FORMATION

EVALUATION
 Exams
Two Exams Papers each at 50%

Section A CLOSED BOOK

2hrs + 15 minutes reading time
10 multiple choice questions
Short essay type questions, calculations

Section B OPEN BOOK

2hrs + 15 minutes reading time
Interpretation of a Downhole Log &
Calculations
What is FE??
CHP 1
 A process of interpreting a combination
of measurements taken inside a wellbore
to detect and quantify oil and gas reserves
in the rock adjacent to the well.
FE data can be gathered with Wireline
logging instruments, or logging-while-
drilling tools. LWD / MWD
Data organized and interpreted by depth
and represented on a graph called a log
 MWD Measurement while Drilling
Performed when the well is drilling
Inclination and Direction
Real Time
Mud Telemetry pressure variations in the
mud pulse by the tool, sensed by surface
computer
LWD Logging While Drilling
Performed when the well is drilling
Real Time Data
Useful for Steering
Mud Telemetry
Hole Problems

Chapter 4 of Manual
Gamma Ray
Resistivity
Neutron
Density
Sonic
WireLine Logging
 Wire Line
Hole must be Clean, Stabilized and
Drilling Equipment removed
Cable acts as support and for data
transmission
Outside is Galvanized Steel
Inside are the electronics packages
Magnetic depth markers at regular
intervals
Need surface Computers
 DATA
Data Acquisition Data rates are now high,
due to advanced Technology. A lot more data
can now be stored
Data Processing Can be done Anywhere.
Data can be processed Downhole in the tool,
and the processed Signal is transmitted to
surface. Real time vs Recorded
Data Transmission Communication Links,
excel and Las files
 Log Runs & Presentation

8.25in

Scales 2.5in
1:2000 1cm = 20m
1:1000 1cm = 10m
1:500 1cm = 5cm
1:200 1cm = 2m

0.75in
CHP 2
 Introduction
First identify Rock Mudlogging / Logging
Then determine, porosity, saturation and
permeability

Critical characteristics of a petroleum reservoir

rock :

Porosity - Capacity of the rock to contain fluid

Fluid Saturation - Percentage of fluids in these pore spaces
eg. Water vs Hydrocarbons.
Permeability - The ability of the fluids to flow through the rock to
the well bore
 Rock Classification System
Based on the overall chemistry of the rocks

Rock Categories
- Sandstone Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) silt, cherts

- Limestone - calcium carbonate (CaCO3) - chalks

- Dolomite - (CaCO3MgC03) Includes Magnesium's, denser, harder than limestone

- Halite Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

- Anhydrite - Calcium Sulphate CaCO4

- Gypsum - (CaSO4 2H2O) Includes Water

- Clay Shale is classified as a clay

Sandstones and Limestone's are the most common reservoir rocks

 Porosity Greek symbol phi [ ]
= +

Porosity (%) = Pore Volume x 100

Total Rock Volume

For practical purposes porosity is the non solid part of a rock

Referred to in terms of %, but in calculations always less than 1

Total Porosity = Connected and non-connected pore space

Effective Porosity = Connected pore space only

Principle controls on porosity Primary or Secondary

Primary Porosity Granular System function of Stacking & Sorting

original sedimentation process by which the rock was created
Clean sandstones with well sorted, spherical grains have the highest porosity.
Typical sandstone reservoir porosities = 10 % - 35 %
Column stacking 47 % Close packing 25.9 %

Poorly Sorted - % ? ? ?
 Secondary Porosity
Created by processes after Deposition, due to chemical and or physical
changes.
Limestone or Dolomites dissolved by ground water vugs / caverns
Fractures / Fissures / Dolomitization
 Saturation
Volume of fluid : Total Pore Space Fluid

e.g a water saturation of 10%, means 1/10th of the total pore space is
filled with Water, the other 90% Hydrocarbons.
 Permeability
Permeability (k) = measure of ease of the fluid, to flow through the connecting
pore spaces of the reservoir rock into the wellbore
To determine the permeability of the rock formation Darcys Law

k = Q.u / A (delta P / L)
Q = flow rate (cm/s)
u = fluid viscosity (cp) centipose
A = cross sectional area of rock (cm2)
L = length of rock (cm)
delta P = pressure drop

Unit of measure = Darcy / Md (1/1000 of a Darcy) 10 Darcys = 10,000 Md

One Darcy = when 1 cc fluid of 1 cp viscosity flows through 1 cm3 of rock in
1 sec, under a pressure gradient of 1 bar

Note : Viscosity of water at 20 C = 1 centipoise (cp)

Permeability is influenced primarily by the size of the pores,
grain size, sorting / stacking and percentage of Clay, SAME
THEORY AS POROSITY.
 Absolute Permeability A measure of the ability of a single
fluid (such as water, gas, or oil) to flow through a rock
formation when the formation is totally filled (saturated)
with a single fluid only
Effective Permeability - A measure of the ability of a single
fluid to flow through a rock when another fluid is also
present in the pore spaces.
Relative Permeability - reflects the capability of a specific
formation to produce a combination of oil, water or gas.
The ratio of effective permeability to absolute permeability.

The relative permeability of rock is 1.0 when only a single

fluid is present, and 0.0 when the presence of another fluid
prevents all flow of the given fluids.
 Although a rock may be highly porous, if the
voids are not interconnected, then fluids
within the closed, isolated pores cannot move
Rocks such as pumice and shale can have high
porosity, yet can be nearly impermeable due
to the poorly interconnected voids.
well-sorted sandstone have rounded sand
grains this provide ample, unrestricted void
spaces that are free from smaller grains and
are very well linked. Consequently, sandstones
of this type have both high porosity and high
permeability.
 Viability of a reservoir depends upon three
critical parameters

Porosity- which defines the total volume available for

hydrocarbons saturation
Saturation - how much of the porosity is occupied by
hydrocarbons
Permeability - which defines how easy it is to extract any
hydrocarbons that are present
 Water Salinity
Water Salinity water in the reservoirs
vary from fresh to salty.
Deeper water tends to be saltier.
Salinity depends on
- vertical position in the earth
- age of the rocks
- physical properties of the rocks
PPM
 Formation Temperature
Temp at Surface, Temp Bottom Hole
Assumed to change Linearly (Geothermal Gradient)
The Resistivity of an aqueous solution is a function
of temperature
We need to know the Resistivity of the Formation
Water and the drilling Mud (see later)
Temp changes whilst Circulating
Assume Bottom hole and Formation Temp are equal
CHP 3
 Objective of well Logging is to Determine the properties of the
rock which are potential sources of Hydrocarbons.

The logs are used to determine

Lithology
Porosity
Saturation
Fluid Content
 Correlate and Depth Match
Logging Suites must be
correlated to the same depths
Sondes are stacked
Correlation of logs is usually
done by Gamma Ray
Think about MD / TVD
 Drilled Cuttings by
Mudlogging engineer
Geologist
Core analysis
We know Rocks are classified on the basis of the Chemistry
within the rocks.
Tools are calibrated with this in mind
E.g Density tool - Specific Minerals can be clearly identified
when encountered. If 1 mineral only, the rock can be very easily
identified, by its specific density
If a mixture of Known Minerals, then we need to use a
combination of different logs to work out the lithology
The composition of rocks, porosity and presence of gas can be
inferred by Cross plotting. Density, Neutron and Sonic. See
Chapter 6
Permeable Zones Identified on logs by GR, SP
and Resistivity Logs
GR- Generally used to distinguish between Shale and Non Shale.
Shale's have a very low Permeability, so can be used in a qualitive
way to identify non-permeable zones.

Res Logs comparing resistivity readings from flushed zones,

Shallow and deep resistivity readings, will give indication of how
far the borehole fluid has penetrated into the formation, and
therefore gives an idea of the permeability of the formation.

SP We will look at this in chapter 4

 Gamma
Practical uses
Bed changes
Correlation: both openhole and cased hole
Lithology identification
Identify formation tops
Detection of radioactive ore beds
In sandy-shale formations, helps to determine
shale content because radioactive elements tend
to concentrate in clays and shale's.
The Gamma Ray Log
0 MWD API 150

Shale

Sand

Shale

Sand

Shale
Discuss Invasion and Mud Cake (filter cake), with Regard to a
Hydrocarbon Bearing formation / Water Bearing Formation
 The extent or depth of the flushed and
transition zones depends on
many parameters such as:
Type and characteristics of the drilling mud
The formation porosity
The formation permeability
The pressure differential, and
The time since the formation was first drilled
Porosity Tool
Can differentiate between Gas and Liquid
Cannot differentiate between Water and Oil

Resistivity tool
Can Differentiate Between Hydrocarbons
and Water
Cannot Differentiate between Oil and Gas

We can use changes in Saturation

and Resistivity to create profiles to
identify water bearing and
hydrocarbon bearing formations.
See appendix for further flow charts
 Rock Porosity
Determined by one, or more measurements.
- Acoustic Log
- Density Log
- Neutron Log
Depends on Lithology, fluid in Pores and the
geometry of the pores.
These also derives the Matrix, so that Correct
Porosity Values can be derived from any one
of the logs (chp 5)
 Accurate Porosity Determination is more
difficult when -
-Matrix Lithology is unknown
- Consists of 2 or more minerals in unknown proportions
- pore fluid in the formation differs greatly from that of
water
- Neutron and Density Logs, respond to Total Porosity
(Primary and Secondary)
- Sonic Logs, tend respond to only Primary Porosity

When any of these situations above exist, the porosity can

only be determined by cross plotting the measurements from
2 different log types (chp 6)
See appendix for further flow charts
 Determination of Saturation
Electrical Resistivity of a Formation is a very good
indicator of a fluid in a pore space.
Oil and Gas do not conduct electrical Current
Water does Low Resistivity / high conductivity
Sw is the fraction of the pore volume occupied
by formation water
1-Sw Is the Fraction of the pore Volume occupied
by Hydrocarbons
 Techniques for Water Saturation
Direct Application using the Humble Formula
Resistivity Vs Porosity Cross plotting
Rwa Comparison
Flushed Zone Resistivity Ratio Method
(chp 7)
CHP 4
Borehole Environment
 The Drilling Mud
Remove Cutting
Lubricate the Bit and Drill String
Cool the Drill Bit
Create borehole pressure due to weight of
the mud column.
Higher pressure, counter balances pore
pressure in the formation to avoid Blow outs
Transmits signals for logging tools
 Drilling mud Oil, Water, Combination
Need Appropriate drilling mud, for tools
being run
Barite is an additive for mud weight
control, it will affect the density log, as it
has a high bulk density
Potassium in the Mud's, can increase GR
 The Invasion process
When Drilling the Hydrostatic pressure of the
Mud Colum is usually greater than the pore
pressure of the formation.
Resultant pressure differential, forces the mud
filtrate into the permeable formation. Mudcake
 Depth of Zones depend on
Type and characteristics of the drilling mud
The formation porosity
The formation permeability
The pressure differential, and
The time since the formation was first drilled
Discuss Invasion and Mud Cake (filter cake), with Regard to a
Hydrocarbon Bearing formation / Water Bearing Formation
 Gamma Rays and Tools
The gamma ray log measures the total natural
gamma radiation emanating from a formation
Once the gamma rays are emitted from an
isotope in the formation, they progressively
reduce in energy as the result of collisions
with other atoms in the rock (compton
scattering). Compton scattering occurs until
the gamma ray is of such a low energy that it
is completely absorbed by the formation.
Hence, the gamma ray intensity that the log
measures is a function of:
The initial intensity of gamma ray emission,
which is a property of the elemental
composition of the rock.
The amount of compton scattering that the
gamma rays encounter, which is related to the
distance between the gamma emission and
the detector and the density of the
intervening material.
 Gamma Rays and Tools
Passive Logging tool collect data without firing anything in
to the formation
U-TH-K occur in various clay minerals
not present in the pure matrix of sedimentary reservoir
rocks = Sandstone SiO2 & Limestone : CaCO3
The Natural gamma radiation level is therefore a measure of
the amount of clay minerals present, (usually low energy
levels)
Shale's give high gamma readings & have porosity but are
impermeable
Whereas clean sands & carbonates have lower gamma
readings & are generally more porous & permeable
The Gamma log is a differentiator of shale & non-shale
formations & is an indicator of potential porosity &
permeability
 150 API

100 API

50 API
Shaly sand

Silt

Very shaley sand

Sand Base Line

Clean limestone

Dolomite

Shale

Clean sand

Coal
Gamma Ray

Shaly sand
Shale Line

Anhydrite
Example Response in Different Lithologies

Salt

Volcanic ash

Gypsum
General Gamma Ray Log Responses

Lithology GR Density Neutron Acoustic Resistivity

Sandstone Low 2.65 -4 55 high

(Unless RA min)

Limestone low 2.71 0 47.5 high

Shale high 2.2-2.7 High 50-150 low

(water content) (water content) (water content) (water content)

Dolomite Low 2.85 +4 42.5 high

(higher if U)

Anhydrite V.low 2.95 -1 50 V.high

Salt Low 2.1 0 67 V.high

(Unless K salt)

Water 0 1-1.1 100 180-190 0 - infinite

(salt and Temp) (salt and Temp)

Oil 0 0.6-1.0 70-100 210-240 V.high

(api) (H2 index) (api)

Gas 0 0.2-0.5 10-50 ~1000 V.high

(pressure) (H2 index)
 Shale Volume Calculation
First step: Calculation of gamma ray shale index

Basis: correlation between shale content and

gamma activity
Assumption: only shale and clay are radioactive
components in rock, no other radioactive minerals
GR
GR log response in zone
of interest
GR GRcn log response in a
I GR GRcn
GRsh GRcn zone considered
clean (shale free)
log response in a
GRsh shale zone
Shale Volume Calculation
0 api 150 Assumes linear relationship between
GR index and shale volume

1) Pick a clean GR response

Shale
135 2) Pick a shale GR response

90 Sand
3) Scale between

Shale GRlog - GRclean

IGR =
GRshale - GRclean

35 Sand
IGR = 55%

Shale
Handout
 MWD Gamma Ray Applications
Lithology Identification (Shale vs. non-shale)
Delineate potential (porous/permeable) productive beds
Depth based Well reference
Between Well Correlation (sidetracks too)
Bed Thickness Information / delineation of stratigraphic
boundaries
Open & Cased Hole correlation
Marker Bed ID benchmark between Runs/Tools
Casing/Coring point selector
Casing Seat ( pip source) location
Allows for determination of shale content
Shale Volume
 Spectral Gamma Ray Logging
Separation of the 3
components:
Uranium/Thorium/Potassium

The Gamma Ray energies used to

measure amounts of K, U & Th in the
formation
U/TH/K Concentrations plotted against
total gamma ray counts are used for:
- Identification of clay mineral type
- Dominant clay mineral Estimation
- profile sand/shale formations
Potassium produces gamma rays of
only one energy. The spectra shown
here show the energy resolution from a
Spectralog instrument. Over the full
range of these spectra, it is not hard to
see how each of these can be
distinguished from the others.
 K40 is present in illitic shales and clays,
feldspar and micas

U238 is present in phosphates and uranium

salts

Th232 is present in phosphates and shales

 Spectral Gamma Ray Components

1.46 MeV

100
Potassium
Gamma Ray Emissions

50 0.6 MeV Uranium

1.76 MeV

50 2.62 MeV Thorium

0
0 1 2 3

Gamma Ray Energy (MeV)

Common Factors Effecting wireline and LWD GR
Statistical Variations
Borehole Fluid
Muds with high concentrations of potassium cause an artificial shift
in the log
Drilling Potash, Volcanic Ash or Uranium rich beds will increase
activity of the mud
Mud weight
High weight muds attenuate the natural GR radioactivity from the
formation
Borehole size
Greater fluid volume around the tool attenuates GR radioactivity from the
formation
Formation Thickness
Thin formations may not be resolved (vertical resolution)
Gamma QC : Known Marker Beds
Gamma QC : Shale & Non shale Interbeds
 Spontaneous Potential (SP)
Passive Logging tool
 Rmf >> Rw
For all sands

Thick clean
wet sand
Rmf = Rw

Thin Sand

Rmf > Rw
Thick Shaly
Wet Sand

Thick Clean
Rmf >> Rw Gas Sand

Thick Shaly
Rmf < Rw gas sand
 The two main types of potential associated
with the electrochemical component of the SP
are:(PLS READ ABOUT THESE IN THE MANUAL)
Membrane Potential (Es)
Liquid junction potential (El)
Assumptions:
Deals only with sodium chloride solutions
Assume salty formation water (more concentrated
NaCl), and fresh mud (more dilute NaCl). The
resistivity of the formation water is less than the
resistivity of the mud filtrate.
 GAMMA VS SP
Main difference is that SP is used for the
estimating of Formation Water (Rw)

SSP CLEAN THICK SAND GENERALLY WATER

ASP THIN SHALEY BED
Active Tools
 The compressional (P) wave generated by the transmitter in the borehole fluid will travel in
all directions until it hits the borehole wall. At the borehole wall the P-wave will continue in
the rock as a fast P-wave, but some of the P-wave energy at the wall will be converted to a
shear (S) wave in the rock

However, the velocity of the wave-front in the formation will out-run the P-waves created in
the borehole because the P-wave velocity of the formation is higher than velocity of the
borehole fluid. The P-wave that travels the shortest distance through the mud will be the first
one to arrive at the receiver (known as the first arrival).

The P-wave that travels the shortest distance through the

mud will be the first one to arrive at the receiver (known as
the first arrival).
 The shear (S) wave travels along the borehole wall, shear wave can only exist in solids and
not in fluids. This is because solids have shear strength while liquids do not.

As a result, there is a continuous conversion of S-waves back into P-waves along the borehole
wall.

The speed of P-and S-waves is controlled by rock mechanical properties, such as rock density
and elastic dynamic constants.

In fluid-saturated rock, these properties depend on the amount and type of fluid present, the
composition of rock grains, and the degree of cementation.

soft, loosely consolidated rock exhibits smaller elastic stiffness, sound waves will travel
slower in soft rock than in hard rock.

This first P-wave arrival is what triggers the sonic tool to record. The tool transmits about ten
pulses per second, and the time is measured between the transmission and the first arrival at
the receiver. The actual parameter measured is called travel time (t), expressed for
convenience in microseconds per foot.

The measured travel time is therefore a function of

the rock matrix, the fluid type and the porosity.
 Sonic Tools
BHC Borehole Compensated
Sonic Tool
LSS Long Spaced Sonic Tool
Array Sonic Tool
DSI Dipole Shear Sonic Imager
This Layout (BHC Sonic)
reduces the effects of hole size
change and errors from the tilt
of the tool - compensates

Transmitter pulses, the time

elapsed between detection of
the first arrival at the two
corresponding receivers is
measured (t values)

Speed of sound is faster in

the formation, therefore
these will be the 1st sound
travel paths to be recorded.
 CYCLE SKIPPING
1ST Arrival triggers the near receiver, but is to weak to
trigger the further receiver
The far receiver can then become affected by a
different later sonic wave
Hence the travel time will be to large on this pulse
cycle
Therefore not representative of the true
compressional wave velocity of the formation
Sonic curve will show an abrupt higher t value.
Occurs when signal is attenuated, by unconsolidated
formation, fractures, gas, enlarged boreholes etc
 LSS Long Spaced Sonic Tool
Introduced in an attempt to overcome environmental
problems such as enlarged hole and formation alteration.
When a shale formation is drilled, the shale's are
exposed to the mud
This frequently changes their properties by absorbing
water from the drilling mud.
This results in a change in travel time for the waves.
In order to read the travel time in the undisturbed
formation away from the borehole, a longer transmitter-
receiver spacing is required.
Typically, a long-spacing acoustic tool will have
transmitter-receiver spacing's of 8, 10, or 12 ft
Compares the transit time with an
LSS and a BHC in a formation
with alteration of the borehole
wall. See Diagram in the manual.

Lengthening the spacing on an

LSS acoustic device achieves two
things:
1. Can recorded in a bigger hole
with a longer-spacing device.
2. The zone investigated by the
tool is deeper into the
formation
 The LSS make their measurements in a "depth-derived"
mode.
The borehole compensation is actually achieved by
recording travel times that are measured when the tool
is at one depth, and combining those with travel times
recorded at a shallower depth when an alternate
combination of transmitters and receivers is activated
ASSUMES NO TILT BETWEEN THE TWO POSITIONS
Increased separtaion, ensures that the first arrival is
actually from the formation and not a mud wave
This is the equivalent of the BHC SONIC Tool with
Longer Spacing.
Two transmitters spaced 2 feet apart are located 8 feet below a
pair of receivers that are also 2 feet apart (span 2 x span =4)
 Array Sonic Tool
tool provides a set of eight full acoustic
waveforms, for post processing to determine
formation slowness and rock properties.
waveforms in Short-space and Long Space to
provide real-time compressional
measurements in both open and cased hole.
This yields real-time, borehole-compensated
formation t (transit times) and or porosity
information.
Pg 24 CHAPTER 24 FOR DIAGRAM.
 DSI Dipole Shear Sonic Imager
Dipole tools measure wave components that
propagate deep into the formation, such as
large hole sizes
capable of recording shear wave velocities
measurements in soft or hard (slow or fast)
formations.
Can capture full waveforms
 Compressional waves provides porosity info
Shear & compressional waves used to
calculate the mechanical properties of rocks,
such as ratio for sand control and borehole
stability whilst drilling, 2 shear waves, one
from the damaged one from the undamaged
zone.
Stonley waves predict permeability and the
presence of open fractures
 BED TIME READING!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1) Low formation velocity. The sonic wave travels from the transmitter
to the borehole wall through the mud. Some energy is refracted vertically
and travels along the borehole wall. Energy is continually refracted back to
the borehole where eventually some is detected at the receivers. Energy
loss is therefore a function of formation velocity with slower (longer travel
time) formations causing more signal attenuation.
2) High porosity. High porosity formations have poor grain-to-grain
coupling with the result that acoustic enery is transmitted to the much
slower fluid. The energy arriving at the receiver has diminished amplitude.
This effect is most common at shallow depths.
3) Shale content. In laboratory experiments, Gardner et. al. (1968) noted
a substantial decrease in signal amplitude with the addition of small
amounts of clay to the formation. The reason for this attenuation has not
been adequately explained but may explain why very dense shales have
anomalously high transit time values.
4) Thin beds. Reflection and refraction of acoustic energy occurs at
boundaries of beds with different velocity. This results in a reduction of
signal amplitude. Attenuation is a function of both the velocity contrast
between beds and the number of beds in the travel path.
5) Alteration of formation near the borehole. Drilling fluid often causes alteration
of minerals (especially clay) near the borehole. The effect of this is to create a zone
with lower velocity than in the virgin formation. Since the diffracted sonic waves
travel close to the borehole wall, acoustic energy is attenuated by factors 1 and 2
above. Energy is also lost by refraction at the interface between the altered and
virgin formation. Mud solids (clay) may be introduced into permeable beds with
resulting signal attenuation by factor 3 above.
6) Eccentering of the sonic tool. Sonic receiver signal amplitude falls rapidly as
the sonde moves away from the borehole axis (Tittman, 1986). This results because
wave fronts travelling different paths undergo destructive interference.
7) Transmitter-receiver spacing. Sonic signal strength falls with increasing
distance between the transmitter and receiver. This is an argument for not using
long spaced sonic tools.
8) Borehole rugosity. In rugose hole it is not possible to ensure that the sonde is
always centered in the borehole. The result is severe attenuation of the acoustic
signal as in 6 above. Energy is also lost by diffraction at "angles" in the rugose hole.
The transmitter-receiver distance is effectively much longer in rugose hole than in
smooth hole. Since hole rugosity is often a result of alteration of the formation by
drilling mud, several of the above mentioned factors contribute to signal attenuation.
 9) Fractures. When an acoustic wave reaches a fluid filled fracture, part of
it reflects back into the rock and part changes to a fluid wave in the
fracture. When the fluid wave reaches the opposite fracture wall, there is
further reflection loss and conversion back into compressional, shear and
Stonely waves. (Schlumberger, 1987). Both reflection and mode
conversion contribute to signal attenuation.
10) Hydrocarbons. Gas in high porosity formations attenuates
compressional sonic waves and result in anomalously high transit times
(Gardner et.al. 1968).
 BASIC PRINCIPLE
Source emits gamma ray into the formation
(Caesium-137 gamma ray)
The gamma rays collide with electrons in the formation
Each collision causes the gamma ray to loose some of
its energy to the electron. High Energy
This interaction is called
COMPTON SCATTERING

The scattered Gamma rays which reach the detector are

counted as an indication of Formation Density. ie count
rate
 A formation with a high bulk density, has a
high number density of electrons, therefore
more compton scattering
It reduces the gamma rays significantly, and
hence a low gamma ray count rate is recorded
back at the sensors.
A formation with a low bulk density, has a low
number density of electrons.
It reduces the gamma rays less than a high
density formation, and hence a higher gamma
ray count rate is recorded at the sensors.
 The number of Compton scatterings is related
directly to the number of electrons in the
formation
The response of the tool is therefore determined
by the electron density of the Formation
Electron density is in turn related to True Bulk
Density, and this depends on:
1. Density of the rock matrix material
2. Formation porosity
3. The density of the fluid in the pore spaces
 Bulk density and density porosity
Porosity is calculated from the bulk density and is
regularly plotted on a 1-600 scale (i.e., max porosity
value plotted is 60%).
Density porosity is dependent on the matrix,
sandstone, limestone or dolomite.
Mineral grain densities used for each porosity
calculation: (CHART - por - 5 log- convert to porosity)
Ss 2.65 g/cc
LS 2.71 g/cc
Dol 2.87 g/cc
 Density Logs are primarily used to derive a total
porosity of the formation.
Detection of low density fluids - gas
Evaluation of lithology etc good to identify naturally
cemented zones = higher bulk density on the log
Compensated Formation Density tool (FDC),
The two detectors are used to correct for borehole effects like
mud cake thickness (spine and rib chp 4, pg 29. knowing the
spine and ribs plot for a given tool, the long and short
detector readings can be used to obtain the corrected value of
formation density without measurement of either the
effective mudcake density or the mudcake thickness.

The correction procedure is automated in modern tools.

 The Litho Density Tool
Improved version of the FDC, measure Bulk density
and Photoelectric absorption index of the
formation.
Photoelectric Effect photon collides with an
electron, transfers all of its energy to the electron,
electron is ejected and the photon disappears. Eg it is
absorbed through photoelectric effect. Low Energy
 LDT - litho density
Detector counts high energy gamma rays (Compton
scattering) and medium /low energy region
(photoelectric effect)
Measures both bulk density and Pe
Pe is strong function of matrix / lithology, secondary
to porosity and pore fluid

FDC compensated Density

Detects only high energy gamma rays
Measures only bulk density
Strong function of porosity, secondary to matrix, and
fluids
 Triple Detector Litho Density Tool (TLD)
Same as LDT, but gives borehole diameter also.
High Energy correspond to Density (Compton)
Low Energy Lithology (Pe)

Common Pe values:
quartz 1.81
calcite 5.08
dolomite 3.14
anhydrite 5.05
Coal less than 1.0
Neutron Tools
Neutron tool principle
 Neutrons are emitted from the source
Mass is similar to mass of a hydrogen atom
The neutrons collide with the hydrogen in the
formation
Neutron looses energy
Amount of energy lost depends on the relative mass
of the nucleus with which the neutron collides.
Greatest energy, with equal mass, such as the
hydrogen nucleus.
Thus the slowing of neutron depends largely on the
amount of Hydrogen in the formation.
More hydrogen, more neutrons slowed and become
captured by the formation = less counts back.
 After several collisions, they become captured
by the nuclei of atoms such as Hydrogen
Captured Nucleus, get excited, and emits a
high energy gamma ray of capture.

Low Counts High Counts

=> High Porosity = High hydrogen content = Low GR counts,

=> Low Porosity = Low hydrogen content = High GR counts
 GNT TOOL
Only single detector,
Cased / or open hole
Influenced by env / borehole effects, such as temp,
pressure, mudcake etc
SNP TOOL
Reduced borehole effects, as it is a sidewall device
Only detects neutrons above 0.4 Ev, (epithermal) less
errors from effects such as from chlorine, hydrogen in the
formation water, which are thermal neutron absorbers
Correction done auto in the tool
Open / empty hole
Records caliper data
 CNL TOOL
Monel string, can be combined with other sensor
monels
Counts rates from 2 detectors Reduces borehole
effects
Longer sources to detector rating deeper DOI.
Needs fluids, can not be run in an empty hole
Cased or open hole
Tool is sensitive to shale's due to certain elements,
which have high thermal neutrons, this can mask gas
in a shaley formation
Dual Porosity to improve gas
interpretation

2 porosity measurements, 1 from

each pair.
Clean formation, porosities agree
In Shale, Thermal detectors will
be high, and epithermal will read
low.
This agrees with the density
derived porosity reading.
Combination improves porosity
determination
Epithermal yields improved gas
detection in shaley reservoirs
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Tool (NMR)
The tool uses the gyromagnetic property of
protons (hydrogen nuclei)
Behave like magnets rotating around
themselves
Hydrogen nuclei is present in pore spaces in
either water of hydrocarbons
Therefore the nuclei align themselves along
the direction of the applied magnetic field by
the NMR tool.
 The two different signals are used for NMR Interpretation.
1. Without magnetic field
2. With magnetic field
Main use:

Determination of total porosity

Measure Bound and Free Water
Predict Permeability
Viscosity
But very expensive, slow logging speeds.
 Summary
Acoustic Log Source are sonic waves, formation refracts the
waves and the receiver detects transmitted acoustic waves
(compression, shear and Stonley waveforms) and identifies
travel time.

Density Log Source emits gamma rays which are

considered energy photons, interacting with electrons
(Comptons scattering) causing loss of energy. From the loss
of energy, the density of the formation can be obtained.

Neutron Log- Source emits fast neutrons, which collide with

the nuclei of other atoms, most importantly hydrogen
nuclei. Detectors count the slowed neutrons deflected back
to the tool.
 Resistivity Tools
Key Parameter in determining
Hydrocarbon Saturation

The resistivity of the Formation depends on:

1. Resistivity of the Formation Water
2. Amount of water present
3. Pore Structure Geometry
4. Mud Filtrate
- Unit is Ohm-m
- Electric current will flow through the water in
the pores, especially salt water
- The salt has +charged Cations and charged
anions.
- These ions carry an electrical current through
the solution.
- Greater the salt = the lower the Resistivity of
the formation water and the formation itself.
- The greater the Porosity, greater amount of
water = lower Resistivity
- Great DOI / RT/ RXO ETC
Resistivity tool in a sand/shale
sequence.

Lower resistivity in
shale's, due to the
presence of bound
water in clays. The
sandstones resistivity's
depends upon
1. Their porosity
2. pore geometries
3. The resistivity of
the formation
water
4. The water, oil and
gas saturations
 Electrical logs provide a method for calculating
the water saturation, upon which calculations
of STOOIP are based.
These first measurements were continuous
recordings using 2 - 4 electrodes and a direct
current.
a constant current is sent
between B and A.
Potential difference recorded
between N and M.
Bigger the spacing between
A and M the Deeper the DOI
 Only good in:
small diameter boreholes,
high mud resistivity's
shallow invasion in thick reservoirs.
Induction logs . These cope with extremely
highly resistive muds (oil-based muds or gas as
the borehole fluid)
Laterolog for measuring resistivity in high
salinity (low resistivity) muds.
This focuses its current into a thin sheet to
improve vertical resolution and penetration
depth.
 Both the Induction logs and the laterologs
come in different types, which are sensitive to
different depths of penetration into the
borehole.
Laterolog type - 3,7,8, deep, shallow, Dual etc
Induction type 6FF40, DIL, SFL ETC
Resistivity determinations for the invaded,
partly invaded and undisturbed rock zones can
be measured. (invaded to true)
 Comparing Laterologs and Induction Logs
At first sight it seems that induction logs and
laterologs are complimentary:
Induction logs provide conductivity (that can be
converted to resistivity).
Laterologs provide resistivity (that can be converted
to conductivity).
Induction logs work best in wells with low
conductivity fluids.
Laterologs work best in wells with low resistivity
fluids.
Both logs provide a range of depths of penetrations
and vertical resolutions
 Microresistivity tools range of smaller
electrical devices designed to measure the
resistivity of mudcake.
Array Logs, which are state of the art tools,
and electrical measurements are used at high
resolutions (small scale) to image the interior
of the borehole electrically.
Theory Similar to Sonic
Charts Rx0-1,2 &3, Gen 7 CHP 8
The golden rule is that the pattern in which RLLD > RLLS >
RMSFL is a good indication that hydrocarbons are present, and
conversely, the pattern in which RMSFL > RLLS > RLLD is a good
indication that the zone is wet
 Indications of permeability can be found from some of the following:
1. Relatively low shale content as seen on the gamma ray log or the
SP log, combined with some porosity on the sonic, density or neutron
logs.
2. Mud cake buildup as seen on the caliper log.
3. Separation between the deep resistivity and the shallow resistivity.
Separation is seen when two logs do not read roughly the same
resistivity value, because fluid from the mud has invaded the
formation. This causes a different resistivity to occur close to the
borehole wall compared to deeper in the formation
4. Porosity of any significant amount usually indicates permeability.
However, the amount of permeability cannot be directly related to the
porosity without some outside knowledge, such as core analysis data.
5. The length of the transition zone, if it can be identified, is an
indicator of permeability. The longer the transition, the lower the
permeability.
CHP 5
Active Tools
 Use of Porosity Logs for Lithology Identification
Logs can be used as indicators of lithology.
The most useful curves for this purpose are
density - Pb and Pe
neutron -
acoustic
gamma ray - natural gamma and gamma ray spectra
With the exception of the photoelectric factor
measurement, Pe, and the natural gamma ray-spectra
log, no single porosity tool measurement will, by itself,
give an indication of lithology.
combinations
 The most useful combinations are
cross plots
bulk density versus neutron porosity,
bulk density versus interval transit time
interval transit time versus neutron porosity
"M" and "N" plot
"MID" plot
one or more of the above with Pe
 Determination of Porosity - Acoustic Log
Depends on
Speed of sound in the rock matrix
Distributed porosity
Porosity Decreases the velocity of sound through the rock,
which increases the interval transit time

Drilling Fluids approx 5000 ft/sec

 2 equations to determine Porosity
1. Wyllie Time Average Equation
- to determine relationship between Porosity and Transit times.
- Porosity only obtained if sonic reading, Transit Time and Fluid
is know.
Pg 17 chp 4 - Tma

Transit time of fluids = 185 Salt / 189 Fresh water

 Wyllie Example

Assume Salt Water Fluid, dont forget conversion, 1/? x 106

2. Empirical Equation

C = constant, 0.625 0.7 depends on the investigator, 0.67 appropriate.

Unique Matrix Velocities

SST - 17,850 ft/sec and 56 s/ft

LST 20,500 ft/sec and 49 s/ft
Dol 22,750 ft/sec and 44 s/ft

CHART POR 3
Provides an impovement over wyllie in the case of unconsolidated sands,
the wyllie equation overestimates the porosity in this case
CHART POR 3

Compaction Correction

Red = Imperical

Higher matrix
Vs , are used to
yield a truer
poroity in the 5-
25% region
 Determination of Porosity - Density Log
Responds to the electron density of the formation.
Porosity only obtained if bulk density, density Ma
and Fluid is know. See next slide
If a single element is present, Pe is related to Bulk
density by Density by:
For Molecular Substances such as gas and liquids

Apparent
Density
 Calculate Porosity from the Density Log
Sst 2.65
Lst 2.71
Dol 2.87

DOI of a density tool is roughly 6 this is therefore

measuring the mud filtrate (liquid component of the drilling fluid)
which depends on Salinity, temp and Pressure CHART POR 5

Oil 0.9
Fresh Water 1.0
Sal Water 1.1
CHART POR 5
 Determination of Porosity - Neutron Log
Response of the tools reflects the amount of
hydrogen in the formation.
Oil and Water roughly same amount of
Hydrogen per unit volume.
We only want the liquid filled porosity
Tool responds to all hydrogen atoms even in
the matrix.
Therefore the tool is responding to the
Hydrogen index of the formation
 SNP Corrections (mw,sal,temp,hole size)
Sidewall reading device, it generally averages
what is in front of the pad, therefore reading
mudcake. Needs correction Chart por 15a
 Correction
Chart por-14c

CNL & SNP, SCALED FOR LST MATRIX, OTHER LITHOLOGIES

CAN BE CORRECTED WITH CHARTS POR 13a & 13b
 Effects of Lithology on Neutron
 Effects of Hydrocarbons on Porosity
Determination
Acoustic Log
Gas has a low Density, therefore decreases the
density of the formation.
Low Density = increase Travel time
Overestimates Porosity
Shallow DOI, but gas will still be present in a
flushed zone
 Density Log
The Effect of Gas.
porosities can be overestimated
This gas will reduce the fluid density of the invaded zone, and
will cause over estimations of the porosity if a fluid density of
1.0 or 1.1 g/cm3 is used
The density of gas is very low, will reduce apparent density

The Effect of Oil.

The presence of oil rarely causes problems in porosity
calculation because both the oil and water in the invaded
zone, which the tool measures, is replaced by mud filtrate.
 Neutron Log
The Effect of Oil
The presence of oil does not effect the tool
response as it has approximately the same
hydrogen index as fresh water, (shallow DOI).
The Effect of Gas.
Gas has a much lower hydrocarbon index than
fluid, resulting from its low density.
It will give underestimations in porosity
Bound water increase porosity, as it sees all the
hydrogen in the formation, not just in the pores.
 Effects of Shale on Porosity Determination
Acoustic Log
Shale increases sonic porosity values, t readings
increase, increases porosity (YOUNG SHALES)
OPPOSITE FOR COMPACTED SHALES
Density Log
Low at shallower depth, uncompacted
Neutron Log
Shale's have a H index, increase neutron porosity.
Think bound water
 Other factors for Porosity Determination

Effect of Carbonates
Effect of Uncompacted sands
Pressure Effects
CHP 6
 Lithology and Porosity in Complex
formations
If we know the lithology & matrix = Porosity
More difficult when lithology unknown or
consists of 2 or more minerals.
Difficult when pores become filled with
anything other that Water, especially gas.
Neutron & Density respond to total porosity
Sonic only primary porosity
 Neutron, Density & Sonic all respond to
different matrix minerals
Gas or Liquids
Pore structure
Combine all these effects with Pe and Spectral
Gamma ray log, we can work out matrix
minerals and fluids, and determine accurate
porosity
 Combinations depends on several factors
Formation has 2 known minerals in unknown
proportions, then we can use a combination
of Density Neutron Logs or Density and Pe logs
to define proportions
Lithology is more complex, but if either
quartz, Lst, and Dol, we can use the Density
Neutron Combination .
Cross plots used to show the combinations of
how logs respond to Lithology and Porosity.
Charts CP-1a - 21
Neutron Density Cross plot CP -1a,1b,1c
Density p= 15
Neutron =21
Approx 18%

Assume
LST / DOL m
40% DOL
60% LST
Sonic Density Cross plot CP -7
Have poor Porosity
and Reservoir Rock
Resolution, good
for specific
Evaporite minerals
Sonic Neutron cross plots CP-2a, 2b
Density - Pe cross plots CP-16, 17
Effects of Shale On Cross plots
Produces a shift on the cross plot (shale point), need
to know Density of Shale, Porosity of Shale, Transit
time of shale.
Effects of Secondary Porosity On Cross plots
Neutron & density responds to total porosity
Sonic secondary, ignores fractures etc
So for a sonic log, the secondary porosity will
displace the point for the correct lithology, and give
a value less than the corrected porosity.
 Gas Causes apparent porosities from the density log
to increase (bulk density decreases)
Causes porosity from the neutron log to decrease.
Shifts the point up and to the left
If not corrected porosity from cross plot of neutron
density will be lower.
Gas will shift points on a sonic neutron due to
decrease in neutron porosity
Gas will shift points on a sonic density plot, due to
increase in Density porosity / Lower Bulk Density
Sonic reading (t )will also be increased by effects of
gas.
 The M/N lithology plot
Used to identify a complex mixture of sandstone, dolomite
and limestone using all three porosity logs.
This gives Lithology Dependant quantities for M & N

M and N are the slopes of

the individual lithology
lines on the sonic-density
and density-neutron x-plots
 Points for a mixture with 3 minerals will plot
within a triangle. N=0.59 M=0.81

See M & N
PLOT
TUTORIAL
 The MID Plot
Lithology, Gas and Secondary Porosity also from MID plot.
To use need 3 data
1. Apparent Total Porosity Neutron Density plot (CP 1a or 1b)
and empirical (red curves) neutron sonic plots (CP 2a or 2b)
2. Apparent Matrix Transit Time tmaa
3. Apparent grain density matrix Pmaa
 Note the apparent Porosity may not be the
same in each

tmaa (equations 9 &10) - neutron sonic plots (CP 2a or 2b)

Pmaa (equations 8) neutron density plots CP 1a or 1b

Chart Cp-14 can be used to graphically solve

Pmaa (equation 8) and tmaa (from empirical
equation 10)
Chart Cp-14 Apparent Crossplot
porosity from
Density Neutron=
20%, Pb = 2.4 g/cm
Apparent
Crossplot porosity
from Neutron
Sonic= 30%, t = 82
us/ft

Pmaa = 2.75 g/cm

Tmaa = 46 us/ft

Identifies the rock mineralogy by its proximity to the

labeled point on the plot
Chart Cp-15

Dolomitic
Limestone
 Pmaa Vs Umaa Mid Plot
Identify lithology from Matrix Density log Vs Matrix
Volumetric Cross Section.
The Umaa is done through the Pe cross section
index and the density measurements

Uf Fluid Volumetric x-section

Find Umaa
Fresh Water
Pe = 4.0
Pb=2.5 g/cm
Porosity ta = 25%

Umaa =13 barns /cm

Find Matrix Composition
of the Formation

Pmaa = 2.75 g/cm3 (from

CP 14.
Umaa = 13 ( from CP 20)
80% Calcite
20% Dolomite

Pmaa = 2.70 g/cm3

Umaa = 7.5
What is the composition?
40% Calcite, 20%
Dolomite, 40% Quartz
Summary - Common Types of Logs
Resistivity/Conductivity: Fluid saturations.
Sonic: Porosity, seismic correlation, mechanical properties.
Spontaneous Potential (SP): Lithology indicator (high vs. low permeability formations).
Gamma-ray: Lithology indicator (high GR for clays).
Photoelectric Factor (PE): Lithology indicator.
Bulk Density: Density, Porosity, gas detection.
Neutron Porosity: Porosity, gas detection.
Caliper Logs: hole quality indicator.

Schlumberger (1989)
CHP 7
 Saturation Determination
Determining Saturation in Clean Formation
with Archies equation,Formation Factor and
Humble
Invasion Corrected Methods
Porosity Vs Resistivity Crossplots
Shaley Formations and Laminated Sand
Shale - vshale
 Water Saturation
Water saturation is the % of the pore volume of the reservoir
that is filled with water.
Water saturation is determined from Archie's equation, with
measurement from resistivity logs in a clean homogenous
intergranular formation. (Intergranular porosity refers to
porosity between grains)

There are three main assumptions that must be made:

1. Only the formation water will conduct, matrix and
hydrocarbons are perfect insulators
2. The formation is homogeneous
3. All pore spaces are filled with either water and / or
hydrocarbons, i.e./ Sw + Shc = 1
 Resistivity of Water
Given a cube 1m by 1m by 1m
This will be Rw
 Resistivity of Water and Rock
Adding sand to the tank, we are now measuring formation
containing water of Rw, this is termed Ro.
The rock grains have a higher resistance and are replacing water
of a much lower resistance the value of Ro is greater than the
value of Rw
Fundamental Interpretation Relation I
Since we assume only the water will conduct, Rw and Ro can
be related by a Formation Factor, F (chart por 1)
F = Ro/Rw Rw=Ro/F
From experimenting, this was refined to
F = a/Fm
Soft formations a = 0.62 m = 2.15 F = 0.62/F2.15
a = 0.81 m = 2.00 F = 0.81/F2.0 (eqiv Humble)
Hard Formation a = 1.00 m = 2.00 F = 1.00/F2.0(Humble)

Saturation exponent n
Cementation or Tortuosity factor a
m=2 n=2 Cementation or Tortuosity exponent m
 Porosity vs Formation Resistivity Factor
chart por 1
Soft Formation
F = 0.81/F2.0
Porosity = 25 pu
Find Fr
Fr from chart=13
Calculated = 12.96

Hard Formation
F = 1.00/F2.0
Porosity = 8 pu
Find Fr
Fr from chart=?
Calculated = ?
 Simplefied Form
If n = 2, m = 2, and a=1
RE-WRITE ARCHIES EQUATION IN SIMPLIFIED
FORM.
Substituting for F one gets
(Sw)n = a Rw / m Rt
If n = 2, m = 2, and a=1 then
Sw = (Rw / Rt)
Resistivity of Water, Rock and
Hydrocarbons
By adding hydrocarbons to the tank, we are now
measuring formation containing water of Rw plus
hydrocarbons, Rt
 Formation Resistivity
Water Water + Matrix Water + Matrix + HC

I1 I2 I3
V V V

Rw < Ro < Rt
Resistivity is a salt water finder it determines whether the formation
contains salt water or not. i.e. no salt water means gas/oil or no pore
space
 What affects Rt
INVASION

RESOLUTION, ESP THIN BEDS

CLAYS, bound water acts as a conductor and will decrease the

Rt

Overburden pressure, can increase Rt

Measured by deep laterlog or deep induction tools

 Fundamental Interpretation II
If more hydrocarbons present, there is less
water to conduct
Therefore Rt will increase as hydrocarbons
increase
Therefore Rt is inversely proportional to Sw
 General Form of Archie

Rmf Mud Filtrate

Rxo Flushed Zone
Resistivity

The restriction on the use of this equation is that the formation that we measure Ro
in must be the same as the formation we measure Rt in.
 Example 1
Calculate water saturation in the zones A and B.
Things you may need to know:
The geologist says that the water interval C has the
same formation water as the pay intervals. The
porosity in the pay intervals is 32%. The geologist says
the water interval has a porosity of only 25%.
Equations you may need.
Ro = F Rw
Rw = Ro / F
Sw = ( Ro/Rt )
F = .81/ F2
 Zone A Rt at 11627 = approx. 33 ohm-meters
Zone B Rt at 11641 = appx. 50 ohm meters
Zone C Ro at lowest = 0.3 ohm meters

Calculation or Rw (Rw = Ro / F) (F = .81/ Fm)

F = .81/0.252 = 12.96 always use porosity from water zone!
Rw = Ro / F = 0.3/12.96 = 0.02

Chart Sw -1

RW= 0.03
Por = 30%
Rt = 6%
Ro=0.31

Calc SW

SW= 22 %
approx
 Resistivity-Porosity Cross Plots
X-Y plot to determine Water Saturation Sw
Graphical Solution to Archies equation
Plots Sonic, Density, Neutron Vs Deep Resistivity Reading
Assume formation water resistivity is constant.
Lithology is constant
Invasion is not Deep
Assumes the measured log parameters tlog, b, or N, can be
linearly related to porosity
Assume some points from the 100% water bearing formation
The line for SW=1 is drawn from the pivot point, porosity = 0,
resistivity = infinite
This slope of this line defines Rw at 100%

Chp 7 pg 7-9 HINGLE PLOTS / PICKETT PLOTS

 Porosity Res
1 4 40
50% SW 2 12 100
100% SW 3 12 20
4 20 8
5 16 40
6 20 50
7 24 3.5
0.065 ohm-m 8 28 6
9 24 14
10 28 16
11 12 4.5
30% SW 12 8 10

Readings from log above

Rw= Ro / F
50% = Ro/SW 10% , Ro = 6.5
F=1/F carbonate
F=1/10 = 100
(10% = 0.1)
RW = 6.5/100
0% 20% 40% 0.065 ohm-m
 HINGLE PLOTS

Extrapolation defines the Matrix travel time or matrix density values eg.
Limestone Matrix 47.5 us/ft
 For other Sw values 50%, 25%, 10%
Rt & Ro related by Rt = Ro/Sw

SW = 50%
Ro = 6.5 (previous example)
6.5/0.5 = 26
Find 26 ohm/m on the 10% porosity line
Sw = 30%
72 ohms defines line for 30%
Note other pivot points Sonic tma (matrix travel
time) = 47.5, Density Pma (matrix density value)
 Invasion Corrected Methods
Using Chart Rint 2b / 9b
Needs at least 3 resistivity measurements from
different depth of Investigation. Deep, Medium,
shallow, x-shallow.
Different charts for different tools, DIL DUAL
INDUCTION SFL SPHERICALLY FOCUSED.

ALWAYS USE TORNADO CHARTS, TO GET TRUE RT TO

CALCULATE RW, SUCH AS THE Rwa METHOD
9324ft
DUAL LATERLOG WITH MICROSPHERICAL FOCUSED LOG CHART

Red Lines
=1.32
Dashed
= 43inch
Blue Solid
= 4.8
 Correct Values for Rt and Rxo using the ratios

Ratio (Rt / RLLD) X RLLD = True Resistivity

1.32 x 16.0 = 21.1 = True Resistivity

Now True Resistivity of the Flushed Zone Rxo

Rt Corrected / Ratio (Rt / Rxo)
21.1 / 4.8 = 4.4 ohm/m = Resistivity of the
Flushed Zone
Diameter of Invasion Di = 43 inches
DUAL INDUCTION SPHERICAL FOCUSED LOG CHART
 Appendix 1
Determination of RW
Rw and Rmf are needed for the water saturation calculation
Mud Resistivity (Rm), Mud Cake Res (Rmc) and Mud Filtrate
(Rmf), from mud engineer, or sample from mud flow line
If not available the values must be corrected for
temperature (Resistivity of a material is a function of
temperature) Chart Gen 9
Rw can be determined in a number of ways
From the SP Log
 If we know the formation temperature, the
static SP (SSP) value can
Be recorded opposite a porous, permeable
Non Shaley Formation
Then transformed into the resistivity ratio
Rmfe/Rwe

Chart SP-1 & 2 perform this graphically

 Determine the appropriate RW at
5000m using the Rwa method and
the humble equation. Determine a
neutron-density porosity assuming it
is a quartz sandstone region.
CH7 PG 12 Rwa to Rw comparison
 Procedure

SEE CHAPTER 7!!!

Chart Gen 6
Given
SSP = -100mV @ 250 F, Rmf= 0.33
Find Rweq
Rweq = 0.025
 All in one place
SONIC
Shale on the Sonic Derived Porosity
The effect of shales is very variable. This is because is depends upon the density of the shales,
which varies a lot. Young shales are generally under-compacted and low density, tending to
increase the transit times and hence give slightly higher sonic derived porosities. Exactly the
opposite is the case for ancient compact shales with high densities, which give lower transit
times and smaller porosities.
The effect of shales on the porosity from the sonic log is not as great as the effect of gas.

Gas on the Sonic Derived Porosity

Gas has a low density, and hence decreases the apparent density of a formation if present.
This causes an increase in the sonic transit time, and hence a porosity that is overestimated.
However, the sonic tool penetrates to shallow levels, and senses the flushed zone. Most gas,
even in high porosity gas-bearing formations will be replaced by mud filtrate. The remaining
15% or so will still have an effect upon the measure sonic transit time and the sonic porosity
because of the very low density of the gas.

Oil on the Sonic Derived Porosity

Porosity will read slightly lower, due to lower hydrogen index than water
 Density
The Effect of Gas. If gas is present in the formation, porosities can be overestimated. The
density of gasses is very low (approximately 0.0001 g/cm3) compared to aqueous fluids. If
the formation is gasbearing a significant amount of gas is always left in the invaded zone. This
gas will reduce the mean fluid density of the invaded zone, and will cause overestimations of
the porosity if a fluid density of 1.0 or 1.1 g/cm3 is used.

The Effect of Oil.

The density of oil (approximately 0.7 g/cm3) is less than that of aqueous fluids. However the
presence of oil-bearing formations rarely causes problems in porosity calculation because
both the oil and water in the invaded zone, which the tool measures, is replaced by mud
filtrate.

The Effect of Shale. The density of shales varies greatly, and if present as a proportion of a
lithology (such as a shaly sandstone of shaly limestone) can make the derivation of a reliable
porosity inaccurate. If we have zones of clean lithology and zones of shale with a shaly
sandstone in between (or a full fining-up or coarsening-up sequence), we can use the bulk
densities in the shale and clean sandstone together with Vsh to obtain a corrected density for
the shaly sandstone at any given depth.
 NEUTRON
The Hydrocarbon Effect. The presence of hydrocarbon liquid (oil) does not
effect the tool response as it has approximately the same hydrogen index
as fresh water. Hydrocarbon gas, however, has a much lower hydrocarbon
index resulting from its low density, and its presence will give rise to
underestimations in porosity

The Shale Effect. Shale contain clays that have a significant amount of
bound water molecules on their surfaces. This increases the hydrogen
index of the formation. Even very low porosity shales can give erroneously
high porosity readings due to the presence of these bound waters.

The Chloride Effect. Chlorine is a good absorber of neutrons, and can lead
to overestimations of porosity if present either as formation fluid or mud
filtrate.