Vol 10 No 4 - March 2015

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Vol.10 No.4
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VOLUME 10 NUMBER 4 March 2015
Table of Contents
A Study of Consonant Clusters in an EFL Context ............................................................................................................ 1
Ruhollah Khanbeiki and Seyed Jalal Abdolmanafi-Rokni
Do Emotional-Social Intelligence, Caring, Moral Judgment and Leadership of Physical Therapy Students Predict
their Clinical Performance? ................................................................................................................................................ 15
Hlne Larin and Jean Wessel
Integrating Teaching Resources and Assessment Tasks to Enhance Student Experience........................................... 28

Dr Sujana Adapa
Clustering Analysis of Attitudes of Prospective Computer Programmers towards Programming .......................... 40

zcan ZYURT and Hacer ZYURT
Does Inquiry-Learning Support Long-Term Retention of Knowledge? ....................................................................... 51

Sarah Schmid and Franz X. Bogner
Enhancing Agricultural Education Lecturers Teaching Effectiveness in Nigeria Colleges of Education: The
Human Resource Supervision Perspective ........................................................................................................................ 71
Camilus Bassey Ben and Ajigo Ikutal
Middle School Students Academic Motivation: A Missing Element in a General Education Quality Improvement
Program in Ethiopia ............................................................................................................................................................ 84
Abebe Kinde Getachew
Evaluating Asynchronous Discussion as Social Constructivist Pedagogy in an Online Undergraduate

Gerontological Social Work Course ................................................................................................................................... 94
Cari L. Gulbrandsen, Christine A. Walsh, Amy E. Fulton, Anna Azulai and Hongmei Tong
The Amalgamation of Conventional Universities and Open/ Distance Learning and their Effects on Students
Performances ...................................................................................................................................................................... 112
Saher H. EL-Annan Ph.D
1
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 1-14, March 2015
A Study of Consonant Clusters in an EFL Context
Ruhollah Khanbeiki
English Department, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University,
Gorgan, Iran
Seyed Jalal Abdolmanafi-Rokni

English Department, Golestan University, Gorgan, Iran
Abstract
The objective of the present study was to provide answers to the questions
whether Persian learners of English would have the same number of vowel
insertions in the initial and final consonant clusters and also to see if the
phonological system of the Persian students' mother tongue would have any
effect on their learning of the pronunciation of the initial and final consonant
clusters. To this end, sixty female intermediate EFL learners were administered a
pronunciation test. The analysis of the participants' performances in the test
showed that the number of vowel insertions they had in the initial consonant
clusters was not the same as that of final consonant clusters, and using a chi
square displayed that the problem of vowel insertion was found to be much
more severe with initial consonant clusters as the participants highly added
vowels to such clusters. Furthermore, it was found that Persian language's
syllable structure does really affect the learning of consonant clusters (i.e.
transfer from mother tongue).
Keywords: pronunciation, consonant clusters, transfer, EFL learners
Introduction
Pronunciation is one aspect of the language teaching process that is tackled by
every L2 learner in his journey to acquire native-like proficiency in the target
language. For any learner to become proficient in an L2, he has to improve all
aspects of language, one of which is pronunciation. Mastering the pronunciation
of a language is highly important in terms of communication since in many cases
the replacement of one sound for another will result in changes in meaning,
hence affecting the flow of communication. Therefore, one of the aims of the
teachers must be training the students to pronounce sounds as native speakers
of the target language. Accordingly, analyzing the problems learners may face in
learning the accurate or at least an acceptable pronunciation of the target
language deserves to be thoroughly and intensively inspected.
2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2
Playing the central role in face to face communication, pronunciation should also
be highly taken into account by English teachers. In fact, teachers should adopt
the approach that best helps students acquire native-like or intelligible
pronunciation so that they can become efficient members of the English-
speaking community in which they communicate and also so that they are not
known to have non-native pronunciation errors as such errors may place the
speaker at a professional or social disadvantage (Morley, 1991).
Although there has been little research on the teaching and learning of
pronunciation, "there is theoretical and technical work to help us understand the
processes involved in developing phonology in a second language and the
factors that contribute to it" (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p. 104). The thing that
has helped a lot to explain some aspects of first language influence on second
language learners' phonological development has been contrastive analysis. One
example of L1 influence on L2 phonological development is Persian learners'
inability to correctly pronounce English consonant clusters. Actually, Persian
learners of English usually tend to insert vowels into English consonant clusters,
especially those that occur in the initial position. To Cook (1991), L2 learners do
this to make English conform to the syllable structures of their first languages.
According to Keshavarz (2008a), such a tendency on the part of Persian learners

of English is because Persian syllable structure does not allow initial consonant
clusters. To him, Persian learners of English say I e-speak e-Spanish instead of
I speak Spanish because they are unaware of the ways English consonants can
be combined to form the so-called consonant clusters and also because they have
got used to Persian syllable structure. Cook (1991) maintains that some of the
problems L2 learners have regarding the issue of pronunciation learning is
related to the differences between the syllable structure of the two languages, i.e.
the combinations of consonants and vowels, rather than the differences between
single phonemes. Thus, the failure of the Persian learner to correctly pronounce
the word 'speak' without the epenthetic vowel is because he/she is unaware of
the ways consonants can be combined in English- the permissible consonant
clusters.
Therefore, one way to explain the problems Persian learners have in learning the
rules of consonant cluster present in English syllable structure is through CAH
(contrastive analysis hypothesis). As the name implies, the most important aim
of CAH is to compare and contrast two specific languages to find the similarities
and differences between them. Using the findings of CAH, contrastivists try to
predict the probable errors learners will encounter during their process of
learning a second language with the aim of preventing learners from making
those errors in advance (Keshavarz, 2008b). James (1980) claims that CA is done
at different levels of language consisting of phonology, morphology and syntax.
Therefore, as related to the present study, one of the aims of CAH is to find the
similarities and differences between two specific languages in the area of
phonology.

3
According to Ziahosseiny (2006), teachers and textbook writers use CAH to find
out which aspects of language are similar to or different from the students'
mother tongue. The general belief is that the degree of the difference between
the learners' native language and the target language can bring about greater
difficulty. Lightbown and Spada (2006) point out that the evidence supporting
the CA hypothesis originates partly from the observation that it takes learners
longer to become highly fluent in a particular second or foreign language if that
language is considerably different from their first languages. Thus, the learners'
first language plays an important role in the development of second or foreign
language phonology.
As Lightbown and Spada (2006) continue, there are some other factors, such as
the amount and type of exposure to the target language and the degree of use of
the first language, that substantially contribute to the development of
pronunciation. Piske, Mackey, and Flege (2001), based on some studies, have
found that the longer the students are exposed to a language, the more their
pronunciation will improve (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). They also found that
the greater they continue to make use of their first language, the stronger their
accents in the second language will be. Therefore, CAH enables the teacher to
know how easy or difficult a particular aspect of language will be for a
particular group of students with a particular mother tongue (Ziahosseiny,
2006).
In fact, Ziahosseiny (2006) maintains that if the aspect is easy, the teacher will
devote less class time to that aspect, and if it is difficult, more time and more
exercises will be devoted to that particular aspect of the language. He also points
out that the other users of the findings of CAH are textbook writers whose
intention is to decide which aspects of the language should be presented first
and which later, based on the degree of difficulty.
Transfer from Mother Tongue and the Learning of Consonant Clusters
Hudson (2000), discussing the main reasons for the superiority of child first
language acquisition over adult second language learning, points out that the
reasons for this dominance are rooted in cognitive, affective, and biological
differences between adults and children. He explains that cognitive differences
refer to the ability on the part of adults to consciously process their knowledge
of things, including knowledge of language. To him, adults' ability to
consciously process language is due to their having analytic and meta-linguistic
knowledge about the language, i.e. their ability to talk about language and how
it works. Moreover, as he continues, adults have prior knowledge of their native
language.
Lightbown and Spada (2006) maintain that this prior knowledge can be an
advantage in the sense that learners have an idea of how languages work.
However, they continue that it can also be a drawback when it causes learners to
make interferential errors. In fact, according to Hudson (2000), adults have some
expectations, based on their native language, about the target language.
Interferential errors, to him, occur when their expectations about the target
language are incorrect because the two languages are different from each other

4
with respect to a specific rule. Thats why transfer, as contrastivists maintain,

plays an important role in learning a second language. Actually, to Lado (1957),
language transfer has always been fundamental to any theory of second
language phonological development. The terms that seem necessary to be
explained here are transfer, interference, and overgeneralization.
Followers of behavioristic psychology think that when a person learns two

specific things successively, the first learning affects the second one
(Ziahosseiny, 2006). To Carl James (1980) this influence is called transfer. In
fact, he (p. 11) defines transfer as "the effects of one learning task on a
subsequent one". According to Hudson (2000), transfer is the influence that
earlier knowledge has on the acquisition of later knowledge. Ziahosseiny (2006)
and Hudson (2000) declares that transfer can happen in two ways: positive or
negative. To them, if the first learning is similar to the second one, then positive
transfer happens. The outcome of positive transfer is that the first learning helps
the second one, i.e. makes it easier. However, if the first learning is different
from the second one, then negative transfer happens; that is, the first learning
causes difficulty for the second one.
According to Brown (2000), negative transfer can be referred to as interference.

Hudson (2000) maintains that negative transfer occurs when categories in L1 and
L2 are similar to each other in some ways but different in others. He continues
that such categories may present persistent problems of transfer referred to as
interference. To him, foreign accent, which is so common in adult language
learning, is mostly because of transfer of phonological categories. Ziahosseiny
(2006) maintains that more time and exercise is needed for the learner to be able
to overcome the difficulty made by interference.
As far as the acquisition of second language phonology is concerned, Kranke

and Christison (as cited in Richards & Renandya, 2002) declare that interference
from learners' first language affects the acquisition of the second language sound
system more than other systems (such as grammar). Thats why, as Jones and
Evans (1995) claim, a large number of teaching pronunciation materials include
sections on contrastive analysis. These sections, though helping teachers predict
where their students will make a mistake and which forms are more difficult for
them to learn, are often misleading because these predictions are usually made
for individual sounds and sound segments not for supra-segmental features that
are usually overlooked in these books. The important question which is very
much in debate is "the extent to which inter-language phonology is affected by
L1 transfer" (Richards & Renandya, 2002, p. 181).
According to contrastive analysts, the most important factor that affects

language learning in general and pronunciation learning in particular is
interference from mother tongue. Actually, as Brown (2000) maintains, the early
stages of learning an L2 are especially in danger of inter-lingual transfer from
the native language, or interference (Cook, 1991). They continue that in these
beginning stages, before getting familiar with the system of the second language,
the learner makes use of his native language as the only easily accessible

5
linguistic system. To Brown (2000), while all errors cannot be the result of
transfer from mother tongue, many such errors can be seen in learner speech. He
believes that once learners have passed the beginning stages of learning an L2,
more and more 'intra-lingual' transfer is manifested, i.e. more universal
processes of acquisition common to both L1 and L2 can be seen in the learners'
speech. Thus, his suggestion for teachers is that they should be familiar with
their learners' native language so that they can more easily detect and analyze
their errors.
While transfer from mother tongue, as explained above, has been known by
contrastive analysts as the only source of pronunciation errors made by learners,
other sources are also explained by different researchers during the past century.
Tarone's (1978) claim is that transfer forms only one of the factors affecting the
inter-language phonology while other factors such as overgeneralization,
approximation, and avoidance are much more important. Fledge (1987) points
out that learners, once facing a new sound system, compare it with their L1
sound system. He continues that if they find the two systems similar to each
other, they use their existing categories; however, when they run into unknown
features, they create new categories. Eckman (1977) uses the term markedness
to talk about the features that are naturally more difficult than others
irrespective of the learners' first language.
According to Ziahosseiny (2006), contrastivists believing in the strong version of

CAH assume that the degree of difficulty depends upon the degree of
differences. In other words, the more different the items are, the more difficult
they will be for learners to learn. Thus, based on the strong version of CAH, it is
interference due to negative transfer that is the only source of all errors. In other
words, as Brown (2000) asserts, based on the strong version of CAH, second
language learning is principally a process of acquiring whatever items are
different from the first language. However, this is not true because, as
Ziahosseiny (2006) maintains, interference forms only one third of the errors
made by second language learners and such a narrow view of interference
overlooks the intra-lingual effects of learning.
Therefore, based on the strong version of CAH, it is the syllable structure of

Persian language that causes errors on the part of Persian learners of English to
accurately pronounce English consonant clusters (Keshavarz, 2008a). According
to Keshavarz (2008b), when encountering a word that contains initial consonant
clusters, the Persian learner of English negatively transfers his knowledge of
Persian syllable structures to pronounce that specific word. He continues that
this is because of the fact that initial consonant clusters are not allowed in
Persian; therefore, Persian speakers insert a vowel before or in between the
cluster to make it easier to pronounce. Thus, they pronounce the word street as
/strit/ and tree as /tri/.
Cook (1991), explaining the reason why most L2 learners find it difficult to learn
English consonant clusters, states that part of interlanguage phonology is the
rules for forming syllables. To him, L2 learners, before leaning the rules

6
underlying English syllable structure, often try by one means or another to make
the L2 syllables fit their L1s. Simply stated, they make L2 syllables conform to
the syllable structures of their first languages by inserting extra vowels among
English consonant clusters. Examples are Koreans saying /kla:s/ for 'class' or
Arabs saying /bi lstik/ for 'plastic'.
Prator (1967), a proponent of the strong version of CAH, has made a hierarchy
that shows the degrees of difficulty of different items of language (Keshavarz,
2008b). Based on this hierarchy, initial consonant clusters can be put in level 4,
which is over differentiation. Keshavarz (2008b) and Brown (2000) define over
differentiation as: a new item which is completely different from the native
language must be learned entirely. According to Keshavarz (2008b), initial
consonant clusters must be very difficult for Persian learners of English to learn.
However, according to the weak version of CAH, as Ziahosseiny (2006) asserts,

when a phonological error (such as the Persian learner being unable to correctly
pronounce the English sounds [ and ]) occurs, it is not due to the interference
of the first learning with the second one; rather, it is owing to the fact that the
learner has not yet learned how to say the English sounds, so he draws upon the
sounds from his first learning. In other words, he gets help from Persian, not
that Persian interferes with his learning. Therefore, based on the weak version of
CAH, and as far as the learning of English consonant clusters is concerned, the
Persian learner's adding epenthetic vowels to initial consonant clusters is not
due to the interference of the first learning (Persian) with the second one
(English); rather, the learner gets help from Persian to pronounce English
consonant clusters via the use of the Persian syllable structure or as Cook (1991)
maintains he carries over a feature of his first language phonology into English.
As opposed to the strong and weak versions of CAH, which state that learners of
a foreign language learn on the basis of differences, the moderate version of
CAH assumes that errors are made on the basis of similarities, not differences
(Ziahosseiny, 2006). In other words, as Ziahosseiny (2006) claims, learners make
errors in learning a specific item because they consider that particular item to be
similar to the one they already know. To explain, the more the new item to be
learned is similar to the one the learner already has in his mind from his first
language, the more difficult it will be for him to learn that particular item. As for
initial consonant clusters, the Persian learner has not yet come across such a
structure (initial consonant clusters) in his L1. Thus, he thinks it is similar to the
one he already knows (the syllable structure of Persian language). That is why
he makes use of Persian syllable structure instead of the structure of English
syllables to pronounce initial consonant clusters.
As a result and based on the literature existing in the area of pronunciation

learning, the conclusion Keshavarz (2008b) offers is that errors made by Persian
learners of English in pronouncing consonant clusters can be classified as inter-
lingual errors (interference), rather than intra-lingual ones (overgeneralization).
In other words, the source of error is not found in the students' target language
(English), but in their mother tongue (Persian). He explains that this

7
phonological error (mispronouncing English consonant clusters by Persian

learners) is made because of the differences in the syllable structure of the two
languages (English and Persian). According to him, no initial consonant cluster
is permitted in Persian, i.e. each consonant in the initial position is either
preceded or followed by a vowel. As a matter of fact, he claims that students
usually tend to transfer the pronunciation features of their mother tongue to the
sound system of the L2. Hence, he continues that it is not surprising that
Persian-speaking learners of English pronounce words such as school and
street as /esku:l/ and /esterit/, and try and class as /terai/ and /kelas/,
respectively.
Having discussed the reasons for student errors in the area of pronunciation, the
research will now offer the methods presented by different approaches to
language teaching in the 20th century for how to remove such errors from the
students' speech. It will also review the researches done in this area. The two
common methods presented by the various approaches to language teaching
over the past century for the teaching of phonology, as mentioned earlier in this
paper, have been explicit versus implicit and there has always been a hot debate
about which one is more effective.
Objectives of the Study

To achieve the purpose of the study, the following two null hypotheses are
formulated as follows:
H1: Persian learners of English have the same number of vowel insertions
in the initial and final consonant clusters.
H2: The phonological system of the Persian students mother tongue has
no effect on their learning of the pronunciation of the initial and final consonant
clusters.
Methodology
Participants
The sample in this study included 60 female intermediate EFL learners studying
English at a language school in Gorgan. They aged between 15 and 17 and were
selected from a whole population of 152 students who were initially asked to
participate in the study from three different language schools in Gorgan, Iran.
Instrumentation
A pronunciation test was used in this study. The aim was to see whether the
selected sample had vowel insertion while pronouncing the English words with
initial or final consonant clusters and if yes, whether the amount of vowel
insertion was the same in such clusters. The statistics performed on this test
could help the researcher accept or reject the first hypothesis. Moreover,
comparing the number of times the students had vowel insertion in the initial
consonant clusters against those in the final consonant clusters and performing
statistics on these numbers could help the researcher decide whether the
students' native language (Persian) had any effect on their pronunciation of the
initial or final consonant clusters, thereby accepting or rejecting the second
hypothesis. The test included 50 words, half of which contained different initial

8
consonant clusters and the other half covered different final consonant clusters.
The words chosen for the students to pronounce were those they already were
familiar with; therefore, the researcher was sure that the words' level of
difficulty is in accordance with the participants' knowledge of the English
language. The students were asked to read the words aloud while they were
voice-recorded. The test was by no means difficult for the students to read as no
word was new and unfamiliar to them. In fact, the words in the test were chosen
from their own textbook so that the researcher could make sure that the words'
level of difficulty is appropriate to the students' level of English knowledge.
However, before each test was given to them, they were asked to carefully scan
the words to see whether or not they knew the meanings of all words. In the test
the researcher listened to how each student read the words, giving a score to
that student based on the way he pronounced initial or final consonant clusters.
For the scores to be reliable, two other English teachers analyzed the students'
pronunciations and scored them, counting their errors in pronouncing different
consonant clusters. It is worth mentioning that the three scorers had attended
teacher training periods, and thus were highly experienced and skilled in doing
so. In this study, they were asked to score the students only based on their
pronunciation of consonant clusters, and to pay no attention to other aspects of
pronunciation, such as stress. This way the scores given by the three scorers
could be reliable. The scales used for rating the results of the tests were interval.
Data Analysis
Since the two hypotheses dealt with frequencies, and also because the variables
in them were nominal (i.e. categorical) in nature, the number of times the
students inserted vowels in the initial and final consonant clusters in the test
were counted and the percentages of such vowel insertions were calculated. The
results could show whether or not Persian learners of English insert vowels in
the initial or final consonant clusters.
Using a chi square (x2), the frequencies of the vowel insertions in the initial
consonant clusters were then compared with those in the final consonant
clusters. The results would show whether or not Persian learners of English
would have the same amount of vowel insertion in the initial consonant clusters
with those in the final ones. The significance level for the chi square (x2) was set
at .01 (p < .01). Moreover, counting the number of times the participants had
vowel insertion in the initial or final consonant clusters could show whether the
syllable structure of the Persian language would have any effect on the learning
of each cluster (initial or final).
Results
First Hypothesis
H1: Persian learners of English have the same number of vowel insertions in the
initial and final consonant clusters.
Table 1 shows how many vowel insertions the samples had for the initial
consonant clusters in the test. It is worth mentioning that there were 50 words in
the test 25 of which contained initial consonant clusters and the remaining 25
contained final consonant clusters.

9
Table 1: Number and Percentage of Vowel Insertions for the Initial Consonant
Clusters
Words Number of words Number of words
containing initial pronounced with pronounced Percentage of
consonant undue vowel without vowel vowel insertion
clusters insertion insertion
25 22 3 88%
As Table 1 shows, in 88% of the cases the sample inserted vowels in the initial
consonant clusters. Thus, it can be concluded that Persian learners of English
highly add vowels in the initial consonant clusters. Table 2 shows how many
vowel insertions the sample had for the final consonant clusters in the pre-test.
Table 2: Number and Percentage of Vowel Insertions for the Final Consonant Clusters
Words Number of words Number of words
containing final pronounced with pronounced Percentage of
consonant undue vowel without vowel vowel insertion
clusters insertion insertion
25 4 21 16%
As Table 2 shows, only in 16% of the cases the sample inserted vowels in the
final consonant clusters. Thus, it can be concluded that Persian learners of
English do not have much vowel insertion in the final consonant clusters.
Since the first hypothesis deals with frequencies and because both the
independent and the dependent variables in the hypothesis were nominal (i.e.
categorical), the chi square (x2) was used to compare the frequencies and to
determine whether the number of times the samples had vowel insertion in the
initial and final consonant clusters were the same. The results of the chi square
analysis, based on Table 3, shows that there is a significant relationship between
having the same or different number of vowel insertions in the initial and final
consonant clusters at the alpha level of .01 (x2:23.12; df:1; p<.01). In other words,
Persian learners of English do not have the same number of vowel insertions for
the initial and final consonant clusters. Based on the findings illustrated in Table
3, the first hypothesis is rejected at the alpha level of .01.
Table 3: Chi Square Tests

Value Df Asymp. Sig. Exact Sig.(2- Exact Sig.(1-
(2-sided) sided) sided)
Pearson chi square 25.962b 1 .000
Continuity 23.157 1 .000
correction a 28.905 1 .000
Likelihood ratio .000 .000
Fisher's Exact test 25.442 1 .000
Linear-by-Linear 50

10
Association
N of valid cases
a. computed only for a 2x2 tables
b. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. the minimum expected count is
12.50.
Second Hypothesis
H2: The phonological system of the Persian students' mother tongue has no
effect on their learning the pronunciation of the initial or final consonant
clusters.
Like the first hypothesis, this hypothesis also dealt with frequencies. In fact, the
aim of the second hypothesis was to decide whether or not the syllable structure
of the Persian language has any effect on the pronunciation of the English words
containing the initial and final consonant clusters. Again, as the dependent
variable was nominal in nature dealing with frequencies and with respect to the
results acquired from the first hypothesis, only descriptive statistics were needed
and the only thing the researcher had to do was to compare the percentages of
the times the samples inserted vowel in each kind of consonant cluster.
As Tables 1 and 2 show, because in 88% of the times the selected sample made a
mistake in pronouncing the initial consonant clusters, the conclusion is that it is
the syllable structure of the Persian language that is causing them to add extra
vowels to the English words containing initial consonant clusters. This outcome
agrees with the findings of the recent researches saying initial consonant clusters
do cause great difficulty for Persian learners of English since such clusters are
not allowed in Persian language (Keshavarz, 2008b). However, with respect to
the words containing the final consonant clusters, it cannot be claimed that the
Persian syllable structure is deterring them from learning the rule because in
only 16% of the cases they made a mistake in pronouncing the words with the
final consonant clusters while the test showed that they were unaware of the
rule.
Thus, the second hypothesis can be rejected because Persian language does
really affect the learning of consonant clusters. Actually, with regard to initial
consonant clusters, the effect is negative (i.e. the Persian syllable structure is
preventing them from learning the rule) while regarding final consonant clusters
the effect is positive (i.e. it is not preventing them from learning the rule).
Discussion & Conclusion

The goal of the present study was to find out whether initial or final consonant
clusters are more difficult for Persian students to pronounce correctly, i.e.
without vowel insertion. The other secondary aim was to investigate whether
other factors such as the phonological system of the students' mother tongue
have any effect on the learning of the rule. The study was conducted inside an
educational environment and under real conditions pervasive in language
institutes so that the findings could be applicable in Iranian schools.

11
Moreover, the reason why some consonant clusters, such as those starting with
stops followed by approximants (as in the words 'dress', 'tree', 'green' and 'blue'),
were difficult for the participants to pronounce correctly, i.e. without vowel
insertion could be the existence of a gap between explicit knowledge and use. In
fact, as discussed by DeKeyser (2003), it takes a long time and needs much
practice for the explicit declarative knowledge to develop into fully implicit,
automatized procedural knowledge. That is why the participants' being aware of
the English consonant cluster rules did not guarantee their correct production of
such clusters. Thus, the only thing that can gradually bridge the gap between
explicit knowledge and use is practice. In other words, more time, more practice
and also more exposure are needed for the automatic processing to occur.
Regarding the objectives of the study, the participants' performances on the test
were analyzed and the finding showed that Persian learners of English do not
have the same number of vowel insertions in the two kinds of consonant
clusters. It was also found that the problem was much more severe with initial
consonant clusters as some of such clusters were too difficult for the students to
pronounce correctly. The differences between the phonological systems of the
two languages were found to be the source of a great number of participants'
mistakes in correctly pronouncing the words containing initial consonant
clusters. As Persian does not allow initial consonant clusters, Persian learners of
English would face serious problems in accurately pronouncing such clusters.
However, the problem was not found to be so serious for final consonant
clusters where the participants had nearly no vowel insertion. In fact, and based
on the results, only in 16% of the times, the sample inserted vowels in final
consonant clusters. This percentage is too low to conclude that the participants
have vowel insertion in final consonant clusters. This is because Persian syllable
structure allows two consecutive consonant clusters in the final position. Thus, it
can be said that they are familiar with such clusters in their own mother tongue,
causing them to have no problem pronouncing the words containing two final
consonant clusters (as in the words 'bend, pant, cold') and even to tolerate those
containing longer final clusters (i.e. to have no undue vowel insertion) (as in the
words 'texts, words, girls, things, crafts). Even when a word, containing long
final consonant clusters, was too difficult to articulate without vowel insertion,
they resorted more to 'elision' rather than 'vowel insertion', the act which is also
common to native English speakers themselves.
Actually, it is noticeable in English that in casual conversational speech, large

consonant clusters, especially those occurring in final position, are frequently
reduced as they are usually difficult for even native speakers to pronounce
(Keshavarz, 2008a). Thus, it is not surprising to hear them pronounce the word
'depths' as /dps/, and similarly the word 'acts' as /ks/. Sometimes, the
participants also managed to avoid elision without having undue vowel
insertion by reducing the speed of pronunciation, leading them to having
artificial articulations. In fact, reducing the speed of articulation is one of the
solutions through which foreign speakers of a language manage to keep their
accuracy. But this way they lose their fluency (i.e. the effect of accuracy on

12
fluency). Therefore, explicit knowledge about language rules can affect learners'
fluency.
The only final consonant clusters for which the participants couldn't help
inserting vowels were those containing dental fricatives such as // and //
followed by /s/ and /z/, respectively (as in the words 'strengths', 'depths',
'twelfths', 'truths', 'breathes'). The combination of affricates such as /, /
followed by /d/ was also difficult for them to pronounce at first, but again the
participants managed to solve the problem by reducing the speed of articulation
(as in the word 'changed').
Nearly all of the words containing initial consonant clusters in the test were
found to be difficult for the participants to pronounce correctly. The fact that in
88% of the words, the participants inserted vowel in initial consonant clusters is
suggestive of the depth of their difficulty regarding such clusters. However, the
problem was not the same with all such clusters. In other words, the participants
did not have the same degree of vowel insertion in all initial consonant clusters.
The problem was found to be more severe in clusters with three consonants in
the initial position beginning with /s/, such as 'spring, strong, stress'. However,
in the words containing two clusters in the initial position, the combinations of
fricatives such as /f/ or // and approximants /r/ or /l/ in the words 'fresh,
flash, throw' were the easiest for the participants to learn (i.e. although they had
vowel insertion at the beginning, they learned such clusters sooner than the
others). However, the combination of /k/ and /l/ in the word 'class' (especially
when /l/ was followed by // in the word 'clock') was a little more difficult for
the participants to learn. The most difficult combinations were those of /dr/,
/tr/, /gr/ and /bl/ (i.e. the combinations of stops and approximants) in the
words 'dress', 'tree', 'green' and 'blue'.
The findings of the research are highly consistent with the CA hypothesis, based
on which the degree of difference between learners' native language and the
target language can bring about greater difficulty. According to this hypothesis,
the more different the two languages are, the more difficult it will be for learners
to learn the target language. Therefore, initial consonant clusters must be much
more difficult for Persian learners to learn than their final counterparts as the
degree of difference between English and Persian is greater in such clusters. In
fact, based on the CA hypothesis, they will need much more practice and
exposure to such clusters to be able to learn the true articulation of English
words containing initial consonant clusters.
Furthermore, it was found that Persian language's syllable structure does really
affect the learning of consonant clusters. In fact, based on the results of the first
hypothesis, it can be concluded that it is transfer from mother tongue, rather
than over generalization, that affects the students' learning of consonant cluster
rules. To explain, because the phonological system of Persian students' mother
tongue is completely different from that of English language with respect to
initial consonant clusters, negative transfer happens in such clusters. However,
because the two systems of Persian and English are not so different in final
consonant clusters, positive transfer occurs for such clusters. In fact, due to the

13
fact that Persian language's syllable structure is not so restrictive with respect to
the final consonant clusters, its speakers, being familiar with such clusters in
their mother tongue, do not find it so difficult to pronounce the English words
containing such clusters. Therefore, the conclusion is that the pronunciation
system and patterns of the learners' mother tongue strongly influence the
learning of those of the target language, and learners probably make more
mistakes in areas in which the two systems do not match.
The study also showed that language transfer plays a highly fundamental role in
the early stages of phonological development. With respect to the teaching of
English consonant clusters to Persian learners, the study proved that Persian
learners highly use their knowledge of L1 of syllable structure to pronounce the
English words containing such clusters. It also showed that due to the rule's
being semantically redundant, the students are unable to learn the syllable
structure of English regarding consonant clusters by themselves. Thus, they
need to be explicitly instructed.
Moreover, the fact that many advanced learners of English can also be observed
inserting vowels in consonant clusters can verify the results. To explain, due to
the fact that the rules underlying English consonant clusters are not salient,
Persian learners of English continue inserting vowels unless they are instructed
by the teacher in the classroom or unless their errors are corrected by native
speakers in naturalistic settings. Thus, the authorities in charge of planning the
educational strategies in Iran should reconsider their perspectives on the issue of
pronunciation.
References
Brown, H.D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching (Fourth edition). White
Plains: Longman.
Cook, V. (1991). Second language learning and language teaching. New York: Edward
Arnold.
DeKeyser, R. (2003). Implicit and explicit learning. In Doughty & Long, The handbook of
second language acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Eckman, F. R. (1977). Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis. Language
learning, 27, 315-330.
Flege, J. (1987). A critical period for learning to pronounce second languages? Applied
linguistics, 8, 162-177.
Hudson, G. (2000). Essential introductory linguistics. Massachusetts, USA: Blackwell
Publishers Ltd.
James, C. (1980). Contrastive analysis. Bangor, Wales.
Jones, R. H., & Evans, S. (1995). Teaching pronunciation through voice quality. Retrieved
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Keshavarz, M. H. (2008a). Contrastive analysis and error analysis. Tehran: Rahnama Press.
Keshavarz, M. H. (2008b). A practical course of English phonetics and phonology. Tehran:
SAMT.
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Morley, J. (1991). The pronunciation component in teaching English to speakers of other
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Piske, T., Mackey, I. R. A. & Flege, J. E. (2001). Factors affecting degree of foreign accent
in an L2: A review. Journal of phonetics, 29, 191-215.
Prator, C. H. (1967). Hierarchy of difficulty. University of California, Los Angelos.
Richards, J.C. & Renendya, W.A. (2002). Methodology in Language Teaching. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Tarone, E. (1978). The phonology of interlanguage. In J.C. Richards (Ed.), Understanding
second and foreign language learning (pp.15-33). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Ziahosseiny, S. M. (2006). Questions and answers on contrastive analysis and error analysis.
Tehran: Rahnama Press.

15

Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 15-27, March 2015
Do Emotional-Social Intelligence, Caring, Moral

Judgment and Leadership of Physical Therapy
Students Predict their Clinical Performance?
Hlne Larin
Ithaca College
Ithaca, NY, U.S.A.
Jean Wessel
McMaster University
Hamilton, ON, Canada
Abstract. Although non-cognitive characteristics are increasingly valued

in physical therapists, their contribution to the development of physical
therapy students has not been well established. The purpose of this
study was to ascertain whether measures of emotional-social intelligence
(ESI), caring, moral judgment and leadership predict clinical
performance of physical therapy students. Sixty physical therapy
students, mean age 21.4 years, from two Masters entry-level programs,
volunteered to participate in the study. At the beginning of their
professional studies (entry), before and after 2 clinical affiliations, and at
the end of their academic programs, the students completed four self-
report questionnaires (independent variables): the Caring Ability
Inventory (CAI), the Defining Issues Test (DIT-2) for moral judgment,
the Self-Assessment Leadership Instrument (SALI), and the Bar-On
Emotional Quotient Inventory Short (EQ-i:S) for ESI. For each
instrument, higher scores represent higher levels of the construct being
measured. The students were evaluated at each clinical affiliation by
means of the Clinical Performance Instrument (CPI) (dependent
variable). Correlations and regressions were performed to determine the
relationship between the independent variables and the scores on the
CPI. Results indicated that the EQ-i:S Total at entry was the only
independent variable significantly correlated (r=0.25-0.43) with the
average CPI scores (total and selected performance criteria) from the
first two clinical affiliations. The CPI from the final affiliation could not
be used in the analyses because most scores were close to the maximum
score of 100 (mean=98.8). In conclusion, ESI was significantly correlated
to clinical competence, but the non-cognitive measures of ESI, caring,
moral judgment and leadership could not adequately predict the clinical
performance of physical therapy students.
Keywords: emotional-social intelligence; caring; moral judgment;

leadership; clinical performance

16
Introduction
Over the course of their studies, physical therapy students in North America are
expected to develop competencies in the cognitive, psychomotor and affective
domains. Professional knowledge and clinical skills are continuously measured
and graded against standards of practice. Attitudinal competencies are often
inferred although there is also a need to assess them through observations of the
students actions and interactions (Danielsen & Cawley, 2007). The attitudinal
aspects of professionalism are associated with the core values of physical
therapy (Ries, 2013). Students are expected to develop as caring and ethical
health care professionals with leadership qualities and skills (American
Physical Therapy Association, 2004a; American Physical Therapy Association,
2004b; Gersh, 2006; Schafer, Lopopolo, & Luedtke-Hoffmann, 2007). Moreover
the American Physical Therapy Association (APTA) has developed continuing
education modules in emotional intelligence and ethics, and increasingly
encourages students to participate in various leadership programs (American
Physical Therapy Association, 2013).
Not only do educators want to instill these core values in their students, but they
would like to be able to measure these attributes and determine whether they
can predict success in the profession. Academic scores such as grade point
average (GPA) and Graduate Record Examination (GRE) have been correlated
with clinical performance of occupational and physical therapy students
(Balogun, 1988; Howard & Jerosch-Herold, 2000; Tan, Meredith, & McKenna,
2004; Watson, Barnes, & Williamson, 2000). However, other investigators have
found no relationship or weak correlations between GPA and clinical
performance (Balogun, 1988; Opacic, 2003; Thieman, Weddle, & Moore, 2003).
Few non-cognitive variables have been researched. Balogun (1988) reported that
an interview accounted for a greater percentage of the variance (34.6%) in
clinical performance of physical therapy students than GPA (7.5%). More
recently, Opacic (2003) found self-efficacy of physician assistant students,
measured at the beginning of their clinical year, to be significantly correlated
(r=0.16, p0.01) with their second-year clinical performance, while GPA and
previous experience were not. Nearly all authors suggested that non-cognitive
variables might assist in predicting students clinical performance.
Review of Literature
Emotional-social intelligence (ESI), a relatively new, non-cognitive construct in
physical therapy has been investigated for its potential role in students
academic and clinical performance (Lewis, 2010; Lewis, 2011). Bar-On defined
ESI as a multi-factorial array of emotional and social competencies that
determine how effectively we relate with ourselves and others and cope with
daily demands and pressures. (Bar-On, 2002, p31). Boyce (2001) studied the ESI
of masters level physical therapy students using the Multifactor Emotional
Intelligence Scale. He reported low correlations between ESI and general
cognitive ability (on the Wonderlic Personnel Test), and between ESI and
academic success (GPA). Lewis (2010) showed no relationship between ESI
measured on the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test and success
on the Clinical Performance Instrument (CPI) of 56 students enrolled in 4
different physical therapist entry-level education programs (2 at doctoral and 2

17
at masters levels). It appears from the study description that ESI was measured
after the CPI scores were obtained, and therefore could not be evaluated as a
predictor of clinical performance. In another study, Lewis (2011) found that the
ESI of 87 physical therapy students did not change over the course of their 3-
year education programs and had a low correlation with the CPI scores at the
end of the first and third years of study. However, Lewis did not provide
correlation coefficients between ESI and CPI for the various time periods.
Therefore, the potential of ESI as a predictor of future clinical performance could
not be determined from this study.
Caring is viewed as a critical component of physical therapy and also as a
dynamic, ethical relationship (Resnik & Jensen, 2003; Romanello & Knight-
Abowitz, 2000). It includes being client-centered and manifests itself in
communication (including listening), organization of infrastructure, and
advocacy for clients (Greenfield, Anderson, Cox, & Tanner, 2008; Resnik &
Jensen, 2003; Ries, 2003). Greenfield and colleagues (2008) conducted a
qualitative study of physical therapists in their first year of clinical practice. The
therapists valued caring, but struggled in providing caring services because of
difficult clients, stress, fatigue, time constraints and interdisciplinary issues.
These investigators (Greenfield et al., 2008) recognized that the attitudes and
skills required for caring accrue over time. They recommended that these
elements be developed during the physical therapy studies through the
integration of simulated patient cases followed by reflection and targeted clinical
experiences.
Moral Judgment is the reasoning process used to determine the moral thing to
do and the ability to behave in a moral manner (Bebeau, 2002; Rest, Thoma,
Narvaez, & Bebeau, 1997; Rest & Narvaez, 1994). Moral judgment has been said
to include three levels of functioning: codes of conduct imposed on the
individual, ethical concepts serving as guides of behavior of members of a
profession, and values broadly held by society (Thoma, 2006). Mature moral
reasoning measured on the Defining Issues Test (DIT) has been labeled
principled reasoning (Rest et al., 1997) represented initially as a P index and in
the DIT-2 as the N2 index. The few studies conducted on the DIT scores of
physical therapy practitioners or students have produced inconsistent findings.
Swisher (2010) reported lower P scores in practicing therapists compared to
other health professional practitioners and students. Dieruf (2004) found no
change in the P score of physical therapy students over the course of their
educational programs while Larin, Geddes and Eva (2009) and Geddes, Salvatori
and Eva (2009) described a significant increase in the N2 scores.
Moral judgment has been found to be predictive of clinical performance in
several health care professionals including physical therapists. Sisola (2000)
studied 58 physical therapy students in three programs and reported a
significant relationship (r=0.28) between the P scores at entry to the programs
and scores on the Clinical Competence Scale at the end of their first clinical
affiliation.
Leadership has been defined as the means through which the content of practice
is professionally applied to the problems facing the physical therapist. (Schafer

18
et al., 2007, p2). Although the physical therapy literature has described
philosophies and skills of leadership, little research has been conducted on the
effect of leadership on clinical performance. Gersh proposed Greenleafs
philosophy of servant-leadership as a unifying matrix for the enhancement of
professionalism and the focus of professional behaviors in physical therapy.
(Gersh, 2006, p13). Using Delphi method and a national survey, investigators
(Lopopolo, Schafer, & Nosse, 2004; Schafer et al., 2007) have identified
leadership, administration, management and professionalism skills that
practitioners believe entry-level therapists should have. However, no studies
have examined the relationship of leadership ability and clinical performance
(Lopopolo et al., 2004; Schafer et al., 2007).
There are some associations among the variables of ESI, caring, moral judgment
and leadership. In an investigation of physical therapy and nursing students
entering their programs, ESI was correlated to two subscales of the Caring
Ability Inventory (CAI): Knowing (CAI_K) and Courage (CAI_C) (Wessel et al.,
2008). Leadership has been correlated with ESI in the field of administration
(Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2013), and in health science students (including
those in physical therapy) (Wessel et al., 2008). In the latter study, no
relationship was found between ESI and the N2 score of the DIT-2 (Wessel et al.,
2008).
The physical therapy profession views non-cognitive concepts as extremely
important, but few studies have measured these concepts and their ability to
predict the clinical competence of students. The purpose of this study was to
determine if ESI, caring, moral judgment and leadership of physical therapy
students are predictors of their clinical performance.
Participants
Physical therapy students from Ithaca College, Ithaca, New York and McMaster
University, Hamilton, Ontario were recruited to participate in the study.
Students in the Ithaca program were in the third year of an undergraduate
program but in the first year of their 3-year professional studies leading to an
entry-level masters degree in physical therapy. The McMaster students had
completed an undergraduate degree and were enrolled in the first year of a 2-
year (22 months) entry-level masters degree. The students were informed about
the study by e-mail or through an announcement in a class session. They were
offered a pizza snack or a $5.00 food voucher for their participation. The
interested students contacted the research assistant of their respective program.
Methods
Design: The data for this study was taken from a longitudinal investigation of
ESI, caring, moral judgment and leadership of physical therapy students as they
progress through their professional education program (Larin, Wessel, &
Williams, 2009; Larin, Benson, Wessel, Martin, & Ploeg, 2014). In the main
study, physical therapy students completed measures of ESI, caring, moral
judgment and leadership at entry to the program, following their first two
clinical placements (post-clinical) and at the end of their academic program. An
additional ESI measure was obtained just prior to their first clinical experience
(pre-clinical). Data were obtained from their performance in their first two and

19
their final clinical affiliations. Figure 1 illustrates the measures and time points of
interest in the present study.
Figure 1: Flow chart showing time points of data collection in the two physical
therapist education programs. T1-T4: Time 1 to T4; EQ-i:S: Emotional Quotient
Inventory Short; CAI: Caring Ability Inventory; SALI: Self-Assessment Leadership
Inventory; DIT-2: Defining Issues Test-2; CPI: Clinical Performance Inventory.
At entry, 60 students (39 from Ithaca College and 21 from McMaster University)
volunteered to participate in the study. The groups of students and their
characteristics at the beginning of the study are illustrated in Table 1. The project
received ethical approval from the ethics review boards of both institutions
involved in the study, and all subjects provided written informed consent.
Table 1: Characteristics of Subject Groups at Entry to their Programs.
Program N Class % of Male/Female Age

Size Class Subjects Mean (SD)
Ithaca Physical Therapy 39 67 58 7/32 20 (2.1)
McMaster Physical Therapy 21 59 36 1/20 24 (4.0)
Total 60 126 47.6 8/52 21

20
Educational Programs: The concepts of ESI, caring, moral judgment and

leadership are covered to some extent in both physical therapy programs.
Within the Ithaca College conventional curriculum, the subject of caring was
addressed during the discussion of the professional code of ethics and core
values in pre-clinical courses. Students delved into the topic further in a course
on psychosocial aspects of patient care, in the semester following their second
clinical affiliation. A set of professional behaviors was also outlined for the
students at the beginning of their program. Knowledge related to leadership was
found in two administration courses. At McMaster University, the subjects of
caring, moral judgment and leadership were intricate parts of the case scenarios
discussed during the problem-based tutorial sessions and were addressed in a
series of seminars on professional issues. Professional behaviors were explored
by the students in their tutorials and in the professional issues seminars. The ESI
topic, however, was not a primary focus of either program.
Instruments: The four independent variables were measured with self-report
instruments: the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory Short (EQ-i:S) (Bar-On,
2002), the Caring Ability Inventory (CAI) (Nkongho, 2003), the Self-Assessment
Leadership Instrument (SALI) (Smola, 1988), and the Defining Issues Test (DIT-
2) (Bebeau & Thoma, 2003). These instruments are described in detail in a
previous publication (Larin et al., 2014).
In summary, the EQ-i:S is a measure of emotional and social intelligent
behaviors (Bar-On, 2004; Bar-On, 2006). The instrument comprises 51 items in
the form of short sentences that the respondents rate from 1 (very seldom or not
true of me) to 5 (very often or true of me). Standard scores, based on a mean of
100 and SD of 15, are reported for a total EQ-i:S and 5 subscales: Intrapersonal,
Interpersonal, Stress Management, Adaptability, and General Mood. A higher
score indicates greater ESI. Standard scores of 85-115 are considered effective
functioning, greater than 115 enhanced skills and less than 85 area for
enrichment. The CAI is a questionnaire designed to measure the degree of a
persons ability to care for others (Nkongho, 2003). It comprises 3 sub-scales:
Knowing (understanding of self and others), Courage (ability to cope with the
unknown) and Patience (tolerance and persistence). Respondents rate, on a scale
of 1 to 7, how much they agree or disagree with 37 statements (14, 13, 10
respectively per subscale) reflecting their thoughts and feelings about other
people in general. After reverse scoring of some items, the subscale scores are
calculated by summing the items in each subscale. Higher scores indicate a
greater degree of caring. The DIT-2 is a measure of moral judgment (Bebeau,
2002). Persons are presented with moral dilemmas. They must rank, on a 5-point
Likert scale, the relative importance of a series of 12 statements in determining
the appropriate action. The N2 score was used in the present study. Lastly, the
SALI is a measure of leadership characteristics (Smola, 1988). Respondents rate,
on a 5-point scale (0 to 4), how frequently they behave in the manner described
in each of 40 statements for a possible total range of 0 to 160. A higher total score
indicates higher self-assessment of leadership characteristics.
The dependent variable was measured using the first version of the APTA CPI
(American Physical Therapy Association, 1997) which was available at the time
this study was conducted and used by most programs. This tool comprises 24

21
performance criteria; each criterion is evaluated on a 100-mm visual analog scale

representing the span from novice to entry-level to practice. A total score for
each clinical affiliation is the mean of all criteria that are scored. Inter-rater
reliability of the total score has been reported as good (intraclass correlation
coefficient=0.87), and construct validity supported by various correlations
(American Physical Therapy Association, 2002). The CPI scores show significant
change as students progress through clinical placements, but tend to plateau
(with less variance) during the senior placements (Adams, Glavin, Hutchins,
Lee, & Zimmermann, 2008; Proctor, Dal Bello-Haas, McQuarrie, Sheppard, &
Scudds, 2010).
Analysis: Previous analyses of our data indicated minimal difference between
the scores of the two groups of students (Larin et al., 2009). Therefore, analyses
were performed using the total cohort of students. Pearson or Spearmans
coefficients were used to examine the correlation of all the variables. If
correlations with the CPI were at least 0.2, the variable would be included in a
regression equation to predict clinical performance. Regression equations were
originally planned as follows:
1) independent variables: EQ-i:S, CAI, SALI, DIT-2 at entry; dependent
variable: mean of CPI 1 and 2
2) repeat with dependent variable CPI final
3) independent variable EQ-i:S pre-clinical; dependent variable: mean of
CPI 1 and 2
4) repeat with dependent variable CPI final
5) independent variables: EQ-i:S, CAI, SALI, DIT-2 after first 2 clinical
experiences; dependent variable: CPI final.
Results
A total of 59/60 students (Ithaca 38, McMaster 21) completed the study from
entry to the end of their first two clinical placements. Two additional students
dropped out of the Ithaca program before the final clinical placement. The
clinical placement of another student was delayed. The means and SD of the
variables at all time-points are listed in Table 2 and the correlations in Table 3.
Some analyses were omitted or changed due to the nature of the data and the
results of the correlations. The variance of the final CPI scores was small among
the students, and therefore, correlations and regressions involving this variable
(intended analyses #2, #4, #5) were not performed. Because predictor variables
had weak or no correlation with the total score of the CPI, individual
performance criteria of the CPI were considered for analyses. It was thought that
questions relating to the students manner of behavior in clinical interactions
(rather than technical skills or knowledge) might be better predicted from the
non-cognitive variables. The chosen performance criteria concerned professional
behavior (#3), ethical practice (#4), appropriate communication (#6), and respect
for individual differences (#8). The scores for each criterion were the average of
CPI 1 and 2. Only EQ-i:S Total was significantly correlated with these variables
(r=0.43, 0.35, 0.35 and 0.38, respectively). No regression analyses were performed
because only one independent variable, EQ:i-S Total at entry, was significantly
correlated with CPI scores.

22
Table 2: Scores of emotional social intelligence, leadership, caring, moral judgment

and clinical performance.
Entry to Before Average of Placements Final Clinical

Program Clinical 1 and 2 Placement
n=59 n=59 n=59 n=56
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
CPI 81.7 10.7 98.8 2.5
EQ-i:S
102.6 10.6 100.6 11.9 105.0 12.6
Total
SALI 102.9 16.1
CAI_K 78.6 5.4
CAI_C 67.9 8.5
CAI_P 61.9 4.7
DIT-2 N2 45.1 12.8
CPI: Clinical Performance Instrument
EQ-i:S: Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory Short
SALI: Self-Assessment Leadership Inventory
CAI_K: Caring Ability Inventory Knowledge subscale
CAI_C: Caring Ability Inventory Courage subscale
CAI_P: Caring Ability Inventory Patience subscale
DIT-2 N2: N2 score from the Defining Issues Test

23
Table 3: Correlation of scores of emotional social intelligence (ESI), caring, moral

judgment and leadership at entry to the physical therapist education program and
(ESI) immediately before first clinical placement with average of scores of first two
clinical placements (CPI 1 and 2).
Average of EQ-i:S Total SALI CAI_K CAI_C CAI_P

CPI 1 and 2 (entry)
n=59
EQ-i:S Total
.25*
(entry)
EQ-i:S Total
.14 .78
(pre-clinical)
SALI -.05 .35*
CAI_K .05 .50* .36*
CAI_C .06 .63* .36* .39*
CAI_P -.07 -.03 .07 -.02 -.16
DIT-2 N2 -.04 -.01 -.02 -.02 .21 -.03
CPI: Clinical Performance Instrument
EQ-i:S: Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory Short
SALI: Self-Assessment Leadership Inventory
CAI_K: Caring Ability Inventory Knowledge subscale
CAI_C: Caring Ability Inventory Courage subscale
CAI_P: Caring Ability Inventory Patience subscale
DIT-2 N2: N2 score from the Defining Issues Test
*correlations significant at p<0.05
Discussion
This study was the first longitudinal examination of the ability of a group of
non-cognitive variables (ESI, caring, moral judgment and leadership) to predict
the clinical performance of physical therapy students. The variables were not
found to be strong predictors. Only one independent variable, EQ:i-S Total at
entry, was significantly correlated with the CPI scores (total and selected
performance criteria) from the first two clinical affiliations. However, these
correlations were weak.
Similarly to Lewis (2010; 2011) we found little change in ESI over the course of
the physical therapist education programs and a low correlation between ESI
and the total CPI score. Although the correlation between ESI and CPI was
significant at the p<0.05 level, ESI accounted for less than 7% of the variance in
CPI. Our study included additional non-cognitive variables (caring, moral
judgment and leadership), but these variables failed to predict clinical
performance. In spite of differences in the ESI measurement tool and the timing
of the measurements, our study and Lewis study had similar results.
Some properties of the CPI contributed to the results obtained in the present
study. As indicated in the Results section, we were unable to use the final CPI
scores because of low variance. Even the average score of the first two clinical
placements was high (81.7 out of a possible 100), suggesting that the clinical
educators used only a small range of the scales. The 1997 version of the CPI
(American Physical Therapy Association, 1997) was the most recognized and

24
utilized clinical assessment tool at the time of this study. Roach et al. (2012)
summarized several problems that could account for the low variance in scores.
These include: a lower completion rate for certain performance criteria and
difficulty discriminating performance on the visual analog scale. In addition,
clinical therapists likely evaluated students against the expected performance for
the clinical level of the student rather than against expected performance at
entry to the profession.
The latest version of the CPI has attempted to address these issues (American
Physical Therapy Association, 2008). This version could not be used in the
present study because it was introduced after the completion of data collection.
Changes to the CPI included combining criteria, modifying wording, providing
additional examples of behavior for rating, and placing more anchors along the
visual analogue scale. Perhaps higher correlations will be found between
predictor variables and the revised CPI.
The outcomes of this study reinforce the point that ESI, caring, moral judgment
and leadership remain attributes that are not well understood, are difficult to
measure, and have yet to be found predictive of clinical performance. The
delivery method of the two physical therapist educational programs (problem-
based and conventional) did not differentiate students outcomes. The ideal
approach to maximize the desired non-cognitive attributes has yet to be
established. Would students in entry-level doctoral programs produce different
results from students in entry-level masters programs? Rigorous research of
non-cognitive attributes of physical therapy students remains scarce, although
educators continue to underline the value of these variables. Current measures
of these characteristics do not detect significant changes nor predict clinical
performance. Development of more sensitive tools should be considered.
Investigators also need to pursue the scholarship of teaching, and study the
impact of psychosocial courses on clinical practice.
The clinical educators role in determining the level of performance of physical
therapy students remains invaluable. While the profession has offered training
in the use of the CPI, only a small percentage of therapists have participated.
Clinical educators need training to ensure a standardized, valid and reliable
method of clinical evaluation. More low-cost training and use of media such as
webinars should be considered.
Limitations
The selection process of physical therapist education programs might contribute
to the high scores (and low variance) obtained on the CPI and the independent
variables. The programs may attract students that already have well-developed
non-cognitive and cognitive skills. Furthermore, all participants were volunteers
who may have had a special interest in the concepts evaluated in this study. One
additional factor was the self-report nature of the tools used for the independent
variables. Use of performance measures of these variables might have resulted in
different outcomes. However, Lewis (2011) had similar correlations between ESI
and CPI using an ability-based ESI measure.

25
It is possible that the measures of caring, moral judgment and leadership

changed from entry to pre-clinical as a result of the physical therapist education
programs. If so, students with low scores at entry may have improved prior to
their first two clinical affiliations, thus minimizing any potential correlation with
CPI. These constructs were not measured immediately prior to the first two
clinical affiliations. However, as reported previously (Larin et al., 2011; Larin et
al., 2014), there were no substantial changes in these variables later in the
programs.
Conclusion
The present study examined the combined effect of four non-cognitive variables
as potential predictors of clinical performance of physical therapy students. ESI
was significantly correlated to clinical competence, but the non-cognitive
measures of ESI, caring, moral judgment and leadership could not adequately
predict the clinical performance of physical therapy students. Further studies are
needed to deepen our knowledge of non-cognitive variables that forecast the
ability of the physical therapist to provide high quality patient care.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank all the students who volunteered to participate in this study.
This project was supported by two grants from Ithaca College (Seed Research
Fund, School of Health Sciences and Human Performance; Small Grant for
Faculty Research, Office of the Provost).
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28

Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 28-39, March 2015
Integrating Teaching Resources and Assessment

Tasks to Enhance Student Experience
Dr Sujana Adapa
University of New England
UNE Business School, Armidale NSW Australia
Abstract. This paper outlines the importance of integrating teaching resources

with assessment tasks and continuous feedback in creating a unique student
experience through effective student engagement and interactive learning. These
activities are undertaken in two undergraduate services marketing and strategic
marketing units offered in an off campus teaching mode in a regional Australian
university. The resultant impact upon the overall student satisfaction, academic
performance, retention rates and attrition rates has been studied. Results indicate
that student engagement increased and, also, that students focused on deeper
learning approaches because of the integration of technology-enabled teaching
resources with authentic assessment tasks. Continuous feedback provided by the
academic staff member acted as a feed forward element that gauged students
deep interest in the unit offerings.
Key words: student experience; student engagement; student learning; interactive

resources; authentic assessment; feedback
1. Introduction
Rapid changes are evident in teaching and assessment related activities in the
higher education sector throughout the world due to forces such as
globalisation, privatisation, technological evolution and migration. The higher
education sector is significantly influenced by processes of rapid globalisation,
frequent policy changes and international movement of students (Kirkwood &
Price, 2014). The changes in the higher education sector are evident in many
areas including the internationalisation of classrooms, changes in teaching and
study modes, changes in unit offerings and changes to assessment and grading
methods. Technology has an undeniable impact on these changes and so
contemporary educational institutions are embracing technology to a greater
extent in their service offerings (HEFCE, 2009).
2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

29
On the other hand, modern day students cannot be expected to access higher
education institutional offerings without any knowledge of the subject content.
Students have information at the forefront of their concerns and go to tertiary
institutions with greater knowledge than before. Students are also increasingly
looking for unique experiences from tertiary institutions rather than just aiming
for degrees or awards. These students expectations place immense pressure on
teaching staff and tertiary institutions in outlining their curriculum, courses and
unit offerings. Coupled to this, modern students attention span is less (Coates,
2007) and academic staff have to design unit content and assessment tasks
differently to maintain student engagement throughout the unit offering, to offer
an authentic learning experience and to create a unique study experience
(Coates, 2007).
This paper outlines the importance of aligning teaching resources with authentic
assessment tasks and continuous feedback to promote unique study experiences
through better engagement and learning strategies for distance education
students in two marketing units offered in a higher education institution in
Australia. These intervention strategies not only improved students academic
performance but also had an impact upon the students deep learning processes,
as well as student retention and attrition rates.
2. Literature Syntheses
2.1. Teaching Resources
Pedagogical changes in the contemporary higher education sector cannot be

ignored. Technology now plays a pervasive role in the enhancement of teaching
resources that further student engagement and the overall student experience.
Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) commonly is used in many countries to
foster student learning (Kirkwood & Price, 2014). TEL promotes efficiency of
existing processes, enhances learning outcomes and the transformation of
existing processes (HEFCE, 2009). Technology supported interventions have
been used in the higher education sector to improve teaching resources that
generate inherent interest in subject content, making the learning process
interesting, informative and useful for students (Kirkwood & Price, 2014).
TEL is often linked to learning outcomes and defined graduate attributes in

order to foster deeper learning among students. As contemporary students are
well equipped and connected to various technologies, TEL is widely used by
many higher education institutions to foster active student learning. TEL
promotes interactive student learning and facilitates student deeper engagement
with the subject content.
2.2. Assessment Tasks

30
Assessment tasks are important components of active student learning.

Assessment tasks may be divided into formative and summative tasks.
Formative assessment tasks include a set of tools to effectively monitor students
progress during learning (Dunn & Mulvenon, 2009). Such tasks are oriented
towards the provision of continuous feedback to students through various
activities while instruction is under way. They are directed towards
understanding the students viewpoint and further preparing them towards
achieving higher grades and improved learning (Heritage, 2007). Thus,
formative assessment is considered an ongoing activity to enhance students
participation and active learning (Perie et al., 2007).
Inclusion of formative assessment tasks will engage students in continuous

learning. However, summative assessment tasks remain important tools for
grading the performance of the students (Knight, 2002). Gradable summative
assessment tasks motivate students to progress further in their learning activities
and foster achievement-oriented academic learning. Students academic
performance is measured through the inclusion of summative assessment tasks
in the curriculum.
2.3. Student Engagement
Student engagement has attracted considerable attention since the 1990s. It has
been a topic of interest in North America, UK and Australasia due to
collaborative efforts between government bodies and the higher education
sector and the commissioning of large-scale national surveys on an annual basis
(Trowler, 2010) in order to gather student related data. As such, student
engagement is related to student representation, student feedback, learning
spaces and learning development. Student engagement has been linked with
sense making, belonging and feelings (Harper & Quaye, 2009a). The three most
important dimensions of student engagement relate to behavioural engagement,
emotional engagement and cognitive engagement (Fredricks, Blumenfield &
Paris, 2004). In behavioural engagement terms, students tend to comply with
acceptable positive behavioural norms and tend to score less on disruptive and
negative behaviour. Emotional engagement refers to the students affective
reactions such as enjoyment, interest in the subject matter, sense of belonging
etc. Cognitive engagement relates to students deeper involvement with the
learning activities and students interest in taking on challenging work. Student
engagement is an important concept and is attracting global attention in the
higher education sector in order to improve retention and avoid student attrition
and withdrawals (Trowler, 2010).
Coates (2007) outlined four types of student engagement styles on the basis of
academic and social patterns. These student engagement styles refer to intense,
independent, collaborative and passive forms. Students having an intense form

31
of engagement are deeply involved in their academic studies and view learning
environments as supportive, responsive and challenging. An independent style
of engagement scores high within an academic context but less in terms of social
orientation and these students generally are less interested in collaborative
forms of study. Collaborative engagement is characterised by involving students
in activities that fall beyond a formal higher education context. Passive
engagement reflects a lack of interest in productive learning and as well as
general inertia in educational terms (Coates, 2007). Student engagement is linked
to student learning and how the process of learning and learning activities are
influenced by a students active participation in educationally meaningful
activities (Coates, 2005).
2.4. Student Learning
The traditional models of student learning have undergone several changes in

order to suit current pedagogical approaches. There seems to be an upsurge in
embedding online or virtual learning environments into curricula to suit
different study modes, and also to enhance the level of student interaction and
engagement (Dale & Lane, 2007). Many higher education institutions are
focusing on creating stimulating learning environments through the
incorporation of technology in their learning and teaching strategies (Graham et
al., 2007). Debates related to online versus offline study modes, and criticisms
oriented towards low levels of student participation in these study modes,
spurred interest among higher education institutions and teachers to embrace
interactive online resources in order to foster student learning oriented towards
the development of high order critical thinking and problem solving skills
(Trowler, 2010).
Students learning differs widely. Distance students additionally have family

and work commitments meaning that they often have to pace their learning
differently to the traditional face-to-face students. Enhancing student learning
through effective engagement has been widely debated (Graham et al., 2007).
Similarly, the existing literature on student engagement is linked directly or
indirectly to improving students learning (Coates, 2005). However students are
further classified into active versus passive and/or surface versus deep learners.
In order to transfer the skills and competencies acquired through higher
educational learning to the work environment, students need to be active,
achievement-oriented and deep learners. The impact of student learning is
directly reflected in their academic achievements and performance and is
indirectly reflected through metrics such as student retention rates, student
attrition rates and their enrolment in other unit offerings. Therefore, it is normal
to expect that students learning will have an impact on the overall student
experience gained within the higher educational context.

32
2.5. Student Experience
Higher educational institutions are increasingly moving away from the

traditional model of just offering educational services to students. While
students are viewed as the most important stakeholders, the notion that they are
consumers of service offerings is losing popularity. In contrast, the
contemporary focus within educational institutions is not only to foster students
academic success, but also to embrace overall student experiences beyond the
university setting in order to create value for their service offerings. Students are
also increasingly focusing on matching their experiences with their educational
expectations in order to enhance their deeper learning capabilities.
3. Methodology
This paper is based on the interactive teaching resources developed for distance
students enrolled in Marketing units at a regional Australian university. The
information presented reports the teaching interventions undertaken by the
researcher, who is an academic staff member coordinating Marketing related
units for undergraduate students. The staff member focused on developing
interactive resources to foster student engagement and student learning in order
to create an enhanced overall student experience in two third year
undergraduate units (Strategic Marketing [MM316] and Services Marketing
[MM314]). The staff member, who is also the unit coordinator, deliberately
focused on the weekly release of interactive teaching resources as a way of
simplifying the content included within these units.
These particular units were offered only to the distance students. This specific
mode of offering made it difficult for the unit coordinator (initially, at least), to
fully understand the needs and expectations of those enrolled in the courses.
These students lacked the advantage of having physical contact with the staff
member and focused on learning the subject content on their own at their own
pace. This setting seemed to provide a passive delivery of the unit with minimal
or no interaction between some students with their peers and/or the unit
coordinator. The latter focused upon utilising available technology and
developed resources that gauged student interaction with peers and the teacher,
and motivated students to engage in online interactive discussions. A number of
formative and summative assessment strategies were linked to the interactive
resources and these were supplemented with feedback on both kinds of
assessment tasks that indicated students interest and self-regulated learning
skills.

33
4. Results and Discussion
Strategically, course development was focused upon the provision of weekly

interactive resources and aligning these resources to assessment tasks (see
Figure 1). Initially teaching resources were updated and rewritten, incorporating
real life examples, with an emphasis upon the provision of appropriate readings.
Later, module-based and topic-based interactive resources were developed for
release to learners on a weekly basis. Module-based resources consisted of
interactive case scenarios and concept maps that provided an overview of the
topics in that particular module. Topic-based resources presented related
information to learners in various interactive formats such as concept maps,
power point slides, activities, audio podcasts, summaries, and case studies on a
weekly basis. In doing so, unit supervisor focused upon simplifying subject
content and presentation within interactive formats for easy access by learners.
In unit evaluations completed by students, these were appreciated as excellent
resources, which were of great assistance; other students stated that content
guidance and resources made this subject a pleasure to study! (MM314 2012);
the material content is relevant and very applicable to marketing strategies
(MM316 2012); and the reworked course material provided great resources, in
particular the audio summaries (MM314 2013). The unit supervisor also focused
on integrating technology enabled learning through the development of the
interactive teaching resources.
Students also commented on the relevance of the resources. Their comments

included the learning material seemed very relevant and useful for a future
career in marketing, providing scenarios really like the real life case studies
(MM316 2012); others noted the excellent resources and the interesting and
diverse subject matter (MM314 2012). In the second step of the overhaul of the
courses under discussion, the focus was upon developing assignments in the
form of Marketing Plans and Strategic Marketing Plans, whereby students
needed to apply critical thinking skills to problem-solving and draw logical
conclusions. This was further supplemented with assignment tips that
provided an overview of the entire assignment. Learners appreciated that the
assignments were highly relevant (MM316 2013) allowing them to create our
own marketing plan rather than spend assessments simply reciting
definitions (MM316 2011). These revised weekly interactive resources and
assessment tasks were complemented by a feedback system in order to develop
distance learners core competencies and their ongoing development; in this
respect a student noted that the academic staff member provided thorough and
timely feedback to enquiries and assessment submissions (MM316 2011); other
comments included feedback provided areas for improvement (MM314 2013);

34
and outstanding feedback was provided (MM316 2012) in a distance education

context.
Weekly Interactive Resources Student Engagement
Module-based Resources Behavioural Engagement

Interactive Case Scenarios Emotional Engagement
Concept Maps Cognitive Engagement
Feedback
Topic-based Resources
Concept Maps
PPTs
Activity
Audio Podcast
Audio Summary
Case Study Student
Experience
+ Student Learning
Active (Deep) Learners
High Student Retention
Marketing Plans (Summative)
Low Student Attrition
Assignment Tips (Formative)
Overall Grades
Feedback (Continuous)
Enrolling into Marketing
units
+
Figure 1: Constructive alignment of weekly interactive resources with assessment
Assessment Tasks
tasks
The interactive case scenarios within the module-based resources and activities
and case studies within the topic-based resources included questions that
allowed students to provide responses on a weekly basis at their convenience
(Figure 2). The focus of the unit revision has been to introduce a combination of
learning resources. These weekly interactive case scenarios, activities and case
studies were intended to be formative, whereby feedback was provided student
learning and participation but did not form part of student assessment. As Biggs
& Tang (2007) highlight, active learning goals require the communication of
clear objectives and expectations. Students commented that I've followed
Moodle conciensciously and found all of your feedback extremely constructive
and well-explained (MM316 2012). These interactive case scenarios developed

35
largely focused on embedding the subject content with the real life experience to
motivate students to gain virtual work related learning experience, thus
enabling them to focus on the acquisition of work-ready skills. Through the
enhanced forms of engagement with the subject content in the two Marketing
units, students developed skills, capabilities and competencies that are sought
by employers.
Mr Jones also gets market research-related

information by way of identifying the critical
policies related to product, price, place and
promotion. The preliminary information obtained
by Mr Jones sends signals that assessing market
and industry attractiveness is critical and therefore
Mr Jones asks his staff to conduct macro and micro
trend analyses.
Maybe we should conduct a macro and

micro trend analysis.
Product, Price, Place,

Promotion
Click to continue
Lets go ahead with this model.
Relevant market research, conducted in the form of surveys and market

tests, also provides sufficient assurance about the younger generations
intentions of acquiring the economical model proposed. Quite happy with
the market research, and the industry reports, Mr Jones takes up the
production of small cars in Carco.
Click to exit
Figure 2: A snapshot of interactive case scenarios
Assessment is an integral part of the learning process. Assessment tasks

implemented in these units complemented the weekly interactive resources; they
also encouraged students to think beyond the unit content and the university
environment to expand their knowledge, skills and competencies to real world
situations. The aim of the unit supervisor was to enhance the quality of student
learning by aligning the assessment tasks with the weekly interactive resources
as students learn most effectively through relevant activities (Biggs, 1999).
Assessment tasks were used as learning approaches in the teaching practice
(Earl, 2003) because well informed assessment tasks aid the deep learning
process and develop goal setting and critical reflection. In authoring clear and
comprehensive assessment tasks, the aim has been to to transform students
approaches from being passive and surface learners in the online environment to
deep and active learning by way of stimulating critical thinking and
interpretation abilities.

36
For example, assessment tasks developed in the forms of a Marketing Plan and
Strategic Marketing Plan received very positive feedback from students; one
noted that the assignments are highly relevant (MM316, 2013) while another
commented that these kind of assessment tasks would be useful for a future
career in marketing (MM316 2012). Other comments included; I am planning to
use this business plan and start the AusAdrenalin business in the next month
(MM316 2012); this subject has been extremely enlightening and my managers
are extremely happy that I have been able to develop a comprehensive plan after
doing this course (MM316 2012); I have based my second assignment on a
current marketing project I am working on (my manager was rather happy that I
volunteered to write the strategy) (MM316 2012); and I will definitely take
everything this unit (and others) have taught me onboard, and look forward to
taking all the knowledge and skill set into the real world with success! (MM316
2012). These assignments were made interesting by enabling students to develop
marketing plans that aligned with the teaching material. Placing a greater
emphasis on application-based learning, students also commented that the best
aspects of this unit related to the plan itself (MM316 2011) and the opportunity
to put into practice the concepts and create our own marketing plan (MM316
2011).
The staff member also provided Assignment Tips to students in advance that
helped enhance students problem-solving and critical thinking abilities.
Assignment tips consisted of relevant information about how the assignment
question needed to be logically argued and critically evaluated. Additionally,
these assignment tips highlighted the structural and the general components of
assignments that sometimes were overlooked by unit coordinators and were
identified as much needed for fostering students engagement and learning.
Students found the assignment tips to be highly relevant, commenting that the
assignment tips were great, thanks again for doing them up for us (MM316,
Moodle Discussion Forum, 2011); Thank you for the assignment 2 tips. I feel
that I have been able to make a good start on the assignment (MM316 2011); and
I really enjoyed the article (refers to assignment tips), it was a great exercise
and I thoroughly enjoyed the critical thinking required to answer the
assignment (MM316 2012).
Crucial to the revised teaching process has been the implementation of a

thorough feedback system that enables students to acquire and develop core
competencies (Hattie & Timperley 2007). Prompt feedback was provided to
students on their assessment submissions as well as the interactive case
scenarios and activities included in the weekly interactive resources. Thus
regular support was provided to distance learners in MM314 and MM316 units.
Emphasis was placed upon the provision of constructive, respectful criticism
highlighting areas for further development. Students comments included: I

37
found that her speedy and thorough replies to questions on Moodle were really
helpful. I would definitely take another marketing unit if she were the lecturer
(MM316 2011); thorough and timely feedback to enquiries and assessment
submissions (MM316 2011); she is especially helpful and quick to reply to
questions. The unit was made more inviting by having her teach this unit
(MM316 2011); . responded quickly, with helpful responses to questions
regarding assignments (MM316 2011).
The formative assessment tasks were designed after identifying the extent of
distance students disengagement with existing online discussion forums.
Emphasis was placed upon the development of technology embedded formative
assessment tasks in the form of interactive case scenarios that encouraged
students involvement and engagement with learning activities. The formative
assessment tasks provided effective training and empowerment and their
success was evident through increased grade point averages, increased retention
rates and decreased attrition rates. Emphasis was placed upon providing
continuous critical feedback to students.
The learning progression developed through this process enabled students to

break down one large learning goal into several smaller achievable sub-goals
(Popham, 2008). For example, the larger goals of submitting assignments or
taking an examination were divided into several weekly formative assessment
tasks. Distance students provided in-depth answers to the questions asked in the
discussion forums and this activity encouraged students critical thinking and
reflective writing abilities. These short-term learning goals helped students to
develop confidence in managing their studies and promoted self-regulated
learning, an important facet of successful distance education provision. Both
formative and summative assessment tasks were planned to align with student
progression in the courses under discussion (Forster & Masters, 2004).
5. Conclusion
The overall comments obtained from students in their unit and teaching
evaluations demonstrated that the effective integration of teaching resources
with the assessment tasks positively influenced students overall study
experience. The division of students larger learning goals into simpler and more
manageable weekly learning goals through the inclusion of formative
assessment tasks enhanced student engagement and learning. Student
engagement is evident at behavioural, emotional and cognitive levels and
student learning is evident through academic performance and other measures
such as attrition rates, retention rates and enrolment in other marketing related
units.

38
As higher educational institutions are increasingly grappling with retaining the

satisfaction levels of their students and are focusing on creating experiences that
foster deeper learning skills it is important for academic staff to focus on
developing meaningful assessment tasks. Students appreciate the learning
process if the creative development of teaching resources provides authentic
assessment tasks. The focus of the higher education institutions has been on
developing interesting course content through the creation of teaching resources
that are interactive, stimulating and target maximum student interest. Students
are no longer considered passive receivers of learning material and are
increasingly looking for subject content that offers most value to them. Students
are also looking for learning experiences beyond the traditional university
context and are focusing on the development of appropriate skills, capabilities
and competencies that foster both their deeper learning capacities and
employment opportunities.
It is the responsibility of teaching staff to harness student interest in the subject

content through the creation of subject material that is current, interesting,
stimulating and informative. Teaching material should address contemporary
challenges and include real life case-based scenarios to foster students interest
and engagement. Academic staff should focus upon integrating teaching
resources with authentic assessment tasks and the provision of a worthwhile
feedback system that fosters students overall learning experience.
References
Biggs, J. (1999). What the student does: Teaching for enhanced learning? Higher Education
Research and Development, 18 (1), 57-75.
Biggs, J. B. and Tang, C. (2007). Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Open
University Press, McGraw-Hill Education.
Coates, H. (2005). The value of student engagement for higher education quality
assurance. Quality in Higher Education, 11 (1), 25-36.
Coates, H. (2007). A model of online and general campus-based student engagement.
Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 32 (2), 121-141.
Dale, C. & Lane, A. M. (2007). A wolf in sheeps clothing? An analysis of student
engagement with virtual learning environments. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure,
Sport and Tourism Education, 6 (2), 100-108.
Dunn, K. E. & Mulvenon, S. W. (2009). A critical review of research on formative
assessment: The limited scientific evidence of the impact of formative
assessment in education. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 14 (7), 1-11.
Earl, L. (2003). Assessment as Learning: Using Classroom to Maximise Student Learning.
Crowin Press, Thousand Oaks, California.
Forster, M. & Masters, G. (2004). Bridging the conceptual gap between classroom
assessment and system accountability. In M. Wilson (Ed.), Towards Coherence
between Classroom Assessment and Accountability: The 103 rd Yearbook of the National

39
Society for the Study of Education. Part II, The University of Chicago Press,
Chicago, 51-73.
Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfield, P. C. & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of
the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74 (1), 59-109.
Graham, C. R., Tripp, T. R., Seawright, L. & Joeckel, G. L. (2007). Empowering or
compelling reluctant participators using audience response systems. Active
Learning in Higher Education, 8 (3), 233-258.
Harper, S. R. & Quaye, S. J. (2009a). Beyond sameness, with engagement and outcomes
for all. In: Student Engagement in Higher Education. New York and London,
Routledge, 1-15.
Hattie, J. & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research,
77 (1), 81-112.
Heritage, M. (2007). Formative assessment: What do teachers need to know and do? Phi
Delta Kappan, 89 (2), 140-146.
Higher Education Funding Council for England (2009). Enhancing Learning and Teaching
through the Use of Technology: A revised approach to HEFCEs strategy for e-learning.
Bristol: Higher Education Funding Council for England. Retrieved from
http://www.hefce.ac.uk/pubs/hefce/2009
Kirkwood, A. & Price, L. (2014). Technology-enhanced learning and teaching in higher
education: What is enhanced and how do we know? A critical literature
review. Learning, Media and Technology, 39 (1), 6-36.
Knight, P. T. (2002). Summative assessment in higher education: Practices in disarray.
Studies in Higher Education, 27 (3), 275-286.
Perie, M., Marion, S., Gong, B. & Wurtzel, J. (2007). The Role of Interim Assessments in a
Comprehensive Assessment System. The Aspen Institute, Washington, DC.
Popham, W. J. (2008). Transformative Assessment. Alexandria, VA, ASCD.
Trowler, V. (2010). Student Engagement Literature Review. The Higher Education
Academy, Lancaster University.
Reviewed: 5 March 2015

40

Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 40-50, March 2015
Clustering Analysis of Attitudes of Prospective

Computer Programmers towards Programming
zcan ZYURT and Hacer ZYURT

Department of Software Engineering
Faculty of Technology
Karadeniz Technical University
Trabzon, Turkey
Abstract. This study aims to determine the clustering tendency of

attitude variables of the students studying at computer programming
department regarding computer programming. The study secondly
aims to inspect whether factors such as gender, grade and type of
education have an influence on the clusters obtained from the analysis.
The study is conducted in fall semester of 2013-2014 academic year. The
sample of the study consists of 947 students from 12 universities in
different regions of Turkey. Attitude Measure Regarding Computer
Programming is used as a data collecting tool. Clustering tendency of
attitude variables are determined by hierarchical clustering analysis.
Independent t-test is used to determine whether gender, grade and type
of education influence these clusters. Attitude variables of the students
are collected under six clusters. It has been seen that gender factor has
an important effect on three clusters and, grade factor has an important
effect on four clusters. Type of education factor has no statistically
important effect on these clusters.
Keywords: Computer Programming, Cluster Analysis, Attitude,

Hierarchical Clustering
Introduction
Rapid development in information technologies makes the teaching and
learning of these technologies necessary and important. In terms of computer
teaching, computer programming approach and teaching the information and
skill relating to this approach come first (Korkmaz & Altun, 2013; Tfeki &
Kse, 2013). Skill for computer programming requires to have high level
thinking skills. These skills consists of firstly problem solving, logical and
mathematical thinking (Fang, 2012; Korkmaz, 2012; Lau & Yuen, 2009).
Computer programming courses are perceived as boring and difficult than a lot
of courses by the students (Akar & Davenport, 2009; Baer, 2013a; Farkas &
Murthy, 2005). The fact that the students towards the computer programming

41
course as difficult from the beginning can be resulted in the failure of the
students in these courses (Tan, Ting, & Ling, 2009).There are lot of studies in
literature dealing with the difficulties relating to the computer programming
learning (Hawi, 2010; Gomes & Mendes, 2007; Jenkins, 2002; Katai, Juhasz, &
Adorjani, 2008; Korkmaz, 2012; Lau &Yuen, 2009; Milne & Rowe, 2002; Tan,
Ting, & Ling, 2009). Furthermore there are several studies searching for the
reasons for the difficulties encountered in learning the computer programming
and some of these studies emphasize the fact that the difficulty arises from the
perception of the students. The perception about the computer programming,
difficult and boring, causes the students developing low attitude towards the
computer programming (Baer, 2013a).
There are also other studies emphasizing the fact that physiological factors such
as negative perception, motivation and especially low attitude may affect the
computer programming learning negatively (Anastasiadou & Karakos, 2011;
Erdogan, Aydn, & Kabaca, 2008; Hawi, 2010; Hongwarittorrn & Krairit, 2010).
Furthermore researches made in educational sciences support this situation.
Accordingly there are lots of studies arguing that attitudes of students attitudes
towards the grade affect their success rate directly (Baer & Geban, 2007;
Hwang, Wu, & Chen, 2012; Singh, Granville, & Dika, 2002; Tysz, 2010; Van De
Gaer, Grisay, Schulz, & Gebhardt, 2012). Education given to the students of
computer programming departments in universities aims to provide them
knowledge and skills required by this occupation. Furthermore it is aimed to
help students to be more effective in their occupational life with these
knowledge and skills. One of the preconditions of the individuals success in
their occupational life is to develop positive attitudes towards their occupation.
It is known that attitude is one of the factors determining the behaviour
(Pehlivan, 2010). For this reason, it depends on developing positive attitude
towards occupation to display some behaviours created by the occupation
(alar, 2013). It is possible to encounter with the studies about the attitudes
towards computer science in general and computer programming in specific.
The results of these studies have not a common point. While some of these
studies argue that the attitude towards the computer programming has not a
relation with gender (Lau & Yuen, 2009; McDowell, Werner, Bullock, & Fernald,
2003), the others argue that male students have more positive attitude towards
programming (Chang, Shieh, Liu, & Yu, 2012; Korkmaz & Altun, 2013; Stoilescu
& Egodawatte, 2010).
At the end of the literature survey, it is seen that, existing studies about the
attitudes towards computer programming become dense in engineering
departments and computer education and instructional technology department.
A comprehensive study dealing with the attitudes of students studying in
computer programming department has not been encountered. This is a huge
lack for the studies made in educational sciences. The lack of these studies may
cause the insufficiency of feedback of the education given in this field. In this
regard it is very important to know the attitudes of the individuals towards
programming who choose computer programming as an occupation and will
engage in this occupation. Accordingly knowing this may contribute to the

42
improvement activities of educational institutions (Korkmaz & Altun, 2013). In

this context this study aim to determine the clustering tendencies of the attitude
variables of students towards computer programming who studying in
computer programming department. Furthermore these clusters are examined
by the factors such as gender, grade and type of education. It is thought that this
study will fill an important gap in literature and will enlighten the following
studies.
Methodology
Descriptive approach of the general scanning methods and relational scanning
model are used in this study. In relational scanning model, existence and degree
of covariance is tried to be determined. (Karasar, 2006).
Participants
This study is conducted in the fall semester of 2013-2014 academic year. 947
students studying at computer programming department in 12 universities in
different regions of Turkey have participated in the study. Universities are code
as A ... L. Numbers of the students by gender, grade and type of education are
given in Table 1.
Table 1: Distribution of students according to the university, gender, grade and type
of education
Gender Grade Type of education

Female Male 1 2 Daytime Evening Total number
Universities
educatio education of students
n
A 22 65 33 54 57 30 87
B 9 28 8 29 27 10 37
C 18 31 21 28 33 16 49
D 14 42 42 14 25 31 56
E 17 33 - 50 33 17 50
F 13 19 17 15 10 22 32
G 35 74 47 62 83 26 109
H 7 24 - 31 6 25 31
I 42 99 58 83 64 77 141
J 37 80 68 49 65 52 117
K 18 61 34 45 34 45 79
L 52 107 97 62 95 64 159
Total 284 663 425 522 532 415 947
As it is seen in Table 1, the sample group consists of 284 female and 663 male
students. 425 of these students are in first grade and 522 of them are second
grade. 532 of them are registered in daytime education, others are in evening
education.
Instrument
Attitude Scale toward Computer Programming (AStCP) developed by Baer
(2013a) is used as a data collecting tool in this study. AStCP consists of 38 items
and it is designed as 5-point Likert scale as to give answer to the choices such as
strongly disagree, disagree, undecided, agree, strongly agree.

43
Answers given to the each item by the students are listed as a numerical value as
1-5. Validity and reliability examination of the scale is conducted by the
researcher (Baer, 2013a) and Cronbach- reliability coefficient is found out as
0.953.
Data Analysis
This study has two objectives. The first one is to research the clustering
tendencies of attitude variables of students of computer programming
department towards the computer programming. The other one is to determine
whether these clusters have any difference in terms of gender, grade and type of
education. Hierarchical clustering method is used in accordance with the first
objective. Ward method is used for calculating the similarities. Squared
euclidean distance is chosen as similarity-difference measure in calculation of
distance between the variables. Similarities between the attitude variables are
presented with dendrogram. The influence of gender, grade and type of
education factors on these clusters is examined with independent t-test
accordance with the second objective. Negative items are inverted before the
data are analyzed with independent t-test and attitude points in accordance with
the clusters are calculated in that way. SPSS 16.0 statistical pocket program is
used for data analysis.
Findings
In this study clustering analysis of attitude variables of the students studying
computer programming towards the programming is conducted. Responses
given by the students to the AStCP are subjected to the hierarchical clustering
analysis. Items in the AStCP are coded as M1 M38. The dendrogram obtained
from this analysis is presented in figure 1.
Figure 1. Dendrogram for attitude variables of students towards computer programing

44
As it can be seen in Figure 1, attitude variables of students towards computer

programing are collected under four main clusters listed as A, B, C and D. And
cluster A consists of sub clusters listed as A1 and A2, accordingly cluster D
consists of sub clusters D1 and D2. Items included in A, B, C and D including
their sub clusters are listed as follows.
Custer A
A1:
(M15) Winning a prize in programming competitions is a wonderful thing for me.
(M16) It makes me happy to be the first in programming competition.
(M14) It makes me happy to get the highest point in programming course.
(M17) It is an important situation for me to be regarded as a smart student in programming
course.
(M12) It makes me happy to be perceived as a magnificent student in programming course.
(M13) It makes me proud to be a student taking the attention in programming course.
A2:
(M25) To know programming will help me find a job.
(M26) Programming is important and useful.
(M24) I make effort for programming course, because I know how much it is necessary.
(M27) I will make use of programming in my occupational life in many way.
(M23) I will need for programming in my following studies.
Cluster B
(M3) I think I can cope with more difficult programming problems.
(M5) When it comes to programming, I have self confidence in high level.
(M2) I am certain that I will learn programming.
(M4) I can take good marks in programming class.
(M1) I feel confident in solving the computer programming problems.
(M33) When I encounter with a programming problem, I struggle to solve it till the end.
(M35) In the case of an unanswered question in programming class, I carry on think about it
afterwards.
(M34) Computer programming problems that I cannot understand quickly whip me up.
(M36) When I start to work on a program, I have difficulty in stopping it.
Cluster C
(M9) I find programming highly difficult, even though I study it.
(M10) I can cope with lots of course, but I have no skill for programming problems.
(M11) The most unsuccessful class that I take is computer programming.
(M6) I am not good at programming.
(M8) I am not a person who can make computer programming well.
(M7) I do not think, I will success in computer programming course in the future.
Cluster D
D1:
(M19) If I get good marks in programming course, I ignore it.
(M20) If I get good mark in programming course once, I do not want again.
(M21) If I become a successful student in programming course, people will love me less than
before.
(M22) I do not want people think about me as a successful student in programming course.
(M18) It does not attract me to win a prize in a competition relating to the programming.
D2:
(M37) The fact that the programming problem is difficult does not take my attention.
(M38) I cannot understand that people spend long time for writing program and enjoy it.
(M28) Programming has no importance for my occupational life.
(M29) Programming will not have importance in my occupational life.
(M31) Taking programming classes is a waste of time.
(M30) I will rarely use the programming in my occupational life.
(M32) I guess there will be few place to use the programming after school.

45
Items included in the clusters and sub clusters arising from the hierarchical
clustering analysis are examined and named. The names of the clusters and sub
clusters in which there are attitude variables of the students towards the
computer programming and the items they include are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: The clusters and sub clusters in which there are attitude variables of
the students towards the computer programming
Clusters Sub clusters Variables Names of Clusters
A1 M15,M16,M14,M17,M12,M To become prominent in programming
13
A
A2 M25,M26,M24,M27,M23 Need for programming and importance of
it
M3,M5,M2,M4,M1,M33,M Interest for programming and success rate
B
35,M34,M36
C M9,M10,M11,M6,M8,M7 Failure in programming
D1 M19,M20, M21,M22,M18 Indifference in programming
D D2 M37,M38,M28,M29,M31,M Unimportance of programming
30,M32
Influence of the factors such as gender, grade and type of education on clusters
obtained from the hierarchical clustering analysis is researched. Results of
independent t-test showing the influence of gender factor on clusters can be seen
in Table 3.
Table 3: Result of independent t-test of the attitude clusters of students

towards computer programming by gender
Cluster Gender n Mean Sd t p
(A1) To become prominent in Female 284 4.2394 .84217 1.288 .198
programming Male 663 4.1528 .99010
(A2) Need for programming and Female 284 3.8887 .65993 0.743 .458
importance of it Male 663 3.8371 .84925
(B) Interest for programming and Female 284 3.2218 .65993 -2.245 .025*
success rate Male 663 3.3488 .84925
(C) Failure in programming Female 284 3.0968 .95106 -2.906 .004*
Male 663 3.3095 1.06434
(D1) Indifference in programming Female 284 4.2289 .80063 3.018 .003*
Male 663 4.0483 .86158
(D2) Unimportance of programming Female 284 3.7470 .79117 1.065 .287
Male 663 3.6783 .95546
p < .05
As it can be seen in Table 3, there is a significant difference in attitudes of

students towards computer programming in clusters Interest for programming
and success rate (p=.025), Failure in programming (p=.004), Indifference in
programming by gender (p=.003) statistically. It is seen that attitudes of male
students are more positive than that of female students in cluster Interest for
programming and success rate and Failure in programming. But it is seen
that attitudes of female student are more positive than that of male student in
cluster Indifference in programming. In other clusters, To become prominent
in programming (p=.198), Need for programming and importance of it
(p=.458) and Unimportance of programming (p=.287), there is not a significant

46
difference in attitudes in terms of gender statistically. The result of independent

t-test showing the influence of grade factor on clusters can be seen in Table 4.
Table 4. Result of independent t-test of the attitude clusters of students

towards computer programming by grade
Cluster Grade n Mean Sd t p
(A1) To become prominent in 1 425 4.2325 .93259 1.574 .116
programming 2 522 4.1351 .96002
(A2) Need for programming and 1 425 3.9181 .98031 1.860 .063
importance of it 2 522 3.7992 .97673
(B) Interest for programming and success 1 425 3.3864 .76711 2.640 .008*
rate 2 522 3.2490 .81959
(C) Failure in programming 1 425 3.3702 .97979 3.356 .001*
2 522 3.1443 1.06947
(D1) Indifference in programming 1 425 4.1642 .81103 2.029 .043*
2 522 4.0521 .87343
(D2) Unimportance of programming 1 425 3.7903 .87404 2.799 .005*
2 522 3.6245 .93151
p < .05
As it can be seen in Table 4, there is a significant difference in cluster Interest

for programming and success rate (p=.008), Failure in programming (p=.001),
Indifference in programming (p=.043) and Unimportance of programming
(p=.005) in terms of grade statistically. Attitudes of students in the first grade are
more positive that the ones in second grade in all these four clusters. Attitudes
do not display any significant difference in terms of grade in clusters To
become prominent in programming (p=.198) and Need for programming and
importance of it (p=.458) statistically. The results of independent t-test results
showing the influence of type of education on clusters can be seen in Table 5.
Table 5: Result of independent t-test of attitude clusters of students towards

computer programming by type of education
Cluster Type of n Mean Sd t p
education
(A1) To become prominent in Daytime 532 4.1438 .94422 -1.287 .199
programming Evening 415 4.2237 .95333
(A2) Need for programming and Daytime 532 3.8474 .95488 -0.186 .853
importance of it Evening 415 3.8593 1.01155
(B) Interest for programming and Daytime 532 3.2705 .77625 -1.756 .079
success rate Evening 415 3.3622 .82529
(C) Failure in programming Daytime 532 3.2265 1.00247 -0.645 .519
Evening 415 3.2703 1.07769
(D1) Indifference in programming Daytime 532 4.1192 .81336 0.688 .491
Evening 415 4.0810 .88966
(D2) Unimportance of programming Daytime 532 3.7054 .86355 0.250 .803
Evening 415 3.6905 .96609
p < .05
As it can be seen in Table 5, there is not any significant difference in attitudes of

students towards computer programming in terms of type of education in all
clusters statistically.

47
Discussion and Conclusion

Studies relating to the attitude have an important role in understanding how the
thoughts in education are shaped, measured and change (Maio & Haddock,
2010). Determining the attitudes of the students has an importance for designing
the teaching methods and materials of the subjects (Grandell, Peltomk, Back, &
Salakosk, 2006). In this regard, this study aims to determine the clustering
tendencies of the attitudes of students studying in computer programming
department towards the programming. Hierarchical clustering method is used
in accordance with this aim. Ward method is used for creating optimum clusters
according to the similarities and differences of variables. Attitude variables of
students are collected under four main clusters listed as A, B, C, and D according
to the analysis of the data obtained from the study. And cluster A have two sub
cluster as A1 and A2, accordingly cluster D have two sub clusters as D1 and D2.
Among them, clusters A and B include positive attitude variables, clusters C and
D include negative attitude variables. Names of clusters A and B including their
sub clusters are stated as A1: To become prominent in programming, A2:
Need for programming and importance of it, B: Interest for programming and
success rate. Accordingly names of clusters C and D including their sub clusters
are listed as C: Failure in programming, D1: Indifference in programming
and D2: Unimportance of programming.
Clusters obtained from the study are analyzed by the gender, grade and type of
education factors. There are studies in huge number having such a result that
male students develop more positive attitudes towards the computer
programming than female students (Baer, 2013b; Chang, et al., 2012; zgen &
Korkmaz, 2013). In the analysis made by gender factor in this study, it is seen
that attitudes of male students are more positive than that of female students in
clusters B: Interest for programming and success rate and C: Failure in
programming. In terms of this, result of the study supports the literature.
However in cluster D1: Indifference in programming, it is seen that attitudes
of female students are more positive than that of male student. In other word
female student have a bigger interest for the programming than male students.
Kormaz and Altun (2013) state that belief of students for the necessity for
learning computer programming are generally in high level, but their eagerness
for learning are in middle level. Bennedsen (2003) states that students are eager
to learn the programming but they find learning the programming difficult.
Attitudes of female students are more negative than that of male students in
clusters B: Interest for programming and success rate and C: Failure in
programming, while they have more positive attitudes than male students in
cluster D1: Indifference in programming. In terms of this situation, it can be
concluded that female students are interested in programming, but they cannot
succeed in programming and they have difficulty in the learning process. Apart
from these, in clusters A1: To become prominent in programming, A2: Need
for programming and importance of it and D2: Unimportance of
programming, it is seen that attitudes of the students do not display any
difference in terms of gender. Literature includes the studies showing that both
male and female students display the same attitude in terms of importance of

48
learning programming and programming skill (McDowell, et al., 2003; Lau &
Yuen, 2009; Pioro, 2004). Finding of this study support the literature in that way.
Clusters obtained in the study are compared by taking into consideration the
grade and type of education factors. In terms of grade factor, a significant
difference is seen in clusters B: Interest for programming and success rate, C:
Failure in programming, D1: Indifference in programming and D2:
Unimportance of programming statistically. In all these clusters, students in
first grade have more positive attitudes that the ones in second grade. This may
be arise from the fact that students in first grade havent encountered the
difficulty in learning programming. Because students in second grade spend
more time for programming than the ones in first year. For this reason the
positiveness in the first grade may decline in second grade. It is seen that there is
not any statistically significant difference in other clusters A1: To become
prominent in programming, A2: Need for programming and importance of it
in terms of grade factor. There is not statistically significant difference in all the
clusters obtained at the end of the analysis made in terms of type of education.
The reason for this situation may be the fact that both the daytime and evening
students get the same education. Therefore these students getting the same
education display the same attitudes towards the computer programming.
In conclusion, both male and female students think computer programming is

important and necessary. However when their responses are compared, male
students give more positive response in terms of their success in programming
than female students. Therefore they display more positive attitudes in clusters
including the variables of interest and success rate for the programming. It is
seen that attitudes towards the programming differs in terms of grade. All the
students in both 1st and 2nd grade think programming is important and
necessary. However success in programming and interest for programming are
in low level for the student in 2nd grade. Type of education does not influence
the attitudes of students towards the programming. The difference between the
students attitudes towards the programming can be examined in detail in the
following studies. Hence, new steps for overcoming the difficulties encountered
in the process of computer programming education can be taken.
References
Anastasiadou, S.D., & Karakos, A.S. (2011). The beliefs of electrical and computer
engineering students regarding computer programming. The International
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Akar, P., & Davenport, D. (2009). An investigation of factors related to self-efficacy for
java programming among engineering students. The Turkish Online Journal of
Educational Technology, 8(1), 26-32.
Baer, M. (2013a). Developing attitude scale toward computer programming.
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Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 51-70, March 2015
Does Inquiry-Learning Support Long-Term

Retention of Knowledge?
Sarah Schmid and Franz X. Bogner

Z-MNU (Centre of Math & Science Education),
Institute of Biology Didactics, University of Bayreuth,
University Campus, NWI, D-95447 Bayreuth, Germany
Abstract. Structured Inquiry-Based Science Education (IBSE) provides

the theoretical base for our 9th grader lesson, labeled The Hearing of
Sound. Participation in the 3 consecutive lessons enables participants
to explore the phenomenon of hearing. Participants complete matching
hands-on experiments, learn about the theoretical background of these
experiments, describe observations and formulate explanations. The
study followed a quasi-experimental design with 138 students. The
participants content knowledge on the subject was monitored 4 times:
2 weeks prior to the lesson (T0), on the day of the lesson (T1), 6 weeks
(T2) and 12 weeks after it (T3). Students gained a significant short-term
and a long-term increase in knowledge scores after 6 weeks.
Furthermore, students showed a constant level of content knowledge
when tested after 12 weeks, indicating that students did not forget
information within the last six weeks. Furthermore, our inquiry lesson
was suitable for both genders, as well as students with both high and
low pre-knowledge. In their pre-knowledge boys outperformed girls.
However, there was no influence of gender on the knowledge score
after the lesson (T1, T2, T3). Conclusions for everyday teaching in
school, by using inquiry teaching more frequently are discussed.
Keywords: Inquiry-based science education; secondary school; gender;

long-term retention
Introduction
Inquiry approach
According to constructivism, knowledge cannot directly be transmitted from
one person to another. Instead knowledge construction occurs through active
thinking of the learner (Cakir, 2008). Inquiry based learning is a constructivist
approach of learning. It enables the learner to construct concepts from
experience and from verbal interaction. Through inquiry learning, students have
@2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

52
the opportunity of getting first-hand experience in doing science and, to develop

inquiry skills (Tamir, 1985).
Inquiry can be defined as the intentional process of diagnosing problems,
critiquing experiments, and distinguishing alternatives, planning investigations,
researching for information, constructing models, debating with peers and
forming arguments, (Linn, Davis, Bell, 2004, p.XVi). Therefore, inquiry-based
teaching is increasingly favored as an improvement tool in science education
(Osborne & Dillon, 2008; Rocard et al., 2007). For example, the German national
science education standards propose four main competence domains: subject-
specific content knowledge, communication, judgment, and methodological
knowledge (KMK, 2005a, 2005b). Within methodological knowledge, many
inquiry-learning related activities are listed and their importance for teaching
Biology and Physics is underlined. Although the benefits of using inquiry-based
science education (IBSE) are controversial (see Furtak et al., 2009), the proposed
benefits have often been confirmed (Wilson et al, 2010; Lynch et al., 2005; Minner
and Levy, 2009). Concerning reduction of the increase of knowledge and the
gender gap, Geier, Blumenfeld, Marx, Krajcik, Fishman, Soloway, and Chambers
(2008) and Secker and Lissitz (1999) found results promoting inquiry based
science. However, especially studies regarding long-term retention are rare,
which is why the present study was undertaken.
Inquiry-based teaching can be further subdivided into levels of students

autonomy. Blanchard et al. (2010) provide a clear table of the inquiry levels,
based on Abrams, Southerland and Evans (2007) and adapted from Schwab
(1962) and Colburn (2000), which describes four levels of inquiry: Level-
0/verification, level-1/structured, level-2/guided and level-3/open. The higher
the level, the more student autonomy is linked to a block of investigation. For
example, in level-0 the teacher decides the question, the method for data
collection and also interprets the results. In level-1, interpretation is already up
to the students. In level-2, interpretation as well as finding a method for
investigation is up to the student. In level-3, the formulation of a question to
investigate is also the students responsibility. Abrams et al. (2007) stated that
for level-3 students need prior experience with inquiry-learning to learn
appropriately. In our quasi-experimental study, for comparison reasons, all
students needed to work on the same content. Therefore, the inquiry lessons
were constructed as level-1 or structured inquiry, where the students focus
on understanding the link between experiment and theory, and as well on the
interpretation of the results they obtain (Staver and Bay, 1987). Similar to
Quintana et al. (2004), we see scaffolding as a key element of cognitive
achievement. The teacher coaches, structures tasks in a meaningful way and
gives hints, without explicitly giving the solutions to the students. Furthermore,
we agree with Mayer (2004), who stresses that a certain way of guidance is
always useful in learning instructions. In his review of studies between 1950 and
1980, he found evidence in favor of guided approaches to learning, like guided
discovery, whereas unguided, problem-based instructions such as pure
discovery learning did not work well. Mayer (2004) defines guided discovery
methods [like structured or guided inquiry] as receiving problems to solve

53
where a teacher provides hints, direction, coaching, feedback and/or modeling

to keep the student on track. The main activity of a teachers work takes place
before the actual lesson. It is his/her responsibility to develop and provide high
qualitative learning material. That is, a teachers role is reduced to the
promotion of inquiry-learning by asking open-ended questions like Tell me
what you think about this.; giving students time to think of an answer;
responding to questions by repeating and paraphrasing what students said
without praising or criticizing; avoiding telling students what to do; and
maintaining a disciplined classroom (Colburn, 2000).
Inquiry-learning material
Clearly, the contemporary view of how students learn implies content
that is deeper than facts and information, a curriculum that is richer than
reading, [], and teaching that is more than telling: In line with this view of
Bybee (2002; p.29), inquiry material should contain the content knowledge that a
teacher wants to impart, but leaves space to explore the content. This can be
done with the help of questions raised during engagement with the material. A
student needs to find a satisfactory answer to such questions, by using his or her
motivation und curiosity. This is in line with the claim of Novak (1988) that
most students are not aware that learning is a responsibility they must accept.
Teachers have a responsibility to select meaningful material and seek to share
his meaning with students, but only the student can choose to learn. They can
choose to learn by rote or to learn meaningfully. The questions raised in the
material should have a connection with the everyday life of students and,
therefore, connect school contents with relevant scientific problems that might
occur throughout a students life. Consequently Bransford, Brown and Cocking
(2000; p. 139) had stated: Ideas are best introduced when students see a need or
a reason for their use - this helps them see relevant uses of knowledge to make
sense of what they are learning.
In the strategy of inquiry-based science learning, students are the main actors
during a lesson. Hands-on working is an important part of inquiry-learning that
helps to facilitate the understanding of theoretical knowledge and ideas.
However, we agree with Mayer (2004) who stated that activity may help
promote meaningful learning, but [] the kind of activity that really promotes
meaningful learning is cognitive activity (e.g., selecting, organizing, and
integrating knowledge). Instead of depending solely on learning by doing [],
the most genuine approach to constructivist learning is learning by thinking.
This is what is meant by the difference of a cookbook-level-0-instruction and
higher level inquiry. Furtak et al, (2009) stated that the procedural facet of
inquiry-based science does not involve students proceeding mindlessly
through scripted laboratory procedures. Lord and Orkwiszewski (2006) agreed
that While active learning suggests students are physically participating in the
lesson, inquiry-learning requires that they are also mentally participating in it.
The structured inquiry lesson we invented for this study was designed to turn
the responsibility for learning to the students, by centrally involving them in the

54
thinking process about what the given experiments where for and in linking
their observations to the theory provided. The lesson topic was the human ear
and acoustics. Students were expected to learn how sound is created, how it is
transferred to our ears as well as about the ears anatomy, including the
organization and function of the ossicles and the organ of Corti. As they also
learned about the characteristic of sound waves, they were expected to use this
newly acquired knowledge when learning about the function of the organ of
Corti and the basilar membrane, as well as incorporating this knowledge to
derive causes why noise is dangerous for our ears or the natural limitation of
human hearing to a certain range of frequencies. In summary, the main learning
goal of our inquiry-based lesson was the learning of science defined as
acquiring and developing conceptual and theoretical knowledge (Hodson,
2014, p.2537).
Within the three hours, four-person-groups worked on their own, using a

provided working booklet. From time to time the teacher was questioning a
student group, without involving the attention of the other groups, why they
decided to write down a certain answer and let them explain their opinion. It
was not sufficient to know what the result of an experiment was, but the
material yielded on students understanding why this was the correct answer.
Therefore, the teacher only turned to another group, if the students could
explain why their answer was correct from their viewpoint. In case a student of
the group did not know why the answer the group had decided for, was correct,
he let another group member explain it to him. In case the group as a hole was
not yet sure of why they decided for their answer, the teacher encouraged them
to reread the text and/or observe the experiment again and would come back to
them in a couple of minutes, meanwhile questioning another group. Summed
up, students needed to read information texts to their group mates fetch and put
together experimental set-ups, conduct experiments and answer questions
regarding their observations and interpretations of them in regard to the theory
provided. It was the students responsibility to read the texts, fetch the setup,
built it up and conduct the experiment in order to be able to answer the
provided questions. When students e.g. asked What do I need to fetch for this
experiment?, the teacher would advise them to read the work booklet again. If
questions like Is this the correct answer? would occur, the teacher would let
them explain why they think it may or may not, and therefore let them
reconsider their own answer. The students had the opportunity to test the
experiments as many times as they liked and also to adapt them to their needs, if
they were curious about it expanding the given questions. The teacher only
asked groups to stay focused, when their exploration would shift to mere play
without longer concentrating on the questions to answer or when they were
behind the other groups although both rather rarely took place. Provided
material consisted of simple devices like springs, cards, rulers or paperclips etc.
but also musical instruments, laptops and freeware software to display graphs
of sound waves produced by the students. The phenomena in the texts were
carefully selected to connect to students everyday experiences: like, when
questioning how sound is created to think about a rattling window when a truck

55
passes by to focus their attention to vibration. Or when introducing sound

intensity and how to protect your inner ear by enlarging the distance to the
sound source, with questioning what opportunities they had in a discotheque,
when they stand near the speakers. Or when questioning, why the eardrum is
larger than the oval window, leading to recognition of a force concentration,
giving examples of e.g., why pins are designed the way they are and let them
explain observations made with a matching experiment in regard to force
concentration and pressure increase.
Our study objectives were three-fold: (i) Classes that learned lesson contents via
our structured inquiry unit were analyzed for their capability to comprehend
and remember the lesson content, i.e. their content knowledge was repeatedly
monitored. Although inquiry is postulated to support many soft skills, in our
study we focused merely on cognitive achievement (since it is the main
component on which students are assessed for during their school life): If IBSE
did not lead to a satisfying learning outcome concerning content knowledge, its
soft skill component would be insufficient justification for its use as a daily
teaching strategy. Therefore, the first hypothesis was that participating in the
provided structured inquiry unit would lead to a significant knowledge
increase. (ii) Second, we hypothesized that learning science contents through
structured inquiry would lead to a deeper understanding of the content and
hence to secure long-term retention. (iii) Third, we hypothesized that our
structured inquiry lesson may lead to significant learning in both genders.
Methods
Our study followed a quasi-experimental design (Mertens, 2010) in which 138 9-
graders (Gymnasium), from ten classes and 4 schools participated. The sample
size contained 47.83% females. The mean age of the participants was 15.1 years
(SD=+/-0.55). To all students the taught topic was new. Before grade 9, human
senses (NT 5.2.2) only are taught in an overview-like manner with some
introduction to air and sonic (NT 5.1.2) in grade 5. A control sample of 64
students from 3 classes was monitored, with 42.19% females and mean age 14.80
years (SD=+/-0.52). This control sample did not take part in the inquiry classes
and received no instruction on the topic during data acquisition. A repeated
measurement ANOVA was applied. The control group did not learn through
repeated completion of the knowledge questionnaire: there was no significant
impact on the knowledge score at the four measurement times, p=n.s., F(3,
192)=1.09, partial eta-squared=0.017.
The applied knowledge scale was embedded into a larger questionnaire which
was completed within approximately 40 minutes. All questionnaires were
completed within a 14 week schedule. Total data acquisition was completed
within one year.
The intervention The Hearing of Sound consisted of three consecutive school
lessons of 45 minutes each, forming an interdisciplinary inquiry unit about how
humans hear and what sound is. The content knowledge covered, therefore,

56
combined issues from Biology and Physics. A commented excerpt of the working
booklet is attached in the appendix.
The four topics of the lessons were:

1. What is sound?: a) Sound creation & Movement, b) Frequency &
Amplitude
2. How do we hear?: a) The outer ear, b) The middle ear
3. How do we distinguish frequencies?: a) Resonance and Eigen
Frequency, b) The inner ear
4. The limits of hearing: a) Natural limits of hearing, b) The risks of noise
The topics within the working booklet were arranged roughly according to
the following scheme:
1. Title focusing the students on the sub-topic
2. Introductory text about a phenomenon students may have encountered
in their life
3. Raising the question about how that phenomenon could be explained
4. Giving an example that helps students to understand the phenomenon
5. Asking questions to be investigated with an experiment or model (setup
provided)
6. Students investigate these questions with the experiment or model
7. Students are asked to combine their results with the knowledge gained
through the experiment or model, link it to the science behind it, answer
questions, as well as fill in clozes to verify their knowledge.
Each group member was given a special task that was rotated between the four
group members to ensure every student was engaged and to prevent the couch
potato phenomenon, described by Lord (1999). These roles were: a) reading the
text aloud, b) fetching the right experimental material from the box, c)
conducting the experiment d) writing down the groups conclusions. The
student groups worked without tight time constraints.
The teacher had the role of a guide. The teams worked on their own and were
asked to contact the teacher just when something could not be solved within the
group. The inquiry lesson was the only source of information on the topic.
Students were not aware of the repeated testing cycle. Beside the participation in
the three hour course, no additional learning phase took place. Therefore, the
acquired knowledge is dedicated to the learning during participation in the
structured inquiry course. All lessons were conducted by the first author to
minimize teaching style dependent effects, and to verify that the teaching
material was not changed due to personal preferences of teachers, and was
therefore used in the same way in each class.
Questionnaires for evaluating students content-knowledge were applied about

two weeks prior to the school lesson (T0), directly after the school lesson (T1), as
well as six (T2) and twelve weeks (T3) after it. We also opted for a further long-
term measurement after a period of twelve weeks, since many studies report a

57
decline of content-knowledge in their retention-test (e.g., after six weeks), but

the development after this time gap is rarely researched (Bogner, 1998; Dean and
Kuhn, 2006).
Figure 1: Testing schedule. Back area= lesson. T0= two weeks prior;
T1= directly after; T2= six weeks after; T3= twelve weeks after the lesson.
The ad-hoc content knowledge questionnaire consisted of 20 multiple choice

items with four possible answers each, only one of which was correct. The item-
difficulty-index (Zfel, 2002) was calculated for each item; subsequently 3
questions were excluded as they were correctly answered by over 80% of
persons in the pre-test and thus were not meaningful for analyzing knowledge
gain (Zfel, 2002).
As repeated application of an identical test might influence achievement scores

due to repetition (Keeves, 1998), students were never aware of any testing
schedule or of any repeated testing situation. Additionally, the order of the
questions and the position of the right answer were randomly distributed for
each time point. All questionnaires were handed out as paper and pencil tests to
be completed under controlled conditions. The maximum possible score of the
knowledge test was 17. In classical test theory the mean-item-difficulty is the
percentage of participants that answered the item correct. Over all testing time
points it was 50.3% (T0=30.2%, T1=67.0%, T2=52.9% T3=51.1%). Classical test
theory was applied for Cronbachs Alpha. The multiple choice test had a mean
reliability index of .67 (Cronbachs Alpha; T0=.632, T1=.709, T2=.647, T3=.679).
All items aim for measuring content knowledge and had a positive
discrimination index.

58
Figure 2: Example questions from the multiple choice knowledge questionnaire.

For statistical analyses SPSS (version 20) was used. Missing data was excluded
list-wise. Raw-data was transformed to gain homogeny of variance needed for
parametric tests (knowledge scores: log(10)+1; knowledge gain: log(10)+13). All
statistical tests concerning knowledge scores or gain take these transformed data
as source. However, for a more meaningful interpretation graphs are based on
the untransformed data. Data was analyzed by t-test, repeated measurement
ANOVA (mixed design) and one-way independent ANOVA.
Results
Figure 3: Bar chart of the mean number of right answered knowledge questions
grouped for each time point of measurement. T0 =2 weeks prior, T1=directly after,
T2=6 weeks after, T3=12 weeks after the inquiry lesson. Max=17 right answered
questions. Error bars = 95% CI.
Repeated measurement ANOVA was applied to test if the consecutive time

points of measurement differ significantly. Knowledge scores differed
significantly over the time points: p<0.0001, F(2.1, 286.22)= 173.52, partial eta-
squared =0.561.Students learned significantly through the inquiry lesson. The
knowledge score of T0, two weeks before the lesson, was significantly lower
than the knowledge score of T1, directly after the lesson, p<0.0001,
F(1,136)=351.24, with a large effect size partial eta-squared=0.721. Afterwards,
some content knowledge was lost again, comparing T1, directly after the lesson
and T2, six weeks after the lesson, p<0.0001, F(1,136)=105.36, eta-squared=0.437.
However, a further six weeks later (T2 -T3), the students lost no more
knowledge, meaning that they are capable of recalling as much after twelve
weeks as they could recall after six weeks, p=n.s., F(1,136)=0.05, partial eta-
squared=0.0001.
A second repeated measurement ANOVA was used to test, if the knowledge

scores for short and long-term learning were significant. The inquiry

59
intervention lead to a significant short term increase in knowledge scores

directly after the lesson (T0-T1) p<0.0001, F(1, 137)= 322.41, with a large effect
size of partial eta-squared=0.702,as well as to a long-term increases in
knowledge scores after six weeks (T0-T2) p<0.0001, F(1, 137)= 148.12, with a
large effect size of partial eta-squared=0.521, and after 12 weeks (T0-T3)
p<0.0001, F(1, 137)= 135.50, with a large effect size of partial eta-squared=0.497.
Figure 4: A/Left: Bar charts of the knowledge score at successive time points of
measurement, separated for male and female. X-axe: Gender, Y-axe: mean number of
questions answered right; max=17. B/Right: Bar charts of the median gain (or loss) of
knowledge, grouped for the time span between consecutive time points of
measurement. F.l.t.r.: T0-T1, T1-T2, T2-T3.T0=2weeks before, T1=directly after, T2=6
weeks after, T3=12 weeks after the inquiry class. Error bars= 95% CI.
Figure 4a shows the knowledge level throughout the different time points of
data acquisition for boys and girls. To test a potential gender discrepancy
regarding pre-knowledge score (T0), a t-test was applied. As the genders differ
in their pre-knowledge, with boys outcompeting girls (meanT0= 0.8115,
SE=0.20; mean T0=0.65, SE=0.23, p<0.0001, r=0.35), a repeated measurement
ANOVA with mixed design was applied for further analyses. The interaction of
gender and the time-points of measurement of knowledge scores was
significant, p=0.002, F(2.11, 286.22)=6.39, partial eta-squared=0.045. This means
that the overall knowledge scores are different for boys and girls.
In detail, gender produced a highly significant effect when comparing two

weeks before the lesson (T0), and directly after the lesson (T1), p<0.0001,
F(1,136)=11.22, partial eta-squared= 0.076. This is due to boys starting with a
higher pre-knowledge than females (see t-test above).However, gender did not
influence further learning. There was no influence of gender on the knowledge
score directly after the lesson (T1) to six weeks after the lesson (T2), p=n.s., F(1,
136)=1.44, partial eta-squared= 0.010. Nor was there a significant gender effect in
knowledge level six weeks (T2) and twelve weeks (T3) after the lesson, p=n.s.,
F(1,136)=0.21, partial eta-squared= 0.002. This means that boys and girls reached

60
the same knowledge level, despite different pre-knowledge, as well as that the
levels of recall of content knowledge were the same for both genders.
Figure 4b shows the knowledge gain of boys and girls. For analysis a one-way
independent ANOVA way applied. The knowledge gain from T0 to T1 was
greater for girls than for boys. This difference in knowledge gain was significant
F(1,136)=4.0, p=0.048, r=0.17. The higher direct benefit from the inquiry lesson
for girls was due to the females starting with a significantly lower pre-
knowledge in T0 (see above/ figure4a). The knowledge loss from T1 to T2, as
well as from T2 to T3 were not significantly different for boys and girls, FT1-
T2(1,136)=0.147, p=n.s, r=0.03, FT2-T3(1,136)=0.003. p=n.s., r=0.001.
Discussion
Inquiry lesson leads to substantial learning
First of all, our data (figure 3) follow typical learning pattern with a short-term
peak and long-term decrease (e.g., Heyne and Bogner, 2012; Geier and Bogner,
2010): students learn and partially forget content-knowledge, but the level never
drops below the before lesson level. So students learned substantially through a
structured inquiry lesson. As no additional learning phase on the course content
took place, the knowledge reflected in the test-scores must have been learned
through the active participation in the course. This finding is in line with Von
Secker and Lissitz (1999), who described teacher-centered instruction as
negatively associated with general science achievement, while mean science
achievement is expected to increase by about 0.4 SD for every SD increase in the
amount of emphasis placed on laboratory inquiry. Marx et al. (2004) also
showed that in a year-long study in an urban school area, where students were
historically low achievers in science, students were able to significantly improve
scores via inquiry as demonstrated by post-tests after the school year. Lederman,
Antink and Bartos (2014) also described inquiry-based learning as very helpful
for learning science contents as well as hands-on work as effectively supporting
conceptual understanding. Bases on data of the PISA-study 2006, increases in
science achievement are especially provoked by structured inquiry; i.e. the same
level our inquiry-based unit was based on, where students conduct hands-on
activities and draw conclusions upon them. Interestingly, higher, more open
levels of inquiry resulted in much lower science achievement (Jiang and
McComas, 2015).
Inquiry lesson leads to formation of long-term retention

Even after twelve weeks, students could recall as much as they did six weeks
after a lesson, indicating a constant level for six weeks. This result strongly
suggests that learning through inquiry-lessons substantially contributes to the
formation of long-term retention.
There are very few studies about long-term effects of inquiry lessons. Anderson
(1997) stated that neurocognitive theory supports learner-centered science
instructions: Active involvement by the learner maximizes activation of
schemata, [] especially when the tasks are perceived as being facilitatory for
problem-solving []. Multimodal learning promotes more stable schema

61
formation by simultaneously activating different cortical modules and enhances

linkages among the [neural] networks. This stabilizes the information and makes
it more accessible for reconstruction later []. This would explain why
students retained information from week 6 to week 12 after the inquiry
intervention. The level of knowledge formed within the first six weeks after a
lesson would remain long-term. Nuthall (1995) observed how students use their
knowledge and experience to respond to achievement tests by using multiple-
choice questionnaire before an intervention and directly after. Selected
interviews two weeks after the intervention yielded reasons why specific
answers had been given and where students obtained their information from
(e.g., school or family and media). A further 12 months later, participants
completed the questionnaire again, and thought aloud about how and where
their information originated from. In total, recalling relevant item answers was
closely associated with the recollection of the episodic and/or semantic content
of the original learning experience. Since the original learning experience was so
important for recall, this suggests why our structured inquiry lesson apparently
helped students not to forget information between week 6 and 12. As they took
responsibility for working through the learning material and conducting
experiments with their group, students were actively involved at every stage of
knowledge building about a subtopic of the lesson. For instance, they read about
the phenomenon, tested models, were asked how the model relates to the real
phenomenon, were asked to decide if the fillings of a cloze were right or wrong,
were urged to discuss problems and results with their peers and write their
answers and conclusions down. This probably provided a broad base from
which to retrieve a correct answer to the content-knowledge test. As Nuthall
(1995) concluded, students who have learned more in classrooms may perform
better on achievement tests, not because they have learned more answers, but
because they have more alternative parallel ways of solving the problems posed
by the test items.
Matching results also come from Blank (2000), who described students as
recalling significantly more content-knowledge, two and six months after the
end of an inquiry intervention, when they had been asked to make explicit their
prior knowledge and to discuss the status of their conceptions and ideas
throughout the course (meta-cognitive group), compared to students who
completed the same inquiry lessons, but were not asked to record their thoughts.
The actual learning gains of both groups were similar, directly before and after
the treatments. However, long-term retention two and six months later differed:
Students of the metacognitive learning cycle could recall significantly more. The
students in our inquiry lesson were required to think actively to make sense of
the written information, the experiments and their observations, while
discussing the content with their peers. We conclude that active participation by
hand and brain made the experiences during the lesson very vivid in the
memory of the students, so that the learned content could be retrieved relatively
easily, even 12 weeks after the intervention.

62
Although our inquiry lesson lasted just for half a day, significant learning
outcomes and long-term effects on content learning were achieved. Together
with the study of Geier et al. (2008), that indicates that a higher frequency of
inquiry units results in higher achievement, this should be a signal towards the
more frequent use of well-organized inquiry lessons. The meta-analysis of
Furtak et al. (2009), also found indications that an inquiry treatment of between
five and seven weeks had a higher impact on students learning than those
lasting up to one week, supporting the higher frequency.
Inquiry can close the gender gap and is suitable for strong and weak students
Although males scored significantly higher on pre-knowledge before the lesson,
our inquiry lesson made this gender difference in content-knowledge disappear.
Immediately after the lesson, the females mean score no longer differed from
the males one, although both genders had significantly increased knowledge
through the lesson. Even with lower pre-knowledge females were able to fully
catch up.
Supporting results come from Geier et al. (2008), who found that participation in
at least one inquiry course resulted in a reduction of the gender gap. African-
American boys, who are reported as often being outperformed by girls in US
urban schools, closed the gender gap by gaining relatively more from an inquiry
unit. This is in line with our results. Therefore, our study adds to the body of
research that shows that inquiry-learning can help to reduce the gender gap,
especially by being relatively more helpful for the disadvantaged group of
learners without ignoring the needs of the rest of the class.
Achievement gaps in science classes can probably explain a high percentage of

the skewed decision between the genders for later career opportunities in
science. We would therefore welcome more inquiry-based science lessons
throughout a students school life, to increase decisions for a career in science.
Especially if a more equal distribution in science careers between genders is
desired by policy makers and politics, structured inquiry-teaching could be the
solution. Inquiry does not especially suitable for a certain gender, rather inquiry
is suitable for all students, but it reduces the barriers for learning and retention.
The student centered way of teaching inquiry, where students can work and
learn in small groups, in their own pace, and with less competition gives room
to students to not to be afraid of asking questions or discussing with peers by
tasks that are engaging, foster curiosity and motivation. These are circumstances
especially beneficial for students that otherwise may not even want try to
investigate the learning content, because they feel not capable or are afraid of
social pressure. These may be the reasons why the learning environment of
inquiry based teaching seems to be especially fruitful for thitherto
disadvantaged students.
4. Pre-knowledge is not crucial for achievement

Females not only caught up directly after the intervention, but their later scores
did also not differ from the boys in week 6 and 12. Thus, although girls needed

63
to learn more new facts, they were able to remember these new facts for at least
12 weeks. As they did not forget more than the boys, this indicates that they
were capable of remembering more facts in total (T0-T3. As a conclusion, girls
were able to gain more from our inquiry lesson which brought both gender to
the very same level of content-knowledge without disadvantaging either. This
result precludes pre-knowledge as a limiting factor for learning by inquiry and
demonstrates that this teaching method can be an especially positive way of
learning when the class consists of strong or weak students. Therefore, we can
confirm Johnson and Lawson (1998), who found that prior knowledge did not
account for a significant amount of variance in final science exams of college
students, regardless whether taught with [open] inquiry or expository methods.
Conclusion
Our study showed the hypothesized positive effects of inquiry-based science
teaching, leading to a better learning outcome and showing its suitability for
both genders, but especially supporting female learning needs (Rocard et al
2007). Our inquiry-based lesson was shown suitable for students with both high
and low pre-knowledge. Additionally, it also seems equally suitable for both
genders, as both ended up with a similar learning outcome despite significant
differences in pre-knowledge. In summary, this inquiry lesson led to a well-
informed class, despite individual differences between participants. It also led to
a class that evidently has successfully organized long-term retention, as they are
capable of recalling information and have understood principles needed to
answer content knowledge questions. With regard to what students go to school
for, and why teachers are actually teaching, an at least 3-month recall ability
seems to be a very strong argument in favor of structured inquiry.
This long-term retention was formed using a structured inquiry approach, and
we agree with Mayer (2004), who states, Activity may help promote
meaningful learning, but instead of behavioral activity per se (e.g., hands-on
activity, discussion, and free exploration), the kind of activity that really
promotes meaningful learning is cognitive activity (e.g., selecting, organizing,
and integrating knowledge). [] the most genuine approach to constructivist
learning is learning by thinking. Methods that rely on doing or discussing
should be judged not on how much doing or discussing is involved but rather
on the degree to which they promote appropriate cognitive processing.
Guidance, structure, and focused goals should not be ignored.
To achieve long-lasting knowledge students need to be given demanding

learning goals. It is quite an effort to create learning environments that are more
than a lecture talk and more than discovery learning. Students need directions
and the possibility to think for themselves. This needs time, but it seems that the
actual value of doing and understanding something oneself is that these facts
can be remembered better (Nuthall, 1995; Blank, 2000). A very important point
when students are engaged in active understanding is that a teacher has
confidence in his students. If a student asks how a certain word is spelled
correctly, the teacher should not divulge the answer, but teach the student to

64
look it up in the dictionary. The student will not only learn and remember how
the word is written, but he will learn additionally how to solve similar
questions. Essentially this is what structured or guided inquiry is about. Its
about teaching content through the understanding of mechanisms that can be
applied in general, and it teaches students to take responsibility for their
learning. Staying with the example of the dictionary, in a modern classroom,
walking to the shelf to look up a word must not be classified as disturbing the
lesson, but as taking advantage of the learned mechanism.
With the background of this and other studies that show that learning with
structured or guided inquiry is beneficial, there is a demand for change in
classrooms and schools. To be able to teach by inquiry-learning, teachers need to
be given professional development on the difference between what is too
much and too little guidance for their students. This is not only necessary for
class management, but in the creation of learning tasks or worksheets with
which the students can learn long-term. Divulging the answer too quickly and
using cookbook labs will probably lead to the couch potato-effect (Lord,
1999) and students who learn by rote learning rather than by understanding.
When lab time is to be applied of which students should do more than do the
given steps of an experiments and copy the meaning of the results in their
documents, time is needed. Therefore there is a need to extend the time in which
students are confronted with science subjects in school. Science should be taught
in e.g., two consecutive hours instead of two single hours, and there should be
time for science days or research weeks.
It is probably necessary to reduce the gender gap long before university entry.
Inquiry-learning seems to be a good tool to narrow or close this gender gap e.g.,
in middle school. Politics now need to emphasize the goals they proposed in the
teaching standards in 2005 (KMK, 2005a, 2005b), and provide teachers and
schools with matching support to increase their expertise e.g., in teaching
activities similar to inquiry-learning (see methodological knowledge-goals).
Inquiry is not the only teaching method that can be used. It is clear that it cannot
be used to the full, e.g., because of time constrictions. But teachers can use
inquiry by focusing on certain aspects whenever they see the chance to take
advantage of it. For example, the focus can be set on formulating hypothesis on
the base of background information, planning experiments for a desired
outcome, predicting outcomes of experiments, collecting data, structuring data,
evaluating data, formulating explanations and results, comparing predictions to
results, communicating results, or discussing results and interpretations.
Teachers should also demand that their students be more pro-active when the
circumstances allow for it for example, when inquiry-based lessons are
undertaken. Already a single event of a three hour inquiry lesson had a positive
effect on the long-term retention of content knowledge in the study presented
here. As other studies, like the one of Geier et al. (2008) and Stohr-Hunt (1996),
the present study suggests a cumulative effect of the frequent use of inquiry

65
during a students school life. More frequent use of structured or guided inquiry
in school will probably increase the benefits for students in science classes. It
needs to be clear that students need not remember each single activity or
experiment years after they have left school, but they need to remember how
they can approach a certain type of problem, or how they can assess scientific
debates in the media relevant to their lives.
Acknowledgments
Our study was funded by the European Commission (PATHWAY, FP7-
Science-in-Society-2010-1, THEME SiS-2010-2-2.1-1; 266624). Any
opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this
material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the
views of the European Commission.
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Appendix
Exemplary workbook material. Topic 1 What is sound?, part a) Sound
creation & Movement. Extracted is the part on the movement of sound. The
comments added to this excerpt intend to let the reader better understand how
students where actively engaged in the learning activity. Remember that all
student groups worked on their own. They were not told by the teacher what to
next within the three hours and could not ask for a simple yes/no-reply if their
conclusion was right or wrong as the teacher would ask them back why they
would think so either way and let them explain to him, instead of providing
information to them. Therefore, students needed to read their booklet with
attention, as skipping paragraphs and guessing answers would leave them
without feedback if they guessed right or wrong. If the teacher would from time
to time ask a team about why they wrote down a certain answer and they could
not explain why they decided so, he would recommend them to read the text

68
again. Students darting to ask is this the right answer? to get through the
material faster soon understood that if they would not know how to explain
their answer they would not get a satisfying feedback but were asked to invest
effort into the activity. Students mostly changed from asking for a right/wrong-
feedback to asking if their way of understanding was correct or stopped asking
the teacher for help but instead discussed within their team.
3. Do air molecules and sound travel the same distance?

After the air particles at the sound source are set in vibration by the
vibration of the sound source, the air particles next to them vibrate as
well and these bring their neighbors to vibrate as well, and so forth. The
sound is moving in a wave pattern through the air. Scientists call it
sound wave.
Comment: Before students made assumptions on how the sound might

be moving from the sound source by plugging a rubber band which was
stretched over a small box. The short paragraph above summarizes the
broad theory for sound movement through a sound wave.
Question:
But how does the sound cross the broad distance from the sound source
to your ear? We will compare the sound with something we already
know to understand that.
Comment: Here students are introduced to a new and more explicit

question about sound movement. Before introducing another
experiment, students read about a phenomenon with similar function.
The Mexican wave serves as a functional model of how a wave is
moving, although the particles the wave consists of, do only oscillate
around their starting position. Students sometimes have the
misunderstanding that air particles travel all the way from the sound
source to the recipient. Therefore students focus is set to analyze what
happens to a single air particle when a sound wave is created in the
following experiment afterwards.
3.1 Comparison: The Mexican wave Figure 1: Fans do a Mexican wave at a

A sound wave behaves like a Mexican Wave: sports game.
the wave moves forward and travels big
distances while the air particles that move
when the wave passes only move around their
original position. People only move their arms Photo not part of display
to create the Mexican Wave, they do not go
anywhere themselves.

69
3.2 Experiment 2: The spring

Imagine the spring as the air between the sound source and your ear.
Each ring of the spring is an air particle. One air particle was marked by
us. The sound wave moves rythmically when there is a sound, and it
stops when there is silence.
Question: You still want to find out how the sound does travel from
the sound source to your ear.
sound source ear
Excecution:
Place the slinky with the marked air particle on the table.
Stretch the slinky. Hold both ends of the slinky (sound source and
sound receiver)
Strongly push one end of the slinky rhythmically in the direction
of the other hand, and pull it back to its starting point. Repeat the
movement.
Observations:
1. Does the marked part of the spring travel all the way from
the sound source to the sound receiver side?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. When you stop the movement, where is the marking

positioned in the spring?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. Each air particles in a sound wave behaves like the marked

point in the slinky when a sound wave is moving across a
room.
Is the following statement right or wrong? Give reasons!
Each air particle of a sound wave moves through the whole
room, from the sound source to your ear.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

70
Comment: In the next passage students need to transfer their

understanding of the traveling sound wave, which they gained through
the experiment to the questions below. They thereby learn about the
density of the air particles at certain time-points in the sound wave.
3.3 Sound waves

Do you see the similarity between the wave in the spring, the movement of the
Mexican wave and the movement of a sound wave through the air? Let us
exploit these similarities!
1. Draw the denseness of air particles (use little dots) in the tube
under the corresponding pattern of the moving slinky. Both, the
compression of the spring and of the air tell you how the sound
wave moves.
2. Try to make sense of the following text by filling in the missing

words, and choosing one of words in brackets by crossing out the
other.
A sound wave is actually a wave of ____________ and
____________ of air particles in a certain part of the air. Scientists
describe it as well as pressure wave. In the zones where the air is
compressed the air pressure is therefore (higher/lower) as the
normal background air pressure. In the zones where the air is
rarefied the air pressure is (higher/lower) as the normal
background air pressure.

71

Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 71-83, March 2015
Enhancing Agricultural Education Lecturers

Teaching Effectiveness in Nigeria Colleges of
Education: The Human Resource Supervision
Perspective
Camilus Bassey Ben and Ajigo Ikutal

University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria
Abstract. This study was conducted to determine the extent to

which human resource supervision relates with teaching
effectiveness of Agricultural Education lecturers in Nigerian
Colleges of Education. Two null hypotheses were formulated to
guide the study. A 30-item questionnaire was structured to
obtain data for the study. Expost facto research design was
adopted for the study. Sixty three Agricultural Education
lecturers were involved in the study. The Pearson Product
Movement Correlation and Population t-test were the statistical
tools used in data analysis. The results of the study revealed that
there was significant relationship between human resource
supervision and Agricultural Education and that lecturers
teaching effectiveness in Nigeria colleges of Education was not
significantly high with respect to teachers self-control, classroom
design techniques, teaching of appropriate behaviour and
students-lecturers relationship. To enhance Agricultural
Education lecturers teaching effectiveness, it was recommended
among others that Agricultural Education lecturers should be
involved in human resource supervision in Colleges of education
in Nigeria.
Keyword: Agricultural Education; Agricultural Education

lecturers; institutional variable, human resource supervision,
teaching effectiveness, human resource
Introduction
Education is the pivot to the development of the society. Apart from being the
most powerful instrument for social progress, it is also the greatest power for
self-improvement. The fundamental considerations upon which most
educational institutions are established are productivity, profitability and
efficiency made possible through teacher education. Agriculture is one of the
core subjects in Nigeria education system. This important accorded it in the
school curriculum reflects the recognition of the vital role it plays in

72
contemporary society. Teacher education in Nigeria is aimed at encouraging

innovativeness in prospective teachers and the provision of professional
background for operation. Agricultural Education is a formal academic
programme of instruction systematically organized for in-school learners who
are willing and ready to be prepared for a teaching career in agriculture. As an
academic programme, Agricultural Education stresses in its content those
professional skills required by a learner in professional education and
vocational/ technical areas of agriculture. The vision is to produce globally
competitive teachers who will contribute significantly to development through
quality research and teaching. Agricultural Education Programme is hinged on
the national philosophy of agriculture. It emphasizes self-reliance based on the
production of professional teachers of agriculture endowed with balanced
approach between principles and practice of agriculture for academic and skill
development ends. The objectives of Agricultural education programme at the
Nigeria College of Education level among others;
1. The production of teachers with the appropriate attitude, knowledge,
and professional competences in agriculture
2. The production of teachers who will be capable of encouraging students
to acquire interest in and attitude for agriculture occupations.
3. The development of in prospective agricultural educator required
communicative skills for successful communication of agricultural
information and skills to the students
4. The equipment of the prospective agricultural teacher with adequate
knowledge and ability to establish and manage model school farm.
5. The provision of a sound background to enhance further academic and
professional progress of prospective agricultural teachers.
5. The provision of high-level academic manpower in agricultural
education needed at various levels of education (Ben, 2010).
The professional training of teachers of agriculture in Nigeria is achieved

through pre-service and in-service training. The Nigeria Colleges of Education
as one of the major teacher training institutions established to provide
pedagogical and technical training to prospective teachers in these regards.
Graduates of these colleges are assigned to teach at the nation's pre-school,
primary and junior secondary school levels. The Nigerian colleges of Education
have generally been observed to be affected by issues bordering on human
resources supervision. This adversely impacts on teaching and learning
effectiveness of lecturers. Teachers hold the key that unlocks the door to
modernization (National Universities Commission (NUC), 2006). If Nigeria will
achieve success in the production of well- informed and effective Agricultural
Education lecturers, sustained attention should be given to human resource
supervision. According to Okure (2001), effective teaching of agriculture is
indispensable of well supervised appropriate workforce and proportionate staff-
student ratio among other factors. It was against this backdrop that this study
was conceived.
Statement of problem

73
The formal teaching of Agricultural Education in Colleges of Education in

Nigeria emanated when the then Federal and Regional Governments of Nigeria
with technical assistance from UNESCO established advanced teachers training
colleges in 1962 across the country as an emergency measure for the purpose of
producing well qualified non-graduate teachers for the lower forms of secondary
school. Science education, including Agricultural education was accorded top
priorities in these colleges (Ben, 2010). Then Agricultural Education human
resources were relatively adequate (Fafunwa, 2004).
As students enrolment increased with years, the human resources became

grossly inadequate as there was no corresponding additional provision of
human resources to match with the demands. The available ones were
improperly supervised as some the relevant staffs of Agricultural Education
Department for instance were rarely carried along on staff recruitment,
deployment, and development matters. Consequently, Agricultural Education
lecturers were faced with the problem of excess workload which culminated into
ineffective and inefficient job delivery and students poor academic
performance.
Besides, it has generally been observed that this trend is still maintained inspite
of the introduction of e-learning technologies which have the capabilities of
educating an infinite number of students with a few teachers. Findings from
related researches in this regard points to the fact that most of Agricultural
Education lecturers in Colleges of education in Nigeria are not yet at home with
this new initiative. As pointed out by Agbulu and Ademu, (2010), although the
application of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) has caused
significant fast changes in lectureship, where digital and electronic software
complement, and in some cases replace conventional settings but the problem is
that agricultural education lecturers who are confronted with this radical change
experience shock, confusion and become disoriented. In other words, some
agricultural education lecturers are still out of touch with reality of utilizing ICT
facilities e.g. e-learning technology in the performance of their work roles. It was
upon this basis that this study was conceived; to establish the relationship
between human resources supervision and Agricultural Education lecturers
teaching effectiveness.
Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the relationship between human
resource supervision and Agricultural Education lecturers teaching
effectiveness in Nigeria Colleges of Education.
Specifically, the study sought to:
1. Find out the relationship between human resources supervision and
Agricultural Education lecturers teaching effectiveness in Nigeria
Colleges of Education.
2. Ascertain the status of Agricultural Education lecturers teaching
effectiveness in Nigeria Colleges of Education.
Statement of hypotheses

74
The following hypotheses were formulated to guide the study:

1. Human resources supervision does not significantly relate to teaching
effectiveness of Agricultural Education lecturers in Nigeria Colleges of
Education
2. The teaching effectiveness of Agricultural Education lecturers in Nigeria
Colleges of Education is significantly high
Literature review
Human resource supervision and teaching effectiveness
Colleges of Education need adequate and well supervised human resources at its
disposal to achieve its goals. A major human resource in this regard is the
human workforce in lecturers category. Human workforce is very important for
optimization of academic programmes including Agricultural Education. There
is a consensus among academic institution administrators, educational planners
and researchers that human resource is essential ingredients for effective
teaching and learning outcome and ensures the achievement of objectives. A
study by Okedara (2001) on administrators human resources supervision and
teachers productivity revealed that teachers productivity was dependent on
administrators supervision. In the same vein,
Effective supervision of available workforce can lead to satisfaction which can

enhance teachers teaching effectiveness. This is because when the personnel to
be used are adequately supervised, the assurance that the lecturers use them to
facilitate their teaching effectively is ensured. In a situation where the human
resources are not effectively supervised, Agricultural Education teachers are
forced to make choices which are unpleasant and often compromising. The
teachers may be forced to resort to verbal explanations of practical-based lessons
or may resort to giving assignments to students who will have to undertake an
uphill task of searching for the required solution. Besides some teachers may
skip or totally abandon some courses when faced with the challenges of paucity
of essential workforce. This is an aberration on teaching effectiveness.
The concept of teacher effectiveness can be viewed broadly as the integration of

characteristics, competencies, and behaviors of teachers at all educational levels
that enable students to reach desired outcomes, which may include the
attainment of specific learning objectives as well as broader goals such as being
able to solve problems, think critically, work collaboratively, and become
effective citizens. It involves building strong relationship with students that
cultivate the socially as well as intellectually behaviour and working
collaboratively with other teachers and administrators to create a culture of
excellence and active encouragement. As identified by Sinha (2008) there are
four core components of teaching effectiveness which are self-control, classroom
design techniques, teaching appropriate behavior, and students teachers
relationship. However, the key elements towards achieving high teaching
effectiveness encompasses prioritizing key tasks and remaining dedicated,
focusing on team work, good leadership role, and good relations with students,
good quality of workforce and a sound organizational culture.

75
Gregory (2002) pointed out the importance of teaching effectiveness to include

increase in the staff degree of control over their work, providing staffs the
opportunity for participative decision making, enhancing the professional
competency of the teachers through in-service training, organizational
communication and delegation of authority among others. Robbins (2000)
collaborating this maintained that to enhance teaching effectiveness, the
administrators should give effective supervision to lecturers directly to know
how well they are doing. Supervision will engender the agitation for the
lecturers pay and promote policies that that can ginger high performance.
Enumerating the importance of teaching effectiveness, Robbins (2000) asserted
low performed teachers skip work more often and more likely to resign; that
teachers who are satisfied in his/her teaching effectiveness have better health
and job satisfaction and this can be extended to the life outside the job. An
effective teacher helps students to learn, and build strong relationship with
students hence aids them socially as well as intellectually. Components like self-
control strategies, classroom design techniques, teaching to appropriate behavior
and student teacher relationship could be used to achieve teaching effectiveness.
An effective administrator has pertinent role to play in supervising the staff for
enhanced output and for achievement of the goals of the organization. This is
because human resources play prominent role in effective utilization other
resources, such as materials, equipment, facilities and finances. According to
Udo and Ankpa (2001), human resource is of great importance to any
organization because it constitutes a usable commodity as well as decides how
much can be achieved with other resources. In the same vein Onwuka (2008)
sees human resource as the most important resource because it is saddled with
the onerous task of coordinating other available resources for the attainment of
the goals of the organization.
Human resource supervision could be seen as the harnessing of the totality of

the peoples skills, energies, talents, talent capacities, social characteristics and
the like to achieve educational objectives and simultaneously making the people
to be part of organization in fulfilling the goals. It involves utilizing,
coordinating and checking the activities of the staff for the purpose of realizing
the goals. On importance of human resources supervision Peretomode (2005)
pointed out that it is recognized by laws as a functional areas of supervision that
must be practiced and that in Nigeria, it is enshrined in National Policy on
Education in Nigeria and in the Civil Service Reform Degree No. 43 of 1988.
Besides, human resource supervision ensures that the staffs regularly undergo
developmental programmes It assists personnel in building up a good career;
ensures that the selection and placement of staff are done devoid of favoritisms ;
assists in the formation of staff policies; staff, boosts staff morale; ensures the
maintenance of staff record and bio data; ensures staff are rewarded based on
merit; and provides guidance and counseling to staff .
Many activities are involved in human resources supervision, but the include
human resources planning, recruitment and selection, induction and orientation,
development programmes, performance appraisal and promotion, retirement as
well as industrial relations. Human resource planning as defined by Graham

76
(2009), is an attempt to forecast how many and what kind of employee will be
required in future, and to what extent this demand is likely to be met. Here it is
seen as is a process of providing the required number of staff to achieve the
future objectives of the organization. The activities in human resource planning
predicting in advance the needs of various types of staff, comparing those needs
with present staff strength as well as determining the number and category of
staff to be appointed or retrenched. Human resource planning ensures that the
organization maintains the right numbers of staff who has acquired the right
skills for the available job and who are capable of carrying out these tasks
effectively. Human resource planning is very essential if lecturers must be
functional in their jobs. In the first place the administrators or the bodies that
employ lecturers in the various colleges o must know the staff need in terms of
types of skills, levels and age category, present number available and then
forecasting future needs in areas of changes. This process ensures that the wrong
people are not employed i.e. people who may not have the required skills for
teaching the course. The number of lecturers should be proportional to the
number of students. In this connection, lecturers teaching effectiveness
becomes possible where they are properly utilized by the administrators.
Recruitment and selection of lecturers into our Nigeria colleges of Education is a

very important process. The departmental heads have roles to play in this
process. The initial application for employment is usually expected to be rooted
through the heads of departments who is officially required to comment on the
suitability or otherwise of the applicant and thereafter on the Provost, the chief
executive who reserves the mandate to recruit or not depending on the situation
at disposal. The administrator should be in the panel so as to determine who
should be employed and who should not. They also have to supervise the
lecturers well so as to enhance retention.
On a study to determine the extent to which staff recruitment and retention

correlate with institutional task performance, Ukpong (2000) found out that the
level of teaching effectiveness and supervision relates positively with lecturers
level of effectiveness in the job performed; that supervision and other related
variables significantly influenced lecturers level of task performance and their
degree of intention to stay in the job.
Aguokoagbuo (2003) revealed that most often applicants with strong personality
behind them are generally selected for appointment. This has often resulted in
the incompetent workers in the system. It leads to proliferation of mediocrity.
Besides, the incompetent lecturer would surely breed poor results and
undesirable attitudes in students towards studies. It might even be easier to
supervise a competent lecturer. Also, if the necessary working conditions are put
in place, such lecturer may perform very high in in instructional delivery.
Therefore if the departmental heads must supervise the lecturer effectively and
efficiently, they must have a hand in the recruitment and selection process.
Staff development is another pertinent aspect of staff human resource

supervisory process in Nigeria colleges of Education. It involves training and

77
retraining of the lecturers through various development programs. Training or

development programs are designed to increase the knowledge, skills,
experience, attitude as well as release staff talent potentials so as to meet the
present and future job requirements and thus achieve the college objectives.
Specifically, staff development program performs functions of utilization and
supervision. It provides the capacity for the staff to perform effectively on the
assigned work role. Adamu (2007) aptly coined the term continuous
professionalism development (CPD) to describe this type of training. Ajidahun
(2007) sees staff development as the imprint of human resource supervision
which contributes immensely to success of any organization. A genuine way of
enhancing the productivity of academic lecturers is training. In other words
effective training is sine quo non in todays dynamic work environment thereby
calling for the exposure of staff to new technological innovations.
According to Bland (2000), every lecturer in the Nigeria Colleges of Education

has a high degree of personal responsibility for assembling and presenting the
course content to achieve instructional objectives, and therefore they need
should give every positive encouragement to the lecturer to perform to the best
advantage. The head of department can encourage a lecturer by recommending
him or her for development programs such as in-service for graduate study
depending on his academic status. Other aspects of such development programs
are workshops, conferences, seminars and symposia. Staff high and low
performance through career development, has positive relationship with the
staff feeling of personal and financial fulfillment derived from the job. To him
job fulfillment is achieved when the job provides those things which the staff
feels are important in life. If the employer can provide the opportunity for
continued growth and advancement, then an attitude of loyalty and high
satisfaction is developed which will lead to enhanced performance and
increased productivity. Graham (2009), Peretomode (2005) and Idih (2007)
outlined the importance of development programs to include, greater
productivity, qualitative performance, adaptability to new methods, lower
labour turnover and reduced absenteeism, acquisition of higher qualification for
greater responsibilities and status, keeping in touch with counterparts and new
developments within and outside the country in professional growth.
A pertinent human resource supervisory role of the head of department should

be able to appraise the teachers performance. Adequate performance appraisal
is the process of assessing the degree of the staff performance in carrying out his
assigned duties in other to achieve the goals of the institution. Rao and Rao
(2000) defined performance appraisal as a method of evaluating the behavior of
staff at work. Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn (2008) submitted that
performance appraisal is a process of evaluating performance and providing
feedback for making of performance adjustment. Denga (2000) stated that the
administrator should use assessment instrument that will reflect items such as
commitment level to work, attitude to work, productivity rate, extra
performance or unusual initiative amongst others. The head of Department, in
appraising lecturers should ensure that there is no favoritism or victimization.
Fairness and objectivity should prevail. This can also make a committed lecturer

78
to be self-actualized in the job. Based on this, the strength and weaknesses of the
staff can be identified easily and recommended for development training
programs as the need arises. Oduegbulem (2003) maintains that lecturers
participation in decision making; organizing workshops and enlightenment
programs for staff among others are relevant staff supervision strategies that
could be adopted by administrators. It is therefore evident that when staffs are
involved in some aspects of college organization and administration, it creates a
we-feeling of togetherness and comradeship, resulting in improved teaching
effectiveness.
Methodology
The Ex-post facto research design was used for this study. This research was
conducted in the six states that constitute the south-south geo-political zone of
Nigeria namely, Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Edo and Rivers State.
The population of the study was 63 lecturers. This comprised all the lecturers in
Colleges of Education that offer Agricultural Education programme in south-
south Geo political Zone. The total population of the Agricultural Education
lecturers from both federal and state Colleges of Education in south-south geo-
political zone of Nigeria was small therefore no sampling was carried out
hence the entire population of Agricultural Education lecturers were involved
in the study. A structured questionnaire was used as instrument for collecting
data for the study. The items in the study instruments were developed
personally by the researcher. The items were developed on the basis of the
major independent and dependent variables that directed the study. To
determine the reliability of the instrument, a trial testing was done using 20
lecturers drawn from Colleges of Education located in south East zone of
Nigeria. Test retest method of reliability was used to determine the reliability
estimate of the instrument. This method yielded reliability coefficients as
follows: Institutional variables of human resource supervision strategy (0.68);
Teaching effectiveness: self-control (0.85), classroom design techniques (0.82),
teaching of appropriate behavior (0.831), students lecturer relationship (0.88).
These indicated that the instrument was reliable. The research instrument was
administered personally by the researcher with the help of a research assistant
who was trained specifically for this purpose. The hypotheses postulated for this
study were tested at 0.05 significance level using Pearsons Product Moment
correlation Coefficient, the Population t-test and multiple linear regressions for
hypothesis 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The decision rule that guided the result
interpretations was that the null hypothesis was accepted if the calculated t-
value was less than or equal to the critical t- value and vice versa.
Results
Hypothesis one
Human resource supervision is not significantly related to of Agricultural
Education lecturers
The dependent variable in this hypothesis was teaching effectiveness of
Agricultural Education lecturers (categorized into self-control, classroom design
techniques, teaching of appropriate behaviour and Students lecturers

79
relationship. The independent variable was human resource supervision

strategy. To test this hypothesis, the Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Coefficient (r) analysis was used. The results of the analysis are presented in
Table 1
Table 1: Pearson Product Moment Correlation analysis of the relationship between human
resource supervision and Agricultural Education lecturers teaching effectiveness
Variable XY X2Y2 XY r-cal. p-val
Self-control 915.0 2380.3 1599 0.563* .000
Classroom 1002.0 2114 1438 0.387* .000

design
techniques
Teaching of 1022.0 2229 1483 0.357* .002
appropriate
behaviour
Students 1067.0 2018 3755 0.410 .003
lecturers
relationship
Teaching 869.0 5154
effectiveness
N = 63, *Significant at P<.05, df = 61, Critical -r = 0.195 (2 tailed)
Data in Table 1 indicated that all the calculated r-values of 0.563, 0.387, 0.357
and 0.410 were found to be greater than the critical r-value of 0.195 needed for
significance at 0.05 alpha levels with degrees of freedom. With these results the
null hypothesis was rejected in terms of self-control, classroom design
techniques, teaching of appropriate behaviour and Students lecturers
relationship. This meant that human resource supervision and teaching
effectiveness of Agricultural Education lecturers were significantly related.
Further indications were that the calculated r-values were all positive. This
meant that the more the lecturers are involved in human resource supervision,
the more the Agricultural Education lecturers teaching effectiveness and vice
versa.
Hypothesis Two
The Agricultural Education lecturers teaching effectiveness in Nigeria
Colleges of Education is significantly high
To test this hypothesis, population t-test statistical analysis procedures
were applied. The results of the analyses are presented on Table 2.
Table 2: Population t-test analysis of Agricultural Education lecturers teaching

effectiveness in Nigeria College of Education

80
Variable SD Cal. T value P-value
Hypothesized 12.50
mean
Self-control 13.816 2.433 7.019* .000
Classroom 14.812 3.214 10.713* .000

design
techniques
Teaching of 15.464 2.816 14.672* .000
appropriate
behavior
Students 17.377 2.2499 27.007* .000
lecturers
relationship
N = 60, *Significant for all groups at P<.05, df = 62, critical value t = 1.968 (1
tailed)
In Table 2, the calculated t-values of 7.019, 10.713, 14.672 and 27.007 were all
found to be greater than the tabulated t-value of 1.968, at 0.05 significance level,
with 62 degrees of freedom. With these results, the null hypothesis was rejected.
This meant that the teaching effectiveness of Agricultural Education lecturers in
Nigeria Colleges of Education was significantly low in terms of teachers self-
control, (13.816), classroom design technique 14.812), teaching of appropriate
behaviour (15.464) and Students lecturers relationship (17.377). By this
analogy, the respondents in this study perceived lecturers teaching effectiveness
as poor in terms of students lecturers relationship teaching of appropriate
behaviour, classroom design technique and teachers self-control.
Discussion of findings
Human resources supervision and Agricultural Education lecturers teaching
effectiveness
The findings in this aspect of the study revealed that human resource
supervision is significantly related with the teaching effectiveness of
Agricultural Education lecturers in Nigeria Colleges of Education. Furthermore,
the more the lecturers are involved in human resource supervision, the higher
their teaching effectiveness. These findings agree with Udo and Ankpa (2001)
who in their separate studies recognized human resources supervision as being
of great importance to any organization because it constitutes not only a usable
commodity but also a factor upon which the achievements as well as
advancement in society depends upon. Corroborating the above facts, Onwuka
(2008) and Peretamode (2005) whose separate studies see human resources
supervision as an onerous task of coordinating of all other resources of a nation
(or of an organization like an academic institutional set-up) to achieve not only
the objectives of the organization but also the satisfaction and development of
the staff.

81
This study also concurs that of Hunt and Osborn (2008), who in their studies
identified that such supervisory activities like human resource planning,
recruitment and selection, induction and orientation, development,
programmes, performance appraisal and promotion, retirement as well as
industrial relation, are all related to the role of heads of department as
supervisors. Human resource planning is an essential human supervisory
function in the college of Education system. The Provost must know the
requirement in terms of types of skills, levels and age category, present number
available and then predict future needs in area of changes. This process further
ensures that only the people who possess the right skills are employed, and in
correct proportion to the number of students admitted in the programmes. In
this case, lecturers teaching effectiveness becomes possible where they are
properly and effectively utilized by the institution,
The extent of teaching effectiveness of Agricultural Education lecturers in

Nigeria Colleges of Education
The findings in this aspect of the study revealed the fact that the teaching
effectiveness of Agricultural Education lecturers in Nigeria Colleges of
Education is not significantly high with respect to self-control, classroom design
techniques, teaching of appropriate behavior, and students- lecturers
relationship. This implied that all Agricultural Education lecturers perceived
themselves as fairly effective in teaching Agricultural Education in their various
Colleges. This could be human resources supervision besides other related
variables. Earwood (2009) is in concurrence with this finding when he said that
apart from human resource, other factor such as level of finance, level of
security, and work conditions have significant influence on teaching
effectiveness of and teachers. Job fulfillment is achieved when the job provides
those things which the staff feels are important in life. If the employer cannot
provide the opportunity for continued growth and advancement for example,
then lackadaisical disposition, disloyalty and apathy is developed towards work
which will ultimately lead to ineffective performance and reduced productivity.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded that there was significant
relationship between human resource supervision and Agricultural Education
lecturers teaching effectiveness in Nigeria College of Education. When the
lecturers are well supervised and also involved in human resource supervision
activities, effective teaching is bound to ensue this will be reflected in classroom
design technique, teaching of appropriate behaviour, students-lecturer
relationship, and self-control.
Recommendations
On the basis of the findings, the following recommendations were made:

1. The college administration should not independently employ and
impose staff on heads of departments.

82
2. Agricultural education lecturers should be carried along in issues of

human resource supervision in Nigeria College of Education
3. The agricultural education lecturers should be given opportunity to

develop their professional capacities, through in- service courses for
higher degree
4. Agricultural Education lecturers should be sponsored by the College

authorities to attend conferences and workshops to acquire new ideas
through interaction with their peers from other institutions.
5. The Federal and state governments as major stake holders in the Nigeria
college of Education system should employ more Agricultural Education
lecturers in Nigeria College of Education.
6. The college administration should not independently employ and
impose staff on heads of departments.
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84

Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 84-93, March 2015
Middle School Students Academic Motivation: A

Missing Element in a General Education Quality
Improvement Program in Ethiopia
Abebe Kinde Getachew

Jimma University,
Jimma, Ethiopia
Abstract. This research was conducted to show policy makers and quality
improvement personnel how the classroom and personal goals related to
academic effort and intrinsic motivation employing the revised goal theory
of motivation. 809 middle school students were taken from different schools
by stratified and systematic sampling techniques from Jimma zone,
Ethiopia. The study found out mastery classroom goal was high (Mean
=2.49, S=.42) relative to performance-approach classroom goal (Mean =2.48,
S=.42) and performance-avoidance classroom goal (Mean =2.28, S=.57); and
also mastery goal was high (Mean =2.89, S=.24) as compared to performance
avoidance goal (Mean =2.52, S=.49) and performance approach goal (Mean
=2.38, S=.57). A test of one-way ANOVA revealed a statistically significant
mean differences in students mastery goal between grade 6 and 7 students
and between grade 6 and 8 students, F (2,647) = 6.085, p=.002. 7% of the
variance in students intrinsic motivation in the academic task was
explained for by the linear combination of the independent
variables. Similarly, 11% of the variance in students effort in
the academic task was explained for by the linear combination of the
independent variables. Moreover, the study found out mastery goals and
performance goals had positive and negative outcomes, respectively. The
study implies the General Education Quality Improvement Programs
(GEQIP) in Ethiopia should be revisited in a way that addresses explicitly
the motivation of middle school students at a classroom level.
Key Words: Classroom Goal Perception; Personal Goal Orientations;

Revised Goal Theory of Motivation
Background
A number of research works affirmed poor quality of education characterized by
low academic achievement and low level of students motivation in Ethiopia.

85
Prominent among these were Students National Learning Assessments (NLA)

(2011, 2007) which found out low student's motivation for learning; and academic
achievements of grade four and eight students in different subjects (English,
Mathematics and other subjects) were far less than the minimum expected standard
(50%) of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopian Education and Training
Policy (1995).
In response to this, the government of Ethiopia introduced and implemented a

General Educational Quality Improvement Program (GEQIP) in schools. The GEQIP
addressed the following components since its inception:
Curriculum, Textbooks and Assessment and Inspection; (ii) Teacher

Development Program (TDP), including English Language Quality
Improvement Program (ELQIP); (iii) School Improvement Program (SIP),
including school grants; (iv) Management and Administration Program
(MAP), including EMIS; and (v) Program Coordination, including
Monitoring and Evaluation Activities. (GEQIP, 2008:3).
However, the average academic achievements of students in grades 4 and 8 have

not improved. For example, the fourth National Learning Assessment (2011)
showed the average scores of students in various subjects were below the expected
standard. Similarly, the Education Sector Development Program reported:
Notwithstanding major investments in improving the numbers and the

qualifications of teachers and the availability of equipment, student
achievements have not sufficiently improved. The gains in access are of
little meaning if they are not accompanied by improved student learning. If
students do not acquire significant knowledge and skills, Ethiopia will not
be able to compete within a global economy. (ESDP IV, 2010: 10).
Different explanation could be forwarded as to why the quality improvement

program failed to bring the intended target in relation to students academic
achievements. One of the explanations could revolve around students motivation.
Though the third NLA (2007) found out students lacked the potent psychological
factors such as motivation which could be cultivated in the classroom, the quality
improvement program did not address explicitly what should be done at the
classroom level to enhance students motivation. Moreover, the School
Improvement Program Guidelines (2010), one sub-components of GEQIP, and the
GEQIP II (2013) did not address adequately the components of motivation and how
to promote students motivation at a classroom level. However, various scholars
advocate the importance of motivation in influencing students academic
achievements (Areepattamannil, Freeman, & Klinger, 2011b).

86
Thus, this research was conducted to show policy makers and quality improvement
personnel how middle school students perceived a classroom goal structures; and
how these variables and students personal goals related to academic effort and
intrinsic motivation employing the revised goal theory of motivation. By doing so,
the policy makers and others concerned bodies working on ensuring quality of
education in middle school students of Ethiopia could get invaluable insight and
may consider students motivation explicitly for their future intervention. Therefore,
the study deals with:
To what extent do classroom goal and students goal orientation related?

What are the magnitudes of these variables?
Are there significant mean differences among these variables by grade level?
How did these variables predict academic effort and intrinsic motivation?
Theoretical framework
Even though researchers have used diverse motivational approaches, achievement

goal theory of motivation is the prominent theory which explains students
academic motivation and engagements in relation to classroom practices (Meece,
Anderman & Anderman, 2000). The theory assumes that motivation and behaviors
are explained by the reasons students forwarded for engaging in academic work
(Ames, 1992; Dweck & Legget, 1988). Achievement goal theory of motivation has
attested the importance of classroom goal structure as an important determinant of
student learning goals, and academic outcomes (Ames, 1992). Moreover, motivation
and achievement are influenced by the classroom goals which include practices and
policies as dictated by the classroom teacher (Ames & Archer, 1988). These goals,
according to the revised goal theory of motivation are mastery, performance
approach and performance avoidance goals (Harackiewicz, Barron, Pintrich, Elliot,
& Thrash, 2002).
In a classroom in which students perceive the importance of the task at hand and
expectations of success are high, the tendency to adopt mastery goal would be
maximized (Midgley Kaplan & Middleton, 2001). On the other hand, in a classroom
in which students perceive that teachers emphasize ability grouping and
performance evaluation, the tendency to adopt performance-approach goal would
be high (Cauley et al., 2005). Similarly, in a classroom in which students perceive
that failure is not considered as an opportunity for learning/teaching or failure is
considered as a lack of ability, adoption of performance avoidance orientation is
more likely (Svinicki, 2005).
The different goals students adopt resulted in different educational outcomes.

Mastery goal related to a number of positive behavior ( Dweck &Leggett, 1988 ;
Midgley et al. , 2001 ; Pintrich , 1999) and on the contrary, performance approach
goal oriented students for excelling others and documented their ability while

87
performance avoidance goal oriented students to conceal their inability or avoid

difficult task ( Pintrich, 1999 ).
Methods and Materials
The populations of this study were 8,090 middle school students (grade 6, 7.and 8)
located at Jimma zone, District town, Ethiopia. 10 % (809) of students from the
population were taken from different schools by stratified and systematic sampling
techniques. Data for the achievement goals, effort and intrinsic motivation were
secured by means of scales adopted from Midgley et al. (2000) and Motivation
Inventory website (http://selfdeterminationtheory.org ). Students rated the various
items on a three point scale (1=Not at all true, 2= somewhat true, 3= very true). The
personal goal scale contains 14 items. 5 items measure mastery and performance
approach goal whereas the performance goal scale contains 4 items. The classroom
goal scale contains 14 items. The mastery goal scale contains 6 items, the
performance approach goal scale contains 3 items and the remaining 5 items
assessed performance avoidance goal structure. The effort and the intrinsic
motivation scales contained 5 and 7 items, respectively. Pilot test was carried out on
50 middle school students with the aim of checking the reliability coefficient of the
various scales. Moreover, professionals from psychology department checked the
contextual relevance of the various items. The internal reliability estimates of the
various scales were acceptable, ranging from .62 to .86 and also some items were
modified based on the comments of expert analysis.
Result
Socio demographic characteristics of the respondents
671 (83%) students filled out the questionnaire correctly. The rest 138 (17%) of
participants did not complete the questionnaire correctly and thus avoided from the
final analysis. 314 (46.8%) of the respondents were males and 357 (53.2 %) were
females. 131 (19.5%), 214 (31.9%) and 326 (48.6%) students were taken from grade
eight, seven and six respectively. The mean age of respondents was 14.02 with a
standard deviation of 1.63.
Relationship of classroom goal and personal goal
There were significant relationship between students mastery goal and mastery
classroom goal (r = .135, p < .01), performance approach goal and performance
approach classroom goal (r = .440,21p < .01) and performance avoidance goal and
performance avoidance classroom goal (r = .416, p < .01). The regression analysis
also indicated that almost 2% of the variance in students mastery goal was
explained by mastery classroom goal. Mastery classroom goal significantly

88
predicted students mastery goal (b=.076, t=3.357, p = .001). Similarly, the proportion
of variance in performance approach and performance avoidance goals explained
for by performance approach and performance avoidance classroom goals were
19.4% and 17.2% respectively. Performance approach classroom and performance
avoidance classroom goals significantly predicted students performance approach
and performance avoidance goals (b=. 611, t= 12.01, p = .000; b =.358, t=11.39, p =
.000).
Magnitude of perceived classroom goal and personal goal
As indicated in the table below, the mean score of the three types of classroom and
personal goals were above the scale mean (2.00). Students perceived the middle
classroom goal as more of mastery support (Mean =2.49, S=.42) and performance
approach support (Mean =2.48, S=.42) while the mean score on performance
avoidance classroom support (Mean =2.28, S=.57) was relatively low as compared to
the mastery and performance approach classroom structures.
Table 1: Mean score of students perception of the classroom goal and personal goal
__________________________________________________________________________
Variables Mean Std. Dev.
Mastery classroom goal 2.49 .42
Per Performance approach classroom goal 2.48 .42
Performance avoidance classroom goal 2.28 .57
Ma Mastery goal 2.89 .24
Pe Performance approach goal 2.38 .57
Per Performance avoidance goal 2.52 .49
Similarly, the mean score on mastery goal (Mean =2.89, S=.24) was higher than both
performance approach and performance avoidance goals. The mean score on
performance avoidance goal (Mean =2.52, S=.49) was greater than the average score
on performance approach goal (Mean=2.38, S=.57).
Students personal goal by grade level
As indicated in the table below, the mean scores of grade 6 students on mastery goal
was higher than grade 7 and 8 students while the mean score on mastery goal for
grade 7 students was higher than grade eight students. A test of one way ANOVA
indicated statistically significant differences on mastery goal at least in a pair of
grade levels , F ( 2,647 )= 6.085, p=.002, 2 = .018. The post hoc comparison test
indicated that there was statistically significant mean differences on mastery goal
between grade 6 and 7 students (MD=.003); and between grade 6 and 8 students
(MD=.008). The rest was not statistically significant.

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Table 2: Mean score of students personal goal orientations by grade levels
Mean Std. Dev.

Grade level Mastery goal
8 2.83 .32
7 2.91 .23
6 2.91 .19
Performance approach goal
8 2.40 .53
7 2.42 .59
6 2.36 .57
Performance avoidance goal
8 2.55 .45
7 2.52 .49
6 2.52 .51
Though there were not statistically significant mean differences on performance

approach and performance avoidance goals by grade level , the mean scores of
grade 6 students on performance approach goal was lower than grade 7 and 8
students; the performance approach goal for grade 7 students was higher than
grade 8 students ; the performance avoidance goal for grade 6 students was lower
than grade 7 and 8 students and the performance avoidance goal for grade 7
students was lower than grade 8 students.
Perceived classroom goal structures analysis by grade levels
Though there was not statistically significant mean differences on the various types
of classroom goals by grade levels , the mean score of grade 8 students on mastery
classroom goal was higher than grade 6 and 8 students; the mastery classroom goal
for grade 6 students was higher than grade 7 students ; the performance approach
classroom goals for grade 8 and 7 students were higher than grade 6 students; the
performance avoidance classroom goal for grade 8 students was higher than grade 6
and 7 students; and the performance avoidance classroom goal for grade 6 students
was higher than grade 7 students.
Table 3: Mean score on perceived classroom goal structures by grade levels
Mean Std. Dev.

Grade level Mastery classroom goal
8 2.55 .44
7 2.46 .42
6 2.50 .41

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Performance approach classroom goal

8 2.50 .41
7 2.50 .45
6 2.47 .40
Performance avoidance classroom goal
8 2.38 .56
7 2.25 .56
6 2.26 .57
The final analysis was to find out the how well socio-demographic variables,
students personal and classroom goals predicted students effort and intrinsic
motivation. 7% of the variance in students intrinsic motivation in academic task
was explained for by the linear combination of performance avoidance and mastery
classroom goal, mastery and performance approach goals. The performance
avoidance classroom and performance approach goals negatively predicted
students academic intrinsic motivation (b= -.089, t= -3.704, p = .000), (b= -.072, t= -2.
747, p = .006), respectively. Students mastery and mastery classroom goals
positively predicted students academic intrinsic motivation (b=.177, t=3.164, p =
.002) , ( b=.076, t= 2. 181, p = .030), respectively. The socio-demographic, the rest of
the classroom and personal goals variables were not statistically significant
predictors of academic intrinsic motivation in middle school students.
Table 4: Predictors of academic intrinsic motivation
Beta coefficients t test Sig.

Constant 2.12 12.79 .000
Performance avoidance classroom goal -.90 -3.70 .000
Mastery goal .18 3.16 .002
Performance approach goal -.07 -2.75 .006
Mastery classroom goal .08 2.18 .030
With respect to effort, 11 % of the variance in students effort in academic task was
explained for by the linear combination of performance avoidance, performance
approach, mastery and performance avoidance classroom goals. The performance
avoidance, performance avoidance classroom and performance approach goals
negatively predicted students academic effort (b= -.088, t= -2.565, p = .011), (b= -
.075, t= -3.031, p = .003), (b= -.066, t= -2. 276, p = .023), respectively. Students
mastery goal positively predicted students academic effort (b=.224 , t=3.831, p =
.000).

91
Table 5: Predictors of academic effort
Beta coefficients t test Sig.

Constant 2.37 14.45 .000
Performance avoidance goal -.09 -2.57 .011
Mastery goal .22 3.83 .000
Performance avoidance classroom -.075 -3.03 .003
Performance approach goal -.066 -2.28 .023
Discussions and implications

The study found out middle school students perceived classroom goal as more of
mastery support, followed by performance approach and performance avoidance. It
seems that middle school classrooms in the study setting emphasize multiple goal
messages which were consistent with the finding of Ames (1992). According to
Ames, the tendency to adopt multiple goals would be high in a classroom that
emaphaisze multiple goals structures. Accordingly, scholars indicated that the
multiple goal messages resulted in adoption of various goals. Pintrich, Conley &
Kempler (2003) propound that varieties of instructional strategies in classrooms
containing different messages and signal could resulted in the adoption of multiple
goals. Thus, it is not surprising to find out that middle school students at Jimma
Zone had a high level of mastery, performance approach and performance
avoidance in line with the multiple messages of the classroom goal. Several
researches also indicated the existence of multiple goal orientations based on the
reality of the classroom goal structures (Pintrich, 2000; Pintrich & Garcia, 1991 as
cited in Pintrich et al, 2003).
The study also indicated that the mean score of grade 6 students on mastery
orientation was found to be higher than grade 7 and 8 students and in turn grade 7
students mean score on mastery orientation was found to be higher than grade eight
students. Research in other contexts also confirmed the deterioration of middle
school students motivation as they go higher (Bong, 2001) due to various factors
including characteristics of the learning environment. However, there were no
statistically significant differences on classroom goals across the three grade levels
as it seems teachers in these grade use similar strategies.
Dozens of researches have also evidenced the influence of mastery and performance
goals on students academic outcomes. In this study it was discovered that
performance avoidance and performance approach classroom goals negatively
predicted students intrinsic motivation; performance avoidance, performance
avoidance classroom and performance approach goals negatively predicted
students effort consistent with the findings of other researches (Ames, 1992; Dweck
& Leggett, 1988; Pintrich, 1999). Similarly, students mastery and mastery classroom
goals positively predicted students intrinsic motivation; mastery goal positively
predicted students academic effort consistent with the findings of other studies.

92
Various studies also indicated the positive side of mastery goal such as high level of
intrinsic motivation and effort (Ames, 1992; Midgley et al., 2001; Pintrich, 1999).
The study came up with important implications for the policy makers, Ministry of
Education of Ethiopia, the District Education offices, School Director, and middle
schools teachers. As various scholars advocated and the present findings showed
classroom practices and policies should get attention in the realm of promoting
students academic learning. Specifically, the concerned bodies should work on
promoting mastery goal as it is related to a number of positive outcomes. In this
regard, it is imperative to create middle school classroom practice and policies
characterised by interesting, challenging tasks, autonomy support and evaluation
processes that emphasize effort rather than ability. On the other hand, classroom
practices and policies characterised by competition, performance and ability
demonstration should be discouraged as such type of classroom resulted in a
number of negative educational outcomes. Moreover, minimizing a classroom
policies and practices in which failure is not considered as an opportunity for
learning/teaching or failure is considered as a lack of ability should be high on the
agenda of promoting middle school students academic motivation and academic
achievements in Ethiopia. Thus, the General Education Quality Improvement
Packages (GEQIP) in Ethiopia should be revisited in a way that addresses explicitly
the motivation of the middle school students at a classroom level as scholars
expound the benefit of such interventions in bringing about high-quality
educational reform with a minimum cost (Cohen, Garcia, Purdie- Vaughns, Apfel,
& Brzustoski, 2009).
Limitation
The study employed a cross-sectional design which resulted in a limitation of

establishing causal relationship between variables. Similarly, the study used a self
reported questionnaire which is characterised by inherent biases in which the
researcher could not establish whether the participants truly respond to items
presented. Lastly, though the study came up with important findings to the policy
makers with limited sample and coverage, further study should be conducted
taking larger samples in other areas to generalize the findings of the present study.
References
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strategies and motivation processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 260
267.
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 84, 3, 261-271.
Areepattamannil, S., Freeman, J. G., & Klinger, D. A. (2011b). Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic
motivation and academic achievement among Indian adolescents in Canada and
India. Social Psychology of Education.
Bong, M. (2001). Between and Within Domain Relations of Academic Motivation Among
Middle and High School Students: Self Efficacy, Task Value and Achievement Goals.

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Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 1, 23-29

Cauley et. al . (2006). The relationship between classroom assessment practices and student
Motivation and engagement: A literature review . Metropolitan Educational Research
Consortium, Virginia Common Wealth University.
Cohen ,G. L., Garcia J., Purdie-Vaughns V., Apfel N. & Brzustoski P. (2009). Recursive
Processes in Self-Affirmation: Intervening to Close the Minority Achievement Gap.
www.sciencemag.org
Dweck, C., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and
personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256273.
Education Sector Development Program IV Program Action Plan, (2010) . Federal Ministry
of Education of Ethiopia . Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) , (1995). Education and Training Policy
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
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Education of Ethiopia . Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
General Education Quality Improvement Programe , (2008). Federal Ministry of Education
of Ethiopia Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Pintrich, P. R., Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2002).
Revision of achievement goal theory: Necessary and illuminating. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 94, 638645.
Intrinsic Motivation Inventory website , http://selfdeterminationtheory.org.
Meece , J. L., Anderman, E. M., & Anderman L. H. (2006). Classroom Goal Structure,
Student Motivation, and Academic Achievement, Annu. Rev. Psychol., 57, 487-503
Midgley, C., Maehr, M. L., Hruda, L. Z., Freeman, K. E., Gheen, M., Kaplan, A., Kumar, R.,
Middleton, M. J., Nelson, J ., Roeser, R., & Urdan, T. (2000). Manual for the patterns
of adaptive learning scales. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan:
Midgley, C., Kaplan, A., & Middleton, M. (2001). Performance-approach goals: Good for
what, for whom, under what circumstances, and at what cost? Journal of
Educational Psychology, 1, 93, 7786.
National Learning Assessment of Grade Four Students (2011). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
National Learning Assessment of Grade Eight Students (2011). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
National Learning Assessment of Grade Four Students (2007). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
National Learning Assessment of Grade Eight Students (2007). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Pintrich , Conley, & Kempler (2003). Current issues in achievement goal theory and
Research. International Journal of Educational Research, 39, 319337
Pintrich, P.R. (2000). Multiple goals, multiple pathways: The role of goal orientations in
learning and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 544-555
Pintrich, P.R. (1999). The role of motivation in promoting and sustaining self-regulated
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Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 94-111, March 2015
Evaluating Asynchronous Discussion as Social

Constructivist Pedagogy in an Online
Undergraduate Gerontological Social Work Course
Cari L. Gulbrandsen, Christine A. Walsh, Amy E. Fulton,

Anna Azulai and Hongmei Tong
University of Calgary
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Abstract. Our design-based research project used constructivist grounded

theory methodology to determine if specific pedagogies used in an online
gerontological social work course stimulated learners critical reflection and
reflexivity. The purpose of our study was to describe the learning that
occurred in response to an instructional design based on social
constructivism and to identify strategies for improving the instructional
design in future iterations of the course. Our analysis focused on two
specific pedagogies that are grounded in social constructivism; the
asynchronous discussion and the use of problem-based learning to better
understand how learners construct meaning and to determine whether
these pedagogies are effective means of stimulating critical reflection and
reflexivity. Social work education scholars have suggested that critical
reflection and reflexivity are higher-level cognitive operations that are
conducive to learners developing capacity for anti-oppressive social work
practice with older adults.
Keywords: online instruction; constructivism; critical reflection; reflexivity;
gerontology
Introduction
This article outlines how an instructional team co-created, co-taught and evaluated
an online undergraduate gerontological social work course. Our design-based
research project involved examining learners responses to two social constructivist
pedagogies. The focus of our evaluation was to examine the effect of asynchronous
discussion and case-based learning on learners articulation of critical thinking and
reflexivity. Critical thinking is a key objective of social work education identified by
social work scholars (Bay & MacFarlane, 2011; DCruz, Gillingham, & Melendez,
2007; Lay & McGuire, 2010), who have promoted critical thinking and reflexivity as
valued outcomes of constructivist instructional designs. Our findings support the

95
assertions of social work scholars who have suggested that asynchronous

discussion and case-based learning as effective catalysts for the development of
higher order cognitive skills (Bellefuille, 2006; Domakin, 2013, Majeski & Stover,
2007). Excerpts from the asynchronous discussion threads on the online discussion
board illustrate how learners demonstrated varying degrees of critical reflection
and reflexivity. As social work educators, our own critical reflections on learners
responses prompted us to discuss how we could more effectively encourage
learners to engage more deeply and critically with the course content and how we
could better support their progress towards more complex cognitive activities in
future iterations of the course. Based on the recommendations of researchers who
have developed focused approaches to teaching critical reflection and reflexivity
(Ash & Clayton, 2004; Lay & McGuire, 2010, Ryan & Ryan, 2013), we anticipate that
future iterations of our instructional design will adopt more structured pedagogical
approaches and provide scaffolding that will more closely attune learners to the
value of critical reflection and reflexivity in their social work practice and support
their development of these complex cognitive skills.
Instructional Design
The course, an elective BSW course in gerontology, was the only gerontology course
offered in the faculty of social work in one Canadian province. Therefore, for many
students, it would be sole course in their program of studies that focused
exclusively on gerontology. Thus, with a goal of introducing social work students to
gerontological social work, we identified five key sub-topics as most relevant to
social work practice in order to promote further engagement in gerontology
education and facilitate linkages between students personal experiences and social
work practice.
We began our instructional design process by formulating the following course
objectives: (1) sensitize learners to the needs and characteristics of older adults; (2)
develop learners capacity for critical reflection and reflexivity; (3) introduce
theories about aging; (4) identify specific practice issues that gerontological social
workers encounter; (5) identify structural factors to consider when working with
older adults in practice contexts; and (6) prepare learners for anti-oppressive
practice with older adults. One significant challenge was to select topics that would
provide an adequate foundation of knowledge for social work practice with older
adults, given the considerable breadth of possible course material. Consistent with
the recommendations outlined by Damon-Rodriguez et al. (2006), we began with a
comprehensive definition of gerontological social work:
1) A professionally responsible intervention to enhance the developmental, problem
solving and coping capacities of older adults and their families 2) promote the
effective and humane operating of systems that provide services for older adults
and their families 3) to link older adults with systems that provide them with
services, resources and opportunities 4) contribute to the development and

96
improvement of social policies that support persons throughout the life-span.

(Berkman, Dorbrof, Harry, & Damon-Rodriguez, 1997, p. 143)
We also identified contemporary issues related to aging in Canada including:
diversity, Aboriginal seniors, healthcare services and victimization/elder abuse
(Statistics Canada, 2006). From the selection of possible topics, we created five
modules that aligned with our areas of expertise as individual scholars.
Course Overview
The course was delivered via an electronic learning management system,
Desire2Learn (D2L), which provided the architecture for the course and contained
the content, readings, discussion boards and assessment tools. Specific learning
objectives were provided in the course syllabus, which was posted online in D2L.
The course comprised a brief introductory module, which introduced the
instructors and outlined the course expectations and objectives in detail, followed
by five standardized content specific modules, each of which was taught by one of
the instructors. Modules lasted for two week and covered the following topics: a)
Physiological correlates of aging and gerontology theories; b) Diversity and aging;
c) Abuse of older adults; d) Chronic health conditions and the Continuing Care
System; and e) End of life-care and death and dying.
Each module featured a pre-recorded lecture presentation, created using a
combination of Microsoft PowerPoint and Adobe Presenter software, several
required and supplementary readings and a choice of one of three case-based
asynchronous discussions. Persistent links to the readings and cases were provided
within D2L, allowing seamless access to the course materials from the university
library or other Internet databases, such as youtube.com.
The course contained two asynchronous discussion elements with questions related
to case studies that were primarily based on online videos sourced from
youtube.com and discussions related to the module content. These were formulated
to engage learners in a process of grappling with various issues and complexities
that gerontological social workers encounter in real-life practice, as well as
encouraging the application and synthesis of new theoretical knowledge while
stimulating critical reflection and reflexivity. Other course assignments consisted of
a group project on one of the module topics and a written paper, which involved a
case study analysis.
Instructors conveyed expectations that learners would engage in critical thinking
and reflexivity for each course assignment via evaluative rubrics, which were
posted within the online environment. Criteria were outlined in concrete terms--
articulating specific actions, cognitive skills, or capacities that learners should be
developing or engaging in. The evaluation purposefully aligned with the aims of
social constructivist learning and higher order cognitive skills required for
exemplary performance.

97
Literature Review
Social Constructivist Pedagogy
According to Jonassen (1994), social constructivism proposes fundamental
epistemological assumptions about the nature of learning; this theoretical
framework emphasizes multiple interpretations of reality, construction of
knowledge, interaction, authentic tasks and reflection. Social constructivist
pedagogy, founded by Vygotsky (1978), emphasizes that meaning construction in
the learning process occurs through and is inseparable from social interaction
within a specific sociocultural context (Paily, 2013; Woo & Reeves, 2007). Vygotskys
(1978) theoretical framework for social constructivism, with its emphasis on social
interaction, metacognition, analysis, problem solving, authentic learning tasks that
reflect the complexity of real world problems, is complementary to online learning
environments where learners assume an active role in their learning and in
constructing and co-constructing new knowledge (Pailey, 2013). Social
constructivists propose that learning and thinking are situated in social contexts,
which is compatible with our instructional design that incorporates authentic and
applied learning activities and opportunities for interaction which challenge
learners to develop beyond their cognitive abilities and support them to achieve
higher levels of skill and depth of knowledge (Woo & Reeves, 2007).
Cornerstones of Social Constructivism: Critical Reflection and Reflexivity

Critical reflection and reflexivity are essential aspects of anti-oppressive social work
practice, conducive to challenging neoliberalism, capitalism, inequality and
oppressive structural conditions, and serving as a catalyst for social change
(Brookfield, 2009; Fook & Askeland, 2007; Morley & Dunstan, 2013). Instructional
design scholars and educators have advanced pedagogical strategies grounded in
social constructivist epistemologies, with connections between reflexivity and
critical reflection (Bellefeuille, Bellefeuille Martin, & Buck, 2005; Bye, Smith, &
Rallis, 2009; Paily, 2013; Ruey, 2010; Thormann, Gable, Fidalgo, & Blakeslee, 2013).
Additionally, the Canadian Social Work Education Policy and Accreditation
Standards (CSWE, 2008) core competency of critical thinking aligns with the social
constructivist demand for critical reflection in educational processes (Colby, 2014).
The subtle distinctions that differentiate critical reflection and reflexivity have
implications for instruction, yet are often used interchangeably in academic
literature (Brookfield, 2009; Fook & Askelund, 2007). Distinctions between critical
reflection and reflexivity arise in relation to differences in focus. Brookfield (2009)
noted that critical reflection differs in its foregrounding of power dynamics and
relationships and its determination to uncover hegemonic dimensions to practice
(p. 294). According to Bay and Macfarlane (2011):

98
Critical reflection provides one way of stepping back from practice. By locating
ourselves directly within the incident or event, we subject our practice to a critical
gaze, unraveling the meanings and discourses embedded in our sense making and
narratives, scrutinizing knowledge claims our own and others. (p. 748)
They further suggested that critical reflection focuses on juxtaposing theoretical
perspectives with lived experience and deriving meaning from lived experience,
including the lived experience of practicing social work. Learning environments
should provide ample opportunities for critical reflection, which then can become a
catalyst for constructing meaning from personal and practice experience (Bay &
Macfarlane, 2011). Critical reflection is a contested concept whereby, how the term
is understood reflects the ideology of the user (Brookfield, 2009, p. 275),
underscoring the importance of making explicit what exactly what is meant by
critical reflection in any given context. Morley and Dunstan (2013) proposed that
critical reflection can be a mechanism for resistance to the forces of neoliberalism
that contribute to the oppression that constrains social workers in their practice and
in their efforts to create social change.
Critical reflection, DeCruz et al. (2007) argued, occurs in response to an action or an
incident, whereas reflexivity is concerned with action and interaction as it transpires
and within the processes of challenging and analyzing knowledge claims. They
conceived of three variations of reflexivity: (a) individual directions and making
choices about courses of action; (b) a critical stance that involves examining the
process of constructing knowledge; and (c) exploring the role of emotions. They also
described a dimension of reflexivity that is concerned with bridging gaps between
theoretical and practice knowledge. Although Dean (2007) acknowledged the
challenges involved in teaching to supporting reflexivity, she suggested that the
pursuit of reflexivity is worthwhile as it emphasizes praxis; forging a link between
learning and personal action towards social change, consistent with the broad aims
of social work education. Brookfield (2009) differentiated critical reflection and
reflexivity, acknowledging that reflexivity considers ones own social location and
the implications of that social location in analysis.
Although the significance of critical reflection and reflexivity have been promoted,
few suggestions for incorporating these practices into instructional design of online
gerontological social work courses are available. Instructional design scholars have,
however, identified that social constructivist pedagogies are compatible with online
learning environments (Bye, Smith, & Rallis 2009; Thormann, Gable, Fidalgo, &
Blakeslee 2013) and can facilitate depth of learning in gerontology, specifically
(Cotter, Welleford, & Drain, 2008; Hill & Edwards, 2004).
Discussion Boards and Co-Constructing Knowledge

Social constructivist pedagogy emphasizes meaningful interaction that is based on
the principle of intersubjectivity defined as mutual understanding that is

99
achieved between people through effective communication (Woo & Reeves, 2007,
p. 19). In an online learning environment, asynchronous discussion that takes place
via discussion boards can support a constructivist framework as it provides a
context for peer and instructor communication (Levine, 2007). Asynchronous
discussion promotes higher-level thinking, collaboration, problem solving,
reflection, shared knowledge and social and cognitive knowledge construction
(Domakin, 2013; Majeski & Stover, 2007; Penny & Murphy, 2011; Wyss, Freedman,
& Siebert, 2014).
We implemented an online discussion board to align with constructivist theorys
stance that, knowledge is socially situated and is constructed through reflection on
ones own thoughts and experiences as well as other learners ideas (Ruey, 2010, p.
707). However, despite the numerous advantages of online discussion boards, their
potential is not always actualized and therefore learners do not always progress
beyond information sharing to a point of deep learning that occurs through debate,
reflection and application of critical thinking skills (Domakin, 2013). In order for
discussion boards to deliver the desired learning outcomes, the interaction that
occurs among discussion board participants must be meaningful such that
learners are engaged in negotiating, arguing points, responding, and offering
alternative perspectives (Woo & Reeves. 2007).
Authentic Learning
Authentic learning tasks, based in the real world and representative of the
complexity of social work practice (Bellefuille, 2006; Bellefuille, Martin, & Buck,
2005; Fire & Casstevans, 2013) are central to social constructivist pedagogy (Woo &
Reeves, 2007). Characteristics of authentic learning tasks in online learning
environments include real-world relevance, complexity, inclusion of multiple
perspectives and conducive to reflection (Reeves, Herrington, & Oliver, 2002).
Although an online course in gerontological social work cannot typically provide
direct interaction with older adults, case-based learning through case studies can
approximate authentic learning, thereby providing learners with opportunities to
engage in critical analysis, draw on personal and practice experience, and learn
from collaboration, dialogue and the perspectives of other learners (Bellefuille,
2006). Case-based learning can provide learners with exposure to clinical or real life
client situations they wouldnt otherwise have access to (Popil, 2011). Case-based
instruction promotes, problem solving transfer by providing learners with
contextualized situations in which they can deliberately work with and apply
theoretical knowledge to teaching scenarios (Abercrombie, 2013, p. 149). Case
discussion enhances depth of learning and the development of problem-solving
skills in a learning situation where they can discuss issues and experiences with
other learners (Forsegren Christensen, & Hedemalm, 2014; Loghmani, Bayliss,
Strunk, & Altenburger, 2011). In the context of an online asynchronous discussion
board, Harrison, Mulloy, Harris, and Flinton (2012) asserted that the potential of

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case-based learning is enhanced because learners can take the time to reflect on the
case scenario and engage in additional research to apply to their analysis and
understanding.
Social Constructivism and Assessment

Instructional design that is informed by social constructivist pedagogy is ideally
paralleled by complementary assessment practices that evaluate the extent to which
the potential of social constructivist pedagogy is being realized. As an example,
Wyss, Freedman, and Siebert (2014) recommended explicitly informing learners
about what constitutes scholarly contributions to an online discussion board. In turn
these explicit expectations can serve as a basis for assessment tools, such as rubrics,
which are helpful in informing learners understandings of instructors expectations
regarding quality performance, level of participation, and standards for written
work. Social work educators suggest that assessment criteria need to be related to
specific skills and competencies including reflection, reflexivity and problem
solving, which aligns with social constructivist pedagogy (Majeski & Stover, 2007;
Woo & Reeves, 2007).
Methods
Approach
Barab and Squire (2004) conceived of design-based research as a selection of
methodologies chosen according to their relevance for the research design
depending on the characteristics of the specific learning context. They outlined the
following defining characteristics of design-based research: (1) situated in real life
settings where learning occurs; (2) concerned with multiple dependent variables; (3)
focused on characterizing the complexity of learning situations; (4) involving cycles
of flexible designs and successive improvements to learning designs; and (5)
involving complex social interactions and participants who share ideas (Barab &
Squire, 2004, p. 4). A design-based research approach is suitable for our course as
we intend to apply study findings to improve future iterations of the course and to
inform scholarship on teaching and learning in social work education.
Prior to engaging in the study, ethics approval was obtained from the university
ethics board. At the beginning of the course, students were informed of the
opportunity to participate in the research project. Students who were interested in
participating in the study provided written informed consent to access discussion
board content once final grades were submitted. Of the 30 students enrolled in the
course, 27 consented to participate in the study and the data for analysis was drawn
from the discussion board responses for these students.

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Data Analysis
The computerized data analysis software program NVivo was used to manage the
qualitative data. Data analysis proceeded according to constructivist grounded
theory methodology (Charmaz, 2006). Initially, the data was analyzed line by line to
identifying text-based codes. Distinct units of meaning were then assigned with
conceptual labels, with attached theoretical memos to capture researchers
reflexivity during the coding process. The constructivist grounded theory coding
process involves two main phases; initial coding; the coding of words, lines, or
segments of data, followed by focused coding, which involves categorizing the
codes identified in the initial phase (Charmaz, 2006). Discussion board responses
were analyzed with critical reflection and reflexivity as possible sensitizing
concepts, which for researchers are, tentative tools for developing their ideas about
processes that they define in their data (Charmaz, 2006, p. 17). Themes and sub-
themes are represented by illustrative anonymous quotes drawn from the
discussion board. The illustrative quotes provide thick description which Bowen
(2010) described as fundamental to validity in constructivist grounded theory
analysis.
Results
Learners discussion board posts represented their efforts to express their critical
reflection and reflexivity. Critical reflection was evident when learners analyzed
personal or practice experiences or reflected on case study examples. In contrast,
reflexivity was evidenced by responses where learners reflected on their learning as
it occurred.
Sub-themes related to critical reflection illustrate: (a) how learners reflected on

significant incidents in their personal or practice experiences; (b) how learners
reflected on critical incidents featured in case examples; (c) how learners identified
significant factors related to identity differences and oppression that shape the
experiences of older adults; and d) how learners identified structural factors that
shape the experiences of older adults.
Sub-themes related to reflexivity illustrate: (a) learners appraisals of their own

knowledge about and experience with older adults; (b) learners references to future
social work practice with older adults; (c) learners expressions of emotionality in
response to learning about aging; and (d) learners consciousness of the need for
action towards improving the circumstances of older adults.

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Critical Reflection
Critical reflection on practice or personal experiences. The questions and prompts
provided by instructors in each module encouraged learners to construct and
reconcile meaning related to their personal and professional experiences with older
adults. As an example, one learner initiated a discussion thread by reflecting on her
practicum experiences. This learner described how reading course material about
older adults experiences with poverty prompted her to reflect on her practicum
experience working in a health care setting with older adults:
While reading the vignettes, it occurred to me that they were the similar to the
profiles of the senior hospital patients that my practicum supervisor and I are trying
to find appropriate monetary and physical assistance for. It appears that finances
influence how low income seniors view their lives. Financial strain at any age is
difficult and at a later age it can increase, as there are fewer resources available to
increase income.
Another learner described how their critical reflection involved recognizing and
challenging their own assumptions about older adults:
I, too had some preconceived notions about seniors before I started working at a
legal not for profit organization, which were proved very wrong when I started to
see the financial and legal troubles that many older adults find themselves in. I
think I had the idea in my head that once you reach a certain age it's time to relax
and live comfortably. The reality is so different from that idea.
The author of the post concluded by posing a question to stimulate further
reflection, Seeing it in my work and now again in these vignettes, I am struggling
with how to effectively advocate for these clients when the need is so great where
do we start?
An instructor responded to the learners question by critically reflecting on how
difficult it can be for social workers to encounter older adults who are struggling
with a myriad of complex issues and to determine how to advocate for social
change:
I can relate to your comment about struggling to find the best means of advocacy. It
is indeed overwhelming when there are so many interrelated issues that impact
older adults. It can be particularly overwhelming if you are an individual who has a
desire to confront systemic issues. Individual frequently discover they are isolated
in their advocacy efforts. Further, participation in advocacy can be a contentious in
some organizations.
Critical reflection on case examples. One learner reflected on how a video case
study about a palliative care program encouraged her to reflect on the value of
healthcare alternatives for clients who are dying. She described how the case

103
example helped her to understand the significance of dying with dignity, which
was introduced in a module lecture.
I find it comforting to know that hospice-palliative programs take a more
individualized approach to dying by helping to ease the process for the person
rather than solely treating the disease. I also like that the family is seen as crucial in
end-of-life care in hospice-palliative care services, especially when it comes to
decision-making and helping a client to have a good death, as discussed in the
lecture.
Another learner explained how the same case study prompted her to reflect on
what person-centered palliative care means:
So what would I like to see. compassion, of course. Doctors, nurses, volunteers,
social workers and anyone who works near a palliative care unit or in a hospice to
understand that dying is normal and nothing to be afraid of. Respect for the family
and for the person dying or in need of palliative care, especially since being
palliative can be for years! Person-centered means letting the person retain their
self-determination or letting the family have input. Like the hospice, let any age or
any number of family members and pets stay for as long as they want or need to
without judgment.
Critical reflection on identity factors and oppression. Drawing from her familys
experiences and her own practice experiences working with First Nations older
adults, one respondent began a discussion thread about how ethnicity and culture
influence the experiences of First Nations older adults. This learners post
encouraged her peers to consider the influences of colonization and residential
schooling experiences on First Nations older adults:
Now, as I live on the reserve, I see elders who struggle with so many health-related
problems; deteriorated housing, not enough social programs and limited education.
Most elders need an advocate to help them navigate in todays world. The biggest
challenge or disadvantage is their teachings are not utilized. Elders are forgotten
and not accessed enough for their historical language/customs. Health problems
and low economic status contributes to low quality living. Others have sub
standard housing that needs repair. I find that my kokum (grandmother) who is 88
can still speak her language and lives independently. She is not religious and has re-
taught herself the traditions once lost to her.
To encourage peers to reflect more deeply on and engage in further dialogue about
the resilience and circumstances of First Nations older adults, the author of the post
concluded by directing a question to their peers, When working with aging First
Nations peoples who struggle with addictions, grief and loss or other traumas, do
you take into account the historical shift that residential school had on ones cultural
experience?
Another learner responded by expressing their appreciation for the personal
experiences shared by the author of the post about First Nations older adults.

104
Thank you for sharing your personal story. I appreciate the opportunity to continue
to learn about the impact of residential schools that was never acknowledged or
taught in public schools. As an adult, I am still learning about all of the horrific
atrocities experienced by Indigenous individuals.
Critical reflection on structural factors. Consistent with generalist social work
education practices, learners used micro, mezzo and macro factors to understand
aging related issues. Learners demonstrated their consideration of structural factors
in their critical analyses of issues related to residential health care settings for older
adults. A video case study featuring an existing care setting prompted one
respondent to share their critical reflection on the case study with their peers.
The video really demonstrated person-centered care as it applies to seniors living in
care facilities and I believe it provided hope and evidence that this approach can be
effective in nursing homes. It was very clear that the staff featured in the video not
only know the residents who live there, but also care for them and their well-being.
One sentiment expressed by a staff member that resonated with me was the
importance of recognizing the person for who they are, and not for what their
diagnosis is.
This learner concluded her post with a question to encourage her peers to consider
other structural factors and the complex issues that arise:
It can be (for myself, at least) overwhelming to think about how more care facilities
can transition to person-centered approaches that promote the mental, physical,
social, emotional well-being of residents and staff alike. What do you think is the
first step needed for nursing homes to begin to transition to this approach?
Another learner responded to the question by suggesting that structural change
involves fundamental changes to relationships between staff that care for older
adults in facilities and the older adults they are caring for:
I think the first step needed for transition to person-centered care is a change in the
attitudes towards people in care. Specifically, the staff should perceive the person
as a person, rather than a diagnosis, thus acknowledging diversity of people and
their needs and wants.
Reflexivity
Self-evaluation. Reflecting on the course content prompted learners to assess their
skills, experience and knowledge and to identify opportunities for more in-depth
learning in key areas. As an example, one student reflected on death and dying and
how cultural factors influence how the topic of death and dying is approached:
I consider death and dying a very important component of my social work practice
because death is inevitable and it does not discriminate on the basis of class, gender
age, culture, sexual orientation or disability. Once it strikes, it hurts almost everyone

105
involved no matter how prepared we think we are. Therefore, learning how to

intervene and what to say to someone or a family that is experiencing grief or
anticipating a loss will help equip me with any population. Areas I would like to
more about include how issues of death and dying are communicated among
families in the various cultures and whether there are responses that are not
allowed or discouraged. For instance, coming from an African culture, death is not
something that is dealt with just by the family; it usually involves the whole
community.
Another learner contributed to the discussion thread about how death and dying
fits in their social work practice by commenting on their lack of knowledge or
experience with talking to clients about death and dying.
I have not had any conversations regarding end of life plans and care with clients so
far. I find the topic uncomfortable, since this class is the only class I have been able
to receive any education on this topic. I find it to be sort of a grey area because I am
a little unsure as to what to expect or how I would approach a situation like this. I
feel like I should know how to approach clients experiencing situations like these
because death is inevitable.
Application to practice. Participants identified ways in which their new knowledge
and awareness of gerontological social work could be applied to future practice
with older adults. As one respondent shared:
I need to do some critical thinking about how I can bring these [elder abuse] issues
to the forefront in my own work. I suppose a first step would be to learn to read the
signs of elder abuse so that I can recognize it in my clients lives. A small first step, I
know. From there, I could do something to educate my colleagues so that they are
also able to see if there is a problem with their own clients and abuse.
Another learner responded to the authors post by identifying further
considerations for social workers to address by advocating for improved living
conditions and care for older adults.
I agree with you, the first step would be to become educated on the signs so that
you can notice them when they are presented. The more the public and those who
work with older adults are aware, hopefully the better the chance that they will be
able to address the issues. I also think that there needs to be a lot of change at the
institutional level, meaning better care options for older adults and improving long-
term care facilities by ensuring that staff is valued, properly trained and not
overworked.
Emotionality. Learners engaged in reflection on their emotional reactions to the
course material. One respondent shared her personal reaction to a local community
qualitative research report that highlighted the lived experiences of older adults
who struggle with issues related to poverty:

106
After reading vignettes about poverty and issues in relations to low incomes, I was
shocked and almost ashamed of myself, as I guess I have always had a pre-
conceived notion that elderly people have enough money but were somehow cheap
or hoarding what they had because of their experiences in the past with the
Depression, but I was amazed at how wrong I am. I was deeply troubled by the fact
that being able to afford one avocado was a monthly luxury for someone.
An instructor reinforced the learners effort to engage in reflexivity by examining
their assumptions about older adults.
Engaging in reflexivity and recognizing our own assumptions is an ideal place to
start, particularly with respect to learning about a practice area or about a
population you are not familiar with. I agree that the older adults' stories that were
included in the report are very powerful! It occurred to me how many of their
experiences are relatively hidden from the outside world. You could meet an older
adult who is struggling with poverty, and not be able to tell how dire their
circumstances are.
Identifying possibilities for social change. Students described their increasing
awareness of various oppressions experienced by older adults and their need for
advocacy and social justice. As one learner elaborated on how circumstances could
be changed for older adults in the city she lives in:
According to the World Health Organizations Guide for Global Age-Friendly Cities
(2007), I would grade my citys age friendliness at a moderate level. For instance,
the treacherous winter conditions can make it intimidating for older citizens.
Sidewalks can be a grave issue; walking on the citys sidewalks feels intimidating
due to icy conditions, so I can only imagine the fear and hesitation of an older
person may experience. There are many things that the city is doing well, yet there
are considerable areas for growth, especially in regards to housing to be improved
upon. One such way would be advocating for better housing options for seniors in
accessible and affordable neighborhoods where they would feel safe and involved.
Several learners formulated recommendations for improving the circumstances of
the older adults in their community and readily responded to peers posts on the
topic of age friendly cities. Another learner shared her recommendations for
making the smaller centre she lived in more age friendly.
As a social worker interested in structural change, I envision myself working to
improve intergenerational connections by advocating for seniors to become more
involved in the elementary school system. Perhaps, children could read with seniors
and seniors can tell stories about their lived experiences. This relationship could
increase understanding between generations, and reduce social isolation in seniors.

107
Discussion
The excerpts from the asynchronous discussion represent learners engagement in
critical reflection and reflexivity. Thus, our findings support researchers who have
suggested that constructivist online instructional designs are suitable contexts for
learners to apply and advance their higher order cognitive skills (Levine, 2007;
Majeski & Stover, 2007). Fulfilling requirements for contributing to the
asynchronous discussion in each module presented learners with frequent
opportunities to engage in and articulate their critical reflection and reflexivity. The
frequency of responses that are representative of critical reflection and reflexivity is
promising. However, we also observed that overall, discussion posts varied in
depth, clarity and coherence. Although many students contributed to asynchronous
discussion with responses that represented critical reflection and reflexivity,
responses representing this depth of analysis were not consistent throughout the
asynchronous discussions. As Domakin (2013) proposed, adopting asynchronous
discussion as a pedagogical strategy does not guarantee that learners will surpass
information sharing. We acknowledge that several discussion board posts lacked
significant levels of depth and took the form of summaries of course content and
representations of knowledge acquisition rather than critical reflection or reflexivity.
The inconsistency of the quality and depth of reflexivity and critical reflection
among learners prompted us to examine how future iterations of the course could
more explicitly teach students about critical reflection and reflexivity and challenge
and support learners to advance to higher cognitive levels.
Ash and Clayton (2004) suggested that students often need guidance, connecting
their experiences to course material, with challenging their beliefs and assumptions,
and with deepening their learning (p. 138). Similarly, Lay and McGuire (2010)
cautioned that social work learners might have yet to develop a critical approach to
practice. Ash and Clayton (2004) and Lay and McGuire (2010) recommended
adopting a structured approach to explicitly teaching critical reflection and
reflexivity that identifies the specific activities involved in these cognitive processes.
Scholars have begun to develop pedagogical strategies to support social work
learners in developing higher order cognitive skills (Dean, 2007; Morley & Dunstan,
2013). Bay and Macfarlane (2011), for example, advocated for explicitly teaching
critical reflection as an essential skill for social work practice and suggested that
educators provide a balance of challenge and support within their specific teaching
and learning contexts. Ryan and Ryan (2013) recommended that educators use
specific prompts to coach learners towards more reflective responses and direct
learners to engage in critical reflection. Examples of their prompts for eliciting
critically reflective responses include, Highlight in detail the significant factors
underlying the incident or issue and explain and show why they are important to
understanding the issue. Refer to relevant theory or literature to support your
reasoning. Consider different perspectives (Ryan & Ryan, 2013, p. 254). Similarly,
Lay and McGuire (2010) described how they incorporated social work related
questions as prompts to structure the process of critical reflection and to guide

108
graduate students in articulating their learning. Examples of these questions

include, Why is this important to you as a social worker? and, How will you use
this learning in your practice? (Lay & McGuire, 2010, p. 544). Ash and Clayton
(2004) proposed a pedagogical model that can be used to provide coaching and
support for learners. They created an acronym, DEAL to identify and describe the
specific cognitive activities they associate with critical reflection; describing,
explaining and articulating learning.
Lay and McGuire (2010) recommended engaging learners in continuous reflective
writing and providing consistent instructor feedback that asks questions to prompt
further reflection. We suggest that the asynchronous discussion is ideally suited for
implementing their recommendation. However, we acknowledge that responding
to learners discussion posts consistently and in a manner that encourages learners
to engage in deeper critical reflection requires intensive instructor involvement in
the asynchronous discussion and frequent responses to individual learners.
Our study required us, as educators to engage in critical reflection and reflexivity as
we examined the effectiveness of the asynchronous discussion component of our
instructional design in stimulating learners critical thinking and reflexivity. The
findings of our study establish a rationale for evaluating and selecting pedagogical
strategies that will focus our future instruction more intentionally on teaching
critical reflection and reflexivity. Based on the recommendations of Lay and
McGuire (2010) and Ryan and Ryan (2013), our next cycle of design-based research
will involve reconstructing our asynchronous discussion questions and prompts so
that we can more effectively and explicitly guide learners towards engaging in
higher order levels of thinking and identifying pedagogical strategies that involve
modeling critical reflection and reflexivity and providing feedback that encourages
learners to advance these cognitive skills. We anticipate that our own critical
reflection and reflexivity as educators will continue to be an enduring aspect of our
design-based research as we implement pedagogical strategies that explicitly teach
students to engage in higher order thinking and to envision the role of critical
reflection and reflexivity in their future social work practice with older adults.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the students in SOWK 553.03 - Gerontology course
for their participation in the course evaluation. This research was supported by a
grant from the Taylor Institute for Teaching and Learning, University of Calgary.
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Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 112-125, March 2015
The Amalgamation of Conventional Universities

and Open/ Distance Learning and their Effects on
Students Performances
Saher H. EL-Annan Ph.D

Arab Open University
Beirut, Lebanon
Abstract. Conventional and Open and Distance Learning (ODL) are areas
that have had major contradictions in relation to addressing the major issues
of ensuring that quality of higher education has been retained and at the
same time guaranteeing the improvement of human capabilities aimed at
achieving an economy that is knowledge-based. Various researches have
shown that ODL programs success is due to coordinated efforts among
skilled and knowledgeable practitioners, committed learners and
organizational systems (Owen and Demb, 2004; Yooon, 2003). The
heightened setting up of conventional institutions across the Arab World
and in various demographic regions has not fulfilled nor served the main
objective of high education of ensuring quality over youths in different
economic and social backgrounds. In addition, the high cost of expanding
works in conventional higher education has been a major constraint. In such
circumstances, the task of expanding quality higher education opportunities
becomes the responsibility of conventional universities that are in existence,
as well as those offering ODL. The increased number of conventional
learning institutions around the Arab world has meant that there is a need
to deviate out attention and embrace Open Distance Learning.
Keywords: open learning, virtual knowledge, incubator, hub, conventional

institutions
Introduction
In order to gain a proper comprehension of this new concept, this paper will lay
emphasis on the identification of new strategies that will help in the strengthening
and creation of space in higher education, which is in line with Arab World
universities. The paper provides solutions and recommendations of the challenges
present in this process. In a bid to ensure cost effectiveness in quality education,
@2015 Saher H. El-Annan and IJLTER.ORG. All Rights Reserved

113
documentation of collective interviews will be done. This will help in documenting

unique lessons how ODL will look like in the future. This will be carried out in a bid
to examine the attitude that executive students have towards new methods in ODL
and establish the relationship between attitude (the dependent variable) and
behavior intention (the outcome).
In todays workplace, the main pillar for learner advancement is the changing
learning methods. A quality teaching-learning process begins with smooth
governance. This process begins with friendly processes and structures from the
students that result in improvement in participation, quality, retention, and
accessibility. To link ODLs structural features, there is a need to examine the
conventional high education institutions and incorporate new learning processes for
individuals that are not in close proximity to cities. In addition, irrespective of the
income of an individual, technology has become part of his/her life. It is both an
important communication tool and survival instrument.
It is important to note that one of the major ways of implementing education and
knowledge is through ODL. This is a viable method, which supports the attainment
of economic, social and academic development across the globe. It can help to
enhance access to education since it is inelastic and expandable (Siddiqui, 2007).
This method represents an approach where access to education is improved by
reducing place and time constraints on the students, it ensures, at the same time,
that learning opportunities among individuals and group learners are flexible. With
the advancement of Information Communications Technology (ICT), distant
learning has been made possible and easy. This study bases its foundations on the
developments that have taken place in conventional learning and Open and Distant
Learning (ODL) in Saudi Arabia, as well as the effects and outcomes of the
amalgamation of these institutions. The contribution of ICT is also among the key
concepts that will be discussed.
Literature Review
Various factors have led to the development and growth of ODL. These include
major economic changes across the globe, technological innovations as well as
increase in pressure to get hold of education opportunities (Brindley, 1995).
Ultimately, innovations in microprocessors and telecommunication technology have
been credited for ODL growth. This has made it easy to achieve educational needs
of people across the divide (Keagan, 1994). McLoyd (1998) reports that persistent
poverty has more detrimental effects on IQ, school achievement, and socio-
emotional functioning than transitory poverty, with children experiencing both
types of poverty generally doing less well than never-poor children. A research
conducted by Stecher, McCaffrey, Hamilton and Klein (2000) on the relationship
between participation of students in reduced or free lunch programs and school test
score showed that the number of students engaging in these school programs was a
predictor of the mean school in the institution irrespective of the test type. Sirin
(2005) made use of a three sections questionnaire survey to carry out a knowledge
114
audit. It had three sections. The first section focused on the examination of
knowledge management as a strategy availability and identification of
organizations knowledge management in a public institution in Libya. The second
involved an identification knowledge gap, key experts and knowledge assets. The
third involved an examination of information and communication technology (ICT)
tools that were in use. The case study was a public construction company. The
research ascertained that the organization lacked a knowledge management
strategy and had a poor ICT strategy.
In the recent past, educational institutions have increased their interest in the
development in their global space (Altbach, Reisberg, and Rumbley 2009). This has
been accompanied by changes in the technological front as well as the demand of
the students. In order to fulfill learning services and techniques as a business, it is
important for institutions to understand the needs of the students as well as the
quality that can help to achieve these needs (Ibid.) For this reason, in coming up
with a framework proposal, the base for choosing method will be referred to as
Choosing Technique (CT) design while implementation from universities
administration and facilities will be referred to as Facility Team (FT) with proposals
for multimedia for reasoning and data. This will help in identifying priorities and
realize the demand for students in qualification levels.
The time individuals spend in academic activities has been noted as an important
factor with a strong effect on face-to-face instruction (Rocha, 2007), online education
(Cavanaugh, 2007) as well as blended programs (Cavanaugh, 2009). Newlin and
Wang (2000) are of the opinion that activities engaged in by students in the process
of online learning can have an effect on their final scores. Students participating in
academic activities on high levels have better performance than those who do not.
The frequency at which a student logs on into LMS is considered a major predictor
of how the student will perform in online learning (Dietz, 2002; Dickson, 2005). In
the current study, the frequency in which the students were logged into LMS as
well as the period they spent was documented in the log file of the student in the
entire semester as they took their course. To some extent, the above information
could be taken as the period that a student spends in online academic front (Fry, H.,
Ketteridge, S., and Marshall, S., 2009). However, no data is present on the activities
of the student while logged into LMS.
The failure to properly invest in ODL skilled practitioners is a major problem since
it puts into jeopardy the ODL product quality in the Middle East. However, there
are countries such as Egypt and Lebanon where skilled practitioners look for jobs
outside their countries. In these countries, ODL system development can help in
enhancing meta-economics and job placement. New institutions offering ODL can
offer certificates, diplomas and degrees in fields that do not require laboratory
activities.
115
Institutions that promote ODL take pride of reflecting the essence of quality in their
normal practices and learning outcomes. Irrespective of the successful record of
accomplishment of ODL, it is important for it to prove that the quality of education
is similar to face-to-face teaching (Kirkpatrick, 2005). Walsh is of the opinion that
established ODL institutions such as Penn State, Maryland University College,
Phoenix and to some extent nimble publishers have a better chance of utilizing
online provision, coming up with better business models, as well as structures and
cultures. If the institutions examined in Walsh study could make online education
more fundamental in their instructional models by expanding or better serving the
existing students, the attitude towards distance and online education would change
(rf. Ross, 2014). While it may not be in black and white the use and own provision of
e-learning for these institutions, there have been significant changes in higher
education front. With the increased favor by government agencies and private
foundations for open education schemes due to their scalability and access, these
providers will need to wake up and act.
Various studies have concluded that variables such as anxiety, beliefs and
motivation have a major impact on foreign or second learning and performance
(William and Burden, 1999; Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope, 1986; Ehrman, Leaver and
Oxford, 2003; Dornyei, 2003). These interrelated variables have an effect on learning.
For example, beliefs and motivation are two elements that are closely linked.
Motivation is regarded as a fragment of self-system of a learner (Dornyei, 2009,
p.29). Other researchers have established that the beliefs of a learner may influence
his strategy use and motivational maintenance (Higgins, 1987; Graham, 2006; Bown,
2006). The beliefs of a learner are also said to have an effect on anxiety (Horwitz et
al., 1987; Bandura, 1993). Anxiety, beliefs and motivation are clearly associated with
the autonomy of the learner (Victori and Lockhart, 1995, Cotterall, 1995). Among
these three variables, the element that has the greatest effect on learning is
motivation (Rubin, 1975; Coterall, 1995; Ehrman et al., 2003, Doryei, 2003). In this
case, motivation refers to the choice is taken for an action, its persistence, as well as
the efforts, portrayed (Dornyei, 2005, p.8). Cheng and Dornyei (2007, p.153), hold
that the lack of proper motivation even among the best learners may make them not
to persist until the period they can achieve proper proficiency. Motivation is
especially more important in distance learning. Here, more self-management is
required for the learner to meet the demands present among conventional learners
(Hurd, 2006; Andrade and Bunker, 2009). Curtis, Duchastel and Radic, (1999) and
Bown, (2006) finally holds that drop in motivation in learning is one of the major
challenges that distance learners have to face.
According to Cavanaugh (2007, p. 6) is a major concept in online learning. In the

current study, the frequency of teachers feedback and comment is a part indication
of interaction between the student and the teacher. Teacher-student interaction in
the form of open and frequent communication helps in establishing a virtual
learning environment which is supportive (Murphy, Mahoney and Harvell, 2000;
Lin, 2001). This, in turn assists student to improve their performance in virtual
116
learning environment (Ronsisvalle and Watkins, 2005; Wang and Newlin, 2000; Lin,
2001) through the provision of social support and at the same time promote their
interest and involvement in academic activities on the online front (Wang and
Newlin, 2000).
O'Dwyer, Carey, and Kleiman, (2007) are of the opinion that online students hold
teacher-student interaction with great regard. Phillips and Merisotis (2000) holds
that constructive and timely feedback and comments from the teachers are the
pillars of quality online education. Lowes, Lin and Wang (2007) believe that quality
and frequency of feedback and comments from the teachers have an effect on the
satisfaction of the student. In the current study, the frequency of teachers
comments on the projects and assignments of teachers was ascertained by the
virtual institution as well as the effect in had on the final score of the student in the
online course was examined (rf. Orey, 2010).
Methodology
One of the most important things to note is that the virtual body of university
students comprises of individuals with different learning deformities (Ferdig, et al.,
2005, Dickson, 2005). These institutions support or offer personal education plans
for these individuals in the learning process. For this reason the learning abilities
level can be determined by whether the student possesses an education plan. In this
study, there was no student in the education plan would be referred as gifted (Ibid).
However, they had the necessity and capacity to be promoted and excelled in the
workplace. The virtual university learning environment can help to bridge the gaps
in these factors in relation to online learning success opportunities. The use of
technologies among individuals with different learning levels can be useful in
reducing their disadvantage. This is as compared to those who are illiterate in the
technology front in relation to access to course materials in the process of online
learning. According to OConner (2000), online students with illiterate computer
usage (ICU) can adopt technology-infused education, which can be essential in
online learning. However, Kinash and Crichton (2007) believe that ICU online
students have not been fully represented in online education.
It is, therefore, safe to say that ODL has helped in transforming learning and has
enabled better interaction as well as effective learning results for the workplace.
Method 1
The conventional method of delivery of tacit knowledge involves interaction
between the teacher and local learner. This is due to limited and confined
technology access.
117
The required correspondence between conventional learning and ODL has been
achieved through internally prepared rules.
Method 2
Under this method, new concepts of learning and teaching tools through video and
mail knowledge transfer are adopted to improve access to individuals in rural areas
and outside the country.
This method shows innovativeness is capturing prospective candidates and being
in line with the need of accessing higher education irrespective of their location
Method 3
118
The introduction of CD Rom has been critical in the delivery of high education.
However, it has not been very successful due to lack of interaction between the
concerned parties.
The use of this ODL method provides a solution for education democratization in
the end. Such a method provides the possible in developing countries that
education systems can be improved and expanded.
Method 4
Under this method, new concepts are provided in learning technology innovation,
which have a positive impact on delivery and design of programs of distance
learning. This method measures costs are well as the impact in relation to
enhancement of learner experience especially in terms of improvement of
engagement of the learner, mobility, flexibility, reduced isolation, and support.
One of the main positives of this technology is that it leads to the creation of
efficient social interactive. Under these initiatives, developmental possibilities are
activated in open education resources. Under them, developing nations can
improve and expand the systems of education and hence help in the creation of
sociological concepts through a background that is both uncommon and diverse.
Under this experience, one gets to realize that automation does not only involve
technology, but involves mindsets and attitudes of stakeholders, both primary and
secondary, together with leadership that helps in the facilitation of this process. This
approach can be referred to as e-educational governance. However, its greatest
weakness is its failure to make use of resources such as manpower that exists in
conventional institutions. On many occasions, due to this failure, schools of open
learning (SOL) students do not get to use infrastructure that has been funded by the
state in conventional institutions. Due to this, fewer students participate in
interactive learning. Individuals who have been registered with SOL are regarded
as individuals collaborating with the government in its policy of inclusive growth.
For this reason, these individual ought to be allowed a chance to make educational
choices in the teaching-learning process, as well as activities that are creative and
productive inside the conventional institutions. The lack of policy guidelines for
119
concerned parties in relation to convergence is also another reason why this may
happen. Apex bodies that are in control of grants, as well as central ministries, issue
these guidelines (Apex, 2006).
Another issue that is observed relates to cross subsidy. SOL students tend to
provide a considerable portion of financial resources. Through them, institution
requirements such as examination are fulfilled for students in both open and
conventional learning systems. Moreover, agencies from the government provide
conventional systems with funding for better resources, an activity that is not
present in SOL. Therefore, electronic governance as well as better convergence in
conventional and open systems is key quality indicators. These systems
complement each other in the utilization of inherited potentialities. In ODL,
students may make use of manpower, library, and infrastructure present in
conventional system and hence take advantage of opportunities in the conventional
system through engaging in problem-solving sitting. On the other hand,
conventional students may make use of e-learning materials and resources that
ODL students have prepared. Interactive sessions between students in both
systems can also be planned. The desire to follow and design guidelines that central
authorities have issued aimed at breaking the periphery-enclave relationship and
convergence is self-evident. It is, therefore, important to increase face-to-face
interaction between the two sets of students through the identification of learning
resources, infrastructure and resource persons. There are also efforts to ensure that
there is employment opportunities for students at SOL during admission, in an
approach referred to as earn while you learn.
Examining the Arab region exposes the mistrust that exists between competent
teachers claiming to possess the skills and tools that are adaptable in ODL. To be in
line with ODL, it is important to become aware of the new trends in the provision of
minimum opportunities for those in rural areas and those who may not be able to
travel long distances to acquire education. In addition, socio-economics have an
important role to play while a persons venture is surprised by per capital income.
To become accessible to everyone, higher learning institution, and the government
need to become more involved in ODL. A good example is the Saudi Electronic
University, which recognizes the importance of creation of new opportunities
especially for the female gender irrespective of cultural constraints. The institution
was open to the public on 20 June 2012 and became a major front for women to
access education.
Arab News, a Saudi newspaper, states that the University provides rigorous
programs aimed at preparing Saudi students to venture into business and industry,
and research and development. Various courses are offered in electronics and non-
electronic fields, and at the same time providing bachelors and masters degrees.
According to King Abdallah (2011), the country depends on electronic systems
largely. Saudi is considered one of the nations that is increasingly relying on
electronic applications. He claimed that by 2015, the consumer electronic market in
120
the country, including audio and gaming, video and mobile handsets and computer
devices would reach $5.5 billion.
In addition, a new cohort of process-driven technology-enhanced education (TEE) is

quietly surfacing with transformative education for junior level institutional
empowerment and learning. Through ensuring learners are more involved in their
learning process, ODL has become the vehicle of choice for social conception of
learning. It answers the question of what we are becoming (mixing identity), where
we belong (community), what our culture and experience is (meaning) and what we
do (practice) It also raises questions of how educators and institutions in developing
countries perceive the new education environment. Therefore, contextualization
and proper use of ODL is dependent on social practices and educational practices
that are in existence where a team ad share, collaborate and build a new process,
which one cannot take for granted.
Wenger, McDermott and Snyder (2002) are of the opinion that activities that
encompass ongoing learning and common interest through shared knowledge and
practice are the main elements that build trust. This is followed by a joint enterprise
as renegotiated and understood my members as well as sustainability established
through mutual engagement that binds members together into one group.
Therefore, ODL tends to foster the appearance of knowledge-creating and
innovative communities, putting into consideration innovation, learning and
working as harmonizing forces that ensure sustainability of these efforts on a long
term. In these communities, the systems are self-organizing since they structure
learning through knowledge development and boundaries interaction. Expansion
through learning, growth and development happens through understanding
concepts together. This same thing happens in ODL.
However, extensive designing should be carried out to expand such initiatives.

Integration of virtual environment through radio, video and ICT and at the same
time providing students with a chance to interact with individuals in the resource
front through coming up with counseling and problem solving sessions are
important initiatives that can be incorporated into dual model system. Together
with improving, quality, retention and accessibility of education, it is important to
ensure the participation in the whole process of the student and community at
large. It is important to convert open learning into a mission that empowers
students using face-to-face and virtual counseling together with reorienting
attitudes and mindsets at the top. Big pushes are required to change the imbalances
present together with democratization of quality higher education through
facilitation in order to achieve a vision of a society with knowledge that is equity-
based.
In addition, the concept can no longer be regarded as a hypothesis or theory. It is,

however, a pre-condition for economic development and society progression.
Through ODL, students can reflect how diverse learning has become. Through it,
121
underrepresented groups can come up with higher educations social dimensions,

and provide proper support services for students while reducing inequalities. In
reflecting upon the history of ODL, the chart below can show our testimonial test on
this concept.
DL: Distance Learning, OL: Open Leaning, DL: Open Distance Leaning QA: Quality Assurance, A.O.U. Arab Open University
Examining the diagram above, it is important to note that ODL should be in line
with the UK Open University strategy alongside the A.O.U infrastructure
adaptation. In addition, quality assurance should be a major priority in the creation
of trusted, competent and valuable educational venture.
From ODL perspective, the use of technology in scaling up provision and ensuring
more focus on learning and teaching is an old concept. However, according to
Walsh reports, universities can benefit from it in the online platform. For example,
capturing of repeated lectures can help individuals to allocate more time for tutorial
activities. On important thing to note is that despite some institutions in the case
study having been in the forefront in coming up with courseware for public, they
have not been able to transform their pedagogical activities. However, one familiar
concept is the resistance of staff to incorporate change in pedagogy. Redundancy,
122
loss of autonomy and cost cutting are some of the major resistances. Migrating to
full online provision may prove to be a challenging concept especially on the high-
touch model present in elite institutions that have enabled them to give high-quality
services and maintain their top ranks. On the other hand, Walsh note major
financial needs as well as an urge to provide services to in-state students had led to
emerging undertones to develop an online course in University of California (rf.
Ross, 2014). This leads to the question of whether these developments can put into
jeopardy the appeal that this and other universities has on conventional students.
Questions that have been asked are whether these individuals can favor online
learning in place of conventional means, its cost, whether it would be more flexible,
and how quality can be maintained.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Arab World governments have a mandate to reorganize their rules
and regulations in their ministries of higher education to ensure investment in ODL
as also ensure the degrees are recognized. ODL 2 (recognized graduate degrees) will
not only provide motivation to graduates to continue learning, but will also
improve the learning process, and enable them to acquire new knowledge through
interconnectivity and reflection with tutors and other students. Lastly, in adopting
this method, it will include entering into new technology and improving the quality
of education. It will also encourage further research on this front.
Recommendations
Countries in Middle East and North Africa should consider the following.
An Accessible education:
A. Ensure proper access to university courses not matter an individuals
location.
B. Eliminate official requirements of entry.
Flexibility:
A. It can be adjusted to fit into the schedule of an individual
B. One can balance personal commitments and university commitments
Innovativeness
A. Innovative technologies and learning designs such as multimedia and
computer conferencing can be integrated
B. In adopting this method, one is incorporated into a learning community.' In
line with ones needs
Irrespective of whether the course is for professional development of personal
enrichment, the use of ODL should assist one come up with a program that is in line
with his personal needs.
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Integrating Teaching Resources and Assessment Tasks to Enhance Student Experience........................................... 28

Clustering Analysis of Attitudes of Prospective Computer Programmers towards Programming .......................... 40

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Evaluating Asynchronous Discussion as Social Constructivist Pedagogy in an Online Undergraduate

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A Study of Consonant Clusters in an EFL Context

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2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

According to Keshavarz (2008a), such a tendency on the part of Persian learners

2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

with respect to a specific rule. Thats why transfer, as contrastivists maintain,

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According to Brown (2000), negative transfer can be referred to as interference.

As far as the acquisition of second language phonology is concerned, Kranke

According to contrastive analysts, the most important factor that affects

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According to Ziahosseiny (2006), contrastivists believing in the strong version of

Therefore, based on the strong version of CAH, it is the syllable structure of

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However, according to the weak version of CAH, as Ziahosseiny (2006) asserts,

As a result and based on the literature existing in the area of pronunciation

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phonological error (mispronouncing English consonant clusters by Persian

Objectives of the Study

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Table 3: Chi Square Tests

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Discussion & Conclusion

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Actually, it is noticeable in English that in casual conversational speech, large

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Do Emotional-Social Intelligence, Caring, Moral

Abstract. Although non-cognitive characteristics are increasingly valued

Keywords: emotional-social intelligence; caring; moral judgment;

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Program N Class % of Male/Female Age

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Educational Programs: The concepts of ESI, caring, moral judgment and

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performance criteria; each criterion is evaluated on a 100-mm visual analog scale

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Table 2: Scores of emotional social intelligence, leadership, caring, moral judgment

Entry to Before Average of Placements Final Clinical

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Table 3: Correlation of scores of emotional social intelligence (ESI), caring, moral

Average of EQ-i:S Total SALI CAI_K CAI_C CAI_P

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It is possible that the measures of caring, moral judgment and leadership

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Bar-On, R. (2006). The Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence (ESI). Psicothema,

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