Sports Nutrition: Hot Topic Paper 1

Desire Wentzell

Are College Athletes Following Proper Nutrition Intake?

ND-331-01

Marywood University
Sports Nutrition: Hot Topic Paper 2

Introduction

Adequate nutrition intake is important and different for every person. Athletes require a

higher amount of energy intake because they expend more energy than the average person. The

study I read evaluated whether or not the dietary intake of athletes is adequate or not according

to sports nutrition recommendations.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of this study was to see if female college athletes are following correct

dietary intake according to sports nutrition standards. The college athletes in this study had their

food habits evaluated to see if they met the minimum requirements of sports nutrition standards.

Study Design and Methods

Participants completed a three-day food record, a twenty-four-hour recall, a nutrition

questionnaire, and also completed anthropometric measurements. Multiple dietary assessments

help improve the quality of data in a study. Athletes require a higher energy intake than those

who do not exercise. The following AMDRs are for athletes: CHO- minimum of 5g/kg, PRO:

1.2g/kg for endurance athletes to 2g/kg for strength athletes, FAT: 20-35% of their total energy

intake. The timing of their meals is very important to ensure proper athletic performance and

recovery (Lenka, 2015).

The inclusion factors included the women being a member of a womens sports team, an

age of 18 or older, and free of injury during the time of the study. Exclusion factors included

seven of the fifty-two women who were excluded from the analysis because their three-day food

journals did have sufficient information to evaluate (Lenka, 2015). The independent variables

would simply be the athletes. The dependent variables would be the nutritional status of the

athlete, and the outcomes from the experiment.

Sports Nutrition: Hot Topic Paper 3

Anthropometric data was collected (height, weight, body mass, body composition). The

height and body mass were measured using a digital scale and a wall mounted stadiometer.

Body mass and height were measured twice for each subject in the study to the nearest 0.1kg and

0.1cm. Body composition was determined by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry; these

measurements were recorded first thing in the morning after the athletes had fasted the night

before (Lenka, 2015). After the 24hr recall and 3-day diet record was provided it was put into

Diet Analysis Plus to be evaluated. A mean 4-day energy requirement for each athlete was

provided (expressed in kilocalories). Two research assistants evaluated the data and found that

the correlation coefficients were r= .98 total energy intake, r= .96 total CHO intake, r=.96 total

fat intake, and r= .95 for PRO intake (Lenka, 2015).

The participants were 52 female college athletes from a National Collegiate Athletic

Association (NCAA) Division I university. The sample population consisted of soccer,

basketball, cross country runners, and track and field athletes. This study took place between

January 2009 through May 2010. Each participant was given a written consent form to evaluate

their nutritional status through meetings and individual visits. Seven of the fifty-two participants

were excluded from the analysis because their three-day food records did not supply sufficient

data. 33 participants were Caucasian, 10 African American, 1 Hispanic, 1 Other. The mean age

was 20, BM: 66.4, H: 170.4cm, body fat: 19.5 (Lenka, 2015).

Results

Overall the energy and carbohydrate intakes of the participants were lower than the daily

recommended intake for athletes. Only 9% of the participants met their recommended energy

needs. Seventy-five percent of athletes failed to meet daily carbohydrate recommendation for

athletes to support training. Many of the participants recorded that they do not eat breakfast, only
Sports Nutrition: Hot Topic Paper 4

sixteen percent said that they actually monitor their hydration, and thirty-six of them said that

they eat less than five meals each day.

Conclusion

The study concluded that most, but not all, women college athletes in their experiment

did not receive the proper nutrition intake. This means appropriate sports nutrition intervention

should be taken place with female college athletes. Providing interventions to college athletes

may increase their daily nutrition intake, performance, and recovery.

Sports Nutrition: Hot Topic Paper 5

JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH, VOL. 61, NO. 1

Dietary Intakes and Eating Habits of College Athletes: Are Female College Athletes
Following the Current Sports Nutrition Standards?

Lenka H. Shriver, PhD; Nancy M. Betts, PhD, RD; Gena Wollenberg, PhD, RD, CSSD

Abstract. Objective: The objective of this study was to assess dietary intakes and eating habits of female college athletes and
compared them with the minimum sports nutrition standards. Participants: Data were obtained from 52 female college athletes
from a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I university between January 2009 and May 2010. Methods:
Partici- pants completed anthropometric measurements and dietary assess- ment using a 3-day food record, a 24-hour recall, and
a nutrition questionnaire. Results: t tests indicated the energy and carbohy- drate intakes were below the minimum recommended
amount (p < .001), with only 9% of the participants meeting their energy needs. Seventy-five percent of the participants failed to
consume the min- imum amount of carbohydrates that is required to support training. The majority of the participants reported no
regular breakfast, 36% consumed < 5 meals/day, and only 16% monitored their hydration status. Conclusions: Effective nutrition
interventions are needed to improve dietary intakes and eating habits of female college athletes.

Keywords: athletics, nutrition

he number of female student-athletes participating in collegiate sports has increased tremendously in the last decade,
with more than 190,000 women being

registered under the National Collegiate Athletic Associa- tion (NCAA) Adequate nutrition is important not only for
maintaining good health and nutritional status of these young women, but also for maximizing their athletic
potential.Overall, female athletes are more vulnerable to nutrition- related issues than their male counterparts,
including nutrient deficiencies, eating disorders, body image issues, and weight management problems. Despite the
dramatic increase in the number of women competing in college sports and the importance of nutrition for health
and performance, very lit- tle is known about dietary intakes, food habits, and overall diet quality in this unique
population.

Dietary assessment is a time-consuming and complex pro- cess that requires in-depth dietary data collection and
appro- priate interpretation of the results. The utilization of 24-hour dietary recalls, food records, and other dietary
assessment tools is critical for gathering detail food-related information. A combination of 2 or more dietary
assessment techniques can significantly improve the quality of the obtained data; however, studies on college
athletes utilizing such approach are lacking in the current literature. This is in part due to dietary assessment posing
a high burden on subjects, espe- cially athletes whose schedule is hectic. Yet, using multiple techniques and
obtaining detailed data is warranted for con- ducting accurate dietary assessment and designing effective nutrition
education or intervention programs for collegiate athletes in the future.

The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) include the Ac- ceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDRs) and
currently represent the energy and nutrient standards for a general healthy population in the United States. The
AMDRs state that the acceptable proportion of daily energy intake from carbohydrates, protein, and fat is 45%
65%, 10%35%, and 20%35%, respectively. However, re- search has indicated that the macronutrient
requirements for athletes vary from these recommendations. Furthermore, ex- perts agree that the requirements for
athletes should be ex- pressed in grams per kilogram of body mass (g/kg) rather than as proportion of total energy
intake in order to re- flect their needs more approach isbelieved to minimize the number of athletes for whom the
macronutrient needs are miscalculated, especially for those with very low or very high energy intakes.

Using the weight-based approach, studies have established that a minimum of 5 g/kg of dietary carbohydrates is
needed to maintain adequate glycogen stores and support general training of all athletes on a regular The protein
recommendations have been also established for athletes de- pending on their body sizeThe guidelines range from
1.2 g/kg for endurance athletes to 2.0 g/kg for strength athletes or athletes engaged in weight loss efforts. Overall,
the 1.2 g/kg is considered to be the minimum amount of protein required for adequate recovery and tissue repair for
any type of athletes.urrently, there are no weight-based guidelines for athletes in terms of dietary fat intake. Thus,
Sports Nutrition: Hot Topic Paper 6

athletes are advised to follow the AMDR for dietary fat, rang- ing from 20% to 35% of their total energy intake.
Despite the established weight-based minimum recommendations for carbohydrates and protein, athletes often
continue to be ad- vised to consume carbohydrates and protein based on their total energy intake.

Food-related habits and dietary patterns are important for athletic performance and recovery because they influ- ence
energy consumption, nutrient intake, as well as hy- dration status.The timing and macronutrient composition of
meals are especially critical for athletic performance be- cause they impact not only the upcoming training session,
but also the athletes immediate recovery from the work- out. Thus, sports nutrition guidelines have been established
for meal/snack frequency, breakfast consumption, hydration, and other nutrition-related behaviors.Preexercise
fueling improves performance and prevents hunger during high-intensity prolonged exercise, thus athletes should
con- sume a carbohydrate-rich meal/snack depending on the time available, duration, and intensity of the
event.Athletes, particularly females, are especially vulnerable to low energy levels, hypoglycemia, and fatigue in the
morning. As shown in previous research, skipping breakfast may negatively in- fluence cognitive abilities and it
may alter metabolism due to reduced availability of carbohydrates to the brain. In athletes, breakfast consumption
significantly improves per- formance by restoring the level of liver and muscle glycogen after the overnight
fast.Athletes are not only advised to eat breakfast regularly, but also to consume a minimum of 5 meals or snacks in
order to maintain energy levels and supply adequate amount of carbohydrates to working mus- cles during the day,
especially when multiple workouts are completed.

Some research indicates that athletes tend to have poor dietary intakes; however, most of the existing studies com-
pared athletes diets with the nutrient standards that were es- tablished for general populations.Furthermore, only a
few studies have examined dietary habits and food pat- terns among female college athletes, who are known to be at
a higher risk for nutrient deficiencies, eating disorders, and other nutrition-related health issues than male college
ath- letes. Thus, the main purpose of this study was to assess energy and macronutrient intakes of female college
athletes and compare their intakes with the minimum sports nutri- tion recommendations. The secondary purpose of
the study was to explore eating habits and dietary patterns in the target population.

METHODS

Participants

This descriptive study utilizing a convenience sample of fe- male college athletes was conducted in a Division I
university in a midwestern state of the United States. The athletic train- ers were informed about the nature of the
study and about the details related to participation in the study. The trainers then assisted with the recruitment of
potential participants from 3 university womens athletic teams between January 2009 and May 2010. Potential
participants were informed about the details of the study and were provided with a written in- formed consent form
for their review during team meetings and/or individual visits in the athletic training room. The in- clusion criteria
for the study included being a member of one of the womens athletic teams, being 18 or older, and being free of
injury at the time of the study. Interested athletes were then scheduled for a visit in a laboratory in the Department of
Nutritional Sciences. During the laboratory visit, the pri- mary investigator and research assistants provided
potential participants with further details about the study, including the risks and benefits associated with the study.
The participants were asked to sign written informed consent prior to data collection. The study protocol was
reviewed and approved by the universitys Athletic Department and the universitys institutional review board
before any subject recruitment and data collection began.

Procedures and Research Instruments

Anthropometric measurements, including height, body mass, and body composition, were completed with each
subject during the first laboratory visit. Height and body mass were measured using a digital scale (Seca 664;
Hamburg, Germany), and a wall-mounted stadiometer (Harpenden, Holtain, Crymmych, Pembrookshire, United
Kingdom). Standard procedures for height and body mass measurements commonly used in previous research were
used in the study.Body mass and height of each subject was measured twice to the nearest 0.1 kg and 0.1 cm, with
an av- erage of the 2 measurements used for the final analysis. Body composition was determined using a whole-
body scan per- formed by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA; QDR 4500A; Hologic, Bedford,
Sports Nutrition: Hot Topic Paper 7

Massachusetts). The body compo- sition assessments were performed first thing in the morning and the participants
were instructed to fast overnight, refrain from strenuous physical activity, and not to eat or drink any- thing before
the morning laboratory visit. The DEXA instru- ment was calibrated, following the manufacturers protocol, in the
morning hours of the laboratory visits. The quality control for body composition measurements was conducted using
a step-phantom calibration, which ensured that the system and software were scanning properly before testing. The
coefficient of variation for the whole-body scan was < 1%. Prior to the DEXA scan, participants were asked to re-
move any metal objects and were instructed to change into medical gowns. The proportion of fat mass (% of body
fat) and the amount of lean body mass (LBM; in kg) were deter- mined from the DEXA scan for each athlete.

A trained research assistant completed a 1-day 24-hour recall with each subject during the laboratory visit. The re-
search assistant completed a specific 3-hour training on the multiple-pass 24-hour recall method that was led by the
pri- mary investigator prior to the beginning of the study. The multiple-pass 1-day 24-hour recall method was used
to max- imize the accuracy and completeness of the foods and bever- ages recalled. Plastic food models, measuring
spoons, cups, bowls, and other prompts were used to further improve the quality of the collected dietary data. The
24-hour recall was also used to accustom participants to recording dietary infor- mation and to maximize the level of
detail when completing food records for the purpose of the study. At the end of the 24-hour recall interview, each
subject was provided with de- tailed instructions on how to complete a 3-day food record and asked to return it
within 1 week of the laboratory visit. The 3-day food record included 2 weekdays and 1 weekend day to account for
food intake variability during the week. The participants were also instructed to record the duration, type, and
intensity of their training sessions and all other physical activities they participated in during the 3 reported days.
Once the subject returned the 3-day food record, a trained researcher immediately checked the food record and
followed up with the athlete to clarify specific items and/or obtain more detail if necessary. Dietary analysis of the
3- day food record and the 24-hour recall was conducted using the Diet Analysis Plus nutrition software (version 9.0
for Windows; Wadsworth, Belmont, California). The resting metabolic rate (RMR) of the participants was estimated
using the Cunningham equation. The LBM in kilograms was obtained directly from the whole-body DEXA scan
that was performed with each subject. The use of the Cunningham equation has been shown to represent the clos- est
estimate of RMR compared with other equations, pri- marily because the equation takes LBM into account.The
RMR was then multiplied by a physical activity fac- tor ranging from 1.8 to 2.3 for each subject. The appropri- ate
physical activity factor was established using the de- tailed physical activity data reported by each subject in the 3-
day food records, the 24-hour recall, and a nutrition questionnaire (including the type, duration, and intensity of all
reported physical activities). A mean 4-day energy in- take for each subject was estimated using dietary data from
the 3-day food record and the 24-hour recall and the en- ergy intake was expressed in kilocalories. Two trained re-
search assistants entered and analyzed the dietary intakes independently. The correlation coefficients between the 2
research assistants were r = .98 for total energy intake, r = .96 for total carbohydrate intake, r = .96 for total fat

intake, and r = .95 for total protein intake. When substan- tial differences in data entry were identified between the 2
research assistants, the dietary records were examined by the primary investigator and corrections were made in the
data set.

Eating habits of the athletes were evaluated using the Nutrition Questionnaire (NQ) that has been previously uti-
lized for the Combined Events Athlete Development (CEAD) project with USA Track & Field athletes. Two sports
nutri- tion researchers reviewed the questionnaire and modifica- tions were made based on their recommendations to
ensure face and content validity of the instrument prior to its utiliza- tion in the current study. The NQ included
questions about variety of nutritional practices such as meal/snack frequency (number of snacks and meals a day),
dining out (frequency per week and type of restaurant), hydration practices (eg, Do you monitor your body water
level? Do you use a schedule for drinking fluid during competition?), weight manage- ment (eg, How do you
perceive yourself? Is it difficult or easy to maintain weight while traveling?), self-evaluation of diet quality (eg,
during training, precompetition, postcompe- tition). Breakfast consumption was coded according to cri- teria used in
previous research with athletes as any caloric food/beverage consumed between 6:00 and 8:59 AM on each of the
reported days.

Statistical Analysis

Means, standard deviations, and frequencies were used to describe the characteristics of the sample. The
participants carbohydrate and protein intakes were compared with the current minimum sports nutrition
Sports Nutrition: Hot Topic Paper 8

recommendations using 1- sample t tests (test value of 5 g/kg for carbohydrates and 1.2 g/kg for protein). Paired-
sample t test was utilized to compare participants reported energy intakes with their estimated energy needs. The
proportion of participants meet- ing the estimated energy needs, the minimum recommenda- tions for carbohydrates,
and the minimum recommendations for protein were calculated. Bivariate Pearsons correlations were used to
explore relationships between specific macronu- trient intakes and selected eating habits. All statistical anal- yses
were conducted using SPSS 18.0 for Windows (SPSS, Chicago, Illinois), with the level of significance set at p < .05
unless otherwise noted.

RESULTS

Anthropometric and Demographic Characteristics

Fifty-two female collegiate athletes completed all the mea- surements and provided dietary data for the study,
reaching 84% of the target population (n = 62). Seven participants being excluded from the final statistical analyses
because their 3-day food records did not include sufficient informa- tion. The demographic and anthropometric
characteristics of the sample are presented in Table 1. The mean age of the participants in years was M = 20.0, SD =
1.5. The sample consisted of soccer players (45%), basketball players (40%), cross-country runners, and track and
field athletes (16%). The majority of the participants were Caucasians (73%), fol- lowed by African Americans
(22%), Hispanics (3%), and others (2%). At the time of the study, all participants were in late preseason and/or early
season, they were weight stable and trained 6 days per week, ranging from 1.5 to 2.5 hours per day.

Energy and Macronutrient Intakes

The nutritional analyses of the dietary data indicated that the energy intake of the participants was 1,939 604 kcal
(Table 2). The mean proportion of total energy coming from carbohydrates, protein, and fat was 53%, 16%, and
31%, re- spectively. The mean intake of energy and macronutrients in relation to body size are presented in Table 2.
The partic- ipants reported energy intake was significantly lower than their estimated energy needs ( p < .001), with
91% (n = 41) of the sample not meeting the energy needs. One-sample

t tests revealed that carbohydrate intake was significantly lower than the minimum recommended intake of 5
g/kg/day ( p < .001), whereas protein intake did not differ significantly from the minimum protein recommendations
of 1.2 g/kg/day ( p = .38). Frequency analyses showed that 74% and 50% of the participants failed to meet the
carbohydrate and pro- tein recommendation. The majority of the participants (76%) consumed 35% of total energy
from dietary fat. No sig- nificant differences in energy or macronutrient intakes were observed between the types of
sports that were represented in the sample.

Eating Habits

The participants consumed 5.0 1.3 meals/snacks per day (2.80 0.7 and 2.2 1.2, respectively). More than one-
third of the athletes (36%) reported consuming fewer than 5 meals/snacks a day, 29% of athletes ate less than 3
meals a day, and 27% had fewer than 2 snacks a day. There was a significant positive correlation between the
number of meals/snacks and the intake of carbohydrates relative to body weight (r = .47, p < .001), protein (r = .53,
p < .001), and fat (r = .36, p < .05). Regular breakfast was reported by 27% of the sample, with participants
consuming breakfast cereal and sausage and biscuits most frequently. The mean frequency of dining out was 5.4
times per week, with the most frequent dining places being sandwich shops (eg, Panera, Quiznos) (31%), Mexican
restaurants (29%), and fast food restaurants (eg, McDonalds, Taco Bell) (20%). There was a significant negative
correlation between the frequency of dining out and carbohydrate intake, regardless of how carbohydrate intake was
expressed (r = .46, p < .001 for % of total energy; r = .27, p < .05 for total carbohydrate intake; and r = .33, p <
.05 for g/kg of carbohydrates). The frequency of dining out was also significantly associated with the proportion of
energy coming from dietary fat (r = .48, p < .001).

Only 16% of the participants reported monitoring hydra- tion status on a regular basis. Before a workout, 60% of the
participants reported consuming 1 to 2 cups of fluids, with 31% consuming more than 3 cups of fluids. During
exercise, 58% reported consuming less than 2 cups of fluids, with 3 athletes consuming no fluids. Forty-four percent
Sports Nutrition: Hot Topic Paper 9

of the par- ticipants reported consuming 3 to 5 cups of fluids and 16% reported consuming more than 5 cups of
fluids after their training sessions. Nearly none of the participants reported following a drinking schedule during a
competition (95%).

Forty-four percent of the participants (n = 20) evaluated their diet as good, with 56% stating their diet was fair
or poor. Some of the participants found it difficult to follow a training diet when traveling (22%). The majority of
the par- ticipants evaluated their weight as healthy and reported no dieting in the previous 12 months (91%).
However, 33% of the participants expressed a desire to lose weight. Although most participants found the
maintenance of their weight dur- ing the season to be somewhat or very easy, 29% found the weight maintenance
to be difficult.

Dietary Habits of Female College Athletes

COMMENT

The main purpose of this study was to examine dietary in- takes and eating habits in a sample of female college
athletes and compare them with the current sports nutrition guide- lines.Nearly all athletes in the sample failed to
match their energy intakes with their estimated energy needs. The major- ity of them also failed to meet their
carbohydrates needs, even though only the minimum carbohydrate recommendations for athletes were used in the
study. Our findings indicate that greater efforts should be focused on increasing sports nutrition knowledge and
improving eating habits among fe- male college athletes in order to optimize their nutritional status, ensure proper
recovery from daily training sessions, and help them reach their performance potential.

The proportion of energy from carbohydrates, protein and fat reported in our study fell within the AMDRs for
general population. Although these findings are consistent with the very few previous studies that were conducted
with female athletes,these results do not offer helpful information about their dietary intakes. For instance, 53% of
total en- ergy from carbohydrates reported by our female athletes falls within the AMDR and may represent an
adequate carbohy- drate intake for healthy recreationally active women. How- ever, female athletes in our study
consumed only 4.0 g/kg of carbohydrates, which is not an adequate amount for re- plenishing liver and muscle
glycogen for daily training at any point of the year.The low carbohydrate intake in our sample is further illustrated
by the fact that 35 out of 45 ath- letes consumed less than 5 g/kg of carbohydrates. A similar trend has been reported
in 2 previous studies with elite fe- male athletes.The proportion of energy from dietary fat was within the AMDR of
20%35% in our sample. Some experts also suggest that athletes should keep their dietary fat intakes under 30% of
total energy in order to ensure ade- quate carbohydrate and protein intakes.In our study, 24% of the female athletes
reported dietary fat intakes above 35% of total energy. Thus, it is possible that the relatively high dietary fat intake
compromised the amount of carbohydrates consumed by the athletes. It is also important to note that the proportion
of energy from dietary fat was positively cor- related with the frequency of dining out, which could be explained by
the frequent dining in Mexican restaurants and fast food restaurants that was reported in our study.

The mean protein intake of the female athletes in our study was not significantly below the minimum recommended
level of 1.2 g/kg. However, a further analysis revealed that more than half of the female athletes consumed less
protein than recommended. This finding illustrates a common problem with interpreting dietary assessment data
using group mean intakes. In a study by Hinton and Beck,a sample of female athletes, including individuals
categorized as having restric- tive eating patterns, reported mean protein intakes of 1.3 to 1.7 g/kg. However, it is
likely that a significant number of the athletes failed to meet the minimum protein needs of 1.2 g/kg. Similarly, a
study by Heaney et alshowed that elite female athletes consumed an average of 1.6g/kg of protein; however,

30% of the athletes in the sample failed to consume at least 1.2 g/kg.

Low energy intakes have been reported in studies with fig- ure skaters, aquatic athletes, and athletes in other
aesthetic sports.Endurance and aesthetic athletes are thus espe- cially vulnerable to a variety of health problems,
including impaired poor bone density, poor reproductive function, and stress fractures.Nearly all athletes in our
sample failed to meet their estimated energy needs. Our findings are alarming because half of the athletes in our
sample reported intakes of less than 2,000 kcal/day, which represents the amount of energy that is required for a
Sports Nutrition: Hot Topic Paper 10

young woman who is at a low to moderate activity level. Energy consumption of less than 2,000 kcal/day has been
identified as low energy intake, and it cannot support the high physical and nutritional demands of female athletes.
Thus, it is possible that the nutritional status and athletic performance of the female athletes in our sample could be
significantly improved by optimizing their energy intakes.

The female college athletes in our sample consumed the largest proportion of their calories in the evening hours,
thus spending most of the day in energy deficit. However, frequent snacking is encouraged among athletes during
the day be- cause it is positively associated with higher energy intakes.Previous research has indicated that elite
male and female athletes typically eat 5 to 6 meals/snacks a day.Although the mean eating frequency was 5
times/day, a large proportion of our athletes reported eating less than 3 times a day. In ad- dition, most athletes
reported not having a regular breakfast. Heavy training schedules, gastrointestinal discomfort during workouts, and
poor availability of foods and beverages have been identified as common reasons for not consuming break- fast
among athletes. However, a combination of breakfast skipping and infrequent fueling during the day by the female
college athletes in our sample may significantly diminish the training potential.

It is important to note that a relatively large proportion of our sample evaluated their diets as fair/poor and expressed
difficulties with maintaining weight during the season and while traveling, which is a common problem among
college athletes. In addition, nearly one-third of the athletes wanted to lose weight, although the majority of the
athletes evalu- ated their weight as healthy. This finding suggests that further evaluation of female college athletes is
warranted in order to identify individuals with potential body image issues and eating disorders, either clinical or
subclinical, which may en- danger the nutritional status and performance of the athlete.

Although it is well known that dehydration can signif- icantly impair athletic performance even at 1%2%, the
female college athletes in our sample did not follow basic guidelines for adequate hydration. only a few female ath-
letes in our sample monitored their hydration status, which is currently recommended as a routine procedure using
simple tools such as urine volume and color, to maintain euhydra- tion (normal body water content).Many athletes
consumed very little or no fluids during workouts, most preferred water

JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH

over the recommended beverages containing carbohydrates and virtually none of the athletes followed a drinking
schedule during a competition. Previous research has indicated that even elite athletes consume inadequate amount
of fluids during training and our findings, it is apparent that effective strategies for improving hydration practices
and drinking schedules of competitive athletes are needed at all levels of competition, including female collegiate
athletes.

Limitations

Through detailed dietary assessment, the current study identified important dietary and eating behavior trends in a
sample of female college athletes. However, there are several limitations that should be noted. First, our study is
limited by the utilization of a relatively small sample of athletes. The time commitment and effort required for the
dietary as- sessment did not allow many female athletes to participate in the study due their hectic class schedules,
multiple train- ing sessions, and other commitments. Although statistically significant, the small correlations found
between individ- ual nutrient intakes and other variables, such as meal/snack frequency and dining out, could have
been influenced by a variety of factors in athletes lives, such as the opportu- nities to dine at a training table during
the week, cooking skills, or specific living arrangements of the athletes in the sample. Thus, further research
utilizing a large sample of college female athletes is warranted to explore these correla- tions in depth and to expand
our findings on dietary intakes and eating habits within this population. Second, given the convenience nature of our
sample, it is possible that the fe- male athletes who volunteered to participate in the study had a greater interest in
nutrition and/or health than other ath- letes or were perhaps experiencing nutrition-related issues that encouraged
them to participate in the study. Thus, our findings may not represent dietary intakes and eating habits of others and
cannot be generalized to all female college ath- letes. Third, the dietary assessment in the current study was limited
to 3 days of reported food intake from food records and 1 day of dietary intake from 24-hour recalls. Although a 7-
day food record could provide a more accurate estimate of usual dietary intake of the athletes in the study, it has
Sports Nutrition: Hot Topic Paper 11

been as- sociated with higher attrition rates in previous studies. Thus, our study utilized 3-day food records, in
combination with a 24-hour recall, that have been validated for the assessment of energy and macronutrients intakes

and have been used with a variety of populations, including athletes.

Conclusions

The results of our study show the importance of evaluating dietary intakes and eating habits of female college
athletes and using the established sports nutrition recommendations to do so. The female athletes in our study failed
to meet their minimum energy and carbohydrate needs and they also failed to follow basic sports nutrition
guidelines. Sports physicians, nutritionists, as well as athletic trainers should be aware of

these nutrition-related problems because inadequate dietary intakes and eating behaviors can negatively impact not
only the quality of training and recovery, but also the nutritional status and overall health of female college athletes.
Although further studies with representative samples of the target pop- ulation are warranted, our findings indicate
that effective nutrition interventions to improve nutrition knowledge, opti- mize dietary intakes, and increase
awareness of basic sports nutrition recommendations are currently needed among fe- male college athletes.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank the universitys athletic trainers for assisting with the recruitment of the athletes for
this study and the female athletes who participated in the study. The authors also want to express sincere thank you
to the researchers working with the USA Track & Field, especially Jackie Maurer Abbott, who gave us permission
to utilize the CAED Nutrition Questionnaire for our study.

1-2 pages
Sports Nutrition: Hot Topic Paper 12

1) The paper should include:

1. A brief introduction (no more than 1-2 paragraphs)
2. The purpose of the study
3. A description of the methods
a. Should include a description of;
i. the study design
ii. participant recruitment and inclusion and exclusion criteria
iii. independent and dependent variables
iv. the study protocol
4. A description of the results
a. Fully describe what the results of the study are, including;
i. the participant demographics
ii. attrition
iii. outcomes
iv. do not include or refer to the tables or figures in the article
5. A brief conclusion (no more than 1-2 paragraphs)