Organizational Socialization

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Organizational Socialization, refers to the mechanism through which new employees
acquire the necessary knowledge, skills, and behaviors to become effective organizational
members and insiders. Tactics used in this process include formal meetings, lectures, videos,
printed materials, or computer-based orientations to introduce newcomers to their new jobs
and organizations. Research has demonstrated that these socialization techniques lead to
positive outcomes for new employees such as higher job satisfaction, better job performance,
greater organizational commitment, and reduction in occupational stress and intent to quit.
These outcomes are particularly important to an organization looking to retain a competitive
advantage in an increasingly mobile and globalized workforce. In the United States, for
example, up to 25% of workers are organizational newcomers engaged in an Organizational
Socialization process.

Antecedents of success

Organizational Socialization is a multifaceted operation influenced by a number of factors

pertaining to both the individual newcomer and the organization. Researchers have separated
these factors into three broad categories: new employee characteristics, new employee
behaviors, and organizational efforts. New employee characteristics are individual
differences across incoming workers, ranging from personality traits to previous work
experiences. New employee behaviors refer to the specific actions carried out by newcomers
as they take an active role in the socialization process. Finally, organizational efforts help
facilitate the process of acclimating a new worker to an establishment through activities such
as orientation or mentoring programs.

New employee characteristics

Research has shown evidence that employees with certain personality traits and experiences
adjust to an organization more quickly. These are a proactive personality, the "Big Five",
curiosity, and greater experience levels.

"Proactive personality" refers to the tendency to take charge of situations and achieve control
over one's environment. This type of personality predisposes some workers to engage in
behaviors such as information seeking that accelerate the socialization process, thus helping
them to adapt more efficiently and become high-functioning organizational members.
Empirical evidence also demonstrates that a proactive personality is related to increased
levels of job satisfaction and performance.

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The Big Five personality traitsopenness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness,
and neuroticismhave been linked to Organizational Socialization success, as well.
Specifically, new employees who are proactive or particularly open to experience are more
likely to seek out information, feedback, acceptance, and relationships with co-workers. They
also exhibit higher levels of adjustment and tend to frame events more positively.

Curiosity also plays a substantial role in the newcomer adaptation process and is defined as
the "desire to acquire knowledge" that energizes individual exploration of an organization's
culture and norms. Individuals with a curious disposition tend to frame challenges in a
positive light and eagerly seek out information to help them make sense of their new
organizational surroundings and responsibilities, leading to a smoother Organizational
Socialization experience.

Employee experience levels also affect the Organizational Socialization process such that
more experienced members of the workforce tend to adapt to a new organization differently
from, for example, a new college graduate starting his or her first job. This is because
seasoned employees can draw from past experiences to help them adjust to their new work
settings and therefore may be less affected by specific socialization efforts because they have
(a) a better understanding of their own needs and requirements at work (2002). and (b) are
more familiar with what is acceptable in the work context. Additionally, veteran workers may
have used their past experiences to seek out organizations in which they will be a better fit,
giving them an immediate advantage in adapting to their new jobs.

New employee behaviors

Certain behaviors enacted by incoming employees, such as building relationships and seeking
information and feedback, can help facilitate the Organizational Socialization process.
Newcomers can also quicken the speed of their adjustment by demonstrating behaviors that
assist them in clarifying expectations, learning organizational values and norms, and gaining
social acceptance.

Information seeking occurs when new employees ask questions of their co-workers and
superiors in an effort to learn about their new job and the company's norms, expectations,
procedures, and policies. Miller and Jablin (1991) developed a typology of information
sought after by new hires. These include referent information, understanding what is required
to function on the job (role clarity); appraisal information, understanding how effectively the

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newcomer is able to function in relation to job role requirements (self-efficacy); and finally,
relational information, information about the quality of relationships with current
organizational employees (social acceptance). By actively seeking information, employees
can effectively reduce uncertainties about their new jobs and organizations and make sense of
their new working environments. Newcomers can also passively seek information via
monitoring their surroundings or by simply viewing the company website or handbook.
Research has shown that information seeking by incoming employees is associated with
social integration, higher levels of organizational commitment, job performance, and job
satisfaction in both individualistic and collectivist cultures.

Feedback seeking is similar to information seeking, but it is focused on a new employee's

particular behaviors rather than on general information about the job or company.
Specifically, feedback seeking refers to new employee efforts to gauge how to behave in their
new organization. A new employee may ask co-workers or superiors for feedback on how
well he or she is performing certain job tasks or whether certain behaviors are appropriate in
the social and political context of the organization. In seeking constructive criticism about
their actions, new employees learn what kinds of behaviors are expected, accepted, or
frowned upon within the company or work group, and when they incorporate this feedback
and adjust their behavior accordingly, they begin to blend seamlessly into the organization.
Instances of feedback inquiry vary across cultural contexts such that individuals high in self-
assertiveness and cultures low in power distance report more feedback seeking than
newcomers in cultures where self-assertiveness is low and power distance is high.

Also called networking, relationship building involves an employee's efforts to develop

camaraderie with co-workers and even supervisors. This can be achieved informally through
simply talking to their new peers during a coffee break or through more formal means such as
taking part in pre-arranged company events. Research has shown relationship building to be a
key part of the Organizational Socialization process, leading to outcomes such as greater job
satisfaction and better job performance, as well as decreased stress.

Organization socialization efforts

Organizations also invest a great amount of time and resources into the training and
orientation of new company hires. Organizations differ in the variety of socialization
activities they offer in order to integrate productive new workers. Possible activities include

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their socialization tactics, formal orientation programs, recruitment strategies, and mentorship
opportunities.

Socialization tactics

Socialization tactics, or orientation tactics, are designed based on an organization's needs,

values, and structural policies. Some organizations favor a more systematic approach to
socialization, while others follow a more "sink or swim" approach in which new employees
are challenged to figure out existing norms and company expectations without guidance.

Van Maanen and Schein model (1979)

John Van Maanen and Edgar H. Schein have identified at least six major tactical dimensions
that characterize and represent all of the ways in which organizations may differ in their
approaches to socialization.

Collective versus Individual socialization

Collective socialization refers to the process of taking a group of recruits who are facing a
given boundary passage and putting them through the same set of experiences together.
Examples of this include: basic training/boot camp for a military organization, pledging for
fraternities/sororities, education in graduate schools, and so forth. Socialization in the
Individual mode allows newcomers to accumulate unique experiences separate from other
newcomers. Examples of this process include: Apprenticeship programs, specific internships,
"on-the-job" training, etc.

Formal vs. Informal socialization

Formal socialization refers to those tactics in which newcomers are more or less segregated
from others and trained on the job. These processes can be witnessed with such socialization
programs as police academies, internships, and apprenticeships. Informal socialization
processes, on the other hand, involve little separation between newcomers and the existing
employees, nor is there any effort made to distinguish the newcomers role specifically.
Informal tactics provides a non-interventional environment for recruits to learn their new
roles via trial and error. Examples of informal socialization include on-the-job training
assignments, apprenticeship programs with no clearly defined role, and more generally, any
situation in which a newcomer is placed into a work group with no recruit role.

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Sequential vs. Random socialization

Sequential socialization refers to the degree to which an organization or occupation specifies

discrete and identifiable steps for the newcomers to know what phases they need to go
through. Random socialization occurs when the sequences of steps leading to the targeted
role are unknown, and the entire progression is quite ambiguous. In other words, while there
are numerous steps or stages leading to specific organizational roles, there is necessarily no
specific order in which the steps should be taken.

Fixed vs. Variable socialization

This dimension refers to the extent to which the steps have a timetable developed by the
organization and communicated to the recruit in order to convey when the socialization
process is complete. Fixed socialization provides a recruit with the exact knowledge of the
time it will take complete a given passage. For instance, some management trainees can be
put on " fast tracks" where they are required to accept new rotational assignment on an annual
basis despite their own preferences. Variable socialization processes gives a newcomer no
specific timetable, but a few clues as to when to expect a given boundary passage. This type
of socialization is commonly associated upwardly mobile careers within business
organizations because of several uncontrolled factors such as the state of the economy or
turnover rates which determine whether any given newcomer will be promoted to a higher
level or not.

Serial vs. Disjunctive socialization

A serial socialization process refers to experienced members of the organization grooming

the newcomers who are about to occupy similar positions within the organization. These
experience members essentially serve as role models for the inexperienced newcomers. A
prime example of serial socialization would be a rookie police officer getting assigned patrol
duties with an experienced veteran who has been in law enforcement for a lengthy period of
time. Disjunctive socialization, in contrast, refers to when newcomers are not following the
guidelines of their predecessors, and there are no role models to inform new recruits on how
to fulfill their duties.

Investiture vs. Divestiture socialization

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This tactic refers to the degree to which a socialization process either affirms or disaffirms
the identity of the newly entering recruit. Investiture socialization processes sanction and
document for newcomers the viability and efficacy of the personal characteristics that they
bring to the organization. When organizations use this socialization process it prefers that the
recruit remains the exact way that he or she naturally behaves and the organization merely
makes use of the skills, values, and attitudes that the recruit is believed to have in their
possession. Divestiture socialization, on the other hand, is a process that organizations use to
reject and remove the certain personal characteristics of a recruit. Many occupations and
organizations require newcomers to sever previous ties, and forget old habits in order to
create a new self-image based upon new assumptions.

Thus, tactics influence the socialization process by defining the type of information
newcomers receive, the source of this information, and the ease of obtaining it.

Jones' model (1986)

Building upon the work of Van Maanen and Schein, Jones (1986) proposed that the previous
six dimensions could be reduced to two categories: institutionalized and individualized
socialization. Companies that use institutionalized socialization tactics implement structured
step-by-step programs, enter into an orchestrated orientation as a group, and receive help
from an assigned role model or mentor. Examples of organizations using institutionalized
tactics include the military, in which new recruits undergo extensive training and
socialization activities through a participative cohort, as well as incoming freshmen at
universities, who may attend orientation weekends before beginning classes.

On the opposite end of the spectrum, other organizations use individualized socialization
tactics in which the new employee immediately starts working on his or her new position and
figures out company norms, values, and expectations along the way. In this orientation
system, individuals must play a more proactive role in seeking out information and initiating
work relationships.

Formal orientations

Regardless of the socialization tactics utilized, formal orientation programs can facilitate
understanding of company culture, and introduces new employees to their work roles and the
organizational social environment. Formal orientation programs may consist of lectures,
videotapes, and written material, while other organizations may rely on more usual

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approaches. More recent approaches such as computer-based orientations and Internets have
been used by organizations to standardize training programs across branch locations. A
review of the literature indicates that orientation programs are successful in communicating
the company's goals, history, and power structure.

Recruitment events

Recruitment events play a key role in identifying which prospective employees are a good fit
with an organization. Recruiting events allow employees to gather initial information about
an organization's expectations and company culture. By providing a realistic job preview of
what life inside the organization is like, companies can weed out potential employees who are
clearly a misfit to an organization and individuals can identify which employment agencies
are the most suitable match for their own personal values, goals, and expectations. Research
has shown that new employees who receive a great amount of accurate information about the
job and the company tend to adjust better. Organizations can also provide realistic job
previews by offering internship opportunities.

Mentorship

Mentorship has demonstrated importance in the socialization of new employees. Ostroff and
Kozlowski (1993) discovered that newcomers with mentors become more knowledgeable
about the organization than did newcomers without mentors. Mentors can help newcomers
better manage their expectations and feel comfortable with their new environment through
advice-giving and social support. Chatman (1991) found that newcomers are more likely to
have internalized the key values of their organization's culture if they had spent time with an
assigned mentor and attended company social events. Literature has also suggested the
importance of demographic matching between organizational mentors and protgs. Enscher
& Murphy (1997) examined the effects of similarity (race and gender) on the amount of
contact and quality of mentor relationships. Results indicate that liking, satisfaction, and
contact were higher in conditions of perceived mentor-protg similarity. But what often
separates rapid on-boarders from their slower counterparts is not the availability of a mentor
but the presence of a "buddy," someone of whom the newcomer can comfortably ask
questions that are either trivial ("How do I order office supplies?") or politically sensitive
("Whose opinion really matters here?"). Like mentors, buddies can be people who are
officially assigned by a manager or who simply emerge informally (a nearby co-worker, for
instance) as an easily accessible resource and confidant. Furthermore, buddies can help

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establish relationships with co-workers in ways that can't always be facilitated by a
newcomer's manager or mentor.

Employee adjustment

In order to increase the success of an Organizational Socialization program, it is important for

an organization to monitor how well their new hires are adjusting to their new roles,
responsibilities, peers, supervisors, and the organization at large. Researchers have noted that
role clarity, self-efficacy, social acceptance, and knowledge of organizational culture are
particularly good indicators of well-adjusted new employees who have benefitted from an
effective Organizational Socialization system.

Role clarity

Role clarity describes a new employee's understanding of his or her job responsibilities and
organizational role. One of the goals of an Organizational Socialization process is to aid
newcomers in reducing ambiguity and uncertainty so that it is easier for them to get their jobs
done correctly and efficiently. Because there often is a disconnect between the chief
responsibilities listed in a job description and the specific, repeatable tasks that employees
must complete to be successful in their roles, it's vital that managers are trained to discuss
exactly what they expect from their employees. A poor Organizational Socialization program,
for example, may produce employees who exhibit sub-par productivity because they are
unsure of their exact roles and responsibilities. On the other hand, a strong Organizational
Socialization program would produce employees who are especially productive because they
know exactly what is expected of them in their job tasks and their organizational role. Given
this information, it is easy to see why an organization would benefit substantially from
increasing role clarity for a new employee. Not only does role clarity imply greater
productivity, but it has also been linked to both job satisfaction and organizational
commitment.

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is the degree to which new employees feel capable of successfully completing
their assigned job tasks and fulfilling their responsibilities. It makes logical sense that
employees who feel as though they can get the job done would fare better than those who feel
overwhelmed in their new positions, and unsurprisingly, researchers have found that job

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satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover are all correlated with feelings of self-
efficacy.

Social acceptance

Social acceptance gives new employees the support needed to be successful. While role
clarity and self-efficacy are important to a newcomer's ability to meet the requirements of a
job, the feeling of "fitting in" can do a lot for one's perception of the work environment and
has been demonstrated to increase commitment to an organization and decrease turnover. If
an employee feels well received by his or her peers, a personal investment in the organization
develops, and leaving becomes less likely.

Knowledge of organizational culture

Knowledge of organizational culture refers to how well a new employee understands a

company's values, goals, roles, norms, and overall organizational environment. For example,
some organizations may have very strict, yet unspoken, rules of how interactions with
superiors should be conducted or whether overtime hours are the norm and an expectation.
Knowledge of one's organizational culture is important for the newcomer looking to adapt to
a new company, as it allows for social acceptance and aids in completing work tasks in a way
that meets company standards. Overall, knowledge of organizational culture has been linked
to increased satisfaction and commitment, as well as decreased turnover.

Outcomes

Historically, organizations have overlooked the influence of business practices in shaping

enduring work attitudes and thus have continually underestimated their impact on financial
success. Employees' job attitudes are particularly important from an organization's
perspective because of their link to employee engagement and performance on the job.
Employee engagement attitudes, such as satisfaction with one's job and organizational
commitment or loyalty, have important implications for an employee's work performance and
intentions to stay with or quit an organization. This translates into strong monetary gains for
organizations as research has demonstrated that individuals who are highly satisfied with
their jobs and who exhibit high organizational commitment are likely to perform better and
remain in an organization, whereas individuals who have developed negative attitudes (are
highly dissatisfied and unattached to their jobs) are characterized by low performance and
high turnover rates. Unengaged employees are very costly to organizations in terms of slowed

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performance and rehiring expenses. Since, attitudinal formations begin from the initial point
of contact with an organization, practitioners would be wise to take advantage of positive
attitudinal development during socialization periods in order to ensure a strong, productive,
and dedicated workforce.

Limits and criticisms of Organizational Socialization theory

Although the outcomes of organizational socialization have been positively associated with
the process of uncertainty reduction, they may not necessarily be desirable to all
organizations. Jones (1986) as well as Allen and Meyer (1990) found that socialization tactics
were related to commitment, but they were negatively correlated to role clarity. Because
formal socialization tactics insulate the newcomer from their full responsibilities while
"learning the ropes", there is a potential for role confusion once expected to fully enter the
organization. In some cases though, organizations may even desire a certain level of person-
organizational misfit in order to achieve outcomes via innovative behaviors. Depending on
the culture of the organization, it may be more desirable to increase ambiguity despite the
potentially negative connection with organizational commitment.

Additionally, socialization researchers have had major concerns over the length of time that it
takes newcomers to adjust. There has been great difficulty determining the role that time
plays, but once the length of the adjustment is determined, organizations can make
appropriate recommendations regarding what matters most in various stages of the
adjustment process.

Further criticisms include the use of special orientation sessions to educate newcomers about
the organization and strengthen their organizational commitment. While these sessions have
been found to be often formal and ritualistic, several studies have found them unpleasant or
traumatic. Orientation sessions are a frequently used socialization tactic, however, employees
have not found them to be helpful, nor has any research provided any evidence for their
benefits.

Executive Organizational Socialization

Executive Organizational Socialization is the application of general Organizational

Socialization principles to helping new executives become productive members of an
organization. Practically, executive Organizational Socialization involves acquiring,
accommodating, assimilating and accelerating new executives. Proponents emphasize the

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importance of making the most of the "honeymoon" stage of a hire, a period which has been
described by various sources as either the first 90 to 100 days or the first full year.

Effective Organizational Socialization of new executives can be one of the most important
contributions any hiring manager, direct supervisor or human resources professional can
make to long-term organizational success, because executive Organizational Socialization
done right can improve productivity and executive retention, and build shared corporate
culture. A study of 20,000 searches revealed that 40 percent of executives hired at the senior
level are pushed out, fail, or quit within 18 months.

Organizational Socialization may be especially valuable for externally recruited executives

transitioning into complex roles, because it may be difficult for those individuals to uncover
personal, organizational, and role risks in complicated situations when they don't have formal
Organizational Socialization assistance. Organizational Socialization is also an essential tool
for executives promoted into new roles and/or transferred from one business unit to another.

It is often valuable to have new executives start some Organizational Socialization activities
in the "Fuzzy Front End" even before their first day. This is one of ten steps executives can
follow to accelerate their Organizational Socialization.

1. Position yourself for success

2. Choose how to engage the context and culture

3. Embrace and leverage the Fuzzy Front End before day one

4. Take control of day one: Make a powerful first impression

5. Drive action by activating and directing ongoing communication

6. Embed a strong burning imperative

7. Exploit key milestones to drive team performance

8. Over-invest in early wins to build team confidence

9. Secure adept people in the right roles and deal with the inevitable resistance

10. Evolve people, plans, and practices to capitalize on changing circumstances.

Recommendations for practitioners

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Some suggest that practitioners should seek to design an Organizational Socialization
strategy that takes individual newcomer characteristics into consideration and encourages
proactive behaviors, such as information seeking, that help facilitate the development of role
clarity, self-efficacy, social acceptance, and knowledge of organizational culture. Research
has consistently shown that doing so produces valuable outcomes such as high job
satisfaction (the extent to which one enjoys the nature of his or her work), organizational
commitment (the connection one feels to an organization), and job performance in
employees, as well as lower turnover rates and decreased intent to quit.

In terms of structure, empirical evidence indicates that formal institutionalized socialization is

the most effective Organizational Socialization method. New employees who complete these
kinds of programs tend to experience more positive job attitudes and lower levels of turnover
in comparison to those who undergo individualized tactics. Some evidence suggests that in-
person Organizational Socialization techniques are more effective than virtual ones. Though
it may initially appear to be less expensive for a company to use a standard computer-based
orientation program to introduce their new employees to the organization, research has
demonstrated that employees learn more about their roles and company culture through face-
to-face orientation.

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