Assignment 1

HDTV

Digital TV (DTV), also known as high-definition TV (HDTV), was designed to replace the National
Television Standards Committee (NTSC) system.The goal of HDTV is to greatly improve the picture and
sound quality.

HDTV uses the scanning concept to paint a picture on the CRT, so you can continue to think of the HDTV
screen in terms of scan lines, as you would think of the standard NTSC analog screen. However, you
should also view the HDTV screen as being made up of thousands of tiny dots of light, called pixels. Each
pixel can be any of 256 colors. These pixels can be used to create any image. The greater the number of
pixels on the screen, the greater the resolution and the finer the detail that can be represented. Each
horizontal scan line is divided into hundreds of pixels. The format of a HDTV screen is described in terms
of the numbers of pixels per horizontal line by the number of vertical pixels (which is the same as the
number of horizontal scan lines).

One major difference between conventional NTSC analog TV and HDTV is that HDTV can use progressive
line scanning rather than interlaced scanning. In progressive scanning each line is scanned one at a time
from top to bottom. Since this format is compatible with computer video monitors, it is possible to
display HDTV on computer screens. Interlaced scanning can be used on one of the HDTV formats.
Interlaced scanning minimizes flicker but complicates the video compression process. Progressive
scanning is preferred and at a 60-Hz frame rate, flicker is not a problem.

The 720p at 60 Hz and 1080i formats are those designated HDTV.

Transmitter : In HDTV both the video and the audio signals must be digitized by A/D converters and
transmitted serially to the receiver. Because of the very high frequency of video signals, special
techniques must be used to transmit the video signal over a standard 6-MHz-bandwidth TV channel. And
because both video and audio must be transmitted over the same channel, multiplexing techniques
must be used. The FCCs requirement is that all this information be transmitted reliably over the
standard 6-MHz TV channels now defined for NTSC TV.

Assume that the video to be transmitted contains frequencies up to 4.2 MHz. For this signal to be
digitized, it must be sampled at least 2 times per cycle or at a minimum sampling rate of 8.4 MHz. If each
sample is translated to an 8-bit word (byte) and the bytes are transmitted serially, the data stream has a
rate of , or 67.2 MHz. Multiply this by 3 to get 67.2

3 = 201.6 MHz. Add to this the audio channels, and the total required bandwidth is almost 300 MHz. To
permit this quantity of data to be transmitted over the 6-MHz channel, special encoding and modulation
techniques are used.
if the picture is one-half light blue sky, the pixel values will be the same for many lines. All this data can
be reduced to one pixel value transmitted for a known number of times. The algorithm also uses fewer
bits to encode the color than to encode the brightness because the human eye is much more sensitive
to brightness than to color. The MPEG-2 encoder captures and compares successive frames of video and
compares them to detect the redundancy so that only differences between successive frames are
transmitted.

The audio portion of the HDTV signal is also digital. It provides for compact disk (CD) quality audio. The
audio system can accommodate up to six audio channels, permitting monophonic sound, stereo, and
multichannel surround sound. The channel arrangement is flexible to permit different systems. For
example, one channel could be used for a second language transmission or closed captioning. Each
audio channel is sampled at a 48-kbps rate, ensuring that audio signals up to about 24 kHz are
accurately captured and transmitted. Each audio sample is converted to an 18-bit digital word. The
audio information is time-multiplexed and transmitted as a serial bit stream at a frequency of A data
compression technique designated AC-3 is used to speed up audio transmission.

HDTV BANDWIDTH Without any kind of data compression and other bandwidth-limiting techniques, a
full 1080i HDTV signal would occupy about 300 MHz of spectrum space. However, with compression the
bandwidth required is very small and actually less than the 6 MHz allotted. In fact, a 1080i HDTV
broadcast only takes about 3 MHz of bandwidth, meaning that two of these broadcasts can fit into the
6-MHz band. And the bandwidth for lower-definition versions is even smaller. A 720p broadcast also
occupies about 3 MHz. A 480i standard definition digital broadcast can fit into 1 MHz. This allows
terrestrial TV stations to offer as many as six subchannels of TV in their allotted spectrum, each with
different programming. Cable TV stations will also be able to put more programming into their 6-MHz
allotted channels.

HDTV Receiver. An HDTV receiver picks up the composite signal and then demodulates and decodes the
signal into the original video and audio information. A simplified receiver block diagram is shown in Fig.
23-30.
3D TV:

A 3-D image is obtained by displaying different images to each eye. This

when joined by the brain, will produce an illusion of a 3-D image. This method
is called stereoscopy.

Thus a 3-D TV is a special television that has various methods to deploy 3-D
images so that people can experience a realistic 3-D field.

// All these problems arise mainly due to the way we visualize things. When
our eyes focus on a particular thing, they tend to absorb the light that is
reflected off from them. This light that is absorbed is converted into an image
by our brain. The light that enters into one eye will be parallel to the light that
enters into the other. But this occurs only if the objects are far away. As the
objects become closer, the lines will not be parallel. They will join together and
thus our eyes will have to compensate for it by shifting. Thus, the work that
your brain does to adjust the focus of your eyes to see the object determines
how far away the object is.

In case of a 3-D image, our eyes will see the same image in different
perspectives. Thus the real flat image that you see will have a virtual depth.

The difference with 2-D is that the convergence of the image and its focus in
your brain will not match up in 3-D. Your eyes will have to converge two
different lights for just one object that is in front of you. This method will make
the brain work a lot more even if the screen is kept at a distance. Thus, your
eyes tend to strain if you keep on watching a 3-D movie for a long time.

A. Stereoscopic TV
For viewing 3-D in a Stereoscopic TV, you need to have special 3-D glasses.
The lenses that are used for these glasses can also differ. Thus Stereoscopic
TV is again divided into some more classes. They are

1. Passive 3-D Glasses

This is the most common and simplest technology out of the lot. This
technology uses different types of glasses. It is further divided into 3. They are
a. Anaglyph 3-D Glasses
This is one of the first and oldest methods that were used to view a 3-D
image.

Anaglyph 3-D Glass

The 3-D images were made by separating the right and left images using
colours. The image will have two colour layers. These layers will be separated
by using glasses that will have blue and red displays. These coloured glasses
will be made with the help of cellophane papers, as they are cheap. If you look
at the projection without your glasses, you can see two sets of images that are
offset from each other. One of them will have blue shading and the other one
will have a reddish hue. But, when you put on the glasses, you will see a
single clear image. Thus the eye behind the red glass will see the clear blue
images and the eye behind the blue glass will only see the clear red images.
Though both the images are the same in your brain, but in different colours,
the convergence will be at a different point from the actual focal point. Thus
the illusion of depth in the image will be easily created. Thus an Anaglyph 3D
image is obtained. The only problem is that you will not be able to see most of
the original colours in the image. The problem is that you lose colours in the
image. Thus it is not a good method.
b. Polarized 3-D Glasses
This is the best passive method for watching a 3-D movie. For this method
you need a pair of basic polarized sun glasses and a polarized filter
connected LCD display. The display will send out two images, each having a
different polarization than the other. When the image hits each polarized
glass, it filters the image and then comes in contact with each eye. Thus the
brain makes a 3-D virtual image for the viewer. Though the TV of such a kind
is expensive, the polarized glasses are very cheap. This method is now used
in most cinema theatres.

For a movie to be shown in polarized view, the movie has to be shot with two
different lenses. To projectors have to be setup with polarizing filters attached
to their lenses. Both the projectors will project the movie on the same screen
at the same time.

Thus the image from the projector falls on the filter first. The images that hit
the filter from the left projector will be oriented on one plane and that by the
right projector will be in a perpendicular angle to the left one.

The polarized glasses that the viewer wears will have different polarizations.
The left lens will be in the same alignment with the left projector plane and the
right lens will be in a perpendicular alignment in accordance to the plane of
the right projector.

Thus the corresponding images produced by the left projector will be seen by
the left eye and the images produced by the right projector will be seen by the
right eye. As both of them have different perspectives, the brain combines the
two lights t form a single virtual 3-D image. Here also there is a similar
disadvantage like that of shutter glasses. The light available in the eyes will be
lessened. Thus the images may appear darker than it originally is.

2. Active 3-D Glasses or Shutter Glasses

As the name indicates, both the glasses alternately shut off the left eye and
the right eye, when the TV emits separate images for each eye. The
advantage of this method is that a 3-D image is easily created in the viewers
mind.
 Active 3-D Glass

We all know that the video signal has two fields. One is the odd field and the
other is the even field. The image that is to be sent to the right eye is stored in
the odd field and the one meant for the left eye is stored in the even field.
There will be synchronization between the shutter glasses and the TV. The
wireless interaction will be through radio frequency or infrared.

The shutter glass is made of liquid crystal and a polarizing filter. As soon as a
signal is received by the shutter glass from the TV, the circuit in the glass will
automatically forward a small current on to one of the glasses. This makes
glass becomes dark in nature like a shutter for a fraction of a second. This
means that when a viewer is watching a video in 3-D, only one eye of his is
open at a time, and only one image is seen at a time.

Thus, the image in he even field that was meant for the left eye, will be seen
by the left eye. The right eye will be able to see the odd field video signal as
well. As these images are viewed from different perspectives, our brain tries to
join them as a 3-D image. The closing and opening of each glass may seem
inappropriate thinking that the viewer may not be able to see some of the
images. But as the latest televisions have very high refresh rates, the pictures
are guaranteed to be clear and smooth. If the refresh rates are not high you
may be subjected to headaches. The refresh rates must be at least 60 hertz
for each eye. This means that there must be a refresh rate of 120 Hertz for
both the eyes together. This makes the TV more costly. Apart from that the
glasses will also be costly as they include 2 LCDs and batteries for its power.

The only disadvantage with this method is that enough light will not be
received by our eyes as it is subjected to rapid opening and closing. Thus the
images may seem to be darker than it is.
B. Autostereoscopic TV
This type of TV does not need 3-D glasses to see the 3-D images in your TV.
This means that you can view the 3-D images even without the use of any
active or passive glasses. Some of the basic types of Autostereoscopic TVs
are explained below.

1. Lenticular Lenses

Lenticular Viewing
This method involves the use of lenticules, which are actually very tiny
cylindrical plastic lenses. These lenticules are then attached on to a
transparent sheet in an array, and then stuck on to the LCD TV screen. Thus
when a person views the screen, different images is received by the left and
the right eye. That is, the images received by your left eye will be completely
different from that received by the right eye. These different 2D images seen
by your both eyes will be combined to a single 3D image by your brain. This
method is actually called stereopsis, in which the eyes discern the
depth).Thus, like other methods, there is no need of the use of 3D glasses for
watching a movie

2. Parallax Barrier
3. Volumetric Displays
We have already discussed various methods on how to make a virtual 3-D
world for watching movies and other entertainments. But, what if we could
make a real 3-D world?

Yes, that is what Volumetric Display is all about. Though the developments on
this technology are not standard enough for practical applications,
researchers all over the world are trying their best to create them.

For this method to be practical in nature there must be the use of lasers, and
also rotating and vibrating mirrors.
 Volumetric Displays

A recent display of such kind was made by using a high speed rotating mirror,
and a high quality projector that projects the image on it. By this method you
will get a 360 degree view of a 3-D image, which is a real 3-D image.
Projector TV:

A CRT fires a beam of electrons at a phosphor-coated screen. Every time an

electron comes into contact with the screen, that point, called a pixel, glows.
Color CRT televisions use three electron beams and separate phosphors for red,
green and blue. When you watch, you're looking directly at the surface that the
TV uses to create the picture. That's why traditional CRT sets are called direct-
view displays.

CRTs are very reliable and have good picture quality. But they do have one big
drawback -- since the screen is made of glass, size is limited. The largest CRT
screens measure about 40 inches diagonally. A CRT TV with a screen that size
is deep, heavy and unwieldy.

That's the main reason for projection TVs. Even though some models can't rival
the quality of a direct-view CRT set, they can be much bigger. Instead of using a
direct-view setup, a projection TV creates a small picture and then uses a beam
of light to display that picture at a much larger size.

Projection TVs are available in two main configurations -- front

projection and rear projection.

Projection TV Configurations
PREV NEXT
A reflective, rear-projection display system
PHOTO COURTESY PHILIPS RESEARCH

A front-projection system uses a projector and a separate screen, and it projects

images onto the front of that screen. This setup looks most like what you'd find in
a movie theater -- the projection unit is completely separate from the screen. The
projector can be placed on a table or mounted to the ceiling. The picture looks
best when displayed on a high-quality screen, but a specially painted, flat wall will
work as well

Rear-projection systems look more like traditional televisions. They display

images on the back of a screen rather than the front, and the projector is
completely contained within the television itself. You can also set up a rear-
projection system with a projector and a special screen, but the term is most
often used to describe self-contained TV sets.

Both configurations use tiny devices capable of making very detailed pictures.
CRT projectors

Photo: A Barco CRT projector with its distinctive blue, green, and red lenses shining out from the front.

The first TV projectors were a bit like super-powerful CRT televisions. Instead
of shining three colored electron guns onto a phosphor screen from behind
(that is, by using back projection), they use three hugely powerful light guns to
shine separate red, blue, and green images onto a screen (through front
projection). The images fuse together into a single, large colored image. The
trouble with projectors like this is that they are huge and heavy (so they're not
easily portable), they can use lots of electricity (to power the three light guns),
and the CRT tubes inside them get very hot. but they give excellent picture
quality (as good as or better than newer technologies) and they're still
compatible with new developments like HDTV and Blu-ray DVD players.

LCD projectors
Photo: Inside an ASK Impression 960 LCD TV projector, modified by NASA. Photo by courtesy of NASA
Langley Research Center (NASA-LaRC) with annotations by Explainthatstuff. Click the image to see a much
larger one.

Just as CRT televisions are being replaced by LCD sets, so CRT projectors
have gradually gone the same wayand for exactly the same reason: LCD
screens are smaller, lighter, cheaper, more reliable, and use much less power
than CRTs. In an LCD TV projector, a very bright light shines through a small
LCD screen into a lens, which throws a hugely magnified image of the screen
onto the wall. While CRT projectors were popular with businesses and
colleges, lower-cost LCD projectors are small, cheap, and portable enough for
home use. That doesn't necessarily mean they're superior, however. The
image quality is often poorer than that produced by CRT projectors and the
bright lamps used inside LCD projectors to throw the image still have a limited
life.

DLP projectors

Photo: A Christie Mirage 5000: a typical modern DLP TV projector. Photo by courtesy of Dave Pape, published
on Flickr under a Creative Commons Licence.
Even LCD projectors are looking old-hat now. The latest TV projection
technology, DLP (digital light processing), uses an entirely different method
of making images using microscopic mirrors.

Have you ever used a mirror to send a light signal to a friend some distance
away? The basic idea is simple: you angle the mirror so it catches light, then
tilt it slightly so the light travels where you want it to go. By tilting the mirror
back and forth, you can send precise light pulses of either long or short
durationand transmit complex messages using something like Morse code.
The latest projection TV system, called DLP (digital light
processing) technology, works in almost exactly the same way.

What is DLP technology?

Photo: The Texas Instruments DLP processor from inside a modern TV projector. Photo by courtesy of Collin
Allen, originally published on Flickr under a Creative Commons Licence.

A DMD chip contains about two million tiny mirrors arranged in a square grid.
Each mirror is less than one fifth the diameter of a human hair, and it's
mounted on a microscopic hinge so it can tilt either one way or another. A
bright lamp shines onto the DMD mirror chip and an electronic circuit makes
the mirrors tilt back and forth. If a mirror tilts toward the lamp, it catches the
light and reflects it off toward the screen, creating a single bright dot of light
(equivalent to a pixel of light made by a normal TV); if a mirror tilts away from
the light source, it can't catch any light, so it makes a dark pixel on the screen
instead. Each mirror is separately controlled by an electronic switch so,
working together, the two million mirrors can build up a high-resolution image
from two million light or dark dots.

To make color images, DLP projectors need an extra bit of technology: they
have a spinning colored wheel inserted into the light path, which can color the
pixels red, blue, or green. Combined with the tilting mirrors, the color wheel
makes a front-projected TV picture from millions of pixels of every possible
color.

How DLP projection TV works

Old-style TV projectors based on CRT and LCD technology make and project
images in traditional ways not all that different from cine-movie projectors. But
DLP projectors are entirely different...

1. The digital signal enters the projector from a TV receiver, computer,

DVD player, or other connected equipment.
2. The signal is decoded by an electronic circuit inside the projector.
3. A powerful lamp generates white light at the back of the projector.
4. The lamp shines through a rapidly rotating colored wheel, generating
either red, blue, or green light at any particular instant.
5. The red, blue, or green light reflects off the grid of two million tilting
mirrors in a tiny DMD chip. The mirrors are rapidly swiveled back and
forth by the electronic circuit, in exact synchronization with the position
 of the colored wheel, so they generate a precise pattern of red, blue,
and green pixels to make up the TV picture.
6. A lens collects and focuses the light from the DMD chip and projects it
onto the projection screen on the wall.
7. The screen displays a hugely magnified TV image.

Digital TV:

First, digital TV offers high speed data transfer rates, which make the delivery of rich multimedia content
a reality. Second, many cable, terrestrial, and satellite companies are establishing themselves as Internet
service providers, which will enable TV viewers to browse the Internet on their TV sets. Finally, the new
medium will allow viewers from the comfort of their homes to use a simple remote control to
electronically purchase goods and services offered by various content providers. Digital TV uses the
same language as computersa long stream of binary digits, each of which is either 0 or 1. With digital
television, the signal is compressed and only the updated data is transmitted. As a result, it is possible to
squeeze six or eight channels into a frequency range that was previously occupied by only one analog TV
channel. The digital TV cycle begins by recording a particular event or program with digital equipment
and is relayed to a redistribution center. In most cases, the redistribution center will be a cable, satellite,
MMDS, or terrestrial operator. From here, the operators use specific transmission techniques to
broadcast the new digital signal to subscribers on their network.

BUILDING BLOCKS OF A DIGITAL TV SYSTEM . . . . . . . A TV operator normally receives content from a

variety of sources, including local video, cable, and satellite channels. The content needs to be prepared
for transmission to the customers home by passing the signal through a digital broadcasting system.
The diagram in Figure 1.2 depicts the basic building blocks of a digital broadcasting system. Note that
the components shown in this diagram are logical units and do not necessarily correspond to the
number of physical devices that are deployed in a total endto-end digital solution. The role of each
component shown in Figure 1.2 is briefly outlined in the following categories. Compression and
Encoding Central to a digital video-broadcasting network is the compression system, whose job is to
deliver high quality video and audio to consumers using a small amount of network bandwidth. The
main goal of any compression system is to minimize the storage capacity of information. This is
particularly useful for service providers who want to squeeze many digital channels into a digital
stream. A compression system consists of encoders and multiplexers. Encoders are devices used to
digitize, compress, and scramble a range of audio, video, and data channels. Digital encoders allow TV
operators to broadcast several high quality video programs over the same bandwidth that was formerly
used to broadcast just one analog video program. Once the signal is encoded and compressed, an
MPEG-2 stream is transmitted to the multiplexer (MPEG-2 is an acronym for Moving Pictures Experts
Group). This group has defined a range of compression standards and file formats, including the MPEG-2
video animation system. MPEG-2 is generally accepted in 190 countries worldwide as the standard for
digital video compression. There are two major MPEG standards available on the market today: MPEG-1
and MPEG-2. The MPEG-1 file format is normally used by interactive TV developers to create TV stills
and has a quality level slightly less than conventional video cassette recorders. The MPEG-2 file format is
used in a digital broadcasting environment and features CD-quality audio complemented with a high
screen resolution. Once the signal has been compressed into MPEG-2 format, the multiplexer combines
the outputs from the various encoders together with the security and program information and data
into a single digital stream.

Modulation :

Once the digital signal has been processed by the multiplexer, it is now time to amalgamate the video,
audio, and data with the carrier signal in a process called modulation. The unmodulated digital signal
outputted from the multiplexer has only two possible states, either a zero or a one. By passing the
signal through a modulation process, a number of states are added, which increases the data transfer
rate. The modulation technique used by TV operators will depend on the geography of the franchise
area and the overall network architecture. The three major types of digital modulation are Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation, Quadrature Phase Shift Keying, and Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing.
Camcorder:

A typical analog camcorder contains two basic parts:

A camera section, consisting of a CCD, lens and motors to handle the

zoom, focus and aperture
A VCR section, in which a typical TV VCR is shrunk down to fit in a much
smaller space.
The camera component's function is to receive visual information and interpret it
as an electronic video signal. The VCR component is exactly like the VCR
connected to your television: It receives an electronic video signal and records it
on video tape as magnetic patterns

A third component, the viewfinder, receives the video image as well, so you can
see what you're shooting. Viewfinders are actually small, black-and-white or color
televisions, but many modern camcorders also have larger full-color LCD
screens. There are many formats for analog camcorders, and many extra
features, but this is the basic design of most all of them. The main variable is
what kind of storage tape they use.

Digital camcorders have all these same elements, but have an added component
that takes the analog information the camera gathers and translates it to bytes of
data. Instead of storing the video signal as a continuous track of magnetic
patterns, it records the picture and sound as 1s and 0s. Digital camcorders are
so popular because you can copy 1s and 0s very easily without losing any of the
information you've recorded. Analog information, on the other hand, "fades" with
each copy -- the copying process doesn't reproduce the original signal exactly.
Video information in digital form can also be loaded onto computers, where you
can edit it, copy it, e-mail it and manipulate it.

amcorder Electronics
To learn how a camcorder works we need a basic introduction to electronics. Unlike a
film camera, a camcorder uses a CCD to capture an image. This camcorder guide is not
meant to be a full-blown course in electronics so well keep things simple.
CCD stands for Charged Coupled Device, and its an electronic sensor that captures
light onto its face. The camcorders iris determines the intensity of the light hitting the
lens. It is the CCD, however, that measures the intensity of the light striking the face of
the chip as well as the color of the light.

Through this process, an image is rendered. Some camcorders have 3 CCDs - one for
each of the primary colors, red, blue and green. Each of these chips does its own job of
color separation. These camcorders produce richer colors, but the added CCDs mean the
camera is more complex, and more expensive.

The Concept Of Video Signals

After the light hits the CCD, a video signal is generated. Well give a brief introduction
to the concept of video signals in this camcorder guide.

If you know anything about television, you know that television creates a video image by
using what are called scan lines. A camcorder works the same way, except these lines are
called fields. Two sets of fields make up the camcorders image on the CCD. These
fields are divided into odd and even numbered scan lines.

As the scanning takes place, each field passes to a second layer behind the CCD, known
as the sensor layer. The sensor layer records each electric charge that makes up that
field and then writes that information to the tape.

With digital camcorders, there is an added twist on that last step. A special converter
inside the camcorder converts that electrical information into digital signals made up of
bytes of data.

Features to Enhance Video Signals

You might think by now you really know how a camcorder works, but theres more!
Nowadays camcordersespecially the digital ones that are all the rage - have additional
features and effects. These camcorders have special built-in electronics that enable the
user to enhance the video signal.

One important feature is called 'gain'. If you've ever shot in a low light setting, you
notice that your shots are dark and grainy. With your electronic gain, you can basically
'brighten up' those dark pixels to make the picture brighter than it would normally be. It
wont be as good as having a flood of lights, but it helps!

Also, special electronics in the camcorder allow you to apply effects like black and white,
sepia, fade, and so forth. Electronics makes all of these effects possible by taking the
video signal and enhancing and manipulating it. Afterwards the processed video signal
is then sent to tape.

Helical Scanning
The process by which the video signal is recorded to tape is called helical scanning. The
phrase sounds a bit arcane, but its worth explaining. Video information is not stored
as a straight line (linear). Rather, its placed down at an angle, each frame stored on
tape at a slant.

Without getting too deep into the technical reason for this, the basic idea is to save space
on tape. Since video has both audio and video information, if it were all stored as one
consecutive line, you would need a lot of tape to store it!

By recording at a slant and then stacking the stripes together, you get more information
in less space. The rotating tape drum has two heads that read or write to tape. If youre
in standby mode, they just rub over the tape without recording anything. But they make
a rather annoying humming sound. Eventually they'll stop spinning if you havent
recorded anything for awhile so as not to wear out the heads and the tape.

Understanding The Playback Mode

The final step in understanding how a camcorder works has to do with the playback
mode. You can play your videotape in a VCR, or you can use it using the built-in VCR
that comes with your camcorder. Either way, the basic process is the same. In fact,
playback is basically the recording process in reverse.

Lets begin with the video signal. The VCR amplifies the original signal and then
converts it into a composite video signal. That signal could go directly to your camcorder
(letting you view the video in the viewfinder), or it could go to another outside source,
like your television.

In fact, once you have a composite signal, you can connect it to many different sources.
With the audio signal, it too is amplified and then sent to a different output. Thus you
wind up with output for both audio and video. You might recall that your regular VCR
has two outputs for audio and video as well.

Conclusion
Whew! That was quite a dive into studying how a camcorder works. We have probably
skimmed the surface of some points to keep things as simple as possible.
Im sure you have a better understanding of what a marvel of modern technology a
camcorder really is. It requires precision optics, mechanical and electronic engineering
and miniaturized circuitry to create a device like this.

I think you understand that building the camcorder required overcoming some design
hurdles in the process. Engineers had to think of ingenious methods (like helical
scanning) of getting the camcorder to pull an amazing amount of performance out of
such a tiny unit!