity than Prim.
43. What are Routing algorithms?
Routers use routing algorithms to find the best route to a
destination. Routing (or routeing) is the process of selecting paths in a
network along which to send network traffic.
44. How do you classify routing algorithms? Give examples
for each.
View: global or local
global: graph of entire network (routers, links). [link state]. eg.
Dijkstra shortest path algorithm.
local: partial knowledge of remote parts of network. [distance
vector approach] eg.Bellman-Ford routing algorithms and Ford-
Fulkerson routing algorithms

Centralized or decentralized
Centralized:one node maintains view, and distributes routes to
other nodes
Decetralized:all nodes maintain view

Static or dynamic?
Static: infrequent route changes,infrequent view update; static link
costs (e.g. up/down)

Dynamic: frequent periodic route changes

frequent view update; dynamic link costs (e.g. delay)
45. What are drawbacks in distance vector algorithm?
The algorithm does not prevent routing loops from happening and
suffers from the count-to-infinity problem. The core of the count-to-
infinity problem is that if A tells B that it has a path somewhere, there is
no way for B to know if it is on the path.
46. How routers update distances to each of its neighbor?
Routers learn about remote networks from neighboring routers or an
administrator. The router then builds a routing table that tells how to get
 to the remote networks. Routes are either directly connected, static, or
dynamic. Static routes are entered in by the administrator. Dynamic
routes are learned from neighboring routers using routing protocols. In
dynamic routing, the routers update each other at set
intervals. Changes cause the routers to update all the other routers. If a
routers receives a packet with a destination network not in its routing
tables, it will discard the packet.
Dynamic routes adjust to changes within the internetwork environment
automatically. When network changes occur, routers begin to converge
by recalculating routes and distributing route updates. The route update
messages spread through the network, which causes other routers to
recalculate their routes. The process continues until all routes have
converged. Uses protocols to find and update routes on a routing
table. It uses CPU time and consumes bandwidth between links. The
routing protocol defines the rules used by the routers when they
communicate with each other.
There are two types of routing protocols on internetworks, Interior
Gateway Protocol (IGP) and Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP). IGP is
used in networks in the same administrative domain. EGPs are used to
communicate between the domains.

47. How do you overcome count to infinity problem?

The Bellman-Ford algorithm does not prevent routing loops from
happening and suffers from the count-to-infinity problem. The core of the
count-to-infinity problem is that if A tells B that it has a path somewhere,
there is no way for B to know if the path has B as a part of it. To see the
problem clearly, imagine a subnet connected like A-B-C-D-E-F, and let
the metric between the routers be "number of jumps". Now suppose that
A goes down (out of order). In the vector-update-process B notices that
its once very short route of 1 to A is down - B does not receive the vector
update from A. The problem is, B also gets an update from C, and C is
still not aware of the fact that A is down - so it tells B that A is only two
jumps from it, which is false. This slowly propagates through the network
until it reaches infinity (in which case the algorithm corrects itself, due to
the "Relax property" of Bellman Ford).

Partial solutions
RIP uses Split Horizon with Poison Reverse technique to reduce the
chance of forming loops and use a maximum number of hops to counter
the count-to-infinity problem. These measures avoid the formation of
routing loops in some, but not all, cases. The addition of a hold time
(refusing route updates for a few minutes after a route retraction) avoids
 loop formation in virtually all cases, but causes a significant increase in
convergence times.
A number of loop-free distance vector protocols, such as EIGRP and
DSDV, have been developed. These avoid loop formation in all cases,
but suffer from increased complexity, and their deployment has been
slowed down by the success of link-state protocols such as OSPF.
48. What is cryptography?
Cryptography can be defined as the conversion of data into a scrambled
code that can be deciphered and sent across a public or private network.
Cryptography uses two main styles or forms of encrypting data;
symmetrical and asymmetrical. Symmetric encryptions, or algorithms,
use the same key for encryption as they do for decryption. Other names
for this type of encryption are secret-key, shared-key, and private-key.
The encryption key can be loosely related to the decryption key; it does
not necessarily need to be an exact copy.
Symmetric cryptography is susceptible to plain text attacks and linear
cryptanalysis meaning that they are hackable and at times simple to
decode. With careful planning of the coding and functions of the
cryptographic process these threats can be greatly reduced. Asymmetric
cryptography uses different encryption keys for encryption and
decryption. In this case an end user on a network, public or private, has
a pair of keys; one for encryption and one for decryption. These keys are
labeled or known as a public and a private key; in this instance the
private key cannot be derived from the public key.
The asymmetrical cryptography method has been proven to be secure
against computationally limited intruders. The security is a mathematical
definition based upon the application of said encryption. Essentially,
asymmetric encryption is as good as its applied use; this is defined by
the method in which the data is encrypted and for what use. The most
common form of asymmetrical encryption is in the application of sending
messages where the sender encodes and the receiving party decodes
the message by using a random key generated by the public key of the
sender.
49. How do you classify cryptographic algorithms?
(refer above)
50. What is public key?
The key used to encrypt a message is not the same as the key used
to decrypt it. Each user has a pair of cryptographic keys a public
key and a private key. The private key is kept secret, whilst the public
key may be widely distributed. Messages are encrypted with the
recipient's public key and can only be decrypted with the corresponding
private key. The keys are related mathematically, but the private key
cannot be feasibly (ie, in actual or projected practice) derived from the
 public key.
This is used in asymmetric cryptography.

51. What is private key?

(refer above)
52. What are key, ciphertext and plaintext?
Ciphertext is the result of the process (known as encryption) of
transforming information (referred to as plaintext) using an algorithm
(called cipher) to make it unreadable [1] to anyone except those
possessing special knowledge, usually referred to as a key. This result is
also known as encrypted information. The process to read ciphertext is
known as decryption.
53. What is simulation?
A computer simulation, a computer model, or a computational
model is a computer program, or network of computers, that attempts
to simulate an abstract model of a particular system.
54. What are advantages of simulation?
Normal analytical techniques make use of extensive mathematical
models which require assumptions and restrictions to be placed on the
model. This can result in an avoidable inaccuracy in the output data.
Simulations avoid placing restrictions on the system and also take
random processes into account; in fact in some cases simulation is the
only practical modelling technique applicable;[1][2]
Analysts can study the relationships between components in detail and
can simulate the projected consequences of multiple design options
before having to implement the outcome in the real-world.[1][2]
It is possible to easily compare alternative designs so as to select the
optimal system.[1]
The actual process of developing the simulation can itself provide
valuable insights into the inner workings of the network which can in turn
be used at a later stage.

55. Differentiate between Simulation and Emulation.

A simulation mimics the outward appearance
An emulation mimics the cause/process.

An emulator generally is a piece of hardware used for tests; it isself-

contained, and is able to be hooked to some kind of
development environment.

A simulator is a piece of software that duplicates as precisely aspossible

the processor so you can "run" your code to see if it iscorrect. Usually
simulators are developped for new architectures to
 test them out before it is committed to silicon. Occasionnally, avendor
will let customer have access to the simulator to help speeddevelopment
for that architecture.

(If you want to convince people that watching television gives

youstomach-aches, you can simulate this by holding your
chest/abdomen and moan. You can emulate it by eating a kilo of unripe
apples.)
56. What is meant by router?
In packet-switched networks such as the Internet, a router is a device or,
in some cases, software in a computer, that determines the next network
point to which a packet should be forwarded toward its destination. The
router is connected to at least two networks and decides which way to
send each information packet based on its current understanding of the
state of the networks it is connected to. A router is located at
any gateway (where one network meets another), including each point-
of-presence on the Internet. A router is often included as part of a
network switch.
57. What is meant by bridge?
A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link
layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model, and the term Layer 2 switch is very
often used interchangeably with bridge. Bridges are similar
to repeaters or network hubs, devices that connect network segments at
the physical layer; however, with bridging, traffic from one network is
managed rather than simply rebroadcast to adjacent network segments.
Since bridging takes place at the data link layer of the OSI model, a
bridge processes the information from each frame of data it receives. In
an Ethernet frame, this provides the MAC address of the frame's source
and destination.

58. What is meant by switch?

A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple
computers together within one local area network (LAN). Technically,
network switches operate at layer two (Data Link Layer) of the OSI
model.
Network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but a switch
generally contains more intelligence (and a slightly higher price tag) than
a hub. Unlike hubs, network switches are capable of inspecting data
packets as they are received, determining the source and destination
device of each packet, and forwarding them appropriately. By delivering
messages only to the connected device intended, a network switch
conserves network bandwidth and offers generally better performance
than a hub.
59. What is meant by hub?
A network hub or repeater hub is a device for connecting
multiple twisted pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together and thus
making them act as a single network segment. Hubs work at
the physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI model. The device is thus a form
of multiport repeater. Repeater hubs also participate in collision
detection, forwarding a jam signal to all ports if it detects a collision.
60. Differentiate between route, bridge, switch and hub.
(refer to the previous answers)
61. What is ping and telnet?
Ping is a computer network tool used to test whether a particular host is
reachable across an IP network; it is also used to self test the network
interface card of the computer, or as a latency test. It works by
sending ICMP echo request packets to the target host and listening for
ICMP echo response replies. The "echo response" is sometimes called
a pong. Ping measures the round-trip time[1] and records any packet loss,
and prints when finished a statistical summary of the echo response
packets received, the minimum, mean, max and in some versions
the standard deviationof the round trip time.

Telnet (teletype network) is a network protocol used on

the Internet or local area networks to provide a bidirectional interactive
communications facility. Telnet is a user command and an
underlying TCP/IP protocol for accessing remote computers. Through
Telnet, an administrator or another user can accesssomeone else's
computer remotely. On the Web, HTTP and FTPprotocols allow you to
request specific files from remote computers, but not to actually be
logged on as a user of that computer. With Telnet, you log on as a
regular user with whatever privileges you may have been granted to the
specific applicationand data on that computer.
62. What is FTP?
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to
exchange and manipulate files over a TCP/IP based network, such as
the Internet. FTP is built on a client-server architecture and utilizes
separate control and data connections between the client and server
applications. FTP is also often used as an application component to
automatically transfer files for program internal functions.
63. What is BER?
The BER is a measure of signal quality, and is a function of a quantity
called Eb/N0, the energy per bit to noise power spectral density ratio of
the signal for QPSK signal. In an additive white-gaussian-noise (AWGN)
channel, the BER is given by: BER = 1 / 2erfc(Eb / N0). This formula
relates the BER of any signal to its Eb/N0. In telecommunication, an
 error ratio is the ratio of the number of bits, elements, characters, or
blocks incorrectly received to the total number of bits, elements,
characters, or blocks sent during a specified time interval.
The most commonly encountered ratio is the bit error ratio (BER) - also
sometimes referred to as bit error rate.

64. What is meant by congestion window?

In Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), the congestion
windowdetermines the number of bytes that can be outstanding at any
time. This is a means of stopping the link between two places from
getting overloaded with too much traffic. The size of this window is
calculated by estimating how much congestion there is between the two
places. The sender maintains the congestion window. When a
connection is set up, the congestion window is set to the maximum
segment size (MSS) allowed on that connection.
The window keeps growing linearly until a timeout occurs or the receiver
reaches its limit. If a timeout occurs, the window size is halved.
65. What is BSS?
In the 802.11 specification, an 802.11 network is referred to as a basic
service set (BSS). A BSS is made up of two or more stations (STAs) that
communicate with each other. Individual BSS networks are established
through a unique service set identifier (SSID). There are two types of
BSS networks:
Ad hoc
An ad hoc network consists of two or more mobile stations that
communicate with each other directly. Ad hoc networks are referred to
as independent basic service sets (IBSSs) within the 802.11
specification.
Infrastructure
An infrastructure network consists of one or more mobile stations that
communicate with each other through an access point (AP). In this type
of BSS, the AP itself is considered a STA. An infrastructure network that
consists of multiple APs within the same BSS is referred to as an
extended service set (ESS) within the 802.11 specification.
Each AP within the same BSS must be assigned the same SSID. After
a mobile station is assigned an SSID of the BSS to associate with, it can
choose any AP within the ESS. After it is associated, the mobile station
can also decide to roam to other APs within the ESS.
66. What is incoming throughput and outgoing throughput?
In communication networks, such as Ethernet or packet
radio, throughput or network throughput is the average rate of
successful message delivery over a communication channel. This data
may be delivered over a physical or logical link, or pass through a
 certain network node. The throughput is usually measured in bits per
second (bit/s or bps), and sometimes in data packets per second or data
packets per time slot.
(Use this to frame the answer for incoming and outgoing).
67. What is collision?
In a half duplex Ethernet network, a collision is the result of two devices
on the same Ethernet network attempting to transmit data at exactly the
same time. The network detects the "collision" of the two transmitted
packets and discards them both. Collisions are a natural occurrence on
Ethernets. Ethernet uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detect
(CSMA/CD) as its method of allowing devices to "take turns" using the
signal carrier line. When a device wants to transmit, it checks the signal
level of the line to determine whether someone else is already using it. If
it is already in use, the device waits and retries, perhaps in a few
seconds. If it isn't in use, the device transmits. However, two devices can
transmit at the same time in which case a collision occurs and both
devices detect it. Each device then waits a random amount of time and
retries until successful in getting the transmission sent.
The best remedy for collisions is to upgrade to a full duplex switched
environment.

68. How do you generate multiple traffics across different

sender-receiver pairs?
(steps in using NCTUns)
69. How do you setup Ethernet LAN?

(steps in using NCTUns)

70. What is meant by mobile host?
Client (host) who is connected to the network by wireless means to allow
maximum mobility.
71. What is meant by NCTUns?
National Chiao Tung University network simulator. It is a network
simulator for linux.
72. What are dispatcher, coordinator and nctunsclient?
73. Name few other Network simulators
NS 2.0(linux, requires knowledge of TCL/TK scripting language) ,
Netsim(linux), OPNET(windows)
74. Differentiate between logical and physical address.
Dispatcher
NCTUns provides a flexible simulation architecture, by which the GUI
program and
the simulation engine program can be run on different machines. In
NCTUns, the
GUI program need not find a simulation server to run the simulation
engine program
for a simulation. Instead, it sends the Dispatcher program an inquiry
message to
know which simulation server is currently available. (The details of the
handshake
protocol used by these components are explained later.) The Dispatcher
program
is responsible for monitoring the statuses of the simulation servers that it
manages
and selecting an available simulation server (if one exists) to serve the
simulation
request issued from the GUI program.

Coordinator
The Coordinator program has the following four tasks: 1) processing the
commands
sent from Dispatcher; 2) forking (creating) a simulation engine process
to perform
a simulation; 3) reporting the status of the created simulation engine
process to
the Dispatcher program; and 4) collecting the simulation results
produced by its
created simulation engine process and sending them to the GUI
program. Before
starting any simulation on a simulation server, one should first run up a
Coordinator
program on it.
nctunsclient
NCTUns provides a front-end GUI program (called nctunsclientin its
package),
which provides useful facilities for users to efficiently create simulation
and
emulation cases. According to users common needs, it groups the
operations
of generating a simulation/emulation case into four modes, which are
briefly
introduced here.
a) The Draw Topology mode:
In this mode, one can insert network nodes, create network links, and
specify
 the locations and moving paths of mobile nodes. In addition, the GUI
program
provides a complete tool kit for users to construct road networks, which
is fundamental to wireless vehicular network simulations, where many
P2P
researchers are proposing to run P2P applications.
b) The Edit Property mode:
In this mode, one can double-click the icon of a network node to
configure its
properties (e.g., the network protocol stack used in this node, the
applications
to be run on this node during simulation, and other parameters).
c) The Run Simulation mode:
In this mode, the GUI program provides users with a complete set of
commands to start/pause/stop a simulation. One can easily control the
progress of a simulation by simply pressing a button on the GUI control
panel.
d) The Play Back mode:
After a simulation is finished, the GUI program will automatically switch
itself
into the Play Back mode and read the packet trace file generated
during the
simulation. In this mode, one can use the GUI program to replay a
nodes
packet transmission/reception operations in an animated manner.
75. Which address gets affected if a system moves from one
place to another place?
ipaddress
76. What is ICMP? What are uses of ICMP? Name few.
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is one of the core
protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite. It is chiefly used by networked
computers' operating systems to send error messagesindicating, for
instance, that a requested service is not available or that a host or router
could not be reached.
ICMP[1] relies on IP to perform its tasks, and it is an integral part of IP. It
differs in purpose from transport protocols such as TCP and UDP in that
it is typically not used to send and receive data between end systems. It
is usually not used directly by user network applications, with some
notable exceptions being the ping tool and traceroute.
79. Which layer implements security for data?
Transport Layer:
The main function of this Layer is to ensure data reliability and integrity.
Presentation Layer:
Application data is either unpacked or packed only in this layer. Protocol
conversions, encryption/decryption and graphics expansion all takes place here.