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Pendahuluan
1
a. FUNGSI
Semua komputer memiliki 4 fungsi:
Pengolahan data - Data processing
Penyimpanan data - Data storage
Pemindahan data - Data movement
Kendali Control
2
Gambar 1.2. Fungsi Pemindahan data
b. Fungsi Penyimpanan data
3
d. Fungsi Pengolahan data
b. STRUKTUR
4
Gambar 1.6. Strukture Komputer - Top Level
5
Gambar 1.8. Strukture - Control Unit
BAB 2
Evolusi dan Kinerja Komputer
2.1. ENIAC
University of Pennsylvania
Selesai 1946
Berat 30 tons
Daya 140 kW
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IAS
7
Gambar 2.2. Structure detail IAS
Lebih cepat
2.6. IBM
1953 IBM-701
8
1955 IBM- 702
Merupakan awal dari seri 700/7000 yang membuat IBM menjadi pabrik
komputer yang dominan
2.7. Transistor
Lebih kecil
Lebih murah
Mesin generasi II
IBM 7000
DEC - 1957
Membuat PDP-1
2.9. Microelectronics
Sebuah computer dibuat dari gerbang logika (gate), sel memori dan
interkoneksi
silicon wafer
9
1946-1957 : Vacuum tube
1958-1964 : Transistor
1965-1971 : SSI - Small scale integration
Up to 100 devices on a chip
1971 : MSI - Medium scale integration (
100-3,000 devices on a chip
1971-1977 : LSI - Large scale integration
3,000 - 100,000 devices on a chip
1978- : VLSI - Very large scale integration
100,000 - 100,000,000 devices on a chip
Ultra large scale integration
Over 100,000,000 devices on a chip
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Gambar 2.3. Jumlah Transistor dalam CPU
1964
Kecepatan meningkat
Harga meningkat
1964
Minicomputer pertama
Ukurannya kecil
Harga $16,000
11
Embedded applications & OEM
1970
Fairchild
Non-destructive read
2.15. Intel
1971 - 4004
1972 - 8008
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8 bit, Digunakan untuk aplikasi khusus
1974 - 8080
1985 - 80386
1989 - 80486
Pipelining
On board cache
Branch prediction
Speculative execution
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Gambar 2.5. DRAM and Processor Characteristics
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2.18. Solusi
Cache
Hierarchy of buses
2.19. Pentium
CISC
P6 : menggunakan:
Brach prediction
Specultive execution
2.20. PowerPC
Keluarga PowerPC:
601: 32-bit
BAB 3
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Bus Sistem
3.2. Program
Jadilah komputer!
Control Unit (CU) dan Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) membentuk Central
Processing Unit (CPU)
Data dan instruksi harus diberikan ke sistem dan dikeluarkan dari sistem
Input/output
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Main memory
Two steps:
17
Fetch
Execute
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Data processing
Operasi arithmetic dan logical pada data tertentu
Control
Mengubah urutan operasi
Contoh: jump
Kombinasi diatas
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Gambar 3.4. Diagram Keadaan Siklus Instruksi
3.8. Interrupt
Suatu mekanisme yang disediakan bagi modul-modul lain (mis. I/O) untuk
dapat meng-interupsi operasi normal CPU
Program
Misal: overflow, division by zero
Timer
Dihasilkan oleh internal processor timer
Digunakan dalam pre-emptive multi-tasking
I/O
dari I/O controller
Hardware failure
Misal: memory parity error
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Gambar 3.5. Program Flow Control
21
Simpan context
Set PC ke awal address dari routine interrupt handler
Proses interrupt
Kembalikan context dan lanjutkan program yang terhenti.
Disable interrupts
Define priorities
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Setelah higher priority interrupt selesai dilayani, akan kembali ke interrupt
sebelumnya.
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3.11. Sambungan
Memory
Input/Output
CPU
Menerima addresses
Read
Write
Timing
Output
Input
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3.15. CPU Connection
3.16. Bus
DEC-PDP: Unibus
a. Pengertian Bus
Seringkali dikelompokkan
b. Data Bus
Membawa data
c. Address bus
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Misalkan CPU perlu membaca instruksi (data) dari memori pada lokasi
tertentu
Contoh 8080 memiliki 16 bit address bus maka ruang memori maksimum
adalah 64k
d. Control Bus
e. Bentuk Fisik
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Jalur-jalur parallel PCB
Ribbon cables
Kumpulan kabel
Propagation delays
Jalur data yg panjang berarti memerlukan koordinasi pemkaian shg
berpengaruh pada performance
If aggregate data transfer approaches bus capacity
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Gambar 3.11. High Performance Bus
Dedicated
Multiplexed
Jalur bersama
Kerugian
Kendali lebih komplek
Mempengaruhi performance
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3.20. Arbitrasi Centralised
Bus Controller
Arbitrer
3.22. Timing
Synchronous
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Gambar 3.12. Asynchronous Timing Diagram
32 atau 64 bit
50 Jalur
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3.25. Jalur Bus PCI (Optional)
Interrupt lines
Not shared
Cache support
64-bit Bus Extension
Additional 32 lines
Time multiplexed
2 lines to enable devices to agree to use 64-bit transfer
JTAG/Boundary Scan
For testing procedures
Fase Address
Fase Data
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Gambar 3.15. PCI Bus Arbitration
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BAB 4
MEMORI INTERNAL
Lokasi
Kapasitas
Unit transfer
Metode Akses
Kinerja
Jenis fisik
Sifat-sifat fisik
Organisasi
4.2. Lokasi
CPU (register)
4.3. Kapasitas
Ukuran Word
Banyaknya words
atau Bytes
Internal
External
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Addressable unit
Register
Dalam CPU
Internal/Main memory
34
Bisa lebih dari satu level dengan adanya cache
RAM
External memory
Penyimpan cadangan
4.8. Performance
Access time
Transfer Rate
Semiconductor
RAM
Magnetic
Optical
CD & DVD
Others
Bubble
Hologram
4.10. Karakteristik
Decay
Volatility
Erasable
Power consumption
35
Organisasi
Berapa banyak?
Capacity
Seberapa cepat?
Time is money
Berapa mahal?
4.12. Hierarki
Registers
L1 Cache
L2 Cache
Main memory
Disk cache
Disk
Optical
Tape
36
Selama berlangsungnya eksekusi suatu program, referensi memori
cenderung untuk mengelompok (cluster)
Contoh: loops
RAM
Read/Write
Volatile
Penyimpan sementara
37
Tidak memerlukan refresh-circuits
Lebih cepat
Cache
Untuk
Microprogramming
Library subroutines
Function tables
4.20. Organisasi
1 bit/chip memiliki 16 lots dengan bit ke 1 dari setiap word berada pada
chip 1
38
Mengurangi jumlah addres pins
4.21. Refreshing
Disable chip
Perlu waktu
Menurunkan kinerja
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Gambar 4.2. Packaging
40
Gambar 4.4. Organisation Modul (2)
Rusak berat
Cacat/rusak Permanent
Rusak ringan
Random, non-destructive
41
Gambar 4.5. Error Correcting Code Function
4.23. Cache
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4.24. Operasi pada Cache
Jika tidak ada, baca 1 block data dari main memory ke cache
Cache bersisi tags untuk identitas block dari main memory yang berada di
cache
Ukuran (size)
Fungsi Mapping
Ukuran Block
Jumlah Cache
4.26. Size
Cost
Speed
43
Gambar 4.7. Organisasi Cache
(224=16M)
MSB terbagi menjadi field jalur cache r dan tag sebesar s-r (most
significant)
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4.29. Struktur Alamat Direct Mapping
24 bit address
2 bit : word identifier (4 byte block)
22 bit: block identifier
8 bit tag (=22-14)
14 bit slot atau line
2 blocks pada line yg sama tidak boleh memiliki tag yg sama
Cek isi cache dengan mencari line dan Tag
0 0, m, 2m, 3m2s-m
1 1,m+1, 2m+12s-m+1
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Gambar4.9. Organisai Cache Direct Mapping
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4.31. Keuntungan & Kerugian Direct Mapping
Sederhana
Murah
Jika program mengakses 2 block yang di map ke line yang sama secara
berulang-ulang, maka cache-miss sanagat tinggi
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Gambar 4.12. Contoh Associative Mapping
tag field dibandingkan dg tag entry dalam cache untuk pengecekan data
contoh
misalkan Block B dapat berada pada line mana saja dari set i
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Contoh: per set ada 2 line
Suatu block dpt berada pada satu dari 2 lines dan hanya dalam 1 set
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4.36. Struktur Address: Set Associative Mapping
Contoh:
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4.37. Replacement Algorithms (1) Direct mapping
Random
Multiple CPUs can monitor main memory traffic to keep local (to CPU)
cache up to date
Lots of traffic
51
Updates initially made in cache only
Foreground reading
Enhanced DRAM
Cache DRAM
currently on DIMMs
Since SDRAM moves data in time with system clock, CPU knows when
data will be ready
Burst mode allows SDRAM to set up stream of data and fire it out in block
52
Gambar 4.15. SDRAM
Foreground reading
53
Check out any other RAM you can find
BAB 5
Memori External
54
5.1. Jenis Memori ExternaL
Magnetic Disk
RAID
Removable
Optical
CD-ROM
CD-Writable (WORM)
CD-R/W
DVD
Magnetic Tape
Jenis kemasan
Floppy
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Fixed head
Movable head
Removable disk
Nonremovable disk
8, 5.25, 3.5
Kapasitas kecil
Lambat
Umum dipakai
Murah
Handal
56
Umum digunakan
Murah
Dalam orde GB
ZIP
Murah
Banyak digunakan
100MB
JAZ
Mahal
1G
Format disk
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Gambar 5.11. ST506 format (old!)
5.11. Karakteristik
Mekanisme head
Contact (Floppy)
Fixed gap
Flying (Winchester)
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Mengurangi gerakan head
5.13. Kecepatan
Seek time
(Rotational) latency
Transfer rate
5.14. RAID
Ada 6 level
Tidak berhirarki
Sejumlah disks (fisik) yg dipandang sbg satu drive (logical) oleh Sistem
Operasi
5.15. RAID 0
No redundancy
Increase speed
5.16. RAID 1
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Mirrored Disks
Write to both
Recovery is simple
No down time
Expensive
5.17. RAID 2
Lots of redundancy
Expensive
Not used
5.18. RAID 3
Similar to RAID 2
Data on failed drive can be reconstructed from surviving data and parity
info
5.19. RAID 4
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Each disk operates independently
Large stripes
5.20. RAID 5
Like RAID 4
1.2 ms-1
e.g. 24x
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The quoted figure is the maximum the drive can achieve
Difficult
Read address
(Yawn!)
5.24. CD-ROM for & against
62
Easy to mass produce
Removable
Robust
Slow
Read only
CD-Writable
WORM
Now affordable
CD-RW
Erasable
Getting cheaper
Officially - nothing!!!
Multi-layer
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Full length movie on single disk
Can be fixed
First generation DVD drives may not read first generation DVD-W disks
Serial access
Slow
Very cheap
4Gbyte uncompressed
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8Gbyte compressed
BAB 6
Input/Output
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Wide variety of peripherals
At different speeds
In different formats
Human readable
Machine readable
Communication
Modem
CPU Communication
Device Communication
Data Buffering
Error Detection
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If ready, CPU requests data transfer
Programmed
Interrupt driven
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6.8. Programmed I/O
Sensing status
Read/write commands
Transferring data
Read/Write
Module transfers data via buffer from/to device
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Each device given unique identifier
CPU commands contain identifier (address)
I/O module gets data from peripheral whilst CPU does other work
Do other work
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Check for interrupt at end of each instruction cycle
If interrupted:-
Process interrupt
Fetch data & store
PC
Software poll
Slow
Bus Master
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Higher priority lines can interrupt lower priority lines
CPU Acknowledges
71
Gambar 6.2. PC Interrupt Layout
Gives 15 lines
Backwards compatibility
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Gambar 6.3. ISA Interrupt Layout
CPU is tied up
Read/Write
Device address
73
DMA controller sends interrupt when finished
Not an interrupt
6.27. Aside
74
Gambar 6.5. DMA Configurations (2)
DMA to memory
75
Separate I/O Bus
DMA to memory
Improves speed
6.29. Interfacing
Bit of wire?
Dedicated processor/memory/buses?
Parallel interface
Daisy chained
6.31. SCSI - 1
Early 1980s
8 bit
76
5MHz
Seven devices
6.32. SCSI - 2
1991
16 and 32 bit
10MHz
Select target
Reselection
Data request
Status request
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Gambar 6.7. SCSI Bus Phases
Jumpers or switches
Unique on chain
Fast
Low cost
Easy to implement
78
6.37. FireWire Configuration
Daisy chain
Automatic configuration
No bus terminators
Physical
Link
Transaction
Request-response protocol
Fair arbitration
Urgent arbitration
79
Asynchronous
Variable amount of data and several bytes of transaction data transferred
as a packet
To explicit address
Acknowledgement returned
Isochronous
Variable amount of data in sequence of fixed size packets at regular
intervals
Simplified addressing
No acknowledgement
80