Robbie Albinger, Caleb Ferger, Kimmy Mehlert

Research Methodology
Dr. King
4/28/17
Introduction

As our society evolves, generational gaps continue to grow; the previous ways of

thinking and the prejudices that arise continue to widen this gap between boomers and

millennials. Ideals, such as tattoos, piercings, and revealing clothing that were once considered

improper, are challenged daily by millennials. Twenge, Sherman, and Wells (2016) found that

Americans born in the 1980s and 1990s, those considered millennials, are looking to redefine the

social norms of society. The media barrier separating boomers and millennials is being widened

by the constant advances in todays society. These relationships between elderly and youth, as

well as male and female, create an opportunity to better understand how to close the gap between

genders and generations. Judgements happen throughout our daily lives. Not only are these

judgements made in person, but also through online resources and social media. This study looks

at the level of judgment based on the gender and age of the person viewing a photograph of a

person on Facebook.

Review of Literature

The generational gap in social media usage increases annually as a new form of

technology is produced (Chang, Choi, Bazarova, & Lckenhoff, 2015). This creates a larger gap

between generations as one learns how they communicate with one another. In a study that

looked at Facebook statuses versus the regular use of a diary, they found that individuals are

more likely to post positive displays of their lives, or more positive emotions on Facebook, than

negative displays (Lin, Tov, & Qiu, 2014). Individuals with larger social networks are often

concerned with their own self-image and disclose more positive emotions (Lin, et al., 2014).
Individuals with a smaller social network have a stronger need for emotional expression, which

leads to more positive than negative emotional disclosure (Lin, et al., 2014). Many times, a

stronger need for emotional expression is observed with the older generation as they often

maintain smaller, but more emotionally rewarding networks (Chang, et al., 2015). The size of

ones social network is subject to shrink the older he/she becomes as one starts limiting

connections to those known on a personal level, actual friends (Chang, et al., 2015). The amount

of actual friends that are on Facebook influences specific comments that individuals tend to post

online. Comments made online that were positive during the showing of a video with negative

connotations were found to then increase a positive outlook on that company for individuals

(Sung & Lee, 2014). Individuals who are usually displaying negative judgement tend to stray

from using first-person terminology (Tausczik & Pennebaker, 2010). Emotional expression on

social media plays a large role in how others perceive a profile, which leads to more judgment

towards posts and images.

Although people are likely to stray away from first person terminology on social media,

they still hold personal biases that this study is looking to research. When considering how

someone will interpret a photograph, several factors are to be considered. Male and females both

demonstrate a strong tendency to see a womans happiness, sexiness, and femininity as being

strongly related to her physical attractiveness (Lucker, Beane, & Helmreich, 1981). It has also

been found that both older and younger adults tend to show stronger facial stereotypes, critically

judging those who are closer to their own age (Zebrowitz & Franklin, 2014). Negative emotions

are more accepted versus positive emotions on social networks like Facebook (Lin, et al., 2014),

although a higher proportion of actual to total Facebook friends is associated with lower levels of

social isolation and loneliness (Chang, et al., 2015).

 In addition, skewing your answers to cast a more positive light is referred to as the halo

effect (Lachman & Bass,1985), and it is a large factor in this study. The halo effect deals with

the extent to which a raters evaluation of another individual on a series of traits are influenced

by that raters overall liking for that individual, and how others will view the rater (Lachman &

Bass,1985). Zebrowitz and Franklin (2014) discovered that older adults shows a weaker halo

effect than younger adults, specifically for impressions of the competence and health of younger

faces. Conversely, Zebrowitz and Franklin (2014) discovered that there was a stronger effect for

impressions of the health of older faces, both factors that need to be accounted for when

analyzing the results of this proposed study. Whereas some face stereotypes did not show own-

age accentuation, in no case did attractiveness and babyfaceness have a stronger effect when

faces differed markedly in age from the rater than when they were similar in age (Zebrowitz and

Franklin, 2014, pp.387).

While there are many areas of study related to this proposed study, none dealt specifically

with generational gaps and the differences between genders and judgment levels. Other studies

have focused only on age differences and not on the on gender differences through social media,

related with age. The gender of participants has been hidden behind the study of their age. This

study focuses on strengthening this relationship between gender of the individual and their age

along with judgements they have towards images of on social media.

H1: There is a positive relationship between the age of an individual viewing an image of a

female wearing revealing clothes on Facebook and the level of judgment towards that picture.

H2: There is a relationship between the gender of the individual viewing an image of a female

wearing revealing clothes on Facebook and the level of judgment towards that picture.
 Method

This study examines at the causal relationship between individuals gender and age, and

level of judgement toward an image on Facebook. The experimental research method focuses on

the impact the independent variable can have on a dependent variable, a cause-effect

relationship. Performing this experiment in the surrounding community will keep the subjects in

a more natural environment, yielding results from a wider age range.

Participants

For this study, a non-random sample of Baby Boomers and millennials from the

surrounding community in Waukesha and Carroll University campus will be tested. There will

be a sample size of sixty individuals. These individuals will consist of thirty students who

currently are enrolled in communication courses at Carroll University, and thirty individuals who

currently are located at a local nursing home, Curative, on a daily basis. Fifteen from each group

will be male and fifteen will be female. Communication faculty at Carroll presented students

with the option of extra credit for volunteering to participate in this study. To access the Baby

Boomers, there will be contact with Curative to get permission to come in and conduct the study.

This is a non-random, convenience sample.

Materials

Two different conditions of a vignette were made for this study. The vignette was made

of a simple background story and photograph of a student, Nicole. In the two different versions

of the vignette, the description of the relationship to Nicole changed. One description describes

her as a friend (Appendix A) and the other describes her as their grandchilds friend (Appendix

B). The picture was at the bottom of the page for both vignettes after the story. The story was

kept simple to ensure it would not sway the opinions of those being studied, but yet give context
to the picture being shown.

Following the vignette is a questionnaire containing 10 questions measuring how the

participant reaction to the image: six target questions (2,4,7,8,9,10) and four filler questions

(1,3,5,6) (see Appendix C). The filler questions were used as a distractor to keep the participants

from being able to skew the results of the study. These questions were answered using a Likert

scale ranging from one (strongly disagree) to seven (strongly agree). There was a possible range

of 6 to 42. The very last page of the small packet was a demographics page which allowed

individuals to answer questions about themselves (see Appendix D). The demographics page will

ensure that any outliers could be obtained so that any findings from these categories could be

explained.

The instruments were piloted on a non-random group of subjects that fit into the age

groups for the study. By piloting these instruments, it created a baseline to find out the starting

point of the target audience's feelings about similar images. Getting initial reactions and

responses with the questionnaire helps to indicate whether the questions measure targeted

variables.

Procedure

A 2x2 between-subjects factorial design was used: male vs. female and millennial vs.

Baby Boomers. All millennials reported to a classroom on Carroll Universitys campus and all

Baby Boomers were visited at the nursing home. This happened in an hour time frame for both

the Carroll students and the Curative members. Groups of seven to ten individuals reported at the

same time and were presented the study. By using a group administration, it created a faster and

more succesful response rate. A small packet containing the vignette, the Likert Scale, and the

demographics page was handed to them as they walked in the room, or were visited, along with a
consent form. Participants were asked to sign the consent form, read the story, look at the

picture, and answer the corresponding questions. The researcher then collected everything upon

completion of the study. Once participants finished the study, they were able to leave.

Data Analysis

A 2x2 between-subjects ANOVA was conducted to analyze the data. The filler questions

consisting of questions one, three, five, and six, will be omitted from the data analysis. There

were no reverse scored questions within this study. The responses to questions two, four, seven,

eight, nine, and ten were then analyzed to see if there were any significant results.

Conclusion

There was a significant main effect between gender of the participant. Participants were

more judgmental towards Nicoles picture if the participants were female rather than male. There

was a significant main effect in the age of the participant as well. The millennials were less

judgmental rather when compared to the baby boomers. There was a significant interaction

between gender of the participant and the age of the participant. Participants who were millennial

males judged the picture less than baby boomer males. Participants who were millennial females

judged the picture more than baby boomer females.

This study is to help close the generational gap and create a better understanding to help

reduce prejudice in todays society. Social media is a constantly growing platform that

individuals utilize to showcase their daily lives. By looking at the judgment levels within

different age groups, this helps to create an understanding of how each group can effectively

utilize differing communication outlets.

There are a few limitations presented in this study. One would be how the sample was

obtained. By only looking at communication students at Carroll University, there is a large

population not taken into consideration with the results. This also applies to the Baby Boomers,

by pulling our sample from one nursing home, there is a large portion of the population that

would fit into the category of Baby Boomers that are being missed. Another limitation would be

the picture that was used for the study. By focusing on a picture of a female, there are already

stereotypes associated with females uploading images on social media, which could add some

confounding variables to the study. The story that was used could also add to some of the results

being different by being too distracting for participants and taking away focus on the image.

This study only focused on Facebook, which takes out all possibilities with other social media

channels. Facebook is not the only place that individuals upload images of themselves, and this

study does not address those other possibilities that these other channels could impact judgment

levels. These are some limitations that could make an impact on the results of this study.

Using this study as a basis, future directions can be taken on other studies. With a target

audience in mind, there are multiple little changes that could be made to look at different

variables in this study. One thing that could be studied by using this research is to look at

judgment levels and bullying within youth (millennials). Cyberbullying is making a large impact

on todays society, and to gain a better understanding of what causes these judgments can help

prevent this form of bullying. Another take would be to look at elderly (Baby Boomers) and

social media as a whole. Rather than focusing solely on Facebook, one could look at how Baby

Boomers perceive social media, in all forms. There are many social media sites that people are

using day, looking at if a picture has a larger impact on Instagram rather than Facebook might

alter the results as well. Another future implication would be to see if the gender of the person in

the picture makes an impact on the participants judgment levels. All of these slight changes to

the study could make an impact on the results that were found. These could help other
researchers see if there are more factors that make an impact on how others truly judge images

on social media.
 References

Chang, P. F., Choi, Y. H., Bazarova, N. N., & Lckenhoff, C. E. (2015). Age differences in

online social networking: Extending socioemotional selectivity theory to social network

sites. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 59(2), 221-239.

doi:10.1080/08838151.2015.1029126

Lachman, S. J., & Bass, A. R. (1985). A direct study of halo effect. The Journal of Psychology,

119(6), 535-540. doi:10.1080/00223980.1985.9915460

Lin, H., Tov, W., & Qiu, L. (2014). Emotional disclosure on social networking sites: The role of

network structure and psychological needs. Computers in Human Behavior, 41, 342-350.

doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.09.045

Lucker, G. W., Beane, W. E., & Helmreich, R. L. (1981). The strength of the halo effect in

physical attractiveness research. The Journal of Psychology, 107(1), 69-75.

doi:10.1080/00223980.1981.9915206

Sung, K. H., & Lee, M. J. (2014). Do online comments influence the public's attitudes toward

an organization? Effects of online comments based on individuals prior attitudes. The

Journal of Psychology, 149(4), 325-338. doi:10.1080/00223980.2013.879847

Tausczik, Y. R., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2010). The psychological meaning of words: LIWC and

computerized text analysis methods. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 29,

24-54. doi: 10.1177/026

Twenge, J. M., Sherman, R. A., & Wells, B. E. (2016). Sexual inactivity during young adulthood

is more common among U.S. millennials and iGen: Age, period, and cohort effects on

having no sexual partners after age 18. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46(2), 433-440.

doi:10.1007/s10508-016-0798-z
Zebrowitz, L. A., & Franklin, R. G. (2014). The attractiveness halo effect and the babyface

stereotype in older and younger adults: Similarities, own-age accentuation, and older

adult positivity effects. Experimental Aging Research, 40(3), 375-393.

doi:10.1080/0361073x.2014.897151
 Appendix A

Millennial Version

Please read the following story and view the picture that goes along with it, then answer
the questions as honestly as you can.
As you are scrolling through Facebook, you see your friend Nicole has recently uploaded
a new photo. It is a picture of herself in her new crop top before she heads out to go shopping.
You notice that a lot of your friends have commented on her post.
Nicole is an only child. Her parents are hardworking which is where she got her work
ethic. She has aspirations of one day becoming a social worker to help others. Nicole is the
definition of a great and true friend. It is as if she knows exactly what to say and do at any given
time. She is a friend whom everyone looks up to for many reasons and is well rounded with her
priorities. She is kind and caring towards everyone she meets, and will always give you the best
advice when needed. Nicole has always been the outgoing girl that everyone knows and
everyone is friends with. Nicole is that type of friend to always have the cutest clothes and the
most up to date styles on everything.

Appendix B
 Baby Boomer Version

Please read the following story and view the picture that goes along with it, then answer
the questions as honestly as you can.
As you are scrolling through Facebook, you see your grandchilds friend Nicole has
recently uploaded a new photo. It is a picture of herself in her new crop top before she heads out
to go shopping. You notice that a lot of your grandchilds friends have commented on her post.
Nicole is smiling.
Your grandchild has told you all about her friend, Nicole. Nicole is an only child. Her
parents are hardworking, which is where she got her work ethic. She has aspirations of one day
becoming a social worker to help others. Nicole is the definition of a great and true friend. It is as
if she knows exactly what to say and do at any given time. She is a friend whom everyone looks
up to for many reasons and is well rounded with her priorities. She is kind and caring towards
everyone she meets, and will always give you the best advice when needed. Nicole has always
been the outgoing girl that everyone knows and everyone is friends with. Your granddaughter
always says that Nicole is that type of friend to always have the cutest clothes and the most up to
date styles on everything.

Appendix C

Vignette Questions
 Looking at the scale, write down the number you most agree with on the line.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree

________ 1. Nicole has a cute shirt on.

________ 2. Nicole was trying too hard to impress others.

________ 3. I felt I had to like Nicoles picture so I would not be left out.

________ 4. Nicoles shirt makes her seem unapproachable.

________ 5. Nicole should choose different clothes to wear.

________ 6. I would not post a picture like that on the internet.

________ 7. Nicoles selfie makes her look promiscuous.

________ 8. Nicoles selfie makes me uncomfortable.

________ 9. Nicole should watch what she posts online.

________ 10. I would feel more comfortable seeing this picture off of social media
 Appendix D

Demographics for Vignette

For the following items, please select the response(s) that is most descriptive of you or fill in the
blank as appropriate.

Sex:
Female Male Other

Age: _______

Ethnicity: (circle any of the following and feel free to write in space provided below)
African American _______________________

Asian or Pacific Islander _______________________

Caucasian _______________________

Latino/Hispanic _______________________

Native American _______________________

Other _______________________

Year in school: (Not applicable for non-students)

Freshman Sophomore Junior

Senior Grad student Not enrolled

Marital Status:
Single Married

Divorced Widowed
 Appendix E
Consent Form

RESEARCH CONSENT FORM

We are currently students in Research Methodology at Carroll University. We are completing this
experiment as a course requirement for that class. You are being asked to participate voluntarily in this
experiment to help me fulfill that course requirement. This research is being conducted under the
supervision of my instructor, Dr. King. Her e-mail should you need to contact her is bking@carrollu.edu.

PURPOSE OF STUDY: This study is investigating judgment levels on a picture posted on Facebook

DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY INCLUDING PROCEDURES TO BE USED: Your participation will

take approximately 15 minutes. If you choose to participate, you will read a description of a scenario and
then take survey on what your thoughts were. Feel free to ask any questions you have at any time during
your participation.

DESCRIPTION OF ANY PROCEDURES THAT MAY RESULT IN DISCOMFORT OR

INCONVENIENCE: None of the procedures for this experiment are expected to cause you any
discomfort or inconvenience aside from reporting for this current scheduled appointment. If at any time
you do experience discomfort, you are free to skip any questions you prefer not to answer or to withdraw
from the study at any time.

EXPECTED RISKS OF THE STUDY: There are no known risks to you for participating. It is always
possible, however, that unpredicted risks or discomfort can occur during your participation. This study
has been designed to minimize any risk to you. However, should you feel discomfort you are free to
discontinue your participation or skip any questions you prefer not to answer. It is possible that you could
feel uncomfortable due to the perception that you performed poorly or are being judged. However, there
is no pressure in your participation and the data collection is designed to be anonymous. There will be no
way for your data to be connected back to you as no identifying information will be tied to the data.

EXPECTED BENEFITS OF THE STUDY TO THE PARTICIPANT: If you are a student at Carroll
University, you may receive 1 extra credit point for your participation in this study. This is not guaranteed
and is completely up to the discretion of your instructor. In order to receive extra credit for a class, you
are required to have already signed up to participate. If you have not already signed up for this experiment
or are not enrolled in a class that offers extra credit for participation, your participation is completely
voluntary and you will not be compensated in any way.

OTHER TREATMENT AVAILABLE: If you are participating for extra credit, you should know that
you have the option of completing an alternate assignment to fulfill the course requirement. The decision
whether you choose to participate in research or complete an alternative assignment is completely your
decision, and there are no negative consequences regardless of your decision.
USE OF RESEARCH RESULTS: The knowledge obtained from this study will fill a gap in our current
scientific knowledge about the difference in judgment levels between baby boomers and millennials.

DISSEMINATION: This study is being conducted for educational purposes in my Research Methodology
class. Results may be disseminated at conferences internal to Carroll University. All results will be
presented in aggregate form and your data will not be identifiable or tied to you in any way.

FREEDOM TO WITHDRAW: Your participation is completely voluntary and a decision not to

participate will involve no penalty or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled.

COMPLAINTS:

If you have any complaints about your treatment as a participant in this study, please call or
write:

Dr. Joanne Passaro, Provost

Carroll University
100 N. East Avenue
Waukesha, Wisconsin 53186
262/524-7364

RESEARCH SUBJECT/PARTICIPANTS RIGHTS

I have read or have had read to me all of the above. Kim Mehlert, Robbie Albinger, and Caleb Ferger
have explained the study to me and answered all of my questions. I have been told of the risks or
discomforts and possible benefits of the study.

I understand that I do not have to take part in this study, and my refusal to participate will involve no
penalty or loss of rights to which I am entitled. I may withdraw from this study at any time without
penalty.

The results of this study may be published, but my records will not be revealed unless required by law.

Any identifying information obtained in this study will be treated as confidential and will be safeguarded
in accordance with the Privacy Act of 1974.

I understand my rights as a research subject/participant, and I voluntarily consent to participate in this

study. I understand what the study is about and how and why it is being done. I will receive a signed
copy of this consent form.

SIGNATURES Please print, sign, and date the consent form in the spaces provided below. If you are a
minor, a parent or guardian must sign on your behalf, and you will sign a separate assent form.
Print Participants Name

Participants (or parents) Signature Date

Researchers Signature Date

If you are enrolled in a class or a class that offers extra credit for research participation at Carroll
University AND you have already signed up for this study, please write the name of the course and
instructor below.

Course Instructor