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CIRIAJ
CIRIA is the Construction Industry Research and
Information Association. It is a non-profit-
distributing, private sector organisation carn-ing out
research and providing information for its members.
who include all tYpes of organisations concerned with
construction, including clients, professional practices.
contractors, suppliers, educational and research establishments.
professional institutions, trade associations and central and local
government.
CIRIA focuses on providing best practice guidance to professionals that is

authoritative, convenient to use and relevant. Areas covered include
construction practice. building design and materials, management and
productivity, ground engineering, water engineering and environmental issues.
Through active participation, CIRIA members choose research and

information projects of most value to them. Funding contributions are
sought from member subscriptions and from government and other sources
on a project by project basis. Detailed work is contracted to the best
qualified organisation selected in competition, and each project is guided
by a project steering group. which contains both individual specialists and
representatives of different groups with experience or interest in the topic.
Core Programme Sponsorship. Core Programme members, who include

many of the most significant construction firms, choose the programme of
research projects and obtain privileged early access to results.
Construction Industry Environmental Forum. The Environmental Forum

(run in partnership with BRE and BSRIA) is a focus for construction and
related industries on environmental issues. Members have free access to a
substantial programme of workshops and seminars, monthly information
bulletins, and publications arising from research undertaken.
Construction Productivity Network (CPN). CPN (a joint venture

between CIRIA and BRE). exists to promotethe sharing and application of
knowledge on construction productivity issues. Members have free access
to a substantial programme of workshops and seminars, a newsletter, and
an annual conference.
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publications on favourable terms and get discounts on CIRIA seminars.
Purchaseof Publications. CIRIA publications, togetherwith selected publications

front other sources, are available by mail order or on personal application.
Seminars/Conferences. CIRIA runs a number of events, often related to

research projects or publications.
CIRIA News (quarterly detailed reports on CIRIA's research and

information activities)and CIRIA Spectrum (occasional information on
issues of wide interest) are available free on request.
For further details, please apply to the Business Development Manager.

CIRIA. 6 Storey's Gate, Westminster. London SWIP 3AU
E-mail switchboard@ciria.org.uk
Tel: 0171-222 8891 Fax: 0171-222 1708
'ft,
Report 144 1997
Integrity testing in piling practice

M J Turner BSc MSc CEng MICE FGS
CONSTRUCTIONINDUSTRY RESEARCH AND INFORMATION

CURIA ASSOCIATION
6 Storey's Gate. Westminster, London SW1P 3AU
E-mail switchboard@ ciria.org.uk
Tel 0171-222 8891 Fax 01 71-222 1708
Summary
This report explainsthe basic principles and methods of the several techniques of
pile integrity testing, in particular the low-strain acoustic methods of echo and
frequency-response testing and cross-hole sonic logging. These methodsand their
use are set out in the context of the contractual situations in which they are used
as a means of confirming that piles have been satisfactorily constructed and
installed. Recommendations are made: forthe integration of control testing by
these methods into the contractual framework of responsibilities and programmes:
forthe reporting of the test results and their interpretation; and for the application
of test methods to different types of pile and circumstances. There is an overview
of possible pile defects and of the many options for testing piles, whether by
direct means such as load tests, or indirectly by different types of investigation.
Turner. M J
integrity testing in piling practice
Construction Industry Research and Information Association
CIRIA Report 144, 1997
C CIRJA 1997
ISBN: 0860174735
ISSN: 0305 408X
Published hs' CIRIA. All rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any other means, including photocopying and recording. without
the written permission of the copyright holder, application for which should be addressed to the
publisher. Such written permission must also be obtained before any part ofthis publication is
stored in a retrieval system of any nature.
Kevwords
Piling, pile testing, integrity testing, pile defects, control testing, low-strain tests, dynamic
load tests, acoustic tests, piling specification.
Reader Interest Classification
All construction professionals: AVAILABILITY Unrestricted

especially piling, structural and CONTENT Guidance document
geotechnical engineers; local
authorities. STATUS Committee guided
USER Piling specialists.
Construction professionals
This report was issued as Core Programme Funders Report 28, in February 1995,
to Core Programmesponsors/project funders. Since its initial issue it has been
subject to minor correction.
2 ClRIAReportl44
Foreword
This reportpresentsthe results ofa research projectto CIRIA's ground

engineering programme on piling engineering. The report was written by
Mr M J Turner under contract to CIRIA.
Following CIRIA's usual practice, the research was guided by a Steering Group
which comprised.
Mr F R D Chartres (Chairman) Then of PSA Specialist Service, now of

Bullen and Partners
Mr R K Burt Taylor Woodrow Construction
(Northern) Ltd
Dr D R Carder TransportResearch Laboratory
Mr K Ellwav N D Technology Ltd
Mr M England Cementation Piling and Foundations Ltd
Dr A Fawcett Keller Foundations Ltd
Dr W G K Fleming Cementation Piling and Foundations Ltd
MrS Kemp Technotrade Geotechnical Services
Mr J A Moran South Bank University
Mr J N Mure Testing and Analysis Ltd
DrN J O'Riordan Ove Arup and Partners
MrRT Stain Testconsult CEBTP Ltd
Mr R Wood Fugro McClefland
CIRIA's research manager forthe projectwas Mr F M Jardine.
CIRIAReportl44
Acknowledgements
The project was ftinded bs CIRIA's Core Programme arid

Department of Transport (through the Transport Research Laboratory)
Property Services Agency
Bach (UK) Ltd
Cementation Piling and Foundations Ltd
Expanded Piling Ltd
Fairciough Civil Engineering
Fugro - McClelland
GKN Keller Ltd now Keller Foundations
May Gurney (Technical Services) Ltd
ND Technology Ltd
Simplex Piling Ltd
Stent Foundations Ltd
Technotrade
Testconsult CEBTP Ltd
Westpile Ltd
CIRIA and the author are grateful for the help given to this project by the
funders. the members ofthe Steering Group and by the many individuals who
were consulted. Particularthanks are due to Mr T W 1-lulme ofthe Mass Rapid
Transit Corporation (MRTC) of Singapore. Mr N J Shirlaw and
Dr S K Buttling, both formerly with MRTC in Singapore. Mr C Baker of STS
Consultants. Dr A Caiserman and Professor K Preiss of Ben Gurion University.
Mr J Chick of Westpile Ltd, Mr Kightle of Testal Ltd. Mr P Middendorp and
Mr F Reiding of TNO-IBBC, Dr F Rausche of Pile Dynamics Inc and
Mr J Seaman of Ove Amp & Partners.
The death occurred in late 1992 of M Jean Paxiuet ofthe Centre Experimental de
Recherches et d'Eudes du Btiment et des Travaux Publics (CEBTP). M Paquct
was one of the leading European researchers and contributors to the techniques
of non-destructive testing ofpiles, with work spanning back to pioneering
papers in the 1960s when the techniques were in their infancy. He and his team
gave great help to the author. It is hoped that this report takes the understanding
and usefulness of the techniques another step forward.
4 CIRIAReportl44
CIRIA also gratefully acknowledges the sources ofthe following illustrations
used in this report.
Figure 2.4 Westpile Ltd

Figure 2.5 Cementation Piling and Foundations Ltd
Figure 2.6 Hercules Piling Ltd
Figure 5.12 Testconsult CEBTP Ltd
Figure 5.14 Testeonsult CEBTP Ltd
Figure 6.8 Testconsult CEBTP Ltd
Figure 7. 18 Hercules Piling Ltd
CIRIAReportl44 5
Reader's Guide
This reportis for use by a range of readers of differing responsibilities and interests in
the satisfactory installation of piles and piled foundations. Frequently the engineers
dealing with the commissioning. or results of nondestructivepile testing have only a
passing knowledge of current piling and testing techniques. All too often, specifiers
and users of nondestructivetesting do not appreciate the careful planning that is
needed. Confusion arises when the contract requirements and responsibilities for
undertaking non-destructive testing are not clear.
The report therefore sets out to provide information at all levels, from a generalised
overview of the subject to detailed descriptions of the theon and practice of the
various techniques that can be employed.
Section 1 introduces the subject and provides classifications for both the tpes of
testing. and the problems that arise in pile construction. It is background reading for
all users.
.Sections 2 and 3 provide guidance on what tests and investigation methods are
available and which are appropriate for investigating particular types of defect.

Sections 4 to providemoredetailedtreatmentsof particulartesting methods currently
in general usc in the UK. Section 5 covers the tests methods usually termed integrity
testing and most widely used.
.S'ec!ion.c , and
9 10 consider the integration of non-destructive testing into the
contractual process and provide guidance on when the tests should be undertaken, who
should undertake them and how the testing contract should be set up. These three
sections describe the essentials of good practice.
The following is a guide to where in the report the busy reader will find the
information that is needed:
To understandwhy testingmay be Read Section 1 and Appendices A
required mid what tests are available, and B.
To find out which tests are appropriate. Read Sections 1. 2 and 3 and Appendices
A and B.
To find out more about the theon of For direct testing methods, read Sections
testing. 2 and 7: for indirect methods read
Sections 3. 4 andlor6,
To find out more about the practical For direct testing methods, read Sections
details. 2 and 7: for indirect methods read
Sections 3 and 5
To arrangea contract for non-destructive Read Sections MY and 10.
testing.
To understand who is responsible for Read Sections M.9 and 10.
what under the contract.
To understand the interpretation by the Read Section 9.
testing specialist.
6 CIRlAReportl44
Contents
Figures
Tables
Notation
Glossary
2
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
.
Abbreviations
NON-DESTRUCTIVEPILE TESTING
Why non-destructive testing is undertaken
The selection of appropriate techniques
Classification of testing techniques
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.6. 1
1.6.2
Direct examination techniques (see also Figure 1.2)
Indirect examination techniques (see also Figure 1.3)
Problems in pile construction
Pile features resultingfrom construction problems
The detection of different pile features
Direct techniques
Indirect techniques
Selection of suitable test methods
Synopsis of Section 1
References cited in Section 1
CONSTRUCTION RECORDS AND DIRECT TESTING

METhODS
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Construction records
Static load testing
Dynamic load testing (see also Section 7)
Direct methods within the pile
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.4.4
2.4.5
2.5.1
2.5.2
2.5.3
2.5.4
2.5.5
Drillingwithinthepile
Closed-circuit television (CCTV) inspection
Calliper logging
Inclinometer techniques
Water or air testing
Otherdirect methods
Excavation
Extractionofapile
Sounding or probing - outside the pile
Sounding or probing - within the pile
Drilling or boring - outside the pile
2.5.6 Integral compression testing
11
15
16
19
25
27
28
28
30
32
34
34
35
40
40
43
45
47
53
54
54
58
65
71
71
74
76
77
78
79
79
82
82
83
84
85
86
CIRIA Report 144 7

3
4
INDIRECT TESTING METhODS
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Low-strain integrity testing
SoRic logging
3.2.1
3.2.2
Cross-hole sonic logging
Single-hole sonic logging
High-strain integrity testing
Other methods
3.4.1
3.4.3
3.4.5 Nuclear-radiation methods

LOW-STRAIN INTEGRITY TESTING: ThEORY

.
Horizontal vibration testing
3.4.2 Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Parallel seismic testing
3.4.4 Electrical methods
An introduction to wave propagation in piles

Pile impedance
Time-based analysis of pile-head response
4.3.1 General theory
4.3.2 Effect of impedance change
Frequency-based analysis of pile-head response
4.4.3 Characteristic mobility
87
87
100
lOt)
104
109
109
109
111
113
115
121
127
129
130
137
143
143
148
153
153
161)
168
4.4.4 Pile head dynamic stiffness 169
4.5 The linkbetweentime- and frequency-based measurements 170
4.6 Synopsis of Section 4 172
References cited in Section 4 173
5 LOW-STRAIN INTEGRITY TESTING: PRACTICE 176

5.1 Time-based techniques: echo testing 176
5.1.1 Basisofthemethod 176
5.1.2 Testprocedures 177
5.1.3 Interpretation of the pile-headresponse 180
5.1.4 The pulse echo test 182
5.2 Frequency-based techniques: frequency-response testing 185
5.2.1 Steady-state frequency-response testing 187
5.2.2 Transient' frequency-response testing 190
5.2.3 Properties of the pile or pile/soil system that can be
deduced from the results 193
5.3 Data capture and processing 195
5.3.1 Data quality 195
5.3.2 Processing ofpile-headsignal 195
5.3.3 Power of resolution 196
5.4 Limitations and restraints 19$
8 CIRIAReportl44
6 CROSS-HOLE SONIC LOGGING .208
6. 1 Theoretical background 208
6.2 Basis of the method 209
6.3 Test procedures 210
6.3.1 Preparation 210
6.3.2 Testing 210
6.3.3 Test sequence 211
6.3.4 Positioning ofprobes 211
6.3.5 Layoutand design of tubes 212
6.5 Properties of the pile that can be deduced from the test results 216
6.5.1 Inhomogeneities in the pile section 216
6.5.2 The horizontal extent of anomalies 220
6.5.3 Anomalies near the base ofthe pile 220
6.5.4 Characteristics of the pile toe 223
6.6 Limitations or restraints upon interpretation of the tests 223
6.6.1 Interpretation techniques 223
6.6.2 Sensitivity of the test 224
6.6.3 The detection of an anomaly 227
6.6.4 Age of concrete under test 228
7 DYNAMIC LOAD TESTING AND HIGH-STRAIN INTEGRITY

TESTING 231
7.1 Theoretical background 231
7.1.1 The methods developed by Smith 234
7.1.2 The methods developed by Case Western Reserve University ....236
7.1.3 T1'IAnalysisprogram 239
7.1.4 Numerical simulation techniques 240
7.1.5 Comparisons between static and dynamic load tests 250
7.1.6 Pile damage and integrity evaluation 252
7.2 Basis of the method as an integrity test 253
7.3 Test procedures 254
7.3.1 Preparation of the pile and pile head 254
7.3.2 Testing 255
7.5 Properties ofthe pile or pile/soil system that can be deduced 258
7.5.1 Pile Integrity 258
7.5.2 Static load capacity 259
7.6 Limitations and restraints 260
CIRIA Report 144 9

8 TEST[NG WITHIN THE CONTRACT .266
8. I Piling, testing and the contract 267
8.1.1 Common forms of contract 267
8.1.2 Changing contractual frameworks 269
8.1.3 The management of testing 272
8.2 The advantages of a control-testing progranme 274
8.3 The practical implications of control testing 275
8.3.1 The need for planning 275
8.3.2 Implications of testing large numbers of piles 276
8.3.3 The need for programme allowances 277
8.3.4 Signal interpretation 277
8.4 Responsibilities 278
8.5 Timing of the testing 278
8.6 Quality assurance 279
8.7 Implications for practice 280
8.8 Synopsis of Section 8 28(1
9 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS. INTERPRETATION

AND REPORTING OF LOW-STRAIN INTEGRITY TESTS 282
9. 1 Proposed classification of signal responses 283
9.2 Analysis and interpretation 287
9.3 Aids to interpretation 293
9.4 Reporting on the testing 294
10 THE SPECIFICATION AND USE OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE

TESTING 299
10.1 Planning the testing programme 299
10.1.1 Control testing 299
10.1.2 Retrospective investigation 300
10.2 Specifying the testing 302
1(1.2.1 Issues for the test programme 302
10.2.2 Guidance on specifications for control testing 303
10.3 Recommendations for the specification of low-strain integrity testing 303
10.4 Recommendations for the specification of cross-hole sonic logging 308
1(1.5Guidance on numbers of tests 309
References cited in Section 10 Ill

11 CONCLUSIONS 313
References 316
Appendix A Range and types of problems in piling 328
Appendix B Suggested classification of construction features and

defects in piles 332
10 CIRIAReportl44
Figures
Figure 1.1 Classification of pile examination methods 31
Figure 1.2 Direct examination techniques 33
Figure 1.3 Indirect examination techniques (a) internal 36
Figure 1.4 Proposed nomenclature for pile features or defects 39
Figure 1.5 Typicalexternal causes resulting in type B fractures 41
Figure 1.6 Typical type 'C' features within a pile 41
Figure 2.1 Typical pile construction records for continuous flight

augered piles with monitoring system 57
Figure 2.2 Typical load - settlement curves for maintained load test 59
Figure 2.3 Typical testing rigs for a compressive pile test 61
Figure 2.4 Typicalpile test arrangement using kentledge 62
Figure 2.5 Typical pile test arrangement using tension piles 63
Figure 2.6 Dynamic load testing - pile-head arrangement 67
Figure 2.7 Dynanc load testing - data acquisition and analysis
equipment 68
Figure 2.8 Typical measurements of force-time and velocity-time
at pile head 69
Figure 2.9 Typical force from strain and from velocity measurements
at pile head 69
Figure 2.10 Typical CCTV camera system 75
Figure 2.11 Borehole callipers 76
Figure 2.12 Shaft excavation to examine pile 80
Figure 3.1 Principle of time-based low strain integrity test 89
Figure 3.2 Low-strain integrity test in progress 90
Figure 3.3 Typical one-man integrity test equipment 91
Figure 3.4 Principle of frequency-based low-strain integrity test 93
Figure 3.5 Example signal-response waves 94
Figure 3.6 Pile features usually considered amenable to detection
by low-strain integrity testing 96
Figure 3.7 Pile features not usually amenable to detection by low-strain
integrity testing 97
Figure 3.8 Typical pile-head surface preparation for hammer-based
low-strain integrity test 98
Figure 3.9 Principle of cross-hole sonic logging 101
Figure 3.10 Typical cross-hole sonic logging operation 102
Figure 3.11 Typical sonic profile from cross-hole sonic logging system 102
Figure 3.12 Examples of possible defectsoff the shortest direct

path between cross-hole probes 104
Figure 3.13 Single-hole sonic logging 106
Figure 3.14 Typical sonic probe (in foreground) 107
Figure 3.15 Example of a continuous sonic log 108
Figure 3.16 Typical results ofhorizontal vibration test 110
CIRIA Report 144 11

Figure 3.17 Typical usage of ultrasonic pulse velocity equipment .112
Figure 3.18 Parallel seismic test 114
Figure 3.19 Typical parallelseismicresult 115
Figure 3.21) Principle of the earth-resistancemethod 117
Figure 3.21 Typical form of the graph of current electrode

spacing versus resistance 117
Figure 3.22 Displacement of electrode distance/resistance

(E-R) curve for testpiles 118
Figure 3.23 Principle of self-potential method 119
Figure 3.24 Principle of resistivity method 120
Figure 3.25 Principle of induced polarity method 120
Figure 3.26 Nuclear backscatter logging 122
Figure 3.27 Gamma-ray backscatter test in progress 123
Figure 3.28 Gamma-ray backscatter results 124
Figure 3.29 Principle of cross-hole gamma-ray logging 125
Figurc 3.30 Gamma-raytransmissionresulton test samplepile 126
Figure 4.1 Analogs of wave propagation through a pile 13!

Figure 4.2 Impact of elastic spheres with no end restraint 132
Figure 4.3 Impact of elastic spheres with end restraint 132
Figure 4.4 Response of impact sphere 133
Figure 4.5 Effect of a smaller diameterintermediate sphere 134
Figure 4.6 Effect of larger diameterintermediate sphere 134
Figure 4.7 Impact of elastically connected spheres with

no end restraint 135
Figure 4.8 Impact of elastically connected spheres with end restraint 136
Figure 4.9 Echo tests: theoretical response of pile head 136
Figure 4.10 Frequency response test: response of pile head 138
Figure 4.11 Typical relationship between velocity of plane wave

propagation and unconfined compression strength of concrete 140
Figure 4.12 Change in impedance within a pile 141
Figure 4.13 Lengthofpile affected by a change of impedance 142
Figure 4.14 Idealised signal-response curve for a time-based

Figure 4.15 Wave propagation through a prismaticrod loaded at one end 145
Figure 4.16 Characteristics of downward- and upward-travelling

stress-waves 146
Figure 4.17 Typical simplified free end responses for time-based tests 151
Figure 4.18 Typical simplified fixed-end response for time-based tests 152
Figure 4.19 Reflection and transmission of stress-waves at a change of

pile inipedence 153
Figure 4.20 Typical 'combined' responses for time-based tests 151
Figure 4.21 Signal response for an infinite pile 155
Figure 4.22 Attenuation of stress-wave because of skin friction 155
12 CIRIAReportl44
Figure 4.23 Typical idealisedgraphof maximum pile-head velocity, against
frequency 157
Figure 4.24 Typicalidealised frequency-response curve 157
Figure 4.25 Illustrative Fourier analysis of a square wave pulse 160
Figure 4.26 Idealised frequency-response curve, free-end condition 161
Figure 4.27 Idealised frequency-response curve, fixed-end condition 162

Figure 4.28 Idealised frequency-response curve, intermediate condition 163
Figure 4.29 Frequency response test, illustrating the effect of an intermediate
impedance change 163
Figure 4.30 Idealised frequency-response curve for an infinitely long pile 164
Figure 4.31 Effect of soil damping on signal-response curve 165
Figure 4.32 Effect of increasing soil stiffness on signal-response curve 166
Figure 4.33 Variation ofpile-headvelocity with magnitude of input
force and frequency 168
Figure 4.34 Signal-response curve for typical pile 168
Figure 4.35 Typical relationship between pile-head dynamic stiffness
and pile length 170
Figure 4.36 Pile-head dynamic stiffness versus LJL ratio 171
Figure 4.37 Pile effective mass versus L/L 171
Figure 5.1 Elementsof a typical sonic echo test layout 178

Figure 5.2 Sonic echo test: typical pile-headresponse signal 179
Figure 5.3 Sonic echo test: pile-head response versus depth 179
Figure 5.4 Sonic echo test: time-dependent amplification 180
Figure 5.5 Sonic echo test: effectofsoil layer changes on

signal-response curve 182
Figure 5.6 Typical impulse response curve for a pulse echo responsetest 183
Figure 5.7 Interaction of returning echo on impulse response curve 184
Figure 5.8 Log amplitude plot of typical impulse response curve 184
Figure 5.9 Pertubation in log amplitude plot from returning echo 184
Figure 5.10 Pulse echo test: typical effect of near-surface discontinuity 186
Figure 5.11 Elements of a steady-state frequency-response test 189
Figure 5.12 Typical test set-up using electrodynamic shaker 190
Figure 5.13 Typical signal-response curve for a frequency-based
Figure 5.14 Typical transient frequency response test in progress.

illustrating integral hammer/load cell and geophone 191
Figure 5.15 Elements ofa typical transient frequency-response test 193
Figure 5.16 Influence of a partial feature on the signal-response curve 194

Figure 5.17 Signal distortion and overshoot' in analogue signal processing 197
Figure 5.18 Illustration of the effect of increasing power of resolution on the
sensitivity of the pile head velocity versus depth curve 199
Figure 6.1 Cross-hole sonic logging: typical data aquisitiondisplay and
printing equipment 211
Figure 6.2 Elements ofa cross-hole sonic logging system 212
ClRIAReportl44 13
Figure 6.3 Typical tube layouts for sonic logging 212
Figure 6.4 Typical horizontal positioning of probes 213
Figure 6.5 Use of inclined test line for horizontal feature 213
Figure 6.6 Use of fan-shaped test lines for investigating

extent/shape of feature 214
Figure 6.7 Possible diversion of signal path by metal tubes 215
Figure 6.8 Typical sonicloggingprobes 216
Figure 6.9 Typical layoutof tubes within diaphragm wall panels 217
Figure 6.11) The construction ofa sonic profile 218
Figure 6.11 Typical sonic profile from cross-hole logging 219
Figure 6.12 Typical means of investigating the extent of an anomaly 221
Figure 6.13 Signal skipping - expectedpreferred paths around

anomalies 221
Figure 6.14 Signal skipping: theoretical sonic profiles 222

Figure 6.15 Sonic profile from a fan-shaped test array 223
Figure 6.16 Free movement of probes within access ducts 225
Figure 6.17 Mismatched probe positions 225
Figure 6.18 Possible variation in time of arrival of a specified

threshold value. because of signal attenuation 226
Figure 6.19 Possible signal discrepancies caused by irregular
base of the pile 227
Figure 7.1 Basic concept of pile driving 232
Figure 7.2 Method of representing a pile for the purpose of calculation 235
Figure 7.3 Stress-strain diagramfor soil at the pile toe 236
Figure 7.3 Typical measurements of force-time and velocity-time
at pile head 241
Figure 7.5 Force (from strain) and force (from velocity x EAIc)
measurements at pile head 242
Figure 7.6 Superposition of stress-waves travelling along a rod in opposite

directions 243
Figure 7.7 Effect of partial reflection of the stress-wave at an intermediate

resistance 244
Figure 7.8 Effect of soil resistance on force and velocity x EA/c graph 244
Figure 7.9 Effects of intermediate change of section on force and velocity
EAt/c graph 245
Figure 7.10 CAPWAPC continuous pile model 246

Figure 7.11 Pile-head force4ime match, computed by CAPWAP-tvpe
analyses, illustrating the iterative matching procedure 247
Figure 7.12 View of Simbat test 248
Figure 7.13 Typicalmanner of variation of hammer drop height for
Simbat test 249
Figure 7.14 Typicalpredicted 'static' load-settlement curse from

Simbat test 250
Figure 7.15 Cross-sectional view of the Statnamic test 251
Figure 7.16 Pile-head instrumentation attached to a tubularsteel pile 255
14 CIRIA Report 144

Figure 7.17 Elements of a dynamic pile test 256
Figure 7.18 Dynamic pile testing - view of typical signal-conditioning
and analysis equipment 257
Figure 7.19 Progressive pile-head damage during pile driving 260
Figure 8.1 Organisation chart of conventional construction contracts 269
Figure 8.2 Organisation charts of other forms of construction 271
Figure 8.3 Typical lines of communication and control for
integrity testing 273
Figure 9.1 Examples of TypeD signals 283
Figure 9.2 Examples ofType 1 signals 284
Figure 9.3 Examples of Type2 signals 286
Figure 9.4 Examples of complex or indeterminate Type 2 signals 287
Figure 9.5 First stage: analysis of signal responses 289
Figure 9.6 Second stage: typical interpretation process for Type 0 signal 290
Figure 10.1 The development of a control testing strategy 301
Figure 10.2 The development of a retrospective investigation strategy 305
Figure 10.3 Evaluation of numbers ofpiles to test on a site ) 310
Tables
Table 1.1 Suitabilityof the various techniques to detect pile
construction features 42
Table 1.2 The applicability of visual examination 47
Table 1.3 The applicability of load testing 48
Table 1.4 The applicability of external techniques 49
Table 1.5 The applicability of internal techniques 50
Table 1.6 The applicability of remote techniques and investigative
drilling, boring and probing 52
Table 2.1 Recommended records to be kept duringpilling 56
Table 5.1 Limiting values of aspect ratios encountered in practice 200
Table 9.1 Proposed classification of low-strain integrity test signals 285
Table B.1 Suggested classification of construction features and
defectsin piles 333
ClRIAReportl44 15
Notation
a amplitude ofvibration (m)

A cross-sectional area of pile shaft (m2)
b coefficient of viscous damping (Case method)
B damage classification factor (Rausche et at. 1979)
c velocity of plane wave propagation in a pile (mis)
velocity of plane wave propagation through sound concrete (sonic
logging)
CT velocity of plane wave propagation through access ducts (sonic
logging)
ci separation of access ducts (sonic logging)
distance of electrode from pile
C coefficient of restitution
F modulus of linear deformation (Youngs modulus) (MNim2)
F' pile-headdynamicstiffness(MN/mm)
f frequency (Hz)
F vertical force applied to pile head (N)
downward-travelling force wave
maximum vertical force applied to pile head (N)
F(t) vertical force at the point of measurement at time. 1
upward-travelling force wave
h drop height of piling hammer (Hilev formula)
I electrical current (amps)
.1,, Case damping constant
Smith damping constant
k1. k2 constants relating to electrodynamic shaker and sensor
K damping constant(Simbat test)
/ depth of sonic probe below an interface
L length of pile. from head to toe (m)
length to a defect or anomaly measured from the pile head
Lief length to a reflecting surface measured from the pile head
Lie, resonating length of a pile
Al mass of pile (Mg)
Al mobility (s/kg or rn/s/N)
Al0 characterictic mobility (s/kg or mis/N)
16 CIRIAReportl44
N mechanical admittance (s/kg or rn/sN)
P maximum value of Vmax/Fmax from frequency-response curve
q elastic or recoverable movement of pile (quake)
Q minimum value of Vma(/FmaXfrom frequency-response curve
r radius of pile (m)
0 earthing resistance (ohm)
R Total resistance of a pile to penetration under a dynamic load (N)
electrical resistance of concrete
RD dynamic resistance of a pile (N)
RD(max) maximum ultimate dynamic resistance of a pile
Rmax maximum ultimate resistance of a pile to penetration under a
dynamic load
R ultimate static resistance of a pile (N)
electrical resistance of soil
Rs(max) maximum ultimate static resistance of a pile
R(t) total resistance of a pile at time,!
ultimate static resistance of soil beneath the pile toe under a
dynamic load (Smith, 1960)
s permanent set of the pile (mm)
electrode spacing (m)
S slope of signal skipping profile (sonic logging)
5' flexibility of pile head (miN)
/ time (s)
ii axial displacement ofa pile segment or a point on the pile shaft
Vd particle velocity at a point associated with a downward-travelling
force wave (mis)
vh particle velocity at the pile head (mis)
particle velocity at the pile toe (mis)
particle velocity at a point associated with an upward-travelling
force wave (mis)
V voltage drop (my)
v vertical velocity ofthe pile head (mis)
max maximum vertical velocity ofthe pile head (mis)
maximum vertical velocity ofthe pile head (mis)
Vpen velocity of penetration of the pile with respect to the soil (SIMBAT
forrnul a)
vertical velocity of the pile at the point of measurement at time. i
weight of drop hammer (Hiley formula)
z pile impedance (kg/s or sNim)
CIRIARepartl44 17
Z0 characteristic impedance (kg/s or sN/rn)
Z cumulative penetration of pile (SIMBAT formula)
a acceleration of mass m, (ni/si
ft velocity of propagation oftransverse waves in soil
St frequency intenal between successive resonances (Hz)
strain
cumulative penetration from start oftest
efficiency factor of piling hammer (HiIe formula)
v Poisso&s ratio
Pt total settlement of pile-head
Pr residual settlement ofpile-head
p density of pile material (MN/m3)
bulk density ofsoil
density of pile material
U angular velocity (@ = 2 fl (rad/s)
18 CIRIAReportl44
Glossary
Anomaly An irregularor unexpected response obtained from a

non-destructive test that may or may not represent a real
feature ofthe pile shaft. An anomaly is not necessarily
caused by a defect but is a response which warrants
fbrther consideration.
Aspect ratio The ratio between the length of a pile and its diameter or
side length. Also known as the slenderness ratio.
Characteristic The inverse ofthe productof pile density times velocity
mobility of plane wave propagation throughthe pile times the
cross sectional area of the pile.
Comparative A catalogue of the signal response curves obtained from
catalogue a series of low-strain integritytests on piles with a
variety ofknown defects or features. These responses
may then be used to compare results obtained in the
field. Idealised signal response curves can also be
computer-generated to assist in the analysis of results.
Compression pile A pile which is designed to resist an axial force such as
would cause it to penetrate further into the ground.
Constant rate of A test in which the pile is made to penetrate the soil
penetration (CRP) from its position as installed at a constant controlled
test speed, while the force applied at the top of the pile to
maintain the rate of penetration is continuously
measured. The purpose of the test is to derive the
ultimate bearing capacity of a pile and not its
load-seulement characteristics.
Constant rate of The same in principle as the CRP test, but the pile is
uplift (CRU) test subject to uplift rather than compression. The purpose
of the test is to determine the 'pull-ouf capacity of a
pile.
Control testing A test programme undertaken as part of a pre-planned
quality control programme on a particular site, which
will often include non-destructive tests.
Cross-hole testing A technique whereby the signal emitter device of a
particular non-destructive test is placed in one borehole
or duct within the pile and the detector device is placed
in an adjacentborehole or duct in the pile, such that the
signal travels throughthe body of the pile between the
emitter and detector.
CiRlAReport 144 19
Decibel (dB) scale A means of presentingengineering measurements in
terms ofa logarithmic scale defined by the relationship:
dB = 10 log10 (X/X0)
where X0 is a reference value and X is the measured
value.
The attenuation of a signal or the signal-to-noise ratio of
a system is often described in decibels (dB).
Defect A feature in a pile that is not in accordance with its
specified construction. A major defectwithin a pile
might affect the ability ofthe pile to cam its design
working load in either the short or long term. On the
other hand many cast-in-place piles. for example. could
contain minor defects that would not affect their ability
to perform their design task.
Designer The person responsible under the contract for the design
of the works. The designermay be employed b' the
client, the main contractor, a specialist subcontractor or
by a consultant. The designerma also delegate
responsibility for specific aspects of the design of the
piled foundations to the pile designer. In such a case.
the pile designerwould often be employed by a
specialist sub-contractor or a consultant.
Dynamic load Load testing ofa pile by applying an impulsive force to
testing the pile head, e.g. by the impact of a pile driving
hammer.
Dynamic stiffness See pile-head dynamic st/f/hess.
Echo test A low-strain integrity test in which the pile head
response is plotted as a function of time and the results
are analysed in the time domain. Such tests are also
often termed sonic echo tests. Pulse echo tests are a
specific form of echo test where the signal response
curve forms a characteristic. sinusoidally decaying.
wave-form.
Fast Fourier The mathematical computational technique used to
transform evaluate a Fourier Series. A Fourier series can be used
to represent any periodic motion, such as the response
of a pile head to an external excitation. Such an
excitation might be provided by a hammer blow, for
example.
Frequency The plottingand analysis of a particular paranieter as a
domain function of frequency.
20 CIRIAReportl44
Frequency- A low-strain integrity test in which the pile head
response test response is plotted as a function of frequency and the
results are analysed in the frequency domain. Such tests
are also often termed shock tests or transient dynamic
response tests. Frequency-response tests are most
usually undertaken with the additional measurement of
the pile head input force imparted by the hammer blow.
This information is used to express the pile head
response in terms of pile head mobility.
High-pass filter A filter that allows the passage ofonly high frequency
waves, i.e. it filters out low frequency waves.
High-strain The use of a dynamic load testing technique to
integrity tests investigate the internal structure of a pile. Because the
test involves dropping a heavy weight on to the pile
head, the shock or stress-wave imparted into the pile
causes both appreciable acceleration and strain within
the pile.
Impedance The ratio ofthe input force at a point to the resulting
induced particle velocity. Impedance is a measure of the
dynamic characteristics of a mechanical system
(impedance is the inverse of mobility). The impedance
of a pile depends upon the physical properties ofthe pile
and is principally a function of the pile cross-sectional
area, the propagation velocity of the acoustic or
stress-wave throughthe pile and the density of the pile
material. Changes in the pile properties, represented by
its impedance, will affect the transmission or reflection
of such stress-waves throughthe pile and allow an
analysis and interpretation ofthe pile structure to be
made. A pile of uniform construction and of
homogeneous concrete will have a constant impedance.
Infrasonic A wave or frequency below the range of human hearing
(typically below 16 Hz).
Integrity test A test which examines the response ofa pile to an
indirect physical scanning technique. A test may
employ acoustic shock waves, electrical energy, nuclear
radiation or other input to excite the pile. The analysis
ofthe response ofthe piles may allow an interpretation
to be made ofthe 'integrity' ofconstruction ofthe pile
body, typified by the homogeneity of its internal
construction or the uniformity of its external shape. See
also low-strain and high-strain integrity tests.
Kentledge* Dead load used in a loading test.
Low-pass filter A filter that allows the passage of only low frequency
waves, i.e. it filters out high frequency waves.
ClRIAReportl44 21
Lowstrain An integrity test which examines the response of the
integrity tests pile to a small mechanical excitation of the pile head:
usually applied b means ofa light handheld hammer
or less frequently, an electro-dnaniic shaker'. The
excitation causes acoustic shock or strcss-aes to
propagate through the body of the pile. A sensor at the
pile head receives waves reflected by changes in pile or
soil properties (impedance). Changes in soil properties
along the pile will also cause reflections of the
stress-waves.
Masking The characteristic of a higher reflective feature in a pile

reflecting sufficient ofthe incident stress-wave back
towards the pile headthat a deeper feature cannot be
readily discerned from the response curve.
Maintained load A loading test in which each increment of load is held
test constant either for a defined period of time or until the
rate of movement (settlement or uplift) falls to a
specified value.
Mechanical See mobil/n'.
admittance
Mobility The inverse of Impedance. (See also Characterstic
Mobility).
Natural resonant The frequency at which a spring/solidus mass system
frequency vibrates when set into free vibration.
Non-destructive Any form oftesting that does not involve taking the unit
testing under test to failure.
Overbreak The removal of more ground from a pile bore than is
called for by its nominal dimensions.
Pile head The upper end ofthe pile. i.e. near the ground surface.
which transfers the load from the structure into the pile.
This is often termed the pile top.
Pile toe The lower end ofthe pile. i.e. the end in the ground.
This is often termed the pile foot or pile tip.
Pile-head dynamic A parameter calculated from the inverse of the gradient
stiffness of the initial portion ofthe signal response curve
obtained from a frequency response test, which has
included measurements of pile head input force. Pile
head dynamic stiffhess is a measure of the apparent
stifThess of the pile close to the pile head and is most
affected b pile and soil properties close to the pile
head.
22 CIRIAReportl44
Preliminary pile A pile installed before the commencement of the main
piling works or a specific part of the Works for the
purpose of establishing the suitability of the chosen type
of pile and for confirming its design, dimensions and
bearing capacity.
Proof-load A load applied to a selected working pile to confirm that
it is suitablefor the load at the settlement specified.
Pulse echo See echo tests.
Raking pile' A pile installed at an inclination to the vertical.
Reaction system' The arrangement of kentledge. piles. anchors or rafts
that provides a resistance against which the pile is load
tested.
Response curve See signal-response curve.
Retrospective A test programme undertaken to investigate a problem
testing that has become apparent during or subsequent to
construction ofthe piled foundations, or as an aid to the
evaluation of existing foundations. Such a programme
will often include non-destructive testing.
Shock test See Frequency-response test.
Signal-response The plot obtained from (usually) a low-strain integrity
curve test, showing the pile head response as a function of
either frequency or time.
Signal-to-noise The ratio, in decibels, of the root mean square (rms)
ratio voltage ofthe desired signal to the ims voltage of the
noise that is also present. 'Signal' is the desired portion
of the measured data, 'noise' is the unwanted portion
due to both external and internal (i.e. within the
measuring and recording system) causes.
Slenderness ratio see aspect ratio.
Sonic coring See sonic logging.
Sonic echo See echo tests.
Sonic logging Sonic logging involves the transmission of a series of
sonic/ultrasonic pulses through the body of a concrete
pile by means ofa transmitter device lowered into a
preformed hole or duct in the pile. The transmitted
pulses are received by a detector device placed either in
an adjacent bore (cross-hole sonic logging) or in the
same borehole as the transmitter (single hole sonic
logging). The transmission/detection system is
withdrawn from the hole at a steady rate enabling a
profile of the transmission characteristics ofthe pile
body to be plotted with depth. The cross-hole technique
is also known as sonic coring.
CIRIAReportl44 23
Specified working The specified load on the head of the pile as shown on
load (SWL) the Engineers drawings or in the Particular
Specification or in provided schedules.
Spectrum analyser A device which analyses a periodic function into its
frequency components. based upon the principle of the
Fourier series.
Static load Load testing of a pile b the application of a static load
testing to the pile head usually equal to or greater than the
specified working load of the pile.
Stress-wave theory (Also. more stricth. one-dimensional stress-wave
theon): a description of the behaviour of propagating
stress waves in an elastic medium (such as a concrete or
steel pile). which is governed by the solution of the
wave equationS.
Tension pile A pile which is designed to resist an axial force such as
would cause it to be extracted from the ground.
Test pile* Any pile to which a test is. or is to be. applied.
Time domain The plotting and analysis of a particular parameter as a
fijnetion of time.
Transient dynamic See frequency response test.
Transmission time See transit time.
Transit time The time taken for an ultrasonic pulse in a sonic logging
test to travel from the transmitter to the detector through
the intervening material.
Ultimate bearing The load at which the resistance of the soil becomes
capacity* hilly mobilised.
Ultrasonic A wave or frequency above the range of human hearing.
(Typically above 20 kHz.)
Working pite One of the piles forming the foundation of a structure.
Terms defined in Specification for Piling Institution of Civil Engineers.

Thomas Telford Ltd. London. 1988
24 CIRIA Report 144

Abbreviations
CAPWAP Case pile wave analysis program

CCTV Closed circuit television
CEBTP Centre Experimental de Recherches et dEtudes du Btimentet
des Travaux Publics
CFA Continuous Flight Auger
CIRIA Construction Industry Research and Information Association
CRP Constant rate of penetration (in pile loading) test
CRU Constant rate of uplift (in pile tension) test
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
FHWA Federal Highway Administration (USA)
ICE Institution of Civil Engineers
IPFR Impulse Pile Frequency Response
ISSMFE International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering
JCT Joint Contracts Tribunal
ML Maintained load (in pile loading) test
NEDO National Economic Development Office
RIBA Royal Institute of British Architects
TNO Netherlands Institute for applied scientific research. (Nederlandse
organisatie voor toegepast natuurwetenschappeliik onderzoek)
TTI Texas Transportation Institute
VDU Visual display unit
CAPWAPC
DYNPAC Proprietary numerical simulation programs
PiD for dynamic pile testing
SIMBAT
SVIDYN
TNOWAVE
CIRIAReportl44 25
Page blank
in original
Non-destructive pile testing
In 1977. CIRIA Report PG4 (Weltman, 1977), published as part of a series of

reports prepared jointly by the DoE and the CIRIA Piling Development Group,
reviewed the then current methods forthe non-destructive testing ofpiled
foundations. Even though two decades have elapsed since the preparation and
publication ofthat document and despite a period of quite intense technical
activity and development, the same broad outlines as were discerned then still
apply to current practice. As might be expected, some investigative methods
have advanced while others are less used, but the broad trends are generallyas
was foreseen.
The desire to have confirmation of satisfactoiy construction of all types of pile

as. for instance, was highlighted in the time of Report PG4 by Levy (1975) and
Bobrowski et a!. (1970),hasprovideda continuing spur to the development of
inexpensive, rapid testing and evaluation techniques.
The greatest growth in the use of non-destructive pile testing has been ofthose
techniques which most easily suit the evaluation of large numbers ofpiles
within a contract programme: especially those tests often known as 'integrity
tests'. This is probably linked in part to the expansion of continuous flight auger
piling, which has revolutionised the speed of installation of small-diameter
bored cast-in-place piles. In addition, there has been a continued growth in the
use of single large-diameter bored piles to support single large column loads.
The term integrity test is used in this report as a generic term for all tests which
examine the pile by measuring its response to indirect physical scanning
techniques such as those using acoustic or mechanical vibration waves.
electrical impulses, nuclear radiation, etc. Low-strain integritytests are a form
of integrity test that examine the response of the pile to high-acceleration
low-strain impacts from a light hand-held hammer. These are the commonest
form of integrity tests used in the UK and Europe. Such tests are most
commonly used as a screening process and as an additional tool in the task of
distinguishing apparently acceptable, as opposedto questionable, piles. This
report, therefore, deals in some detail with the development and applicationof
these techniques, because they are increasingly encountered by engineers who
have only a passing knowledge of current piling and testing techniques.
The Reader Guide facing the contentspage shows how the report is laid out.
The report has been designed to provide readers with ready access to particular
areas of interest as indicated. Answers to typical questions that the report
addresses are also provided.
CIRIA Report 144 27

1.1 WHY NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING IS UNDERTAKEN
The designer ofthe piles will have selected the foundation system from a range
of possibilities to suit the ground conditions and the structural and
environmental loads. In selecting the system, the designershould considerthe
means by which the design intentions and assumptionsare checked against the
construction on site.
Each pile is unique and, because it is buried in the ground. it cannot be

examined in the same way as the structure it supports. Thus the evaluation of a
foundation system normally requires inference and extrapolation from direct
and indirect examination of individual piles. Rarely is the foundation system
subjected to pre-loading before going into service: (exceptions are foundations
for structures such as a tank or a silo which is subjected to a water load test, or
similar, prior to product loading).
Each foundation system can be checked by a range of appropriate techniques.

Common to all is the primary requirement of the accurate recording of
construction information for each pile by experienced supervisors. Essential
records are listed, for example. in the Institution of Civil Engineers
SpecitIcationfbr Piling (ICE. 1988). but the designermay often stipulate
additional ones which are site specific. If these records are not kept or are
inadequate, many ofthe non-destructive testing techniques described in this
report may be of reduced value on their own and the foundation system will
remain unchecked until it is put into service. Any deficiencies subsequently
discovered could require remedial measures which can be expensive, difficult
and time-consuming.
Non-destructive testing is therefore undertaken to provide additional

information on aspects of the pile construction as an aid to the evaluation ofthe
foundation system.
1.2 THE SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE TECHNIQUES
The currentlyused non-destructive testing and investigation methods are

classified and listed in Section 1.3, which subdivides them into direct and
indirect examination techniques. Direct examination techniques are those that
allow direct visual or mechanical evaluation of a pile or piled foundation: a
static load test for example. Indirect techniques infer structural features of a pile
from its response to a test which measures some other propert. such as its
ability to transmit a sonic shock wave through the pile material. The common
integrity tests' are typical of such indirect tests.
All tests. whether they be direct or indirect, are subject to sonic degree of
interpretation. Thus while many ofthe direct techniques described in this report
may indicate the ability of an individual pile to carry its load in the short term.
they will not necessarily relate to its long-term performance. Furthermore many
of the indirect examination techniques. which have the potential to identify
28 CIRIAReportl44
structuralk' significant features, necessarily involve judgement and
interpretation.
As a general rule, it is recommended that the evaluation or checking ofa

foundation system, or the acceptance ofindividual piles, should not rely only
upon indirecttests which require a high degree of judgement or subjective
interpretation.
Non-destructive investigation or testing ofpiled foundations will usually be

carried out for one of the following two main purposes:
I. As a part of a pre-planned site quality control regime: i.e. control testing.
2. Retrospective investigation when some problem has become apparent
during the undertaking ofthe works. A further form of retrospective
investigation may occur if old piles are to be re-used following demolition
of an existing building.
Each purpose requires a different approach, which will also depend upon the
circumstances confronting the designerof the piled foundation. In the first case,
a relatively inexpensive and cost-effective approach may be wanted. e.g. as a
screening system for checking the adequacy of construction. In the second case,
however, it may be necessary to investigate something that could be ofcrucial
importance to the performance ofthe completed structure. If so, testing costs
might be of secondary importance compared with solving the problem at hand.
The choice oftesting within a control testing or retrospective investigation

programme may be governed therefore by several factors, including:
the perceived nature ofpossible features or defects within the pile
the ability of the test method to detect the feature or defect under
investigation
the cost of testing and examination
the ease of use and interpretation.
The designerofthe piled foundations should, therefore, as specifier for the

testing, be clear first as to what is intended and, secondly, about how a proposed
test will help to achieve that aim. If, forinstance, it is necessary to know the
adequacy ofthe interface between the pile toe and underlying bedrock, the
chosen method would have to be capable of examining this boundary.
In the design ofpiled foundations it is essential to give full consideration to

both the anticipated ground conditions and the pile installation method. The
approach in evaluating the constructed piles should also take these points into
account, in order that the evaluation methods will be suitable forthe types of
problem that may affect the chosen pile system. Of particular importance are
those differences that are not readily identified from the pile construction
records. Section 1.4 and 1.5 summarise common construction difficulties
associated with various combinations of ground and foundation systems. They
CIRIAReportl44 29
also attempt to relate these to the way they may be either suited or not suited to
detection by current investigative methods.
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF TESTING TECHNIQUES
Contemporaneousrecords are common to all testing techniques. as adequate

control and accurate recording of the pile construction operations provide vital
information necessary to a proper understanding of the subsequent performance
of a piled foundation.
Direct techniquesare those which allow direct visual or mechanical
examination of a pile, or which measure an engineering characteristic that
relates to its ability to perform adequately. These are classified as follows:
I. Visual examination - either of the pile during the installation process or by
excavation around or alongside a pile to examine the outer surface of the
pile or the pile/soil interface, and to allow closer detailed testing and
evaluation to be carried out. In exceptional circumstances a complete pile
ma\ be extracted for inspection.
2. Load testing - observing the performance of the pile either as a structural
member or as a part of the pile/soil system. Load testing includes
hill-scale static load testing. dynamic load testing and integral
compression testing.
3. Drilling, boring or probing. either alongside the pile. generally to
examine overbreak ofthe pile shaft or the extent and depth of
under-reams: or into the body ofthe pile. with the purpose of detecting
discontinuities or defects within the pile shaft, and to allow further testing
and examination or remedial works to be carried out.
Indirect techniquesare those by which physical properties or construction
features of the pile or pile/soil system are inferred from measurements of a pile
response that is not necessarily directly indicative of structural performance.
These methods generally rely upon measurements of the acoustical or electrical
properties ofthe material forming the pile, or the way in which it affects
emissions from a radioactive source. Such indirect techniques are classified as:
1. internal - methods utilising preformed ducts within the pile or boreholes
which may have been drilled for other investigative purposes.
2. External - methods which are carried out from the surface of the exposed
head or side of the pile.
3. Remote - those methods that are carried out at some distance from the pile.
where access to the pile head is inadequate or not available.
The above classification is illustrated in Figure 1. 1.
30 CIRIAReportl44
installation
r During
Visual examination
Afterinstallation
Direct
examination Load testing
techniques
Alongsidethe pile
Drilling,boring _______________
or probing
Into the pile
(Utilisingdrillholes Including:
Internal or pre-formedducts Sonic logging &
within the pile) nucleartechniques
Indirect . Including:
examination External top or 'Integrity'tests &
techniques 0(yom
expos P:Ke
e, resistivitytechniques
(Alongsidethe pile, f Including:

Remote where access to pile i 'Parallelseismic'
head is not available) techniques
Figure 1.1 Classification of pile examinationmethods
Indirect techniques are usually less costly than direct ones because they
generally do not involve disruptive or time-consuming on-site operations, such
as excavation around a pile or pile group. Hence, indirecttechniques are often
used for the purposes of routine control testing, including quality control or
checking. Within this group are those commonly described by the term
Integrity tests', i.e. low-strain integritytests and sonic logging.
Apart from load testing, direct techniques are usually only used ifsome other
information gives reason for concern with regard to a particularpile, pile group
or piled foundation system. Direct load tests are not normally used merelyto
check the structural integrity of a pile shaft.
Their primary purpose is to establish or verify the overall design and

construction concept ofthe piled foundation, or to verify the performance of the
element tested, rather than being random tests of the structural adequacy of
piles. Weltman (1980) discussed the statistical likelihood of detecting a
defective pile by static load testing, and demonstrated that an impracticably
high percentage of piles would have to be tested to give a reasonable assurance
of detecting a defect with a low incidence of occurrence.
ClRlAReportl44 31
It should be noted, however, that in some circumstances a form of load testing
known as dynamic load testing may be carried out on sufficiently many of the
piles of a particular site that it could perhaps be considered as an effective
'random' fault detector.
1.3.1 Direct examination techniques (see also Figure 1.2)
I. Visual examination
These techniques allow direct visual examination of the pile and pile
construction processes and may be summarised as follows.
Excavation around the pile allows a physical examination of defects visible at

the exposed surface of the pile or which are detectable within the body of the
pile by associated examination techniques.
Extraction. In particular cases a typical suspect pile cmi be extracted for

examination, measurement and testing.
2. AppIing load to the pile
Static load testing applies a direct load to the pile by jacking against an external
resistance, such as kentledge blocks or reaction piles. The method thus
simulates the performance of a pile in its working condition or at some
specified overload.
Dynamic load testing examines the performance of a pile under the action of a
dynamic force, such as the impact from a pile driving hammer. The magnitude
of such a dynamic force is typically ofthe same order as that applied during a
static load test, but applied over a very short time period. The pile behaviour is
thus affected by both the static and dynamic characteristics of the soil/pile
system.
Integral compression testing involves casting post-tensioning tendons into the

shaft ofa pile. The tendons are anchored at the toe and head of the pile and
debonded over the intervening pile shaft. The application of a load into the
tendons by hydraulic jack induces a high compressive stress into the shaft
concrete which can reveal gross shaft defects.
3. Investigative drilling, boring or probing
Alongside the pile: drilling, boring or probing outside the pile can reveal
external features of the pile shaft such as protuberances or under-reams.
Into the pile: drilling within the pile allows samples of the pile material to be
obtained and examined and also provides access for other investigative
techniques. such as CCIV inspection, borehole calipers or inclinometers and
water or air testing
32 CIRIA Report 144

Direct examination techniques
Visual Load Dflhling, boring

examination testing or probing
During After the

installation pile
Contempor-
aneous
records
AcidiUoi,aI techniques
Indirect Indirect
Internal internal
tests tests
Figure 1.2 Direct examination techniques
'21.
All the above direct techniques are described in Section 2. In addition, the
dynamic load test techniques are explained in greaterdetail in Section 7. in
association with the use of the test in 'high-strainintegrity testing' (see below).
1.3.2 Indirect examination techniques (see also Figure 1.3)

Internal !echniques.By meansof drill-holes or preplaced ducts within the piles.
a numberof borehole logging and testing devices can be used to investigate the
internal properties of a particular pile. These include both sonic and nuclear
logging probes.
External techniques examine the behaviour of the pile to some outside

excitation. Such an excitation could, for example. be the application of a small
external force or vibration, such as would be provided by a blow from a light
hand-held hammer or the vibration from an electro-dynamic shaker. All
low-strain integrity tests use such methods. Horizontal vibration testing also
utilises such techniques.
Alternatively, the pile behaviour can be examined under the much larger applied
force used in dynamic load testing. Because the magnitude of the applied force
can be sufficient to cause a permanent displacement of the pile. such techniques
are known as high-strain integrity tests. As a fl.irther alternative, the pile
response can be examined under the action of an external electrical field.
Techniques such as resistance-to-earth and resistivity use such methods.
One other external technique described concerns the measurement of the

ultra-sonic pulse velocity of a concrete pile shaft exposed in an excavation.
Remote techniques. The only remote technique identified in this report is called
Parallel Seismic Testing. This is an adaptation of sonic logging techniques. It
involves the sinking of a borehole alongside the pile and the installation ofa
sonic probe in order to examine the travel of shock waves or vibrations between
the pile and the probe.
Details of all the indirect techniques are outlined in Section 3. Low-strain

integrity tests, the most widely used of non-destructive testing techniques. are
described in more detail in Sections 4 and 5. In addition, cross-hole sonic
logging techniques. which have a widening application in large-diameter bored
piles. are dealt with in Section 6. High-strain integrity testing is covered in
Section 7.
1.4 PROBLEMS IN PILE CONSTRUCTION
Problemsthat may arise in the construction of various types of pile. have been
described by Thorbum and Thorburn (1977). Mealy and Weitman (19)40). and
Fleming et a!. (l9S5). For reference, the possible problems that ere identified
are sumniarised in Appendix A.
34 CIRIAReportl44
Despitethis apparently formidable list ofthings that can go wrong. these authors
also emphasise that the incidence of pile problems is relatively low. In the case of
bored piles, for instance, a survey quoted by Fleming ci 0/. suggested that about
0.5% of the piles tested were found to have defects that had been formed during
the actual pile construction process. The occurrence of piles exhibiting some form
of defect after trimming was much higher, around 1.5 to 2%. This higher figure
was attributed to piles damaged by construction activities after construction ofthe
piles. The survey was carried out on results obtained from low-strain integrity
tests on some 5,000 piles in 198! and 4,550 in 1982.
Ellway (1987) suggested, from the results of low-strain integrity tests on some
4,400 small-diameter bored piles in 1985, that just over 4% ofthe piles showed
signs of 'potentially significant structural faults'. About one third ofthese were
attributed to post-construction damage from mechanical plant or inappropriate
methods in breaking down the pile heads. A thrther third was due to weak
contaminated concrete within the top 2 metres of the pile. The remaining third
(1.4% ofthe sample) suggested evidence of soil contamination or section losses
below a depth of 2 metres.
It is not reported from either ofthe surveys how many of the piles were finally
rejected and replaced by new piles or had extensive remedial or repair work
carriedout.
Although these surveys indicate that the overall percentage of potential

construction defects is low, it nevertheless represents a large numberof piles. On
some sites a large proportion of all the piles could be in this category. It is of
paramount importance, therefore, that the method of testing and evaluation should
be chosen with reference to pile type, pile layout, piling programme, subsoil
conditions and level of site control, both during and after pile installation, to
ensure it is suited to the detection ofthe type of fault which could exist.
Thus, the designerofthe foundation should take into accountand be able to

assess the possibility ofdefects occurring in a given situation.
1.5 PILE FEATURES RESULTING FROM CONSTRUCTION

PROBLEMS
The problems referred to the previous section may result in features being
produced in a pile that can be classified into the following general types:
Type A. Changes to the intended shape of the pile body itself
Type B. Total rupture of the pile in the form of a transverse crack or break
across the body of the pile.
Type C. Changes in the internal properties ofthe pile.
Type D. Features that affect the interaction of the pile with its environment
and, consequently, its ability to transferthe design load into the
surrounding soil or rock.
CRIA Report 144 35

a)
INTERNAL
Calliper
logging
C-)
xl I
(TI 1Gamma' HGammal
Neutron
0 ray
raJ
Figure 1.3 Indirect examination techniques (a) internal 3&
REMOTE
(measuring or testing system not attached
to or in contact with pile body)
Pulse Sonic Frequency response

echo echo (transient dynamic)
Figure 1.3 Indirect examination techniques (b) external and remote
33
As an aid to description, a proposed nomenclaturefor these features or defects
v ithin piles is illustrated in Figure 1.4
Type A features are usually associated with some aspect of the pile-forming
process. either in the pile construction or post-construction phase. Features that
affect the shape of the pile body may generally be identified as those termed
necks, waists, bulbs. expansions. steps or bites in Figure .4.
1
Type B features are linked to the action of unplannedexternal tensile or lateral

forces acting upon the hardened pile material, before (as in the case of
preformed or precast piles), during or after installation. The effect of such an
external force is typically to produce a transverse fracture perpendicular or at an
acute angle to the long axis of the pile. as illustrated in Figure 1.5. Transverse
cracks can also be formed by shrinkage ofthe concrete or ground heave.
Type C features might be caused by faulty concrete or concreting processes. or

the use of sub-standard materials. They therefore reflect internal changes in the
properties of the pile. as illustrated on Figure 1.6. The changes in properties
such as concrete strength could be gradational or sharp. Other examples are
where some ofthe pile concrete is contaminated bs suspended spoil (e.g. piles
fomied under bentonite) or variations in concrete cover to steel reinforcement.
Type D features include poor toe conditions and softened or degraded bore sides
due to relaxation or water ingress. Type D features are typically associated with
deficiencies in the pile construction process at the boring or drilling stage. prior
to concreting. or with pile heave in the case ofdriven piles. and may be directly
reflected in the load carrying capacity of the pile.
Table B.l in Appendix B links the range of possible problems identified in

Section 1.4 and Appendix A to the four types of feature identified above. This
table should be regarded only as an indicatorof possible problem areas or
featuresto be expected from a particular circumstance. There is no attempt to
grade the potential problems into an order of relative importance. nor is the list
exhaustive. Most important of all, it should be understoodthat, because the
possible featuresare not necessarily defects (in the sense that a defecf might
be considered to be something that would significantly affect the short or
long-term performancesor the load-caining capacity of the pile). the
identificationof a particular feature is not a udgement ofwhether a pile is
defective, sub-standard or non-compliant.
38 CIRIAReportl44
C,
;ti
Ct,
-o
0 0
-.
Transverse Longitudinal Inclusion Step

Perpendicular to or Parallel to the Within the body Change from oversize section to near nominal section
at a steep angle to the pile axis pile axis of the pile
Neck
H Waist
Crack Pipe
Narrow longitudinal
loss of section, Small reduction Very narrow transverse
Sharp Gentle loss of internal defect
localised in axial extent in section, discontinuity
section, localised
in axial extent affecting part of
periphery of pile,
and localised
in axial extent
Bulb Expansion
Sharp increase in section,
localised in axial extent
Gentle increase in
section, localised Anchorage
0
in axial extent Bulb, anchorage or rock socket etc,
which holdsthe pile shaft fixed
C.)
Figure 1.4 Proposed nomenclature for pile features or defects
Co
1.6 THE DETECTION OF DIFFERENT PILE FEATURES
Guidanceon the general suitability of the various non-destructive testing

techniques to locate or investigate the different types of feature described in
Section 1.5 (and in Table B. l)is given below and outlined in Table I. I.
1.6.1 Direct techniques

1. Visual examination
During installation (Type A. B, C or D Jatures,i. The observation and recording

of pile construction operations by suitably experienced personnel should be
regarded as an essential of any piling operation. Many of the features identified
in Table B. 1 are influenced by the quality of the construction operations.
Excavation around the pile (Type A. B. C or Dfatures.). Excavation ofa pile or

pile group allows identification of external Type A pile features over the area
exposed. Type B features such as cracks may be more difficult to detect. Type C
features may not be apparent on the pile surface and require deeper investigation.
With greaterdifficulty and cost it is possible that Type D features can be
examined in specific instances.
Extraction (Type A. B. or C features,). A suspect pile can be extracted to

investigate Type A, B or C features. By implication evidence of Type D
features may be destroyed by the extraction process.
2. Load testing
Static load testing (Type Dtatures and, possibly, Types A and ). Static load
testing applies a load to the pile which is equal to or higher than its required
working load. Thus. by implication, Type D features are being examined.
Certain Type A or Type C defects may be identified by the technique, but if
they do not materially affect the ability of the pile to carry load in the
short-term. then it is quite likely that they will not be discernible from the
results of the test. Type B defects, which are of small axial extent. (such as a
crack) are also unlikely to be identifiable from the test.
40 CIRIA Report 144

t I
External Basement heave Rotational

lateral or soil swelling soil failure
force forces
Figure 1.5 Typical external causes resulting in type 'B' fractures
Leached and SR
honeycombed Ground
concrete water
4flow
flow of ground water Soil inclusions Low-strength

around freshly within pile shaft concrete within
formed pile the pile
Figure 1.6 Typical type 'C' features within a pile
ClRlAReportl44 41
Table 1.1 Suitability of the various techniques to detect pile construction features
Technique Type (It Test method Type of feature suited to detection by test
t
investiga ion
Type A Type B Type C Type D

Diicct ViSWII Iciin i Uttion 7 7
ItUitIon during instaIlat10fl
or construction
I1\CIVatiOti Vt /
Extraction Vt Vt
Load testing Static load testing Possibly Possibly. hut Possihl Vt
not suitable
lor cracks
Dynamic load Vt (ditto) Vt
testing
Vt Vt
Integral
compressiontest
Investigative Outside the pile Vt
drilling, boring Within thepile Vt Vt Vt Possibly

and probing
Indirect Internal Cross-hole sonic Possibly Possibly Vt Not usually
logging
Single-hole sonic Possibly Possibly Not usually
te r
looc,ino
Nuclear Possibly Possibly Not usually
hackscatter
techniques
Nuclear cross- Possibly Possibly
hole transmission
techniques
In-hole inspection Possibly / Vt Not usually

Calliper logging Possibly Possibly
Inclinometer Possibly Vt
technique
Water or air Possibly Possibly Possibly
testing
Indirect External Loss-strain Vt Vt Possibly
integrity
tests
1-lorizontal
Possibly Vt
vibration
tests
I-Ugh-strain Possibly.but Vt Vt (as dynamic
integrity not cracks load
tests
Electrical test Possibly For exposed
methods reinforcements
(Jltrasonicpulse Vt Possibly
velocity
Indirect Remote Parallel seismic Possibly /
42 CIRIA Report 144

i)ynamic load testing (Type A, C, Dfeaturesj The effect of Type D features can
be inferred from the results. Since the test method is somewhat of an 'indirect'
method in that the static load behaviour ofthe pile is estimated from its
response to a large dynamic load, severe Type A or Type C features can also be
discerned from the test method.
Crack-like Type B features can often be closed by the test method, because of
the high dynamic force input into the test. The dynamic load testing technique
has thus been used to advantage as a fonn of 'high strain' integrity testing to
investigate deeper parts ofthe pile, since the test energy can be transmitted past
features that would wholly reflect other conventional integrity test techniques.
(See Section 1.6.2.)
Integral compression lest (A, Cfeatures,J. This method is capable of identifying

major Type A or Type C features that affect the ability in the short term ofthe
pile shaft to support compressive stresses of the same order as those that will be
imposed by the structure.
3. Investigative drilling, boring or probing
Outside the pile (Type A features,). Only investigation of Type A features

external to the pile shaft is possible with these methods.
Within the pile (Type A. B and C features, po.csibly Type D features). It may be
possible to investigate Type A, B or Type C features which intersect a borehole
or duct within the pile, and some Type D features associated with the pile toe.
1.6.2 Indirect techniques

1. Internal techniques(TypeA, B or C features generally, Type D possibly)
These methods examine Type A. B or C defects by measuring the differences of

various physical properties of the pile material. In that the measuring
instruments have internal access to the body ofthe pile, the techniques are not
subject to considerations of attenuation from the length ofthe pile. It may be
possible for some limited aspects ofthe pile toe to be examined by these tests.
(Type D features).
The particular features ofthe main types of internal indirecttechniques are

summarised below:
Sonic logging: cross-hole techniques. The test signals are affected by changes in
pile property within a pile section (Type C features). By implication, however, a
Type A featurethat intersected one or more ofthe test ducts would be identified
because ofits similarity of response to a Type C feature. In principle Type C
features do not need to intersect the test ducts to be detected by the method. Type
B features, being of small axial extent, may be less easy to discern because the
test method samples at relatively large axial intervals. The test technique can be
modified, however, to investigate Type B features if they are suspected.
CIRIA Report 144 43

Sonic logging: single-holetechniques. Similar to cross-holesoniclogging.
Since the emitter and detector probes are within the same bore. the method, in
principle, should be better at detecting axial Type B features but less successthl
at identifring Type C features in the body of the pile that do not intercept the
test ducts.
Nuclear radiation methods: hackscatter techniques. The test is carriedout in a

single tube in a similar manner to single-hole sonic logging. It is suited to the
detection of Type A features around the periphery of the pile between the pile
and the reinforcing cage. provided these are within the penetration range ofthe
test. Sonic type C features within a pile. such as soil inclusions. might be
beyond the penetration depth of the test.
Nuclear radiation methods: cross-hole transmission techniques. These have the

potential to detect pile features in a similar manner to sonic cross-hole techniques.
In-hole inspection techniques. CCTV techniquescan only examine features that

intersect a borehole drilled within the pile or through the toe of the pile into the
underlying stratum. They may thus be examining Type A. B. C features, or.
possibly. Type D features associated with the pile toe.
Calliper logging. Calliper logging would typically be used to investigate

diameter changes of a borehole within a pile. Such changes might indicate
weaker pile material typical of Type C features. As with all such internal
logging techniques, Type A features that intersect the borehole or Type B
features with some axial extent would be identified as a similar response.
InclJnometer techniques. Borehole inclinometers would usually only be used to

determine the orientation and inclination of a duct or borehole within a pile. By
implication, in certain circumstances, a sharp change in inclination or azimuth
might indicate a Tpe B feature.
Water or air testing. Leakage positions within boreholes or ducts within a pile
may be indicative of Type A. B. or C features, without it being possible to
differentiate between these responses.
2. External techniques (Type A, B features generally, C possibly)
Low-strain integrity testing. Low-strain integrity tests are most suited to

examining Type A or Type B features. These methods depend upon
transmitting an acoustic shock-wave along the length of the pile: consequently
they are subject to a diminishing response the longer the pile. They are better
suited to detecting transverse4ype features, as opposed to longitudinal ones, and
sharp losses or gains in section (i.e. necks or bulbs) as opposed to gradual
changes (i.e. waists or expansions). Marked contrasts within a Type C defect
should also be detectable.
High-strain integrity testing. High-strain integrity testing uses dynamic load

testing techniques and methodology but with the emphasis on the characteristics
44 CIRIA Report 144

of the pile itselfrather than the pile/soil interaction. Thus in a similar mannerto
dynamic load testing, Type D features can be inferred from the results. Severe
Type A or C features may also be discerned from the test. Crack-like Type B
defects may not be detectable, but Type B features ofgreater axial extent would
be expected to be revealed by the test.
Electrical methods. These appear to be suited to detecting Type A features

associated with loss of cover or exposure of the steel reinforcement of a pile.
3. Remote techniques (Type A, B features)
These are generally only suitable forexamining major Type A or Type B problems
when there is no possibility of gaining direct access to the pile head or body.
1.7 SELECTION OF SUITABLE TEST METHODS
All the above techniques have different balances of applicability, cost,

reliability and effectiveness. Not all are readily available, for example, and
some would only be used in special circumstances. The tables at the end ofthis
section (Tables 1.2 to 1.6) attempt to place the usage of these widely varying
techniques into the context of their relative frequency ofuse, general
availability, relative cost and the type of pile upon which they are most
commonly employed. In amplification ofthe tables are the following notes.
1. Pre-planning requirements
Some test methods, particularly, for instance, the internal indirect tests, require
decisions to be taken before the construction of the pile has been completed. In
these cases it may be necessary to pre-select piles to allow the placing of access
ducts for the post-construction test work.
2. When the test can be carried out
The timing ofa test may be important. It is usual to allow a minimum of

between five and seven days after construction ofthe pile before undertaking a
static load test, for example. On the other hand, electrical resistance to earth can
be undertaken veiy soon after pile construction.
3. Pile type
Some tests are suited to only one type of pile. Others are more usually
undertaken on a specific type of pile. Cross-hole sonic logging for instance is
almost exclusively carried out on large-diameter bored cast-in-place piles.
4. Approximate relative cost
The cost ofthe various testing or examination techniques is an important factor

in deciding on the relative scope or emphasis of a test programme. A relative
CIRIA Report 144 45

scale of cost has been suggested based on a comparison with the installed cost
of the pile type. A 30 m long large-diameter bored pile is much more expensive
than a lightly loaded precast concrete pile which is only 6 m in length. It should
be realised that a test for the former pile type, such as cross-hole sonic logging.
may be low in cost relative to the installed pile costs. but still be a significant
figure in absolute terms.
5. Relative frequency of use
The terms used in Tables 1.2 to 1.6 for frequency of usage range from en rare
to very common. The idea of 'frequency of use' is based upon numbers of sites
rather than numbers of piles. Thus a technique such as static load testing. which
is used on perhaps a maximum of 1 to 2% of piles on a particular contract, but
often not at all on many sites, has still been classified as common'. since on
average, static load testing is carried out on mans hundreds of UK sites in a
year. The judgement is essentially subjective, however. arid intended to give a
feel for the frequency ofoccurrence of the technique over the whole range of
pile types and sites.
6. Availability
An important factor in the selection of a particular test is availability at the time

required. Guidance on this aspect of contract planning in the tables shows which
tests are readily available in the UK and those which would need special
arrangements.
7. Effect of pile length
A further factor is whether the usefulness ofthe test is affected by an increasing

pile length or aspect ratio. As a general statement, for instance, external indirect
tests such as lowstrain integrity tests are depth limited, while internal
techniques such as cross-hole sonic logging, where the probes are lowered into
the pile. are not affected by the length of the pile.
8. Comments
Other relevant points are noted in the comment sections ofTables 1.2 to 1.6. These
might highlight, for instance, that of two superficially similar techniques. one
might be very rarely used in practice whilse the other might be in common use.
46 CIRIA Report 144

Table 1.2 The applicability of visual examination
Test method Contemporaneous records Excavation Extraction
Propertymeasured Recordof pile construction Directvisual and physical Direct visual and
operations examination ofthepile or physical examination of
foundation system the pile
Pre-planning required None None None

When test can he During construction After construction After construction
carried out
Type of pile suitedto All types All types All types

testmethod
Approximate relative Low Low to very high depending on Typically high to very
cost application high
Relative frequency of
use:
control testing 4 0I 0
retrospective Not applicable 4-5 0-I
investigation
Availability On-site records of piling Typically will use site Typically will usesite
contractor and supervising resources, but specialist or specialist resources
engineer techniquesmay be needed for
shafts and headings
Test affected by pile Not applicable Excavation belowwatertable Yes

length and deep excavationsbecome
increasingly difficult
Comments Degree of inspection and All excavationsrequire safety Uncommon technique
recording depends on contract measures only used in unusual
specification and complexity circumstances
Key to symbols:
Relative frequency of use: Scale 0-5. 0: very rare. I: rare. 2: occasional. 3: sometimes. 4: common. 5: very common.
Approximate relative cost: Scale Low-very high. Low: <10% of pile cost. Medium: 10-50% of pile cost. High: 50-
100% of pile cost.
1.8 SYNOPSIS OF SECTION 1
Evaluation of a foundation system normally requires interpretation and

extrapolation from direct and indirect examination of individual piles. Non-
destructive testing in its various forms provides information on aspects ofpile
construction to aid evaluation.
Keeping accurate and relevant records during construction of the piles is an

essential precursor to evaluating their integrity and behaviour
Direct techniques comprise visual inspection or mechanical tests on a pile or

piled foundation, e.g. visual examination, load testing, or drilling.
Indirect techniques provide information from which inferences can be drawn

about structural features of a pile or pile/soil system, even though the
measurements of pile response to a test may not be directly indicative of
ClRlAReportl44 47
structural performance. e.g. sonic logging, high- and low-strain integrity testing.
resistivity, or nuclear scanning.
Table 1.3 The applicabilityof load testing

lest method Static load test Dynamic load test Integral compression test
Property measured Loadldefonnation Estimation ol load] Ahilit of pile columnto

characteristics of a single deformation characteristics support a high compressive
pile ofa single pile stress
Preplairning required Pre-selection of pile maybe Not strictly necessary hut Test tendons have to he cast
necessar\ in restricted sites access to pile for heavy plant into preselected pile(s)
may have to he provided
When test can he After construction (typically After construction (typically When concrete of pile shaft
carried out 7 days mm.) 7 days mm.) has gained required
strength
Type of pile suited to All types Common on driven piles. Bored castinplace
test method Can he used on bored piles
Approximate relative Very high High Low to medium

cost
Relative frequenc of
use:
. control testing 4 3-4 0
. retrospective 3-4 1-2 Not applicable
investigation
AvailahiIit Readily available Commonly available from In principle, readily
piling contractor or specialist available
test house
Test affected by pile No No No

length
Comments Usually a maximum of 1- Increasing in use and Iincommon technique
2% ofpiles tested on a contidence. Increasingly
single contract used for bored cast-in-place
piles
key to symbols:
Relative frequency of use: Scale (15. 0: very rare. I: rare. 2: occasional. 3: sometimes. 4: common. 5: very common.
Approximate relative cost: Scale Low-very high. Low: <10% of pile cost. Medium: 10-50% of pile cost. Fligh: 50-
100% of pile cost
The specifier ofthe testing of piled foundations (usually the designer) should be
clcar as to what is intended and how a proposed test will help to achieve that
aim.
The method of testing and evaluation should be chosen with reference to pile
type, layout, construction programme. subsoil conditions and the level of site
control, both during and after pile installation, in order to suit the testing
programme to the detection ofthe type(s) of defect which could be present.
48 CIRlAReport 144
C) Table 1.4 The applicability of external techniques
Test method Low-strainIntegrity tests Horizontal vibration High-strain integrity tests Electrical (resistance to earth) Ultrasonic pulse
CD velocity
'0
0 Key to symbols:
Property measured Characteristicsof the behaviour of Lateral stiffness of the pile Characteristicsof the behaviour of Comparative resistance of pile Transmission time of
-s Relative frequency
a acoustic shock-wavesor stress- head or upper pile shaft stress-waves travellingthrough the concrete and surrounding soil ultra-sonic pulse of use:Scale0-5.
a 0:
waves travellingthrough the pile pile from a heavy impact very rare.
through pile material
1: rare.
2: occasional.
Pre-planningrequired None None Not strictly necessary, but access for None None 3: sometimes.
heavy plant may have to be provided 4: common.

5: very common.
When test can he carried out After concrete has achieved design After concrete has Afier concrete has achieved design Approximate relative
Immediately after casting pile After pile has cost: Scale Low-very
strength (usually 5-7 days achieved design strength strength and typically 7 days achieved design high. Low: <10% of
minimum) (usually 5-7 days minimum after construction strength pile cost. Medium:
10-50% of pile cost.
minimum) High: 50-100% of
pile cost. Very high:
>100/a of pile cost.
Type ofpile suited to test All types All types All types Mainly cast-in-place piles Any pile
method
Note: relative cost
Approximaterelative cost Low Low-medium Medium to high Low Low excludes
mohilisation costs
Relative frequency of use:
control testing 5 1-2 1-2 0-1 0
retrospective investigation 3-5 1-2 1-2 0 1-2
Availability Readily available from specialist Available from some Readily available from piling In principle, equipment is Readily available
testing houses specialist testing houses contractor and specialist test house available from specialist from specialist testing
organisations houses
Test affected by pile length Yes, signals increasingly Not applicable No. not within normal pile depth Yes No. not in method of
attenuated with depth use
Comments Very common technique. Pile Not a commonly used Increasing in use Technique is rarely used in Occasionally used in
response is investigated in terms of technique practice. Expertise and conjunction with
time and/or frequency experience have not progressed visual examination of
since early 1980s. Method can excavated pile
sense exposed reinforcement in
a. suitable circumstances
CD
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Table 1.5 The applicability of internal techniques
Test method Cross-hole sonic Single-hole sonic Can.nxa-ray/neutron Gamma-ray CCIV Inspection Borehole inclinometer
-s Caliper logging Water or air testing
logging logging backseatter transmission
Availability Available from Not generally available Not readily available Not readily available 'Dry-hole system Not available as a In principle, readily Quite feasible from site
specialist testing houses as standard civil from test houses, but's from test houses, hut is readily available, standard technique in available from investigation specialists
engineering technique, available from well- available fromwell- Water-pressure - civil engineering geotechnical
hut is a standard logging companies and logging companies and resistant systems less instrument suppliers
method of specialist researchorganisations research organisations common
well-logging
companies
Test affected by pile No No No No No No No No

length
Comments Growing in use for the a

Currently a rarely used Currently a rarely used Currently rarely used Available from Rarelyused in relation Only used in
non-destructive testing technique technique in the UK. technique. Requires a specialist to piling, other than conjunction with
of cast-in-place piles, Gamma- ray powerful radio-active instrumentation or when horizontally dnlling within the pile
piers and barettes. backscatter reported as source for penetration well-logging loaded as in bored-pile
Especially large single the most suitable of the through pile material companies. Rarely used walls
piles supporting high nuclear techniques in practice.
column loads. Not
usually suitable for

retrospective
investigation because
of necessity to install
access ducts
Key to symbols:
Relative frequency of use: Scale 0-5.0: very rare. I: rare. 2: occasional. 3: sometimes. 4: common. 5: very common.
Approximate relative cost: ScaleLow-very high. Low: <10% of pile cost. Medium: 10-50% ofpile cost. High: 50-100% ofpile cost.
(31
a
t_ I
Table 1.6 The applicability of remote techniques and investigative drilling, boring and probing
REMOTE TECHNIQUES INVESTIGATIVE DRILLING, BORING AND PROBING
Test method ParalleJ seismic tests Drilling or probing itlongside Sounding or probing into the Key to symbols:
Drilling within the pile Relativefrequency of use.
the pile pile Scale 0-5.
0: very rare.
I: rare.
Transmissiontime of 2: occasional.
Propertymeasured The extent and depth of external The continuity or straightnessof Continuity or condition of 3: sometimes.
acoustic shock waves or features of the pile, such as a duct east into the pile pile shall. Boundary 4: common.
stress waves through the pile under-reams or pile overbreak between pile toe and 5: very common.
and intervening soil to a bearing stratum. Samples
detector of pile shall materials
Pre-planning required Sinking of measurement None Duct has to he precast into pile Access to pile for drilling Approximate relative cost:
Scale Low-very high. l.ow:
bore alongside pile plant required 10% of pile cost. Medium.
10-50% of pile cost. High:
50-I 000/0 of pile cost. Ven
high: 100% of pile cost.
When test can he carried out After construction A tier construction After construction After construction
Note: relative cost excludes
Type of pile suited to test method Any pile Cast-in-place piles Precast concrete segmental Large-diameter cast-in- mohilisation costs
usually place piles, typically
Approximate relative cost Medium to very high Low to high (drilling) Low Medium to very high
Low to medium (sounding)
Relative frequency of use:

control testing Not applicable 0 2 0
0-I 0-I
retrospective investigation Not applicable 1-2
Availability From specialist testing Plant readily available Plant/techniques readily Specialist plant readily
houses available available
lest affected by pile length Yes Vertical accuracy requirements No Vertical accuracy
may limit effectivedepth requirements may limit
effectivedepth
C)
23 Comments Used for retrospective Only used in practice to Only used in practice to
investigation only investigate a specific query. investigate a specitic
23
CD Choice of technique depends on
-o query
a ground conditions
-s
REFERENCES CITED IN SECTION 1
BOBROWSKI. J.. BARDHAN-ROY. B. K.. MAGIERA. R. H.

and LOWE. R. H. (1970)
The structural integrity oflarge diameter bored piles
Proc. Conf. Instn. Civ. Engrs. BehaviourofPiles
London 15-17 September, pp 179-84
ELLWAY, K. (1987)
Practical guidanceon the use of integrity tests for the quality control of
cast-in-situ piles
Proc. ml. Conf on Foundations and Tunnels
London, March 1987, 228-34
1-IEALY. P. R. and WELTMAN, A. J. (1980)

Survey ofproblems associated with the installation qfdisplacementpiles
DoE and CIRIA Piling Development Group, Report PG8
FLEMING. W. U. K., WELTMAN, A. J., RANDOLPH, M. F.

and ELSON, W. K. (1985)
Piling engineering
Surrey University Press/Blackie and Son Ltd
INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS (1988)

SpecUl cation for Piling
Thomas Telford Ltd., London
LEVY, J. F. (1975)
Sonic pulse method of testing cast-in-situ concrete piles
Ground Engineering, Vol. 3, No. 3
THORBURN, S. and THORBURN, J. Q. (1977)

Review ofthe problemsassociated with the construction ofcast-in-place
concretepiles
WELTMAN. A. J. (1977)
Integrity Testing ofPiles: A Review
DOE and CIRIA Piling Development Group, Report PG4
WELTMAN, A. J. (1980)
Pile load testing procedures
DOE and CIRIA Piling Development Group, Report PG7
CiRlAReport 144 53
2 Construction records and direct
testing methods
This sectiondescribesthe direct techniques introduced in Section 1. with notes

on their interpretation and application. Guidance is also given on matters to be
addressed when planning their use on a contract.
Some of the more common methods are covered in depth in readily available
standard texts or British Standards. in such cases. the description has been
limited to an outline of the overall aspects of the technique. The interested
reader is then directed to the standard works for greater detail. In addition some
methods are rarely used in current practice and only a brief description of these
techniques has been given.
2.1 CONSTRUCTION RECORDS
Examination and monitoring of the pile construction process should be

considered to be of primary importance on any project. Careful observations
and accurate records ofeach pile installation are essential to understand the
behaviour of completed piles. These records should be considered as being just
as important as the test procedures within this report.
Tomlinson (1987) outlines typical recommended control measures that should

be undertaken for both the pre-driving and driving operations, in the case of
driven piles. and for the pile construction phase of cast-in-place piles.
In particular. Tomlinson points out that driving records, final sets and toe levels
of driven piles are essential. The advantage of recording the fill driving log for
all piles is that, in the event of subsequent problems. the records of each pile
can be examined to identifr those that may require deeper analysis or
investigation. In the case of cast-in-place piles. the volume of concrete used
within the pile or over sections of the pile may be an important item of
information, if correctly recorded.
For bored piles in general. the record of the soil strata and ground conditions in
the pile bores, together with such indirect checks as speed of penetration of the
boring tools, are an essential cross-check against the site investigation data upon
which the piles have been designed.
The institution of Civil Engineers (1988) Specification fhr piling suggests the
range and scope of installation records that should be kept by a piling contractor
during pile construction. These recording requirements are summarised on
Table 2.1.
54 CIRIAReportl44
Continuous flight auger piling systems often now incoiporate monitoring
systems that record pile construction data automatically, particularly in respect
of the concrete injection process Figure 2.1 illustrates such a typical installation
record.
Baker ci cii. (1991) described a major research programme undertaken by the

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) in the USA. The programme was
aimed at developing working acceptance criteria for evaluating defects in bored
piles, particularly utilising non-destructive testing techniques to evaluate the
piles. The authors emphasised. however, that observation and tests during
construction were the first and most important steps in the quality control of
such piles. In particular, concrete volume and depth checks as the piles were
concreted often enabled the pile profiles to be monitored in considerable detail.
CiRlAReport 144 55
Table 2.1 Recommended records to be kept during piling (from Institution of Civil Engineers, 1988a)
L-
r
M
C I
7

I
7
.C 0
C.' L
Data L.
O.e C. C C 0

Contract
t CE t.'
s.
*
C.'
co.c
*
C
za
'.
*
4.'
ta
L
*
.

C
SbL
*
Pile reference number (location) * * * * *
Piletvpe * * * * *
Nominal cross-sectionaldimensions or diameter * * * * *
Nominal diameter of underreamlbase * * * *
* *
Length of preformed pile
Standing groundwater level from direct observations or
given site investigationdata * * *
Date and time of driving, redriving or boring * * * * *
Date of concreting * * *
Ground level at pile position at commencementof
installation of pile (commencingsurface) * * * * *
* * * *
Working level on which piling base machine stands
* * * * *
Depth from ground level at pile position to pile toe
Toelevel * * * * *
Pile head level as constructed * * * * *
Pile cut-otTlevel * * * * *
Length of temporary casing
* * *
Length of permanent casing
* * * * *
weight. drop and mechanicalcondition of
Type,
hammer and equivalent information for other
equipment
* * *
Number and type ofpackings used and type and
conditionof dolly used during driving ofthe pile * * *
Set of pile or pile tube in millimetres per 10 blows or
number of blows per 25 mm of penetration * * *
If required, the sets taken at intervals during the last
3 m ofdriving * * *
Ifrequired, temporary compressionofground and pile
from time of a marked increase in driving resistance
until pile reached its final level * * *
Ifrequired, driving resistance taken at regular intervals
over the last 3 m of driving * * *
Soil samples taken and in situ tests carried out during
pile formationor adjacent to pile position * * * * *
Length and details of reinforcement
* * *
Concrete mix * * *
Volume of concrete supplied to pile where this can be
measured in practice * * *
All informationregarding obstructionsdelays and other
interruptions to the sequence ofwork * * * * *
56 CIRtAReportl44
Torque Penetration rate (rn/mm) lime (mm)
0 1 2 3 0 2 4 6 3 6 9
0 0 00
5 5 5
E E
0 0 0
C C C 10
10 10
15 15 15
(a) Drill-down phase
Extraction rate (nVmin) lime (mm) Cumulative volume (m3) Pressure(bar)
0
0246 0
0123 0
0 1 2 -1 0 1 2 3
5 5 5 5
E E E
a.
0 0
C
10
C
10 10 10
15 15 15 15
Pile length: 11.1 m Volume of concreteinjected: 1.92 m3

Pile diamete r: 400 mm Over-supply volume: 38%
(b) Concrete injection/augerwithdrawal phase
Figure 2.1 Typical pile construction records for continuous flight augered piles with
monitoring system
CIRIA Report 144 57

Key references
BAKER. C. N. Jr. DRUMRJGHT. E. F.. BRIAUD. J-L..
MESAH-DWUMAH. F.and PARIKH. U. (1991)
Drilled shafts far bridge foundations
Final Report to Office of Engineering and Highway Operations.
Federal Highway Administration
Grant No. DTFH6I-88-Z-00040
National Technical Senice. Springfield, VA 22161.
October. 335 p

Specification forpiling
Thomas Telford Ltd.. London
INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS (1988a)

Specification forpiling - contractdocumentationand measurement
Thomas Telford Ltd.. London
TOMLENSON.M. J. (1987)
Pile design and construction practice
Third Edition
Viewpoint Publications Ltd
2.2 STATIC LOAD TESTING
I. Definition
Static load testing is the direct application of a load to a pile or. more rarely, a
pile group. while the deflection ofthe pile head under the imposed load is
measured.
The test toad is usually taken to at least the specified working load and often to
one and a halftimes or even twice the working load. These are termed
proof-loading tests. Trial piles may be loaded to failure (defined by a suitable
criterion). The load may often be applied in a cyclic manner to investigate the
loading and unloading characteristics of the pile.
A Maintained Load (ML) test is a test in which the load is increased in stages to
the required maximum load, while the load-settlement curve is recorded at each
stage of loading and unloading. At each increment or decrement the load is held
constant for a sufficient length of time for the rate of pile head movement to
reduce to a specified level. The test may also be taken to failure by increasing
the load in stages.
58 CIRIA Report 144

_
150
- 100
0
50
Load (kN)
0 500 1000 1500
0
60 80
-
4-
C
15
E
Figure 2.2 Typical load - settlement curves for maintainedload test. Note: residual
and total settlements shown at each load cycle, where Pt denotes total
settlement and Pr denotes residual settlement
A second common form of test is the Constant Rate of Penetration (CRP) test.
In this case the pile head is forced to settle at a constant predetermined rate, and
the load required to achieve each unit increment of settlement or for each unit
increment oftime is recorded.
Both tests, in different ways, aim to investigate the load-settlement

characteristics of the pile and the ground in which it is embedded. Load
applications, whether by stage increments (ML) or steady increase (CRP) are
sufficiently gradual to avoid being instantaneous or shock loading. Such tests
are therefore usually termed static loadtests.
2. Principle oflest
The principle ofthe test is to observe the performance of the pile or pile group
at fill scale. i.e. the response of the pile/soil system under load is monitored by
measuring the settlement (usually at the pile head) at different loadings or for a
period of time at constantload.
For bearing piles, vertical compressive loads are used, but occasionally pull-out
tests are carried out on tension piles and lateral load tests on piles that have to
resist horizontal forces.
The ML test is the most commonly used form of such testing in the UK.
A typical load-settlement graph for an ML test is shown on Figure 2.2.
CIRIA Report 144 59

3. Description oft/ic technique
To cain out the test the pile head must be loaded, usually by a hydraulic jack
bearing against some form of reaction device. The required reaction force can be
provided by:
kentledge. such as concrete or cast-iron blocks
tension piles. typically installed by the piling rig which installed the test or
working piles
ground anchorages. typically foryen' high loads or where the provision of
tension piles is not feasible (for piles bearing on rock, for instance).
Typical arrangements for these three methods of providing the necessary

reaction forces are outlined in Figure 2.3, and typical test set-ups are shown on
Figures 2.4 and 2.5.
Increasingly. computerised data logging and control systems are employed to

monitor the load and pile head displacement to enhance the quality of the
results obtained. Load control is often also automated to ensure that the applied
force is kept within close limits.
4. Interpretation
Pile-load testing is usually carried out with the following objectives:

to determine the load-settlement characteristics ofthe pile and soil system.
and, in particular. to provide information on the pile-head settlement at the
specified working load ofthe pile
to demonstrate that the individual pile is adequate to carry the applied load
without distress
to verify the pile design parameters. including determining the ultimate
load capacity of the pile.
The reasons for a particular pile diverging from the expected range of load-
settlement characteristics might be because ofa shaft construction defect.
inadequate shaft friction or end bearing, or a numberof other factors.
With experience, the load-settlement curve from a static load test can be used to
interpret the mode of failure of a pile. A defective pile shaft may also be indicated
by the shape ofthe settlement curve, as described in Tomlinson (1987).
The methods, interpretation and use of static load testing techniques are covered
in the key references given at the end of this section.
60 CIRIIA Report 144

Deck
beams
(a)
beams
Tension
connectors Loading
beams
Support
gflhlage
Tension piles/
anchorages
(b)
Figure 2.3 Typical testing rigs for a compressive pile test (a) using kentledge;
(b) using tension piles or ground anchorages
CIRIA Report 144 61

&
SZaa
atFZ;:
-r
.
Figure 2.4 Typical pile test arrangement using kentledge
S. Application
Static load testing can be undertaken on most pile types.
Its main usage is to determine or confirm the adequacy of the design and construction
methods ofa pile system for the particular ground conditions of the site.
A continuous incrementally increased load is on occasion consideredpreferable

when the emphasis is on determining ultimate load and hence design
parameters. and the CRP test method was developed with this aim in mind.
62 CIRIA Report 144

Weltman (1980), in CIRIA Report P07, gives three functions of load tests at
different stages ofthe programme of piling works as follows:
1. Pre-contract trial piles
2. Test piles carried out during the main contract in advance ofthe working
piles (preliminary pile tests)
3. 'Proof pile tests on contract piles.
crassaranofl, V-s
Figure 2.5 Typical pile test arrangement using tension piles
6. Limitations
The general limitations on the use of static load testing are those ofcost, time
and space.
The unit cost of load testing is high in relation to the cost of a single pile so that
the routine testing of a high percentage ofpiles on a normal contract is rarely
justifiable.
Also, the heavier the load on a pile, the more difficult it becomes to providethe
reaction load. Large amounts of kentledge or a large numberof reaction piles or
ground anchorages may be required. The physical constraints of the site itself
may make it practically impossible to provide the reaction forces safely.
ClRlAReportl44 63
Furthermore the amount oftime needed for the installation, curing and static
load-testing of large numbers ofpiles would not normalls' be allowable on most
tightl programmed construction works. Static load testing is therefore not
generally suitable as a routine test ofintegrity or workmanship.
In addition, the static load test gives very little additional information on the pile
itself such as its shape. or whether it is of full cross-sectional area, or even whether
it is installed to the designed length. Static load tests prove only that the pile-soil
system has a factorof safety equated to the maximum load achieved over the period
ofthe test. It has been pointed out that the design shaft stresses are relatively low for
the maioritv ofconcrete piles. Thus, a pile with even a severe loss of section may be
capable of withstanding the imposed test loads without distress.
-. Contract planning requirements
In general, no strict pre-selection is required prior to a decision to subject a pile

to load testing. although access arrangements forheavy plant and equipment
need thought.
It may be necessary in some circumstances to arrange to debond or otherwise

isolate the pile shaft from near-surface features or obstructions such as old
buried foundations.
It is usual for provision to be made within the piling contract for undertaking
static load tests. The selection ofthe numberand location oftests is usually the
responsibility ofthe designer.
8. Frequency ofuse
Static load tests are commonly used for preliminary and proof testing of
individual piles. Further details oftheir usage and interpretation may be
obtained from the key references below.
Key references
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION (1986)
British Standard Code ofPracticetor Foundations
BS 8004
THORBURN. S and THORBURN. J Q (1977)

Review ofthe problemsassociated with the construction ofcast-in-p/ace piles
TOMLINSON. M. J. (1987)
Pile de.vign and construction practice
Third Edition
64 CIRIAReportl44
WELTMAN. A. J. (1980)
2.3 DYNAMIC LOAD TESTING (see also Section 7)
1. Definition
Dynamic load testing is the method of predicting the load carrying capacityand
load-deformation characteristics of a pile by measuring its response to the
impact of a heavy weight, such as a pile-driving hammer, striking the head of
the pile.
2. Principle oftest
The performance ofthe pile under static loading conditions can be predicted
from a consideration ofthe dynamic behaviourofthe pile-soil system under the
action ofthe external driving force. Correlations have been established by
empirical methods, linked with computer-based numerical techniques and
stress-wave theory. These allow estimation of the expected performance of the
pile under working conditions. Dynamic load tests are very often, though not
always, correlated with conventional static load tests at the site or with static
tests carried out in similarground conditions.
3. Description oftechnique
The pile head is formed or cut square to the axis ofthe pile. The pile head is
struck by a falling weight such as a piling hammer or a purpose-made test
weight. Sensors are attached to the pile shaft close to the pile head (usually
within 2-3 pile diameters) to measure and record the force acting on the pile
head and the resulting velocity induced into the pile.
Force is measured by a pair ofstrain gauges firmly fixed to the pile and
mounted diametrically opposite one another, with the intention of compensating
or highlighting bending or eccentric forces on the pile head. The impact causes
a stress-wave to propagate along the length of the pile. As the stress-wave
passes the pile shaft deforms. Measuring the degree ofdeformation and
knowing the pile properties at that point allows the magnitude of the force to be
determined. Similarly, reflections ofthe stress-wave from the toe ofthe pile or
other intermediate areas will also be detected and measured as they pass the
measurementzone.
The pile-head velocity resulting from the incident blow and any resulting
reflections are usually measured by means of a pair ofaccelerometers, which are
again mounted diametrically across the pile. The pile-head velocity is calculated
by integrating the measured acceleration to obtain the resultant velocity.
CiRlAReport 144 65
The data obtained from these pile-head sensors are recorded and processed for
use in the subsequent analyses.
The instrumentation of a pile head prior to test is illustrated on Figure 2.6. and a
view ofatypical test in progress is shown on Figure 2.7.
4. Interpretation
The impact force on the pile head will manifest itself as a stress-wave
propagating through the both' ofthe pile towards the toe. with a known
propagation velocity. c. At the toe of the pile, part of the energy will be
transferred into the bearing stratum and part will be reflected back up the pile as
a reflected upward-travelling stress-wave. Thus after a given time. t. the
stress-wave will return to the pile head and be monitored by the pile-head strain
gauge sensors. The wave will in turn be reflected from the pile head and return
towards the pile toe as a downward travelling stress-wave, and so on. The time
taken for the incident stress-wave to travel from the pile head down the hill
length. L. ofthe pile and return as a reflected stress-wave from the pile toe is
given by the relationship
I = 2L/c ...( 2,1)
In addition, however, reflection ofthe stress-wave will be caused at

intermediate levels: not only by features within the pile itself but also, of
relevance as far as this test is concerned. by the interaction of the pile with the
surrounding soils. The pile-head strain gauges will also therefore monitor
reflected stress-waves generated from these sources.
It follows that a reflected stress-wave arriving back at the pile-head sensors

before a time of 2L/c will have originated at sonic intermediate level within the
pile. Assuming that the pile is not damaged. and is of uniform section and
material quality, such reflections would be caused by the interaction of the
surrounding soil with the pile.
Thus the strain (i.e. force) sensors near the pile head are monitoring the
response of the pile not only to the original impact blow, but also to the
resulting resistance ofthe soil within which the pile is embedded and upon
which it is founded.
The pile forces calculated by this deformation response ofthe pile section are
analogous to a calculation offorce on the basis ofHooke's Law. The pile shaft
will compress under the action of a compressive stress-wave and it will
correspondingly elongate if the stress-wave is tensile. A graph of pile-head
force against time would take the form shown in Figure 2,K(a).
In the same way. the incident impact force will induce a resultant particle
velocity into the pile head. This will be expressed as a velocity wave which will
also travel throughthe pile and be reflected froni the pile toe or from other
intemiediate reflecting layers. Thus the acceleration (i.e. velocity) sensors near
66 CIRIA Report 144

the pile head are also monitoring the response of the pile to the original impact
and to the resulting soil resistance. In a similar manner to the way the strain
gauge measurements can be used to determine pile-head force, the velocity
sensors can also be used to calculate this force (based upon Newtons Laws of
Motion). In this case, force, F, is given by the relationship
Figure 2.6 Dynamic load testing - pile-head arrangement
E.A
C
where v is the particle velocity

and FAIc is the pile impedance, z.
In this case the velocity wave will either be downward-travelling (usually

designated as positive) or upward-travelling (usually shown negative). It will be
appreciated that while the velocity-wave and stress-wave will both be positive
(i.e. downward-travelling and compressive) from the first impact, their sense
may diverge after the first reflection, when an upward-travelling velocity wave
CIRIAReportl44 67
(negative) may be associated with either a reflected compression or tension
wave.
Figure 2.7 Dynamic load testing - data acquisitionand analysis equipment
In a similar way to a graph drawn of force obtained from the strain

measurements against time, the relationship of force from the velocity
measurements against time can be drawn as in Figure 2.8(b).
When these two relationships of force (from strain) and force (from velocity)
are plotted to the same scale, as shown on Figure 2.9. the two graphs arc found
to diverge.
The difference between the two calculation methods is caused by the soil
reaction. Dynamic analysis techniques aim at constructing a soil model with
values for the soil reaction that will satisfy the two sets of equations determined
by the force (from strain) and force (from velocity) relationships.
Section 7 provides a development of these techniques and the derivation of

solutions.
5. Applicability
The method was developed on driven piles and has found wide usage on driven
pre-cast concrete and steel piles. It has also been widely used in the off-shore
piling industry. where unit pile loads are so high and working conditions so
onerous that it would be virtually impossible to do static load tests.
68 CiRIAReportl44
The technique has also increasingly been used on cast-in-place piles. Some
methods were specifically developed on cast-in-place piles and most systems
now seem to have wide experience on such piles.
z
C
2
U-
0
0 10 20
lime (ms)
(a) Measured pile head force against time
-
8 I
I
/ '
p1 Time (ms)
10 20
Jo
S
(a) Measured pile head velocity against time
Figure 2.8 Typical measurements of force-time and velocity-time at pile head
Force
Forcefrom velocity(vx Edit)

z
C
2
0 10 20
lime (ms)
Figure 2.9 Typical force from strain and from velocity measurements at pile head
6 Limitations
The method has yet to gain wide acceptance as a reliable predictorofpile

bearing capacity or of the load-settlement behaviourofthe pile under static
loads. Although there are many successfiul case histories, there are also those
where different proprietary methods gave widely different ultimate bearing
capacity values and load-settlement predictions forthe same pile.
ClRlAReportl44 69
Its major advantage is as a comparator test, because of the relative ease and
economy of testing a large number of piles on a given site. In addition the
results give more information on the distribution of soil resistance along the pile
than can normally be obtained froni a conventional static load test.
. Contract planning requiremenis
Access to the pile for a piling rig or crane ould be required.
For driven piles, no strict preselection of piles would normally be necessan.

Pile heads usually have to be sufficiently clear of the ground to allow fixing of
sensors: if necessan thc ground around the pile-head can be excavated.
For cast-in-place piles. the pile head may have to be extended prior to test
unless special provisions are made during casting the pile.
8. Frequencyof use
Dynamic load testing is quite common with driven precast or steel piles. It is
used less frequently with cast-in-place piles. although this use is increasing.
Key references
DAVIS. R.A.. MURE. J.N. and KIGHTLEY. ML. (1987)
The dynamic analysis of piled foundations using the CAPWAPC method
GroundEngineering, November. pp 16-22
GRAVARE. C-J.. GOBLE. G.G.. RAUSCHE. F. and LIKINS. G.E. (1980)

Pile driving construction control by the Case method
Ground Engineering. March. 1980
HANNIGAN. P.J.(1986)
Dynamicpile testing and analysis
11th Annual Fundamentals of Deep Foundation Design
St. Louis. Missouri. November 10-14
RAUSCHE. F.. GOBLE. G.G. and LIK[NS. G.E. (1985)

Dynamic determination of pile capacity
.1 qf the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division.
Am. Soc.Civ. Engrs.Vol. 111. No. 3
70 CIRIAReportl44
2.4 DIRECT METHODS WITHIN THE PILE
2.4.1 Drilling within the pile

I. Definition
Drilling within the pile is the formation of an access to the pile body by rotan'
or rotary percussive drilling similar to those used to penetrate rock. It is an
essential precursor to the other techniques in Section 2.4.
2. Principle
The technique involves drilling a hole to some depth within the pile, usually to
examine or identify a feature anticipated from other construction information or
investigations. On occasions the drill hole may be required to penetrate the full
length ofthe pile and into the underlying strata beneath the toe.
3. Description ofthe technique

The technique involves drilling into the body ofthe pile by one of the following
methods:
thin-wall core drilling
rotary open-hole drilling
rotary core drilling
rotary-percussive drilling.
Thin-wall core drilling is usually undertaken by light, portable air or

hydraulically driven rigs, using single tube, thin-walled, diamond-tipped coring
bits, of the type used for 'stitch drilling' or obtaining core samples in reinforced
concrete structures. Diameters between 75 and 200 mm are common, and
depths up to several metres can be achieved with extension rods and multiple
core runs, although this would be unusual. Water flushing techniques are
invariably used.
Rotary open-hole drilling with a ulill-face drill bit removes all the material from
the borehole as cuttings, which are flushed to the surface for inspection and
record. The flushing fluid is usually either water or air. Occasionally drilling
mud or foam might be used. Torque and power requirements from the drill rig
generally necessitate a larger machine than thin-wallcore drilling. Hole
diameters are usually between 75 and 100 mm.
Rotary core drilling employs a rig similar to those for open-hole techniques
with the addition of an annular diamond or tungsten bit on the end of a hollow,
cylindrical core-barrel. The annular bit cuts away the outer edge ofthe borehole
and a cylindrical core of rock or concrete therefore enters the core barrel, which
is typically either 1.5 or 3 m long. A complete core sample can be extruded at
the ground surface for examination, record and storage. The core-barrel can be
drilled repeatedly deeper by the use ofextension drilling rods. By this means
CLRIAReportl44 71
the entire length of a pile can be sampled and, if necessary, the interface
between the pile toe and the bearing stratum, and the bearing stratum itself
Rotary core samples usually have a diameter of 50 to 75 mm, Flushing
techniques are similar to rotary open hole methods.
Rotan-percussivedrilling is a rapid rock-drilling technique of repeated.

high-speed impacts while the fill-face drill bit is rotated to present a new rock
surface to each blow. The method is used for production drilling such as blast-
hole drilling for opencast mining, or rock quarrying. The drilling fluid is usually
air. Cores are not taken. Drill-hole sizes are usually 40 to 100 mm, but 150 mm
is quite common, depending upon rig and drill bit availability.
For both rotary open-hole drilling and rotary percussive drilling, a tpical
investigative approach is outlined by Homerand Sherrell (1977). The logging
niethod mainly depends upon monitoring the rate ofpenetration of the drill bit
and sampling the cuttings arising from the borehole at regular intervals.
Samples are also usually taken whenever a change in the physical appearance of
the flushings is noted or there is significant change in penetration rate.
Concrete or rock cores should be systematically described, labelled and stored

on the lines of the Geological Society Engineering Group Working Part Report
(1970) for core logging. A photographic record of the cores is worth keeping.
4. interpretation
Non-cored holes usually have the purpose of providing access for other
measuring and examination techniques, or to determine the depth to a known
interface, such as the toe of the pile.
Cored holes are for sampling the pile concrete in order to examine it for perhaps
poor or defective concrete, voids and inclusions or major crack-like features and
the like. 'When cracks are being investigated, it is often difficult to decide
whether the break at the end ofthe core sample is a pre-existing fracture or if it
was caused by the drilling and sample extraction.
Inclinometer measurements can be taken to confirm the direction of the

borehole, and are often considered advisable in cases of dispute.
5. Applicability
Drilling methods are typically used on driven or bored cast-in-place concrete

piles with diameters greaterthan 600 mm and with length to diameter ratios of
less than about 10:1 to 15:1 to the area of interest. Successful drilling through
these piles depends upon the ability to keep parallel to the axis ofthe pile. Most
piles are routinely installed to a verticality tolerance of I in 75. and the
tolerances in drilling are of the same order. In addition, most drilling has to be
undertaken within the diameter ofthe pile reinforcement cage. which therefore
reduces the effective diameter ofthe pile still further.
72 CIRIA Report 144

6. Limitations
These are essentially rock-drilling methods, but the bearing material below the
pile may be much weaker than the pile concrete. If investigation of the junction
between the pile toe and the underlying bearing stratum is important. any loss
of sample from interface can render interpretation difficult.
Pile and hole verticality and drilling tolerances have also to be considered,
particularly when pile length-to-diameter ratios are in excess of 15:1, because of
the increasing likelihood of relative deviation of the pile and the drill hole.
Interference with the pile reinforcing cage can cause drilling difficulties.
Cored holes are several times more expensive per metre than uncored holes, and
slower to drill.
-. Contract planning requirements
The method, when used, would in most cases be during the course ofa contract
to investigate a specific problem.
The drilling requirements should be covered by a specification. Records should

include detailed logs of all boreholes, descriptions of samples and cores and
other matters such as drilling rate. Cores should be accurately labelled, carefully
boxed and stored. Photographs of cores are invaluable for later study.
Large rotary drill rigs are normally lorry-mounted and therefore require good,
firm access to the pile head and a stable working platfonn. Some smaller rotary
core drilling rigs are trailer mounted and therefore require less access planning.
Medium-sized 'production' type rotary and rotary-percussive drilling rigs are
often track-mounted. Again they need a stable working platform forcareful
alignment.
Adequate water supplies are required when water-flush drilling, with provision
forthe control and disposal of the flush returns. Air-flushing techniques and
some rotary-percussive rigs may present a dust or noise problem in city-centre
or urban locations as on crowded sites.
8. Frequency ofuse
Drilling within the pile is one ofthe most frequent ways of attempting to
investigate an internal feature of a pile, the presence of which has been
suggested by other data. It would be an unusual method for detecting random
faults.
CIRIA Report 144 73

Key references
('ode of practice for site investigations
BS 5930: 1981
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY ENG[NEERING GROUP

WORKING PARTY REPORT (1970)
The logging of rock cores for engineering purposes
Quarter/v.JournalofEngineering Geology. Vol. 3. No. 1 1-25
HORNER. P. C. and SHERRELL. F. W. (1977)

The application of air-flush rotary percussive techniques in site investigation
Ouarter/v.Journalof'Engineering Geology. Vol. 10. No. 3. 207-21
2.4.2 Closed-circuit television (CCTV) inspection

CCTV techniquesinvolve the use of a remotely controlled television camera to
examine the 'vail of a borehole drilled within a pile. The bore is inspected by
means of a small self-contained television camera ofthc type used for sewer
surveys, which can be lowered down the borehole on a supporting cable.
A typical borehole inspection camera is illustrated on Figure 2. 10. The unit

usually incorporates a fish-eye type lens with integral illumination, and is
lowered down the borehole on a wire rope. A continuous picture of the borehole
wall is transmitted back to the surface, through a connecting umbilical cable, to
a viewing monitor. The picture can usually be simultaneously recorded on
videotape for subsequent analysis and retention. It is usual for the depth to be
displayed on screen and this together with any supporting text commentan' is
also recorded on the tape. A minimum borehole diameter of 50 to 60 mm is
normally required. The monitoring station can usually be located in a van or
truck remote from the pile or piles under test. Typically once the drill holes
have been formed, man-access only is required to the pile head, but umbilical
cables will have to be led across the site from the pile to the monitoring station.
Voids or distinct discontinuities or other irregularities of the borehole wall can

be identified and examined. The effect of these on the performance of the piles
then has to be evaluated. CCTV surveys can be used on any pile within which a
suitable inspection bore has been formed. In practice the method is most usually
employed in examining holes drilled within concrete piles. The method can be
of great use in identifying the entry point of water seepage or flow from poor
quality or voided concrete or other defects.
Water within the bore can be a majorproblem to visibility. This mas' enter from
a defect within the pile or from the base of the pile ifthe borehole has been
drilled through into water-bearing strata. The drill hole may be formed using
water as a drilling fluid: if possible this should be removed, e.g. by bailing or
by blowing out with compressed air. If removal of watcr is not possible,
underwater cameras capable of resisting the water pressures will be necessary.
74 CIRIAReportl44
The vater ma also have to be clarified of suspended solids using flocculating
agents prior to the test, but this is often found to be difficult and
time-consuming in practice. Ifconsidered necessary. clarifiving of the water is
normally done at least twenty four hours before a camera is used.
Figure 2.10 Typical CCTV camera system
The analysis and understanding of the size and the significance of features
identified and transmitted to the surface monitors can often be more difficult
than might at first be appreciated: the scale of the features is often difficult to
calculate or comprehend properly.
Key references
SOLERA, S. A. (1986)
Site investigation for areas affected by limestone workings
In: Site Investigation Practice: Assessing BS 5930
HAWKINS. A.B. (ed.) (1984)

Proc. 20th Regional meeting ofthe Engineering Group of/he Geological
Society. Gui/chord. 1984. Special Publication No. 2
CIRIA Report 144 75

2.4.3 Calliper logging
Calliper logging is a means of measuring the variation of borehole diameter
with depth.
The variation in diameter of a nominally single-sized borehole is a measureof

the relative hardness of the borehole walls or their lack of resistance to sideways
abrasion by the rotating drilling tools. In principle, softer materials such as poor
or weak concrete will result in a locally greaterhole diameter.
A torpedo-shaped probe with three or four sprung arms is lowered to the bottom
of the borehole. The probe is then slowly withdrawn up the bore while the
sprung arms or runners ofthe instrument bear against the wall of the bore and
thus follow variations in the cross-sectional area of the borehole. The position
of the arms is electronically measured and fed to a surface read-out unit to
produce a continuous log of borehole diameter with depth. A typical caliper
probe is shown on Figure 2. 11.
Figure 2.11 Borehole callipers
Examination of the complete profile log can indicate the position of softer or
weaker spots within the pile. The method is therefore an indirect indicator ofthe
condition ofthe borehole walls and thus. by implication, the local quality of the
pile concrete.
In principle, the system can be used in any drill hole within a pile. typically
within a diameter range of 75 to 200 mm. depending upon instrument
availability.
The technique is not uncommon in deep well-logging work. However, its use is
relatively unusual in standard UK site investigation practice. and would not
76 CIRIAReportl44
necessarily be easily mobilised to suit a one-off requirement. As the equipment
may not be readily available, therefore, the location of a suitable system and
specialist contractor may need advance search and planning. If used, the
technique would most commonly be employed in conjunction with other
in-hole techniques.
The use of caliper logging in boreholes within piles has not been documented.
Access requirements would be similar to those required for CCTV surveys or

ultrasonic logging techniques.
2.4.4 Inclinometer techniques

An inclinometer is a device for measuring the inclination and possibly the
azimuth of a drill-hole or prefabricated duct, either in absoluteterms or relative
to a base measurement.
Inclinometer measurements are not in themselves a test ofthe integrityof the

pile body, but might be used, however, when there is a need to know the
position of a probe mandrel, duct or borehole.
The orientation ofthe borehole or duct is the most difficult parameterto

measure with accuracy. Most readily-available devices use a compass to
determine the azimuth ofthe hole, but this is inoperable, of course, in the
presence of ferrous materials, such as steel piles, permanent or temporary steel
liners or embedded reinforcement.
More sophisticated instruments use internal gyroscopes or optical devices to

measurethe three-dimensional deviation ofthe duct, but these are expensive
and available from relatively few sources. An example of such instruments are
the Reflex Fotorbor/Maxibor systems and the Boretrak borehole deviation
survey system.
Standard soil instrumentation inclinometers rely upon the instrument running

within a prefabricated duct with built-in keyways, to ensure the initial
orientation of the device. The use of such ducts is not usually practicable in
normal pile investigation practice, unless the ducts are cast-in at the pile
construction stage. It is perfectly feasible in principle, however, for the ducts to
be cast into investigation holes drilled into the pile: holes of a minimum
diameter larger than the OD of the prefabricated duct will be required forthis
purpose.
CiRlAReport 144 77
Key references
FELLENIUS. B. H. (1972)
Bending of piles determined by inclinometer measurements
Canadian Geotechnical Journal. \To1. 9. 25-32
HARRIS. J. S. (1987)
Ground anchorages: drillhole accuracy determining device - the Fotobor
Proc. Insin. Civ. Engrs.
Part I. Vol 82. June. pp 635-8
STUTILE. C. (1989)
A new blasthole survey method - the MDL Boretrak System.
Ouarrt Management. September. pp. 43-7
2.4.5 Water or air testing

Water or air tests in a borehole within the pile can give a relative indication of
the permeability of the borehole walls.
The water-tightness of a borehole within a concrete pile can be examined by

measuring the rise or fall of water within the borehole. or by measuring the flow
of water under pressure into the borehole. Connections between adjacent
boreholes in the pile or from a single hole to the outside ofthe pile either under
water or air pressure could indicate poor or porous concrete or discontinuities in
the concrete.
It is unusual for air-pressure testing to be used, other than to check for leakage
within the pile. The use of compressed air for testing purposes is thus normally
limited to checking forthe transmission ofair and interconnection between
adjacentboreholes in a pile or between a borehole and the outside surface of a
pile.
Water-testing techniques usually consist of filling the hole with water and
observing and measuring the behaviour ofthe water level. Alternatively, the top
of the bore can be sealed with a purpose-made packer and water pumped in
under pressure to observe the rate of acceptance ofthe borehole. Down-the-hole
single or double packers to isolate individual sections ofthe bore for testing are
also available but rarely used for pile testing.
The results of water tests may give comparative indications of the permeability
of the drill hole walls and, by implication, of the condition ofthe pile concrete.
These tests are only likely to be used when determining remedial measures to a
pile. or to assess the necessity of such measures. The technique is most
commonly used as part of additional testing work on drilled holes within large
diameter cast-in-place bored piles.
Care must be taken not to over-pressurise the hole during the test. Careful
nionitonng of the test values is therefore necessary as the test proceeds. In its
78 CIRIAReportl44
simplest form, the test is an indirect, qualitative indicator of the condition of the
borehole walls.
There would also be a need to check that the borehole remained within the pile
concrete over its length. The borehole should therefore in preference be cored. If
necessary an inclinometer check could also be carriedout.
Water testing is a common site investigation technique, particularly in rock

engineering applications. Thus if holes are being drilled in a pile for general
investigation purposes, the opportunity can be taken to carry out this additional
testing as part ofthe overall investigation programme.
Key reference
Codeofpractice for site investigations
BS 5930
2.5 OTHER DIRECT METHODS
2.5.1 Excavation
Excavation is often an appropriate way to investigate a pile or pile group for a

suspected defect, particularly at shallow depth and above the water table. Various
texts, British Standards and Codes of Practice cover the techniques and precautions
that need to be followed (see key references). The following section is thus limited
to a general description ofthe possible applications of excavation techniques.
There are three general ways ofexcavating to expose a pile for examination and
testing.
1. Partial excavation of the soil around a single pile or a group of piles.
2. Shafts - where a particular defect is suspected at depth and man-access is
necessary.
3. Headings - essentially horizontal investigative openings, perhaps
necessary late in the construction stage or afterwards.
It is unusual for even limited excavation ofpiles to be planned at an early stage

of the contract: usually such methods are adopted in response to some on-site
development or problem.
It must be borne in mind that excavation around the shaft or close to the toe
may significantly affect the load carrying capability ofthe pile. This alone, may
limit the usefulness of excavation as a technique.
Partial excavation involves the excavation of the soil by machine or by hand to

expose the upper part ofa pile or pile group. It is used to examine the pile for
CIRIAReportl44 79
externally visible or detectable defects, which might have been previously
highlighted bs some other part ofthe testing or quality checking regime.
After excavation, the piles are usually cleaned off and inspected b' engineering
staff. A high-pressure water hose can be used to reveal cracks. In addition, other
standard tests can be employed, such as ultrasonic pulse velocity (see Section 3.4.2)
to examine the continuity of the pile.
The method is usually straightforward and economic to depths of 2 to 3 m or so

below working level, provided the base of the excavation is above the water table.
The proximity of other piles can also cause difficulty in undertaking the work.
Care must be taken not to cause damage to the piles by the excavation method
or untoward ground movement. Freshly cast piles are particularly vulnerable.
Shafts. A shaftallows safe man-entn to inspect a pile at depths greaterthan

about three metres. or. in particular cases, the interface between the pile toe and
the design bearing stratum.
An inspection shaft may be constructed b' drilling or boring, or excavating by

hand or machine alongside or around the pile or pile group in question. A
-'
typical shaft excavation is illustrated in Figure 2.12.
f_AX ]
'I
Lt6
Figure 2.12 Shaft excavationto examine pile
When the shaft reaches or exposes the area of concern. the pile is usually
cleaned off and inspected by engineering or supervison staff. Additional tests
80 CIRlAReportl44
can be employed at this time, such as ultrasonic pulse velocity to examine the
continuity ofthe pile, or samples ofthe pile may be taken by coring or chipping
for further examination and testing.
Usually, shaft excavation would only be considered ifthere was an indication of

the possible location, nature, or cause ofthe defect or feature which may have
occurred in the pile.
The economics ofthe method are more favourable in self-supporting ground,

although for safety it would always be necessaiy to providetemporary support
to protectthose entering the shaft. Shaft excavation becomes more difficult and
may be impracticable in caving ground or below the water table.
Typically only one side of a pile shaft can be inspected. e.g. when using a
machine-bored drilled shaft. In this case, if the position of a defect is precisely
known, a horizontal heading. as outlined below, may be driven from the
investigatory shaft to surround the pile.
Headings are horizontal excavations made by tunnelling methods. They would

typically only be driven at a late stage in the construction process, when pile caps,
ground beams and foundation slabs have been cast, rendering other forms of
investigation impossible. At this stage superstructure construction may be under
way or the building may even have been completed and occupied for some time.
Such a horizontal heading normallyhas to be excavated by hand methodsto

expose the area of concern. Once exposed, the area of the pile to be examined is
cleaned offand inspected by engineering staff. Other testing may also be
undertaken of the exposed pile or pile cap. Samples may be taken for further
examination and testing.
Temporary support to the foundation or pile cap may be necessaiy ifthe heading
removes or appreciably reduces its ability to support the foundation loadings.
Key references
Codeofpractice for safety precautions in the construction of
large diameter boreholesfor piling and otherpurposes
BS 5573

Code ofpractice for earthworks
BS 6031

Code ofpractice for safety in tunnelling in the construction industiy
BS 6164
CIRIAReportl44 81
2.5.2 Extraction of a pile
On occasionit is feasible to extract a sample pile to confirm its integrity of
construction. Such measures are usually undertaken only if it is required to
confirm the general adequacy or suitability of the pile construction method in
the prevailing ground conditions. Thorburn and Thorburn (1977) quote an
example of a pile extracted to demonstrate the soundness of construction of
small-diameter bored piles through soft estuarine alluvium.
The extraction of representative samples of suspect piles may similarly be a

practicable approach in suitable circumstances.
2.5.3 Sounding or probing - outside the pile
Sounding or probing is the driving or pushing of a mandrel or probe into the

ground alongside the pile shaft for the purpose of locating some feature external
to the pile.
The method is essentially a low-cost way to examine the extent and depth of
protuberances or features beyond the nominal pile diameter. The resistance to
penetration of the probe indicates when a hard, impenetrable obstruction has
been met. Correlation of this level with other site records can assist in
understanding the true shape of the pile.
Tpicallv a steel mandrel or probe is driven or pushed into the soil alongside
the pile under investigation.
Measurements are made of the distance of the probe from the pile and the depth
below ground level that refusal was reached or the presumed protuberance was
encountered. It is not normal to take samples. In general. any means ofprobing
below ground level can be used for such work. e.g. a dynamic probing or a
static cone penetration test rig might be used, but uncased holes formed by a
rotary percussive drill rig have also been used.
Interpretation depends upon the feature being investigated and the ground conditions.
Typically the method would be used to investigate features associated with

driven cast-in-place or bored cast-in-place piles, since these piles can have
irregular profiles in
certain ground conditions. In addition the method has been reported as being
used with under-reamed bored piles. It could also be used to locate the depth of
crushing. breakage or change of direction of precast piles.
Sounding or probing is normally employed to investigate a specific problem or

answer a specific question that has arisen in the course of a contract.
The method mas' not be practical in ground containing obstructions such as

masonry or boulders.
82 CIRIA Repart 144

Access around the pile location is required.
Pushed or hammered probes and even boreholes deviate from the vertical so
these techniques are usually only appropriate for relatively shallow (say U to 5
in or so)investigations. If deeper features are to be located with any accuracy it
will be necessary to include techniques for the directional control or monitoring
of the sounding. Usually this would not belustified.
Ifthought to be necessary, it would be during the course of a contract to

investigate specific problems. Depending upon the size ofthe particular rig,
specific access preparations may have to be made. Probe rigs vary in size from
man-portable to lorry-mounted.
In practice the external features of a pile are rarely a matter of dispute.

Investigations of this type are very rare.
2.5.4 Sounding or probing - within the pile

Sounding or probing within the pile consists of lowering a steel probe in a
preformed duct within the pile, typically as a check of the straightness of
precastjointed piles.
If a long straight probe rod, of a diameter only slightly less than that of a
preformed hole throughthe centre of the pile, is lowered down the hole, it will
jam where the pile is sharply bent at a joint or is broken.
In an example case, the rod had a diameter 6 mm less than the bore of the duct
and was 1.8 in long.
The method is usually restricted to precast concrete piles, but has also been
used, for instance, on prefabricated driven steel piles, or for cast-in-place bored
piles where deep underground movements were expected or suspected.
When used with a precast segmental piling system, it is not unknown for soft
silty soils to 'pump' into the ducts because of minute flexing of the joint
system, causing a blockage ofthe ducts. Sealing systems are designed to seal
the joint areas, but occasional failures do occur.
The system is not an everyday technique, but might be used in a particular case
where very long precast or prefabricated piles are being driven through soft
clays into a hard bearing layer. If 'bent' piles are considered to be of major
consequence to the project, it is important that the implications and
requirements are discussed and understood between the designerof the structure
and the piling contractor. See the key references for discussion ofthis.
Arrangements for setting the access ducts into the piles have to be designed and
ordered prior to fabrication.
CIRIAReportl44 83
The method is not common in standard UK practice. but mas be adopted for
specific contracts.
Key references
BJERRUM. L. (1957) Norwegian experiences with steel piles to rock
Gotechnique. No. 7. pp.73-96
BROMS. B. B. (1981)
Precast pilingpractice
FRANCES. A. J.. SAVORY, N. R.. STEVENS, L. K.

and TROLLOPE. D. H. (1962)
The behaviour of slender point-bearing piles in soft soil
In: Proc. University ofHong Kong Golden Jubilee Congress
Hong Kong University Press. pp 25-50
2.5.5 Drilling or boring - outside the pile
Drilling or boring outside the pile involves the sinking of, usually, a small-
diameter borehole alongside the pile shaft for the purpose of examining some
feature external to the pile.
The method is essentially a further means ofexternal probing in order to

examine the extent or depth of features that may extend beyond the nominal
outside diameter of the pile, such as may be caused by overbreak. overspill or
loss ofconcrete into a buried void, or the formation of a pile under-ream. The
use ofdrilling or boring equipment allows hard obstructing material to be
penetrated that would otherwise halt a probing device.
The diameter of such bores typically ranges between 50 and 200 mm.
If suitable, the piling rig itselfcan be utilised, otherwise a site investigation or
well-boring rig may be brought in forthe work.
The primary aim is the measurement ofthe depth and, perhaps, thickness ofthe
protuberance. If found, and if thought worthwhile to do so, a core sample could
be taken. It should be borne in mind, however, that, because of the sloping
nature of many such features, it is often not possible for the drill to obtain a
purchase to cut a good sample.
The method would, typically, be used for driven cast-in-place or bored

cast-in-place piles as these piles can have irregular profiles in certain ground
conditions. Depending upon the application, the verticality ofthe drilling or
boring rig may have to be checked careftilly, and the borehole monitored for
direction and inclination.
84 CIRIAReportl44
Some types of drilling or boring may be difficult to use in heavily obstructed
ground. However, many rotary or rotary-percussive drilling techniques are
specifically designed to overcome obstructed ground conditions.
Access to the pile location is required. The rig types vary from portable rigs to
lorry- or track-mounted rigs, depending upon hole size andjob application.
A suitable water supply may be needed for drilling.
In practice the external features ofa pile are rarely a matter of dispute.
Investigations ofthis type are very rare.
2.5.6 Integral compression testing
Integral compression testing is the name given to a method of applying a

compressive force over the length ofa concrete pile by the stressing of steel
tendons which have previously been cast into the pile.
The tendons are debonded throughthe body ofthe pile and anchored into the
concrete at the toe. A stressing jack attached to the tendons and acting on a
distribution plate at the head of the pile can thereforebe used to induce a high
compressive force into the pile shaft, in a similarmanner to a post-tensioned
beam, to confirm the adequacy ofthe concrete column.
The theoretical extension ofthe tendon within sound concrete can be readily
calculated.
If the pile is excessively weakened or faulty near the top, this will be indicated
by excessive downward movement ofthe pile head. If the fault lies closer to the
base ofthe pile then this will be indicated by a greaterelongationofthe
stressing tendons than the theoretical value.
The method is only designed to determine the structural integrity ofthe pile
column itself, and gives no indication ofthe load-deformation characteristics of
the pile or the ability ofthe pile/soil system to support the design load.
So far as is known, the method has not been employed since being reported by
Moon (1972). At that time the method was the subject of patent applications.
Since then it is understood that the applications have lapsed.
Key references
MOON, M. R. (1972)
A test method forthe structural integrity ofbored piles
Civil Engineering and Public Works Review, May, pp. 476-480
Integritytesting ofpiles a review
CIRIAReportl44 85
I. Examination, monitoring and recording ofthe pile construction process is

of prime importance on any project.
2. The Institution of Civil Engineers' Sioeci/1cation for Piling recommends the
typical records to be kept during piling.
3. Static load testing determines the response of a pile (or. more rarely, a pile
group) to static loading of the pile head. Testing conimonls uses the Maintained
Load test and, less commonly, the Constant Rate of Penetration test.
4. Static toad tests. whilst commonplace. are limited by cost, space and time.
In addition they provide little data on pile integrity.
5. Dynamic load tests are used to predict the load-deformation characteristics
of the pile from its response to large dynamic loads. Stress-wave theory is
used in the analysis.
6. Dynamic load testing has vet to gain wide acceptance as a reliable predictor
method and variable results have been recorded. Its major advantage is as a
comparator test because of the relative ease and economy of testing.
7. A variety of tests can be carried out within drill holes in the pile:
CCTV inspection
calliper logging
inclinometer measurements
water or air testing
Because ofthe limited data which can be gathered by these methods, they
are most likely to be employed to examine defects identified by other means.
8. Other direct methods include:
excavation aroundthe pile a means of examining suspected defects at
shallow depths. Deeper excavation can be undertaken, but may affect
the load-carrying capability ofthe pile.
extraction ofthe pile rare and likely only to be used to demonstrate
the suitability ofa piling technique in the prevailing ground conditions
sounding. probing, or drilling aroundthe pile very rare, but generally
low cost techniques for recording the location and extent of
protuberances beyond the nominal pile diameter. Drilling allows the
penetration of harder materials.
sounding. or probing within the pile a rarely usedtest. tvpicall for
measuring the straightness of precast jointed piles.
integral compression testing a theoreticalmeans of testing pile shaft
strength, not known to have been used in practice.
86 CIRlAReportl44
3 Indirect testing methods
This section describes in more detail the indirect techniques introduced in

Section 1, with notes on their interpretation and application. Guidance is also
given on matters to be addressed when planning their use on a contract.
Many of the indirectmethods described in this section were first developed and
investigated some 15-20 years ago. At that time concern about the integrity of
large-diameter bored concrete piles, in particular, spurred the investigation of
various ways to achieve a definitive 'integrity test'. Several of these niethods
have not really survived their first stage ofresearch, developments having been
channelled in other directions which promised better returns. For those methods
which have not been exploited in the UK since their early research days,
descriptions here are limited to an outline ofthe method. Techniques in this
category are nuclear-radiation and electrical methods, although nuclear radiation
techniques have remained in use in other parts of the world, notably North
America and the Middle East.
The main indirect investigation and testing techniques are described first and
the less frequent methods are grouped at the end of the Section.
3.1 LOW-STRAIN INTEGRITY TESTING
(The theory and practice of low-strain integrity testing are described in greater
detail in Sections 4 and 5 respectively.)
1. Definition
Low-strain integrity testing is the examination ofthe response ofan embedded

pile to an external impulsive force imparted by a blow from a light, hand-held
hammer or, in some cases, an electrodynamic shaker. For the purposes of this
section, discussion will be limited to the more common hammer method. The
use of an electrodynamic shaker is discussed in Section 5.
Low-strain tests have been identified by names such as echo tests, sonic tests,
shock tests, transient-dynamic tests, and various other derivatives. All these
tests examine and analyse the response ofthe element under test to an external
low-level mechanical excitation by which is meant that the element under test
moves in a linear and elastic fashion.
2. Principle
The mechanical impulse generated by the hammer blow has been described as
either a shock wave, a stress-wave or an acoustic wave. It will rapidly spread
CIRIAReportl44 87
throughout the pile from the point of impact and propagate down the pile as a
plane wave. The wave generated is of a finite time duration and contains energy
over a wide range of frequencies according to the type of hammer employed and
the hardness of the concrete struck. It will travel down the pile. effectively as a
packet ofenergv. and, ifthe pile is homogeneous. will travel at a generally
constant velocity.
By monitoring the response of the pile head to both the initial blow and any
returning reflections. inferences and conclusions can be drawn about some of
the properties ofthe buried pile. based upon an understanding ofthe physical
principles involved.
The pile head response is a function of

1. The excitation force (the impact).
2. The characteristics of the soil within which the pile is embedded.
3. The characteristics of the pile itself
In particular. where there is a sham change in pile characteristics, part of the

downward travelling wave is reflected back towards the pile head, while the
remainder of the signal continues on towards the pile toe as illustrated in
Figure 3.1. It is mainly this aspect of wave behaviour that is used to advantage
in integrity testing. By detecting the reflected waves returning to the head ofthe
pile, information can be obtained regarding significant features encountered by
the wave travelling throughthe pile.
The analysis of the response of the pile under test enables the depth to a
particular reflecting surface to be calculated. A large discrepancy between the
known length ofthe pile and the apparent depth of the reflecting surface would
be an indication of a significant feature within the pile.
Reflections of the stress-wave within the pile are caused by changes in the
physical properties ofthe pile or the surrounding soil that affect its acoustic
behaviour. The changes within the pile itselfare defined by a parameter termed
the impedance. z, of the pile at any given depth. where:
z = p.c.A
and p is the density of the pile material.

c is the velocity ofpropagation ofthe stress wave through the pile, and
A is the cross-sectional area ofthe pile.
The derivation and significance of this parameter is considered further in

Section 4. However, the larger the relative impedance change, whether an
increase or decrease, the greaterthe proportion ofthe signal that will be
reflected. A distinct change of impedance would be at the toe ofthe pile, the
difference in properties between the pile and the ground below the pile is nearly
always sufficient to produce a reflection.
88 CIRIAReportl44
Features that represent changes in the impedance of the pile/soil system, and
which can therefore cause reflections of the stress-wave can be identified as:
the pile toe
inclusions within the pile
cracks or pile joints
dimensional changes in the pile
variations in concrete quality
reinforcement overlapping (in the case ofunusually heavily reinforced
piles).
variations in soil stifihess.
//
Sensor
?ct
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 3.1 Principle of time-based low strain integrity test (a) initial impact on pile;
(b) partial reflection and partial transmission at change of section;
(c) arrival of reflectionfrom change of section at sensor;
(d) arrival of reflection from pile toe at sensor
Thus, it is not only variations in the properties ofthe pile which act as reflecting
surfaces. The surrounding soil can also affect the acoustic response ofthe
pile/soil system. A marked variation in stifThess between two adjacent soil
layers can also act as a reflector ofwave energy, and this is often observed.
CIRIA Report 144 89

Figure 3.2 Low-strain integritytest in progress
Figure 3.2 illustrates a typical test in progress.
The response of the pile is measured by means of a sensor held against or

attached to the pile head.
Systems can be one- or two-man operated. In the case of two-man operation.

one operative strikes the pile and at the same time holds or fixes the sensor to
the pile head. The sensor is connected througha cable to the signal
conditioning. display and recording unit, which is under the control ofa second
operator. This semi-portable unit is often mounted in a control vehicle, as seen
in Figure 3.2. The vehicle is usually positioned within 30 m or so ofthe pile
under test, and on most sites a numberofpiles can therefore be tested from a
single control point. Usually a few blows are given to each pile to confirm the
uniformity of the response.
In one variation ofthe test, which employs frequency analysis techniques. the
hammer itself is instrumented with a small dynamic load cell to measure the
force of the hammer blow. In this case. the signals from both the dynamic load
cell and the sensor are transmitted via a cable to the signal conditioning. display
and recording unit.
In the case of a one-man operation, the signal acquisition and conditioning

equipment are fulls' portable and carried by the operator between each pile
position under test. as illustrated in Figure 3.3.
90 CIRIA Report 144

- __.:_-.cv--:.,Q :.%
Figure 3.3 Typical one-man integrity test equipment
The resulting processed signal from the test is usualls' displayed on-site on an
oscilloscope or a VDU screen and either stored for further analysis or printed
out on site as a hard copy for subsequent analysis and reporting. This signal
display is termed the signal response curve. Examples of typical response
curves are illustrated and described below.
4. Interpretation
All low-strain integrity tests basically analyse the response of the pile to the
low strain' impact, based upon the physics of wave propagation in rods or bars.
A pile, which is usually relatively long compared with its diameter or breadth,
equates to such a rod-like body. The measured data can be processed and
examined in two ways to allow interpretation ofthe pile response: in terms
either oftime or frequency.
In the first method,the pile behaviour is analysed in terms of the time delay
between the initial impact and the receipt of reflections, or echoes' from a
change in impedance such as the pile toe or a change in pile section. Such
analysis techniques are, therefore, often termed 'echo techniques, and, since
they operate in terms of time, are said to be time-domain or time-based
CURIA Report 144 91

methods. In the following descriptions, such tests are generally identified as
echo tests. A vanant form of echo test has been denoted pulse echo (as noted in.
for example. E1lwa. 1987). which differs from general sonic echo tests only in
the characteristic wave-form displayed.
Echo methodsthus plot the response of the pile-head sensor in terms of time.
Since, in a reasonably homogeneous pile, the propagation velocity. c. ofthe
wave throughthe pile will be sensibly constant, the time delay can be equated
to the distance travelled by the wave and hence to the depth to a particular point
of reflection.
Knowing the velocity of propagation of the wave through the pile body and
knowing the time lapse between the blow on the pile head and the arrival of the
reflected signal. it is a simple matter to calculate the distance the wave has
travelled. It will be twice the length of the pile, L. and hence:
L = c.t/2
where:
c is the velocity (mis) of propagation ofthe wave through the pile
is the total time(s) taken for the wave to travel through the pile and
return to the pile head.
With the second method, the behaviour ofthe pile is examined in terms of its
response to the wide range of component frequencies that are contained within
the impact pulse and the returning reflected waves. At certain frequencies the
pile will resonate, the resonant frequencies depending primarily upon the
effective vibrating length ofthe pile. Such tests, which analyse the pile-head
response data in terms offrequency. are hence termed frequency- domain or
frequenci. -based methods. In a similar manner to sonic echo tests, this type of
test has in the past been given a wide variety of names, including transient-
dynamic. frequency response and shock testing. In the following text, the term
frecjuencvresponse is used forthis type oftest.
Frequency-response methods use modem computational techniques to analyse

the composite waveforms of the blow and the resultantpile response into their
component frequencies. A given pile will have a calculable response. consisting
of the fundamental frequency and its higher harmonics, This response is
determined predominantly by the length of the vibrating body, as illustrated in
Figure 3.4. The analysis of the response ofthe pile under test enables a
back-calculation ofthe length. and provides a means of measuring the depth to
a particular reflecting surface.
92 CIRIAReportl44
The length. L, ofthe pile is given by the standard equation:
2Sf
where c is the wave propagation velocity as before and [is the frequency
interval between successive resonances.
Equations 3.2 and 3.3 are consistent in that the relationship between frequency
and time is:
1= I
Lsf
The simple relationships defined by Equations 3.2 and 3.3, and their
inter-relationship as defined by Equation 3.4, form the basis of low-strain pile
integritytesting.
Externai excitation
force (hammer
Sensor
\
or 'shaker')
//
Sensor
//
1/
Sensor
\x .C7/
[V
/,X .'
,.
.'t.
j i
Fundamental
Fixedend Free end

(a) (b) (0)
Figure 3.4 Principle of frequency-basedlow-strain integrity test (a) mode of vibration
with fixed end at toe; (b) mode of vibration with free end at toe;
(c) mode of vibration for intermediateloss of section (may be additional
to (a) and (b), dependingupon magnitude of loss section)
CIRIA Report 144 93

Time- and frequency-based techniques can therefore be considered as
complementary to one another: they use the same basic input data, in teniis of
the response of the pile to the low- strain impact wave propagated from the pile
head.
The characteristics of the signal responses that would be expected from an

idealised pile, by either signal analysis method, can be readily understood, and
are explained in more detail in Sections 4 and 5. The detailed interpretation of
the signal from a particular real pile or group of piles may be more complex and
requires specialist expertise and experience. Signal response curves for the two
methods, illustrating a low-strain integrity test on a straight-shafled pile in
homogeneous soil are shown on Figure 3.5.
Section 5 describes in detail the data collection, processing and interpretation

techniques currently available.
a,
(0
C
0
a. -I
-t -
(0
2
a,
'C
0
-_(\I1\
0
T\l _
Time
(a)
C C
2L 2L
'I,
U)
C
0
a
U)
2
-D
0
0
-C
ci
0-
Frequency
Figure 3.5 Example signal-responsewaves (a) time-based: (b) frequency-based
5. Applicability
Low-strain integrity tests can be used on all pile types arid for piles formed in
all types ofground. provided that access to the pile head can be obtained.
94 CIRIAReportl44
6. Limitations
The wave is attenuated both by its passage throughthe body of the pile and also
by the interaction between the pile and the surrounding soil. These attenuation
effects act upon both the incident and reflected waves as they travel up and
down the pile. As a consequence, in the case of a very long pile or a very stiff
soil or a combination of both, the relative amplitude ofthe reflected signal at
the top of the pile, with respect to the input signal, may be so small that it is not
practically detectable.
The attenuationofthe signal caused by the interaction betweenthe pile and soil
within which it is embedded is commonly termed damping. In general,the
stiffer the soil layer the greaterthe damping effect on the travelling wave and
the smaller will be the reflected signal. In addition, the boundary between soil
layers ofmarkedly different stiffliess will cause reflections of some or all of the
incident stress-wave, and may produce a similar effect at the pile-head sensor as
that caused by section changes within the pile.
The signal response will also become increasingly complex and difficult to
interpret ifthere is more than one impedance change within the pile.
Figure 3.6 shows the types offeature within a pile or pile/soil system that
low-strain integrity testing techniques should be capable of detecting in
favourable circumstances. Other features which the method would not be
expected to detect are shown for comparison in Figure 3.7. It should be noted
that the test is not diagnostic in that it is not capable ofdifferentiating what is
the cause of the impedance change. The determination ofthe cause ofthe
change is part of the deductive interpretation process.
There can be marked differences in the quality of results given by different

proprietary systems, especially with increasing pile aspect ratios.
Many test systems are capable of distinguishing returning reflections on piles to

depths of 30 pile diameters or more in suitable circumstances, which means,
typically, in less stiffsoils. In ideal cases, such as where long end-bearing piles
have been driven throughvery soft alluvial soils, toe reflections have been
reported with aspect ratios in excess of 60:1. Further discussion on limitations
and depths of penetration of these tests is given in Section 5.
By implication, piles with a small diameter, such as micropiles. will rapidly

reach limiting aspect ratios within a relatively short length. In addition, the
highly liquid grouts used to form these piles often flow beyond the nominal
diameter ofthe pile to form an irregular pile profile. with the probability of
multiple reflections. The consensus is that current methods are not generally
suited to testing such micropiles.
CIRIA Report 144 95

S
I I
Pile toe Large Crack Joint

inclusion
1
S
Increase Decrease Soil layer Major

in cross- in cross- changes mateilal
section section changes
Figure 3.6 Pile features usually considered amenableto detection by low-strain

integritytesting
. Contractplanning requirements
At design stage. it is not usually necessary to take any pre-contract planning

measures for undertaking these tests.
During construction, as nothing has to be physically incorporated into the pile.

no particular measures are necessary during the pile construction phase.
For routine testing purposes. allowance has to be made in the programme

planning for cast in-place concrete to cure (nonually five days minimum).
Allowance also has to be made in the programme for cutting down the piles to a
sound testing surface. There should also be provisionfor a holding period to
allow evaluation ofthe test results prior to continuing with the foundation
construction sequence. Further guidance on the planning requirements of
routine integrity testing is given in Section 8.
96 CIRIA Report 144

/1
Gradually Gradually Curved

increasing decreasing pile
diameter diameter
Gradual Small Local Debris

material inclusions loss of attoe
changes cover
Figure 3.7 Pile features not usually amenableto detection by low-strain

integrity testing
Pile head preparation should be considered to be of prime importance. The pile

head is normallytrimmed to cut-offlevel or to sound concrete. Protruding
helical reinforcement is normally cut or bent away to provide access to the
centre of the pile. Longitudinal reinforcing bars may or may not need to be bent
away from the centre, depending upon pile size and bar spacing. However,
uncontrolled bending may weaken the bars and the designershould always be
consulted before bars are bent. The presence of an attachment to the pile head,
such as thick blinding concrete (more than 75 mm thick) or cast ground beams,
should be avoided as these will complicate the signal. Similarly, the presence of
reinforcement forground beams or slabs will cause complications in either the
undertaking or the interpretation of the test, and should be avoided.
Standing water should be removed and the pile tops brushed or blown off with
compressed air to remove loose fragments.
ClRlAReportl44 97
A typical surface preparationdetail is illustrated on Figure 38.
7-
Pile head blown clean
7/
Pile reinforcement
bent clearas ////
allowable Mm. 600 mm
clearanceto
swing hammer
Sensor
Blinding >75 mm
thick cut back
25
Standing water
removed
Reduced preparation areas Pile head scabbled flat and

for large diameter piles. level perpendicularto pileaxis.
Surface roughness 5 mm max.
Typical preparation:25 mm max.
from highest to lowest point
I
I 100 mm
Typical reducedpreparationareas for largediameterpile (>750mm)
Figure 3.8 Typical pile-head surface preparationfor hammer-based

low-strain integrity test
Low-strain integrity tests are rapid; in good conditions and if all the piles are
prepared. a single team can typically test 25 to 40 or more piles per day. It is often
advantageous, therefore, to have personnel on call to cut down or clean offany
piles which show near-surface anomalies (perhaps caused b' head preparation).
rather than to arrange forthe testing teams to make a subsequent visit.
98 CIRIA Report 144

8. Frequencyof use
Low-strain integrity tests are very commonly used forboth control testing and
retrospective investigation purposes.
Key References
The following references give general guidance on aspects of low-strain
integrity testing. More detailed reference lists are appended to the detailed
descriptions given in Sections 4 and 5.
ELLWAY, K. (1987)
Practical guidance on the use of integrity tests forthe quality control of
cast-in-situpiles
Ground Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 7. October, 8-13
FLEMING, W. 0. K., REIDING, F. and MIDDENDORP, p. (1985)

Faults in cast-in-place piles and their detection
Proc. Second International Conference on Structural Faults and Repair,
London
HOWELL. M. I. (1987)
Acoustic testing of foundation piles
Civil Engineering. September, 1987, pp 30-5
RAUSCHE. F.. LIK[NS. G.E. and HUSSEIN, M. (1988)

Pile integrity by low and high strain impacts
Proc. Third International Conference on the Application ofStress-Wave Theory
to Piles
Ottawa. pp 44-55
REIDING. F., MIDDENDORP. P and van BREDERODE, P. J. (1984)

A digital approach to sonic pile testing
Proc. SecondInternational Conference on the Application ofStress-wave
Theory to Piles
Stockholm, Sweden
STAIN. R. T. and JOHNS, D. (1987)

Integrity testing of deep foundations
Proc. SecondInternationalSymposium ofthe Deep FoundationsInstitute
Luxembourg, May 4-7
TURNER. M. J. (1989)
The use of integrity testing in evaluating foundation piles
Proc. SecondInternational Conference on Foundationsand Tunnels
Vol. 1. pp 307-16
CIRIA Report 144 99

WILLIAMS. H. and STAlIN. R. T. (1987)
Pile integrity testing - horses for courses
Proc. International Conference on Foundationsand Tunnels
London. March
3.2 SONIC LOGGING
3.2.1 Cross-hole sonic logging
(Cross-hole sonic logging is described in greaterdetail in Section 6.)
1. Definition
Cross-hole sonic logging is the transmission of a pulse of sonic and ultrasonic

energy from a transmitter, or emitter, sited within one duct, to a receiver located
in a separate, parallel duct. This technique is also known commercially as sonic
coring.
2. Principle
An ultrasonic pulse is transmitted through the walls of a hole or duct in the pile
and radially into the surrounding concrete. Part ofthe signal is detected by the
receiver in a second duct as in Figure 3.9. The time of the arrival of the
wavetrain from the pulse is a measure ofthe transmission velocity throughthe
intervening concrete or the length ofthe acoustic path between the two holes.
Zones of differing physical properties within the pile, such as very low strength
concrete, voids, inclusions or other discontinuities. give a lower velocity or
longer travel path and/or attenuate the signal.

The technique is usually carried out within preformed ducts set into
cast-in-place piles.
It is normal to have a minimum of three ducts. Four ducts might be used for pile
diameters of 750 mm diameter and above. The transit time between each pair of
ducts is checked in turn. Thus, three ducts will yield three sets oftraces. four
ducts will yield six sets.
The transmitter and receiver probes are typically between 15 and 25 mm in

diameter and 250 mm long. The probes are light, and usually suspended by their
connecting electrical cables, which also transmit the test signals to the surface
monitoring unit.
The holes are filled with water or some other fluid to provide an acoustic
coupling between the instrument and the walls ofthe duct.
100 CIRIAReportl44
The time taken forthe ultrasonic pulse to travel from the transmitterthroughthe
intervening material to the receiver is termedits transit time. The signals
arriving at the receiver probe and the transit time ofthe wavetrain are recorded
either electronically or are photographed on a semi-continuous sheet of
light-sensitive paper for later examination, analysis and record.
Winch ropes and

electrical connectors
Concrete pile
Fluid-filled ducts
Receiver
probe
Transmitter probe
Capsto ducts
Figure 3.9 Principle of cross-hole sonic logging
The probe units are first lowered to the bottomofadjacentducts within the pile,
and are then lifted simultaneously and smoothly up the bores, as illustrated on
Figure 3.10. Measurements are taken every 10 to 50 mm, and a continuous
profile of the arrival times ofthe wavetrain can therefore be built up, as shown
in Figure 3.11. The probes are usually operated at the same horizontal level, but
tests can be run with one probe higher than the other to produce an inclined
travel path to investigate sub-horizontal surfaces or the extent of a feature, as
discussed in Section 6.3.4. Examples oftypical displayed signals from currently
available systems are illustrated that section.
4. Interpretation
For equally spaced probes, a longertransit time within an area ofthe pile
implies an inhomogeneity in the path ofthe propagating pulse of energy,
causingeither a reduced propagation velocity or a longer travel path. The
amplitude ofthe signal may also be affected.
5. Applicability
The technique is most commonly carried out using preformed ducts within
cast-in-place piles. The minimum pile diameter is typically 600 mm, although
some users recommend 750 mm as a minimum diameter. As the ducts have to
be pre-placed with reasonable accuracy, they are usually attachedto the
reinforcement cage which is placed prior to concreting.
CIRIA Report 144 101

Figure 3.10 Typical cross-hole sonic logging operation
Defect
I
IJ
0
C
Defect
K
0
TIME OF PROPAGATION IuSLC)
SONIC CORING DEFECT - VOID IN DIAPHRAGM WALL
Figure 3.11 Typical sonic profile from cross-hole sonic logging system
They are not, therefore. commonly, if at all, used with piles such as continuous
flight auger (CFA) piles, in which the reinforcement is not only placed after pile
concreting but also does not necessarily extend for the hIlt length ofthe pile.
There seems, however, no reason within the limits ofpile reinforcement length.
why CFA piles of larger diameters could not be tested by this method.
102 ClRlAReportl44
6. Limitations
Steel or plastic tubes can be used to form the ducts. Steel tubes are preferred to
plastic ones, because it is more difficult to obtain a good bond between the
plastic and the concrete ofthe pile. Lack of bond between the cast-in duct and
the pile concrete may show up as an anomaly in the signal trace. The use of
metal tubes can limit the capabilities ofthe test slightly as outlined in
Section 6.3.5.
The test identifies the shortestacoustic path between the emitter and the
receiver. It is possible that a feature in the centre ofthe pile could be missed in a
three4ube system, unless two ofthe tubes were placed diametricallyopposite
one another. Similarly, a problem ofvoided or contaminated concrete could be
present outside the reinforcing cage of the pile, and the system would not 'see'
such perimeter problems. Figures 3.12(a) and (b) illustrate these points.
Although the sounding tubes are commonly placed to the pile toe at the
construction phase, the system cannot give any information on the toe/soil
interface. To allow this interface to be examined, it is usually recommended that
at least one ofthe ducts should be drilled out into the underlying stratum.
Interpretation ofthe trace might appear to be straightforward, but there are

situations where correct diagnosis of a situation can be difficult. As with all
acoustic-type tests, the acoustical interpretation ofthe data is relatively
straightforward: in this case it would be that a longer transit time has been
recorded, or that the signal has been attenuated or both. The practical or
structural significance of anomalies within the data is more difficult to evaluate,
as several physical scenarios can produce the same acoustical effect. It has been
suggested that the order ofvariation ofthe arrival time of the incident wave
should be in excess of 15 to 20% of the norm before it should be regarded as
anomalous. (See further discussion in Section 6.6.)
Pre-selection ofthe pile is necessary as the ducts have to be cast into the pile at
the construction phase.
Forming the ducts by drilling after construction of the pile, while it might
appear attractive (in that it does not need pre-selection of the pile), is not
usually a practicable option. The technique relies upon knowing that the spacing
between transmitter and receiver is sensibly constant. With cast-in ducts this
can be relatively readily achieved, but drillholes are likely to deviate
considerably from the vertical and from each other over the required hole depth.
I Contractplanning requirements
At the design stage. pre-selection of the pile is necessary in order to arrange to
cast in the access tubes. Alternatively, the decision may be made to cast access
tubes into all the contract piles.
CiRlAReport 144 103

During the contract, access ducts have to be cast into the piles at the
construction stage. and are typically incorporated into the pile cage.
Defect
Access duct
Pile reinforcement cage -N

Detect
(a) (b)
Figure 3.12 Examples of possible defects off the shortest direct path between
cross-hole probes (a) defect in centre; (b) defect on perimeter
For routine testing purposes, allowance has to be made in the programme

planning for cast in-place concrete to cure (normally five days minimum). It is
recommended that allowance also be made for a holding period to allow
evaluation ofthe test results prior to continuing with the foundation
construction sequence.
8. Frequencyofuse
The test has become quite common for long, large-diameter bored piles.
particularly those formed under bentonite.
Key references
DAVIS. A. G. and ROBERTSON S. A. (1975)
Economic pile testing
Ground Engineering, Vol. 8, No. 3.
LEVY. J. F. (1970)
Sonic pulse method of testing cast-in-situ concrete piles
Ground Engineering. Vol. 3, No. 3.
WILLIAMS, H. and STAIN, R. T. (1987)

London. March
3.2.2 Single-hole sonic logging

I. Definition
Sonic logging within a single hole is the transmission of a pulse ofultrasonic

sound energy from a transmitter to a receiver, both of which are housed within a
104 ClRIAReportl44
single vertical probe placed within the hole. The time taken for the pulse to
reach the receiver, after travelling throughthe material forming the side ofthe
hole, can be used to examine the relative properties of the pile materials.
2. Principle
A combined acoustic transmitter/receiver unit is used, the two units being

mounted at the top and bottom ofa single probe, separated by an acoustic
isolator. The pulse ofenergy from the transmittertravels throughthe surrounding
concrete and part is received by the receiver, as illustrated on Figure 3.13. The
time ofthe first arrival ofthe pulse energy is a measure ofeither the transmission
velocity ofthe pulse through the concrete forming the wall ofthe borehole or the
length of the acoustic path between the probes. An anomaly or a discontinuity
will cause either a lower velocity or a longertravel path, with consequential
delayed arrival times, and in addition it can attenuate the signal. By taking
repeated observations overthe length of the bore, variations in the profile of
arrival times will indicate possible defects within the pile.

The probe is suspended on a steel support cable and an integral electrical cable
connects it to a monitoring system at ground level.
The probe unit is typically 50 to 60 mm in diameter and 2 to 4 m long. A

typical transmitter/receiver array is illustrated on Figure 3.14. The distance apart
ofthe transmitter and receiver units can be altered to vary the length of pile
section being investigated. The instrument is normally used in a hole with a
diameter some 15 to 20 mm greaterthan the probe. The probe must be
accurately centred within the hole.
The hole must be filled with a liquid, usually eitherwater or drilling mud, to
provide an acoustic coupling between the instrument and the walls of the hole.
The transmitter and receiver are separated by an acoustically isolating device, to
avoid direct transmission of the signal between the two units. The shortest
acoustic path between the two units is thus throughthe fluid to the nearest point
in the wall and thence through the pile material to the nearest point to the
receiver, returning through the fluid to the receiver.
The probe unit is slowly lowered or raised within the hole and measurements
taken every 50 to 100 mm. The travel time of the wavetrain between the
transmitter/receiver unit at the measuring level is recorded either electronically
or on a continuous sheet of photo-sensitive paper. A continuous profile of the
arrival times ofthe wavetrain can therefore be built up, as shown in Figure 3.15.
Kennet (1971) reported that two or three traverses can be made within each hole
under test, with a varying separation between transmitterand receiver. Typical
spacings reported were 300, 600 and 1000 mm. Most current commercial
logging tools, however, do not feature the ability to vary probe separation.
CiRlAReport 144 105

Winch rope and
electricalconnectors
Transmitter
Acoustic
Pile concrete
n
/ /
Receiver
Fluid-filled duct
or drillhole
Figure 3.13 Single-hole sonic logging
4. Interpretation
A longer transit time over a portion ofthe pile implies an inhomogeneity in the
path of the propagating pulse of energy, causingeither a reduced propagation
velocity or a longer travel path.
5. Applicability
The extent of penetration of the pulse into the wall ofthe hole depends upon
many factors associated with the equipment and the method of investigation.
Published data suggest this distance varies from only a few millimetres to
perhaps 100 mm from the wall. No better guidance can be given at this stage.
The test can, in principle, be carried out in any suitable borehole drilled into the
hardened pile or in a duct incorporated into the pile during its construction.
6. Limitations
Only a relatively small volume of a pile is sampled from a single hole.
The method would normallybe used to log a drill hole within the pile. If a
cast-in duct is used, lack of bond between the cast-in duct and the pile concrete
may show up as an anomalyin the signal trace. Plastic tubes are considered
necessary for forming access ducts, because steel is too good an acoustic
106 ClRlAReportl44
conductor, and would provide a preferential acoustic path for the pulse. It can
be difficult, however, under site conditions to obtain a good bond between the
plastic tube and the concrete.
Figure 3.14 Typical sonic probe (in foreground)
7. Contract planning requirements
The test would usually be carried out in a drill hole as part of a wider
investigation programme. It is most unusual for single-hole testing to be used as
part ofa pre-planned contract test programme. In such cases, cross-hole
methods are invariably preferred in UK practice.
If single-hole testing were to be required as a part of a preplanned investigation

programme, it would be necessary either to place ducts into predetermined piles
or into all of the piles at the construction phase. The need to maintain a central
obstruction-free area within the pile for the concreting tremie pipe restricts the
position of the testing access tube to close to the perimeter of the pile, attached
to the pile reinforcing cage.
8. Frequency ofuse
Single-hole sonic logging techniques have had little use in UK construction

practice for the investigation of foundation piles. Cross-hole techniques are
almost always adopted.

Time in microseconds
Depth
in
metres
Figure 3.15 Example of a continuous sonic log
Key references
BAKER. C. N. Jr. and 1(1-IAN. F. (1971)
Caisson construction problems and correction in Chicago.
Proc. ASCE, .J SoilMech. ant/Found. Div. 97 (SM2). Paper 7934
February. pp 417-40
KENNET. P. (1971)
Geoph'sica1 borehole logs as an aid to ground engineering
Ground Engineering, Vol. 4. No. 5
108 CIRIA Report 144

3.3 HIGH-STRAIN INTEGRITY TESTING
Dynamic load test methods (Section 2.3), can be utilised as a 'high-strain'

integrity test technique. A heavy weight, such as a pile driving hammer, or
similar, is dropped on to the head of the pile, and the response of the pile is
measured. Such a blow applies a dynamic load ofa similar order to that
necessary to move and thus fail the pile (which is basically what happens during
pile driving). The hammer blow generates an impact wave, the passage of which
causes both appreciable acceleration and strain within the pile.
Because 'high-strain' test methods are primarily concerned with the interaction
between the pile and the soil, in orderto estimate its load-carrying capacity, the
test results are analysed in terms ofthe pile-soil behaviour in the time domain.
Both low-strain and high-strain integrity test methods are based upon the
principle ofthe transmission of waves through the pile-soil system. Low-strain
integrity testing and dynamic load testing are therefore conceptually similar.
The development of low-strain integrity testing has concentrated primarily upon
the pile shape or form, whereas high-strain dynamic load testing has been
predominantly concerned with the pile-soil interaction. Both techniques,
however, have overlapping areas of interest and interpretation.
The use ofdynamic load testing techniques for high-strain integrity testing is
discussed further in Section 7.
3.4 OTHER METHODS
3.4.1 Horizontal vibration testing
1. Definition
Horizontal vibrationtesting is the method ofmeasuring the horizontal stiffness

of a pile using an electrodynaniic shaker.
2. Principle
The pile is shaken horizontally over a range of frequencies, while, at the same
time, the pile- head displacement and stifThess are measured.

The shaker is clamped or fixed to the pile head and the pile-head response is
measured with a sensor such as a horizontal geophone. The shaker is broughtto
its selected frequency and the sensor response recorded. The shaker is then
tuned to the next frequency and the response again recorded. The process is
repeated to obtain a series of readings. The typical test frequency range varies
from 1 to 15 Hz.
CIRIAReportl44 109
4. Interprciation
The applied force. F. at a particular frequency from the shaker can be calculated
from an equation ofthe form
F = k1 f2
where k1 is a constant relating to the shaker.
The mechanical admittance (or mobility.Al.) of the pile head is defined bs the
relation:
Al = v/F
where v is the pile-head velocity induced by the shaker at a particular frequency.
The flexibility. s. of the pile head is given by the relationship:
Fk-,w
where co = 2iff
and k2 is a factor depending upon the sensor.
Flexibility is the inverse of stifiuiess. The results are plotted in terms of

horizontal mobility(V/F) and horizontal flexibility (S) against frequency, as
illustrated in Figure 3.16.
(Pile diameter: 700 mm)

10 10
a,
-t
0
x x
C
5- Cl)
2'
2'
.0
0
*C
LI
0 0
0 5 10 15
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 3.16 Typical results of horizontal vibration test (after Robertson, 1979)
Good correlation has been reported (Robertson. 1979) between the horizontal
flexibility obtained from the horizontal vibration test and the results of small
horizontal static load tests.

The test has also been extended to measure the mode shape of the pile by
placing the sensor at various levels within the pile using a duct cast into the pile
(such as a sonic togging access tube).
5. Applicability
The test can be undertaken on any pile type provided access can be obtained.
6. Limitations
The test is not widely used in the UK. Its use tends to be restricted to
site-specific applications which might include correlation with the fill-scale
static tests.
7. Contractplanning requirement
No particularpre-contractplanningmeasuresare required for the standard test.

The pile head has to be exposed and prepared. Extending the test to measurethe
mode shape ofthe pile would require an access tube within the pile in the case
of a concrete pile.
8. Frequency ofuse
Horizontal vibrationtesting (as with horizontal static loading)is not commonly

undertaken in routine UK practice.
Key reference
ROBERTSON, S. A. (1979)
Horizontal pile testing
Civil Engineering, January
3.4.2 Ultrasonic pulse velocity

The measurement ofultrasonicpulse velocity allows evaluation ofthe
homogeneity and quality ofthe shaft concrete of exposed piles.
The velocity of ultrasonic pulses througha solid depends upon the density and
elastic properties ofthe material. Variations in the quality or homogeneity of
the pile material, e.g. voids, honeycombing, low strength. etc., alter the elastic
properties ofthe pile material and change the ultrasonic pulse velocity through
the material.
The testing equipment generates an ultrasonic pulse and measures the transit
time between a transmitter and a receiver which are placed against the exposed
pile shaft, as illustrated in Figure 3.17. The measurementofpulse velocity may
be used to determine the homogeneity ofthe pile concrete or to detect the
presence of voids or cracks, etc. over the test length. The technique may thus be
CIRIAReportl44 111
used to examine the shafts of concrete piles which have been exposed as part of
other investigative works
Key reference
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION (1986a)
Recommendations for measurement of velocity of ultrasonic pulses in concrete
BS 1881:Part 203: 1986
Transmitter Receiver
(a) Direct transmission
Transmitter
Tx
(b) Semi directtransmission
ier
TrafterC
(c) Indirect or surface transmission
Figure 3.17 Typical usage of ultrasonic pulse velocity equipment
112 ClRIAReportl44
3.4.3 Parallel seismic testing
1. Definition
Parallel seismic testing is the method of estimating the acoustic length of a pile
by measuring the transit time of a stress-wave travelling down the pile and
through the intervening ground to a sensor lowered down a vertical tube
alongside the pile.
2. Principle
The length of time taken for a stress-wave to travel down a pile is directly
related to the length of the pile. By measuring the transit time of the stress-wave
to various levels, it is possible to calculate the depth of continuous concrete. By
implication, once the probe has passed beyond the base of the toe of the pile, or
that part of it which is continuous and unbroken from the surface, then an
increasing proportion ofthe travel path will be through the intervening soil and
the transit time will increase correspondingly.

The test was developed as an aid to check the integrity or continuity and length
of suspect piles in situations where the pile head is no longer accessible.
A small diameter hole is formed adjacentto the pile under test, with a depth
greaterthan the expected toe level. The hole is often formed by driving a
closed-end casing using an impact mole, or it can be bored by conventional
drilling. The tubing is then filled with water to providean acoustic coupler, and
a piezo-electric probe is lowered to the bottom. The pile (or the structure closest
to it) is struck with a hammer, as illustrated on Figure 3.1 S and the probe is
raised in 500 mm steps between blows.
The shock-wave or stress-wave imparted into the structure by the hammer blow
travels down the pile shaft and through a minimum thickness of soil, where it is
first detected by the probe. The transit time at the particular level is measured
and recorded. A profile ofthe signals is thus built up at 500-mm intervals, as
shown on Figure 3.19.
4. Interpretation
A change in the rate of the increase oftransit time with depth could indicate the
pile toe or a discontinuity in the shaft.
5. Applicability
The techniquewould be used when access is no longer available at the pile

head. It is thus a possible investigative tool when some evidence offoundation
distress has come to light.
CIRIAReportl44 113
Oscilloscope
Hammer
with trigger
N Structure
/, Ground beam
Piezo-electric
receiver
Pile
4r
Tube filled ir
with water k
Qi.i4
Toe of pde
'--I
Figure 3.18 Parallel seismic test (afterWilliams and Stain, 1987)
6. Limitations
The access duct must be sensibly parallel to the pile. The test would normally
be undertaken on piles less than 10 m long and in fairly uniform ground
conditions
Contractplanning requirements
As the test is most likely to be used in a retrospective investigation, the

structure itselfmay have been completed for some time. Access is therefore
necessary for the installation ofthe measurement tube alongside the pile.
114 CiRlAReport 144

Signal Signal
transmitted received
4
E
5
a.
C
C
6
Change in rateof time
increases indicates
7 defectat 6.06.5 m
Time of propagation (ms)
Figure 3.19 Typical parallel seismic result (after Williams and Stain, 1987)
8. Frequencyofuse
Not common, but the technique is available in the UK.
Key reference
WILLIAMS. H. and STAIN, R. T. (1987)
London, March
3.4.4 Electrical methods
Allthe methods considered here use the pile reinforcement as one electrode and
thus, practically, only the reinforced section ofthe pile is tested. In general,the
two critical factors are the electrical resistance of the concrete (Re) and that of
the soil (R8) immediately surrounding the pile. It is important, therefore, that the
contrast between these two values should be large. The closerthe ratio of R:R.
is to unity, the less effective is the method.
Provided that there is this detectable contrast in the electrical properties ofthe
pile compared with the surrounding soil, electrical methods can be sensitive to
exposure of the pile reinforcement. In principle, therefore, their potential for
identifying defects at the perimeter ofthe pile, leading to loss of concrete cover.
is high. They are correspondingly less able to detect internal defects or features
such as inclusions within the pile.
A benefitof electrical testing methods is that they can be used on freshly cast
piles.
ClRlAReportl44 115
The following four techniques have been generally identified:
resistance to earth
self potential
resistivity testing
induced polarisation.
Ofthese, the resistance4o-earth method is the most widely researched to date.

The other methods appear to have been little used.
The methods were reported and developed in the early 1970s and further
research work was undertaken through to the early 1980s. At that time the use
of electrical methods did not show as much promise as the acoustic integrity
tests that had been concurrently developed in other European research centres.
As far as can be determined, research and development on electrical techniques
virtually terminated at that time, and the techniques are currently rarely used.
A fuller description is given for the resistance-to-earth method, as the most

advanced ofthe electrical resistance techniques the other three methods are
only briefly explained for completeness.
Resistance to earth
The resistance-to-earth method is the technique by which a known current is

passed betweenthe pile (through its reinforcement) as one electrode and a return
electrode installed into the ground some distance from the pile. The potential
drop between the pile and a second electrode at some intermediate distance
between the pile and the return electrode is then measured.
The largest components of resistance are those of the pile concrete and the soil
around the pile. Provided that the resistances ofthese two materials are
markedly different, a change in nature or relative thickness of the concrete cover
to the pile reinforcement will be exhibited as a marked change in the measured
potential difference.
The field configuration of the method is illustrated on Figure 3.20.
Ifthe currentpassed into the pile is land the potential drop between the pile and
the measuringelectrode a distance. de. from the pile is V. then V/I is the earthing
resistance. R. of the pile for that particular position ofthe electrode. The values
ofl and Vare recorded for a range of distances, tie. A plot of the form of Figure
3.21 is then obtained.
It has been found that the use of low-frequency alternating current is preferable
to direct current, to reduce the effects of stray earth currents and induced
polarisation phenomena.
116 CIRIAReportl44
Electrical currentbetween
pile and electrode
I I
d.

I
I
Pile-potential
electrode
/ Electrodes
L :
Pile
I
reinforcement
Figure 3.20 Principle of the earth-resistance method (after McCarter et al., 1981)
I
0
C
C
C
0-
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Electrodespacing(dJL)
Figure 3.21 Typical form of the graph of current electrode spacing versus resistance
(after McCarter et al., 1981)
ClRlAReportl44 117
30
Short

'I)
20
E Control piles
'C
0
a,
0
C
It
a)
0
a,
a: Weakconcrete
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Pile-potential electrodedistance, d0 (m)
Figure 3.22 Displacementof electrode distance/resistance(E-R) curve for test piles

(after McCarteret al., 1981)
In practice, it was found sufficient, rather than plotting the complete electrode
spacing! resistance curve (termed the E-R curve), for the current electrode to be
placed at a distance from the pile equal to the pile depth, and the measuring electrode
placed midway between the pile and the current electrode. The series ofreadings for
a group of piles was thus reduced to a single value of earth-resistance for each pile
provided that the piles were constructed to similar lengths and dimensions.
The effect of a defect is to alter the current density on the reinforcement. This
will in turn displace the reading obtained from the electrode-spacing!resistance
graph, as illustrated on Figure 3.22. Depending upon the relative values of the
resistances ofthe media the graph could be displaced upwards or downwards.
but most defects result in a displacement downwards. The values obtained are
qualitative, in that no quantitative value can be provided for a soundly
constructed pile at a particular site prior to test.
The method is suited to cast-in-place piles, where the possibility of defective or

contaminated concrete would be of major concern. The technique can be used
on freshly cast piles provided all readings are taken at approximately the same
time after casting.
118 ClRlAReportl44
Defective piles have to be inferred by plotting the E-R values as a statistical set
and noting deviations from the norm. Local variations in ground conditions also
affect the E-R values. In particular, the method is often affected by the positions
of local water tables.
As only the reinforced section ofthe pile contributes materially to the E-R
curve, defects below this would not be detectable.
A major limitation to the use of the method is that it has not been proved or
developed commercially, and is available only as a research tool.
Key references
McCARTER.W. J., WHIITINGTON,H. W. and FORDE M.C. (1981)
An experimental investigation ofthe earth-resistance response of a reinforced
concrete pile
Proc. Jnstn. CiviL Engs, Part 2, Vol. 70, Dec., pp 1101-29
BOBROWSKI, J., BARDHAN-ROY, BK., MAGIERA, R.H. and

LOWE, R.H. (1971)
The structural integrity of large diameter bored piles
In: BehaviourofPiles, ICE, London, pp 179-84
Other electrical methods
So far as is known, the methods outlined below have not been used to detect
pile anomalies and have not been subjected in any major research development
since being identified by Weltman(1977).
Sefpotential. A small potential is found to exist between the pile reinforcement

and an electrical earth. This can be measured using a sensitive millivoltmeter.
Reinforcement without cover could show a detectable anomaly in the measured
voltage, compared with the norm forthe site. The layout forthis method is
illustrated on Figure 3.23.
Non-polarising
Pile electrode
reinforcement
Figure 3.23 Principle of self-potential method
ClRlAReportl44 119
RCSISIEVIrV,The test set-up is similar to the standard geophysical Wenner
configuration. with the pile acting as one ofthe outer electrodes, as shown on
Figure 3.24. A voltage is applied between the outer electrodes and the potential
drop between two intermediate electrodes is measured. Again anomalous
readings ma indicate a defect.
II
II
Pile
I.
I
reinforcement Non-polarising
electrodes
Figure 3.24 Principle of resistivity method (after Weltman, 1977)
Inducedpo/arisation. The circuit layout, illustrated in Figure 3.25 incorporates

a signal generator which supplies a square-wave pulse between the pile and the
nearest electrode. The decay of the electrical field that is produced is measured
with respect to time using an oscilloscope to monitor the induced waveforms.
By using a series ofdifferent pulse amplitudes, a response curve for each pile
can be produced, and anomalous results may indicate a defective pile.
Oscilloscope
N\.
Pulse generator
Pile Non-polarising
reinforcement electrodes
Figure 3.25 Principle of induced polarity method (after Weltman, 1977)
120 ClRlAReportl44
3.4.5 Nuclear-radiation methods
Backscatter techniques
Neutron backscatter or gamma-ray backscattermethodsmeasurethe dispersal of

atomic particles emitted from a radioactive source by the material forming the
pile. Some ofthe particles are thus diverted back towards a detector that is
shielded from direct radiation from the source.
Gamma-ray photons and neutrons behave like particles, colliding with atoms of
the material forming the pile and suffering both scattering and absorption in the
process.
In the case ofgamma ray techniques, the longerthe distance travelled from
emitter to receiver or the greaterthe density ofthe material, then the larger the
numberofthe source particles that are absorbed or scattered. Since the distance
between the emitter and the detector is constantfor the test, the observedcount
rate is thus dependent upon the density ofthe material through which the
radiation is passing.
Neutron techniques depend upon the fact that the neutrons emanating from the
source are rapidly slowed down by the presence ofhydrogen atoms, far more so
than forother atoms. The detection of these 'slow' neutrons is therefore
predominantly a measure ofthe presence ofhydrogen within the material
through which the neutrons are passing. Hydrogen is mainly held as water
within the molecular structure ofthe concrete ofthe pile. Differences in water
content are thus indicative of differences in pile material.
A suitable radio-isotope source is required to provide the source of the neutron

or gamma radiation.
Backscatter techniques are employed in a single borehole or duct. More than

one borehole or duct may be drilled or cast into a pile, and each hole is then
logged in turn. The neutron or gamma-my source is at the foot of a probe and a
suitable detector at the head, shielded from the source by a lead shielding, as
illustrated in Figure 3.26.
The probe containing the combined source and detector is lowered down the
access tube while readings are taken at close, regular intervals, to produce a
continuous profile ofthe relative concrete quality ofthe pile.
A gamma-ray backscatter test in progress on site is illustrated on Figure 3.27.
In that the neutron techniques respond to the water content of the surrounding
material, they are sensitive, for example, to clay inclusions, which have a
moisture content markedly different to sound concrete. A sand inclusion is
likely to have a smaller difference in moisture content and would be
correspondingly less easy to detect using neutron techniques.
ClRIAReportl44 121
Winch rope and
electrical connectors
big
r
Pile concrete Electronics
bY
Detector
Lead shield
Source
Duct or drillhole
within pile
Figure 3.26 Nuclear backscatter logging (after Preiss and Caiserman, 1975)
Gamma techniques are responsive to density changes within the pile and are
therefore sensitive to poor quality concrete or voiding.
Typical results from test piles with included faults are shown on Figure 3.28.
The method does not depend upon the concrete gaining strength before testing,
so it can be used for early examination of freshly cast piles.
The radiation typically penetrates for only a limited distance awas from the wall
of the duct in the concrete pile, and this therefore represents the effective
volume of the pile being sampled. It could extend, however, to include the
perimeter ofthe pile. which is susceptible to many of the construction problems
that lead to the formation of an unsatisfactory pile. The test can be carried out
within any suitable borehole or duct within a pile. It is not usual, however, for
single ducts to be cast into a pile. Invariably two or more ducts are preferable.
Such multiple hole systems can then allow either single-hole or cross hole
techniques to be used. Preiss and Caiserman (1975) favoured the use ofsingle-
hole backscatter testing even in multiple tube systems.
Testing is normally carried out in preplaced steel ducts or pipes attached to the
pile reinforcement cage. Baker et a/. (1991)preferredthe use ofplastic pipes to
avoid signal damping.
122 ClRlAReportl44
When using a prefabricated single duct and the single-hole method, the tube
would usually be attached to the pile cage, and it has been suggested that the
results can, therefore, be affected by the pile reinforcement and, possibly, by the
surrounding ground.
The use of radioactive sources is generally governed by statutory regulations

regarding their handling, storage and use. Gamma-ray backscattering requires
only a weak radioactive source, with less stringent safety measures. The licence
for use should cover the possibility ofthe probe being lost down the hole and
accept that it can be grouted in. Preiss and Caiserman in a private communication
to the author in 1990 reported that with a 1 millicurie Cs 137 source, this is quite
reasonable.
If the test is to be undertaken within a drill hole as part of a wider investigation

programme, requirements would be similarto other in-situ testing systems.
If testing were required as part of a pre-planned investigation programme, it

would be necessary to place ducts into those piles requiring testing, or into all
the piles, at the pile construction phase.
The method is not particularly common in the UK and availability may be a

problem. It has been regularly used in the Middle East for over 20 years as
indicated by Preiss and Caiserman (1975) and its use has also been reported in
the USA (Baker el cii., 1991).
Figure 3.27 Gamma-ray backscattertest in progress

Reading
0
I-
0
E
a.
0
C
10
Figure 3.28 Gamma-ray backscatter resufts
Key references
BAKER, C. N. Jr. DRUMRIGHT. E. E.. BRIAUD.

J-L. MESAH-DWUMAH, F. and PARIKH. 0. (1991)
Drilled shafisfor bridge foundations
Final Report to Office of Engineering and Highway Operations.
Grant No. DTFH6I-88-Z-00040
National Technical Service. Springfield, VA 22161
October. 335 p
BAKER, C. N, Jr. and KHAN. F. (1971)

Caisson construction problems and correction in Chicago
Proc. ASCEJ Soil Mech. and Found Div Vol. 97 (SM2). Paper 7934
February. pp 4 17-40
PREISS. K. (1971)
Checking of cast-in-place concrete piles by nuclear radiation methods
British Journal ofN.D. T.. May
pp 70-76
PREESS. K. and CAISERMAN, A. (1975)

Non-destructive integrity testing of bored piles by gamma ray scattering
Cross-hole transmission techniques
The principal transmission techniqueemploysgamma radiation. Gamma-ray

transmissiontechniques measure the numberofgamma ray particles received
by a detector after travelling a known distance through the pile material from a
nearby radioactive source of known strength.
124 CIRIAReportl44
This technique is also known as gamma-gamma logging (e.g. Baker el al.. 1992).
Gamma-ray photons behave like particles, colliding with atoms ofthe material
forming the pile and suffering both scattering and absorption in the process.
In the case ofgamma-ray techniques, the greaterthe thickness or density of the

material, the largerthe numberofthe source particles absorbedor scattered.
A suitable radio-isotope source is required to provide the source of the gamma

radiation.
The gamma-ray transmissiontechnique is used in a twin-tube or cross-hole system.
A gamma-ray source is lowered down one access tube and a detector probe
down the adjacent one as illustrated on Figure 3.29. The gamma-ray particlesor
photons radiate into the surrounding pile material. Some ofthe atomic particles
are absorbed or scattered, while some pass throughto the detector. The source
and detector are simultaneously lowered down the access holes and continuous
measurements taken. A typical test result obtained on a pile with a built-in
defect is illustrated on Figure 3.30.
Winch ropes and

electrical connections
to surface electronics
Concrete pile
Access ducts
Detector
Source holder
Detector
crystS
Source Radiation beam penetrating

fromsource to detector
Figure 3.29 Principle of cross-hole gamma-ray logging (after Preiss, 1971)
Gamma-ray techniques respond to density changes within the pile concrete and
therefore can indicate variations in concrete quality.
Gamma-ray transmission methodssample across the body ofthe pile and

therefore test a greatervolume of material than backscatter methods.
They can be used on freshly cast concrete.
ClRlAReport 144 125

The distance from source to detector could require an intense radioactive source
with inconvenient safety measures. The use of such radioactive sources is
governed by statutory regulations regarding their storage. handling and use.
At design stage. pre-selection of the pile is necessa in order to arrange to cast

in the access tubes. Alternatively, the decisionmay be made to cast access tubes
into all the contract piles.
During the contract, access ducts have to be cast into the piles at the
construction stage and are typically incorporated into the pile cage. Baker ci a!.
(1991) suggest that the ducts should be plastic rather than steel to avoid
excessive signal damping.
Allowance also has to be made in the programme for the provision of a holding
period to allow evaluation ofthe test results prior to continuing with the
foundation construction sequence.
Count rate (counts per 30 secs)

1x105 5x105
0.00m
SourceCsl37
Discriminator level 65 key
I .QPllcr
Clay
'0
Mortar
0
>
20 mm aggregate
Concrete
1.35m
Figure 3.30 Gamma-ray transmission result on test sample pile (after Preiss, 1971)
As with single-hole backscatter techniques. use in the UK is rare and

availability would be a problem. In addition, the need for a strong radioactive
source renders the method less attractive than backscatter techniques.
Baker et a!. (1991). however, report that this is the commonest ofthe nuclear
radiation techniques used in the USA.
126 ClRlAReportl44
Key references
BAKER, C. N. (Jr), DRUMRIGHT, E. E.. BRIAUD.
J-L, MESAH-DWUMAH, F. and PARIKH, G. (1991)
Drilled shafis for bridgefoundations
Final Report to Office of Engineering and Highway Operations,
Grant No. DTFH61-88-Z-00040
National Technical Service. Springfield, VA 22161
October. 335 p
PREISS, K. (1971)
Checking of cast in place concrete piles by nuclear radiation methods
British Journal ofND. T., May. pp 70 -76
1. Low-strain integrity testing examines the response of a pile to a light,

external impulsive force. Stress wave theory is used in the analysis.
2. Reflections ofthe stress wave within the pile are caused by changes in the
physical properties ofthe pile, or ofthe surrounding soil. Such changes
may be indicative of
the pile toe
inclusions
cracks or joints
dimensional changes
variations in concrete quality
overlapping reinforcement
variations in soil stiffness.
3. The measured data from the tests can be analysed by reference to time or to
frequency. The former are often referred to as echo tests and the latter as
frequency response tests.
4. Low-strain integritytests may be used on all pile types and for piles formed
in all types of ground, provided that access to the pile head can be obtained.
5. The value ofthe test may be reduced by attenuation ofthe wave as it travels
through the pile. In addition, boundaries between soils of markedly
different stiffness can produce effects similar to those caused by section
changes in the pile.
6. Tests are not diagnostic ofthe cause ofthe observed defects, but skilled
interpreters can often deduce likely causes.
CIRIAReportl44 127
7. Cross-hole sonic logging utilises the transmission ofa pulse of sonic, or
ultrasonic, energy from a transmitter sited in a duct within the pile to a
receiver in a separate, parallel duct. The ducts have to be quite accurately
positioned: the technique is therefore not suitable for use in drilled, post-
construction boreholes.
8. Cross-hole tests are quite common, particularly for large diameter piles
formed under bentonite, but the technique is not suitable for piles of less
than 600 mm diameter.
9. Single-hole sonic logging can be undertaken using a probe acting as sender
and receiver, but this test measures a much smaller volume of the pile and
is therefore rarely used.
10. Sonic logging can determine zones of different physical properties within
the pile such as very low strength concrete, voids, or inclusions.
11. Other indirect methods include:
horizontal vibration testing used to determine the horizontal stiffhess
of a pile. The test has been reported to correlate well with small
horizontal load tests. Not widely used.
ultrasonic pulse velocity allows evaluation ofthe qualit\' of exposed
shaft concrete. Rarely used.
parallel seismic testing developed to aid testing when the pile head is
no longer accessible. Stress waves imparted into the structure are
measured by a probe in a water-filled borehole drilled as close as
possible to the pile. The test may be usefl.il as an investigatory tool for
post-construction problems.
electrical methods a variety ofmethods which will only work in the
reinforced zone of the pile. None of the methods has been developed
cornmercially.
nuclear radiation methods backscattertechniques measure the
dispersal ofatomic particles from a radioactive source. Use in the UK
is rare, but nuclear methods have been regularly used in the Middle
East and the USA.
128 CIRtAReportl44
4 Low-strain integrity testing: theory
Most of the integrity testing of piles in UK involves measuring the acoustic

properties ofthe pile by striking it or causing some other acoustic excitation
within it.
The science of acoustics involves the study of the generation, transmission and
reception ofenergy in the form ofvibrational waves in matter. The most
familiar acoustic phenomenon is that associated with the sensation of sound.
For the average young person a vibrational disturbance is interpreted as 'sound'
if it has a frequency in the range of about 20 to 20 000 Hz. Acoustics also
encompass ultrasonic frequencies, which are those vibrations above 20 000 Hz,
and infrasonic frequencies, which are those below 20 Hz.
Low-strain integrity tests thus examinethe response of a pile to a small

mechanical excitation at the pile head. The level ofthe excitation is low, so that
the pile/soil system behaves in a linear-elastic fashion and the pile head returns
to its original position after the test. This is in contrast to the techniquesof
dynamic load testing and high-strain integrity testing in which the impulse can
cause permanent displacement or set, as when the pile is struck by a pile-driving
hammer.
In the case of low-strain integrity testing the pile head excitation is usually
provided by a blow from a light hand-held hammer, weighing some 1 to 2 kg,
or for some forms of test an electrodynamic shaker.
The mechanical impulse generates shock waves which travel along the pile at a
velocity determined by the mechanical properties ofthe pile material. In
concrete, this propagation velocity is typically about 3500 to 4000 mIs. The
wave front spreads rapidly from the point of impact and, within a distance of
about two pile diameters, effectively takes the proportions of a plane wave. This
is identical to the propagation ofwaves through long rods or bars and the
theoretical treatment and analysis of both low- and high-strain integrity tests are
based upon the concepts ofthe theory developed for such bar-waves.
The resultant wave is variously termed within the literature as a stress-wave, a

shock wave, a vibrational wave or an acoustic wave. Here the term stress-wave
is used, as it is also a term in high-strain dynamic load testing.
For a pile embedded within a uniform homogeneous soil, the progress of the
stress-wave down the pile is affected by the following factors.
I. The properties ofthe pile material itself, which attenuate the stress-wave
in a roughly linear manner for a given pile diameter.
2. The characteristics ofthe soil within which the pile is embedded, which
attenuate the stress-wave in a manner related to the stiffiess of the soil.
CIRIAReportl44 129
3, Variations in the pile body, either in its external dimensions or in its
internal properties. Differences in the internal properties or dimensions of
a pile cause a part ofthe wave to be reflected back towards the pile head.
while the remainder of the wave continues down the pile. The onward
travelling wave is reduced in amplitude in equal proportion to the
magnitude of the reflected, upward-travelling wave, in accordance with
the principle of the conservation of momentum,
All three factors serve to attenuate or reduce the amplitude of the

downward-travelling stress-wave. It is principally the third aspect. however, that
is used to advantage in low-strain integrity testing. By detecting the reflected
waves returning to the pile head, information can be obtained regarding
significant physical features encountered by the initial wave in its progress
throughthe pile.
Reflections of the stress-wave within the pile are thus caused by changes in the
physical properties of the pile, which affect its acoustic or wave-transmission
properties. The changes are characterised by a parameter termed the impedance,
z. ofthe pile. The largerthe relative change in impedance at a point within the
pile. the greaterthe percentage of the incident wave that is reflected. The
process is analogous to the reflection of a light wave from a partially transparent
minor, where part of the light is reflected and the remainder is transmitted
through the minor.
As the degree of reflection ofthe stress-wave depends only upon the relative
change in impedance. either an increase or decrease of pile impedance at a point
causes a reflection of the wave. The reflected wave response differs depending
upon whether the impedance change is an increase or decrease: this is of
importance in the interpretation of low-strain integrity testing. The significance
and use of impedance in low-strain integrity testing is discussed fiuther in
Section 4.2.
4.1 AN INTRODUCTION TO WAVE PROPAGATION IN PILES
Considerations in terms of/line
A help in understanding the propagation of stress-waves throughthe body of a

pile is the executive toy consisting of a number of steel balls suspended from a
frame, as shown in Figure 4. 1.
When the ball at one end is held clear of its neighbours and then allowed to
swing back to strike the next ball in line, the motion is transferred from one ball
to the next until the farthest one is impelled away from the line of balls with the
same direction of motion as the first impact, and with approximately the same
velocity.
130 CIRIAReportl44
Figure 4.1 Analogy of wave propagationthrough a pile
This toy illustrates two ofthe fundamental concepts ofthe dynamics of the
impact ofelastic bodies.
1. The Principleofthe Conservation of Momentum, represented by the

equation:
+ m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2
where m1 and m2 represent the masses ofthe two impinging bodies

u3 and u2 are the respective velocities before impact
and v1 and v2 are the velocities after impact.
2. Newton's Experimental Law relating to the impact of elastic bodies,

represented by the following equation

(v1 v2) =
_________ C

u2)
where e = the coefficientof restitution.
For perfectly elastic bodies e = 1; and bodies for which e is zero are said to be
inelastic.
If we now consider further the motion ofa row ofperfectly elastic spheres, all
ofequal mass and of identical composition, resting upon a smooth frictionless
surface, two cases can be examined.
In the first case, as illustrated in Figure 4.2, if there is no restraint within the
system the last sphere in the line will be ejected from the row of spheres at a
velocity equal to that ofthe first sphere. From a consideration of Equations 4.1
and 4.2 above, the final velocity of spheres s1 through to s1 will be zero. Such
a case is analogous to a free-end situation within a pile, where there is no
restraint to the toe.
CIRlAReportl44 131
Sn Sn-i 53 52 Si
S_fl.
Sn S,,i 52 S2 Si
Figure 4.2 Impact of elastic spheres with no end restraint (tree end)
s
In the secondcase. illustrated in Figure 4.3, ifthe last sphere were to be
restrained against a fixed smooth plane surface, then the first sphere would s
rebound along the axis with a velocity that would be equal and opposite to its
initial velocity. Such a case would be analogous to a fixed-end condition, with
the pile toe fixed into a strong incompressible medium, such as rock.
Sr Sn-i $2 Si
Sn Sn-i 52 S1
Figure 4.3 Impact of elastic sphereswith end restraint (fixed end)
132 CIRIAReportl44
If one imagines the line of spheres except the first being hidden from view, as in
Figure 4.4, it can be appreciated that the behaviour ofthe exposed sphere can indicate
the fonn of fixing of the remote end ofthe line of spheres. Althoughthe remote end is
not visible, its condition can be inferred from the response ofthe whole system to the
disturbing force. If one ofthe spheres were to be replaced by a sphere of much smaller
diameter, though of the same material, the situation illustrated in Figure 4.5 can be
investigated. It can be demonstrated that the smaller sphere will act as a quasi-free end
to the preceding sphere, so that only part ofthe velocity ofthe larger sphere will be
transmittedthroughthe system. The remaining portion ofthe momentum ofthe larger
sphere will, in accordance with the Principle of the Conservation of Momentum, cause
the larger sphere to continue to move in the direction of its original motion. This is
analogous to the effect of a loss of section in a pile.
V=vl
,' .-," '\# "/ ,_ "

N.. j '._ .7 '_ .7 N.. _ \, _./
V=o
(a)
l,__ ,___% ,,___'
.7 / I
1% N. ''._
V = Vi
III
------1
V = Vi
(b)
Figure 4.4 Response of impact sphere (a) to free-end condition; (b) to fixed-end
condition
CIRIAReportl44 133
In a similar manner, an asymmetry in the line of spheres in the form of a sphere
of the same material but of larger diameter, would have an effect of the type
illustrated in Figure 4.6. In this case it would behave as a quasi-fixed end to the
preceding sphere. and the direction ofmotion of the smaller sphere would be
partially reversed.This is analogous to an increase in cross-section.or a bulge
within the pile
ccc I
Figure 4.5 Effect of a smaller diameter intermediatesphere (e.g. a neck)
WJW a
EICO 4
cm
Figure 4.6 Effect of larger diameter intermediatesphere (e.g. bulge)
The analogs' of separate spheres, however, does not represent the ability of the
particles forming the body of a 'real' pile to transfer not only compressive but
also tensile forces. Thus the pile parts do not separate under the normal impact
forces being considered here.
This situation can be modelled by imagining that the elastic spheres arejoined
by springs and so able to transmit compressiveand tensile force.
134 CIRlAReport 144

The case of a free-ended pile can thus be modelled as shown in Figure 4.7. The
stress-wave can be followed first as a compressive wave travelling downward
through the pile to the toe. At the toe the stress-wave is transformed to a tensile
mode, returning towards the surface, as each unit is pulled downwards in turn.
The tension wave eventually reaches the sphere at the pile head and this is
pulled down towards the toe.
Thus, a free-end condition should result in a movement of the pile head in the
same direction as that caused by the initial impulse, when the reflected
stress-wave from the toe reaches the pile head.
Similarly, a fixed-ended pile can be modelled as illustrated in Figure 4.8. In this

case, when the initial compression wave reaches the pile toe, the sphere rebounds
from the rigid elastic surface at the toe of the pile, and the motion is reflected as a
compression wave. When the compression wave returns to the surface, the unit at
the pile head is impelled in an opposite direction to that imparted by the original
impulse. Thus, a markedly different response is given at the pile head by the
arrival ofthe stress-wave reflected by either a fixed or a free end to the pile.
It can also be inferred from Figures 4.7 and 4.8 that in a perfectly elastic system
the motion would be repeated cyclically ad infinitum.
It can further be inferred from Figures 4.5 and 4.6 that a relative toss or increase
in section will induce characteristic responses, which, if measured by a sensor
placed on the pile head and analysed, can be interpreted in terms ofthe change
of section.
Impact
a.
C
Figure 4.7 Impact of elasticallyconnected spheres with no end restraint (free-end

condition)
Considering Figures 4.7 and 4.8 once more, it can be seen that they are
essentially plots ofthe depth ofthe wavefront against time. Ifthe motion ofthe
pile head is monitored by a sensor which can measure either its velocity or its
displacement with time, the sensor would be expected to show a plot typified by
the traces shown in Figure 4.9. Indeed Figure 4.9 is the basis of most sonic echo
plots.
CIRlAReport 144 135

Impact
Figure 4.8 Impact of elastically connected sphereswith end restraint (fixed-end

condition)
Time
2'
8
Impulse
Arrival of toe Repeat arrival
reflection
(a)
Time
2'
8
(b)
Figure 4.9 Echo tests: theoretical response of pile head (a) tree-end condition:
(b) fixed-end condition
The above explains the basic concept ofthe pile response in terms of the time
domain. The analogy can be extended further to explain the response in terms of
the frequency domain.
Considerations in terms of,frequency
Instead of a single impulse, considermany repeated impulses. each of constant

amplitude and form. The stress-wave from each force impulse is transmitted
throughthe pile body at a velocity. c (where c is the velocity of plane wave
propagation in the pile). and reflected from the pile toe or other discontinuity
back towards the pile head.
136 CIRlAReport 144

If the time period between each maximum in the series of force pulses is such
that the reflected stress-wave from an initial impulse reaches the pile head at the
same instant as the stress-wave from the next impulse is imparted into the pile,
the amplitudes of vibration from each impulse will interact. Ifthe stress-waves
are in the same phase (i.e. both tending to cause a motion of the pile particles in
the same direction), their effect will be additive, and resonance will occur in the
pile body at that frequency of impulse or vibration. Conversely, ifthe incident
and reflected stress-waves are out ofphase then they will wholly or partially
cancel one another.
Thus the response of the pile can be examined for a uniformly applied
oscillating force over a range of impulse frequencies. The measured pile-head
velocity can be expected to vary depending upon the frequency ofthe impulse
force as an alternating series ofmaxima and minima. The position ofthese
maximum and minimum values would depend upon the travel time of the
incident and reflected stress-waves transmitted through the pile. which in turn
would be directly proportional in a uniform pile to its length. In the case ofa
discontinuous pile the maximawould be proportional to the depth of an
intervening discontinuity. The response of the pile when examined in the
frequency domain would therefore be expected to take the forms illustrated in
Figure 4.10 (a) and (b).
In the same way as a free-ended or a fixed-ended condition has a different effect

upon the mode ofthe reflected stress-wave in the time-domain analysis, they
also affect the response in the frequency domain. In terms ofthe frequency
response, the relative positions ofmaxima and minima are shifted along the
frequency axis by one halfof the characteristic frequency interval, as illustrated
on Figure 4.10.
Modem computation techniques allow frequency analysis to be undertaken on

only a single blow, using the information contained not only in the pile-head
impulse but also from the resulting reflection within the pile. The complex
waveform formed by the initial impulse and the returning reflections can be
analysed into its component frequencies. The resonant and dissonant
frequencies can then be studied to determine the characteristics of the pile under
test.
4.2 PILE IMPEDANCE
Section 4.1 demonstrates that when the top ofa pile is acted upon by an
impulsive force, such as a hammer blow, a downwa.rd4ravelling stress-wave is
generated and propagates through the body ofthe pile towards the pile toe. As
the wave progresses, reflections ofthe initial downward-travelling wave occur
at points where the pile properties change. Depending upon the magnitude of
the relative change in pile properties, part ofthe incident wave is reflected and
part is transmitted onward. The reflected portions as upward4ravelling waves
can be detected by a suitable sensor at the pile head.
ClRIAReportl44 137
at at at
0
L0
C
0
a.
0
C
D
Ct
a'
-C
C
0
Frequency
(a)
at
At
a'
0
C
0
a.
0
a,
It
0
a,
0
Frequency
(b)
Figure 4.10 Frequency responsetest: response of pile head (a) free-end response;
(b) fixed-end response
Low-strain integrity testing is based upon the analysis ofthese reflections.

which are generally caused by relatively sharp, rather than gradual. changes in
the properties of the pile or pile/soil system. Such changes are normally
expressed in terms of the impedance. z. ofthe pile. The greater the impedance
change. the greaterthe reflected signal.
The conceptof pile impedance is flindaniental to understanding and interpreting

low-strain integrity tests. A downward-travelling wave is reflected by the pile
toe not because it is the pile toe as such, but because there is a major change of
the properties of the pile at that point. An identical effect is given if the pile is
physically broken at that location. The suggestion that a return signal detected
at the pile head is the reflection from the pile toe is determined by considering
the distance the wave-front has travelled - either as measured by the time lapse
between the initial blow and the arriving reflection or from the frequenc
interval between resonant peaks. The identification of the pile toe is therefore an
138 ClRlAReportl44
interpretation of the test results. What has been detected is a reflection from a
back-calculated horizon, the assumption being that it is the pile toe from the
knowledge that the pile was ofa certain length and the assumption that its
properties are identical for all practical purposes over its full length.
A shorter time lapse than expected would indicate that the reflection was
arriving from a higher level within the pile (because it has had a shortertravel
time). This reflection from a higher level might or might not represent a defect
within the pile.
Effectively, then, the toe ofthe pile (or any intervening defect or feature),
changes the pile impedance and results in the reflection of a portion ofthe
downward-travelling wave to a greateror lesser extent.
The parameter, impedance, incorporates several characteristics ofthe pile/soil

system. It is principally a function ofthe pile cross-section, the propagation
velocity of the stress-wave through the pile, and the density of the pile material
(both the latter are functions ofconcrete quality). The surrounding soil
conditions also affect the behaviour of the stress-wave. For the present,
however, it is proposed to concentrate on the pile properties.
Impedance at any given level in the pile is thereforeusually expressed by the

relationship
z = p.c.A
where p is the density ofthe pile material

c is the propagation velocity of the stress wave
A is the cross-sectional area ofthe pile.
The propagation velocity is related to the dynamic modulus of elasticity and

density ofthe pile material by the relationship
c = JR
Thus, by substitution, z can also be expressed in the alternative forms given by:
E.A
C
z =A 'E.p
Equation 4.3 is the commonly used expression of pile impedance in low-strain

integritytesting. Equation 4.5 is most used in dynamicanalysis (high-strain
integrity testing), as outlined in Section 7.
CIRIAReportl44 139
Equation 4.3 demonstrates that the impedance of the pile is directly proportional
to its cross-sectional area. In most practical cases. the density and wave speed
have a lesser effect on the numerical value of z. Both density and wave speed are
linked to concrete strength, which has a direct bearing upon the serviceability of
the pile, yet even a major reduction in concrete strength would not reduce either
parameter by a proportional amount, because the inter-relationship is logarithmic
rather than linear. As an example. Figure 4.11 illustrates a typical correlation
between concrete strength and the velocity of plane-wave propagation.
The magnitude of the change in impedance determines the extent to which the
shock wave is reflected. A minor change in impedance causes only a relatively
small part of the wave energy to be reflected, while the remainder is transmitted
onwards down the pile beyond the impedance change. Conversely, a major
change in impedance causes all, or nearly all, of the wave to be reflected and
none, or very little, to be transmitted to a deeper level.

4000
:1
E
C.) 3000
2
S
C)
C
0
C)
C
8
C
'p 2000
C
0
4-
C
0)
C
a
2
a
C

1000
I
0 I
0 10 20 30 40 50
28-dayUCS of concrete (N/mm2)
Figure 4.11 Typical relationship between velocity of plane wave propagation and
unconfinedcompression strength of concrete (after Ellway, 1987)
(Note: relationshipfor a particular mix will vary, depending on concrete
constituents).
140 ClRlAReportl44
Further consideration of impedance changes within a pile highlights two points
of significance to low-strain integrity testing.
First, if a pile element having an impedance z1 (= p c1 A1) abuts an element

with a different impedance, z2 = P2 c2 A2, as illustrated in Figure 4.12, the
change in impedance at the boundary between the two elements is given by:
= p1c1A1
z2 p2c2A2
In a normal concrete pile p and c are usually fairly constantso that the ratio
z1:z2 is very sensitive to the ratio A1:A2. Thus integritytests are very good at
detecting changes in pile area, such as necks or cracks.
= mciAi
z2=pao2A2
Figure 4.12 Change in impedancewithin a pile
Secondly, the relationship defined by Equation 4.7 demonstrates that the

magnitudeofthe effect ofthe impedance change is the same regardless of
whether it results from an increase or decrease in pile properties. Thus,
assumingthat p and c remain constant regardless ofwhetherA1>A2 orA1<A2 the
effect is still to cause an impedance change and result in a reflection or partial
reflection ofthe downward-travelling shock wave. Thus, increases in the pile
cross section (bulbs or enlargements) can have a similar effect, in terms ofthe
magnitude ofsignal reflected, as a decrease in cross-section (neck or crack).
However, what is of major importance to the interpretation ofthe test is whether

the change detected is an increase or decrease in relative impedance. Such an
increase or decrease should be detectable in the characteristics ofthe reflection
received at the pile head, an increase in pile impedance being equivalentto a
CIRlAReportl44 141
fixed-end condition, and a decrease in impedance equivalent to a free end. Thus
the behaviour ofthe pile head should allow an evaluation ofthe significance
and mode ofthe change in impedance at depth.
Ellwav (1987) suggested that the most sensitive integrity tests are capable of
detecting pile impedance changes of about 1:0.8 or. equivalently. 1:1.2. These
'just detectable' changes in pile properties cause only a small part ofthe
stress-wave to be reflected, thus it is possible to 'see through' the feature. As
the ratio change approaches 1:0.5 (or 1:2) most of the wave is reflected causing
a clear 'echo'. When the ratio change of pile properties exceeds 1:0.25 (or 1:4).
the incident stress-wave is almost completely reflected, so that below this point
no further information on pile integrity can be obtained.
Effects of length ofdefect
In addition to the magnitude ofthe impedance change, implied by the

relationship defined by Equation 4.7. consideration has to be given to the length
of pile affected by this impedance change. In a practical case, such as a reduction
of section. exemplified by a neck feature, illustrated in Figure 4.13. the pile
impedance will change from a decrease at section x-x. where A1>A2, to an
increase at section s-v. where A2<A1. Thus, from previous analyses, the signal
response curve would be expected to show a decrease-in-impedance feature due
to change x-x and an increase-in-impedance feature due to change y-y
Area of pile = A1
x x
Area of pile
y y
Area of pile = A1
Figure 4.13 Length of pile affected by a change of impedance
As v-y comes closer to x-x, however, interference between the two effects will
increase. This is because ofthe finite time over which the wave pulse is
imparted into the pile, being typically 0.5 to 1.0 ms. With a wavespeed (c) of,
say.4000 m/s the length ofthe pulse travelling throughthe pile might therefore
be 2 to 4 m. Thus, the signal response from a neck or bulge that was markedly
shorterthan this value would suffer interference because of the two impedance
changes.
142 ClRlAReportl44
This can be particularly relevant to a feature such as a partial crack or bite
within the pile. Provided the crack or bite does not take up so much of the area
of the pile shaft that there would be total reflection, interference between the
two impedance changes might effectively renderthe feature virtually
undetectable to the test.
This facet was described in recent discussions on tow-strain integrity tests

undertaken as part ofthe 4th International Stresswave Conference at Deift, in
the Netherlands (Wheeler, 1992), togetherwith subsequent correspondence in
Ground Engineering (Stain, 1993a, 1993b; van Weele, 1993; ElIway, 1993;
Turner, 1993). As part ofthese discussions, van Weele (1993) re-emphasised
that, with a test pulse wavelength of 3 to 4 m, defects with an axial length of
smaller than 0.8 to 1.0 m cannot be uniquely determined. He pointed out that
the DeIft tests showed that in some circumstances a feature of very small axiat
extent (in this case a crack occupying 50% ofthe area ofthe pile which was
artificially induced into some of the test piles) was invisible to the test.
Thus it must be borne in mind, that a feature extending over much ofthe pile's
cross section, but of small axial extent may not be visibte to a low strain
integrity test.
Effect [soii changes
If the pile is embedded in a non-homogeneous soil, changes in the soil

properties also affect the stress-wave. Thus the change, for example, from a
very weak to a very stiffsoil can cause a partial or complete reflection of the
stress-wave, in a similar manner to changes of impedance within the pile.
The effect of changes in soil characteristics are often, for ease of understanding,
equated to changes of pile cross-section or density within the impedance
equation.
4.3 TIME-BASEDANALYSIS OF PILE-HEAD RESPONSE
In the sonic echo test, the response length of the pile can be calculated from the
time delay, 1, between the input pulse and the arrival of reflections from within
the pile body. Ifthe propagation velocity, c. ofthe wave pulse through the
material forming the pile is known, then the length. L. to a particular reflecting
surface is given by:

L=fJ2
The characteristics of a typical time-based signal response curve arc shown in
Figure 414,
2L
C
a,
ci,
C
0
a.
U,
a,
I-
0
0
a,
a-
lime
Figure 4.14 Idealised signal-responsecurve for a time-based low-strain integrity test
The analysis of most time-based techniques, whether low-strain or high-strain.

is based upon the mathematical relationship explaining the propagation of
bar-waves throughrod-like bodies known as the wave equation. In civil
engineering applications this relationship and its associated studies are
commonly referred to as stress-wave analysis.
As described in Section 4.2, reflections ofthe stress-wave are caused by

impedance changes in the pile. These could be the result of features such as the
pile toe. inclusions in the body ofthe pile. cracks or joints. changes in cross-
section. variations in concrete quality. the termination or overlapping of heavy
reinforcement, or variations in soil stifThess (resulting from skin friction or
changes in pile shape).
In order to examine the effect of such changes in impedance upon both the
downward-travelling and the resulting upward-travelling stress-waves, it is
usual to considerthe problem in terms of the propagation of waves through a
uniform elastic medium such as a prismatic rod or bar. Such a case is illustrated
in Figure 4.15. where the rod has a cross-sectional area A. a modulus of
elasticity E. a mass density p. and is acted upon by a time-dependent force 11(t).
The behaviour of a pile, represented as a uniform prismatic rod, under the action
of such an impulsive force, can therefore be related to the fundamental
equations of motion.
144 CIRIAReportl44
Based upon Newton's Second Law of Motion, the equation ofmotion for an
infinitesimal section of the rod is given by the relationship
SF
.dx = (p.A).dxJL.!
Sx St2
where u is the axial displacement of the segment in the direction, x, at time, I.
From Hooke's Law the value of the force, F, is related to the incremental strain
of the segment, thus:
A,E,p
dx
F (t)
F(xit) -l F (xi t).6F dx

Sx
p
dx
Figure 4.15 Wave propagation through a prismatic rod loaded at one end
(after TNO-IBBC, 1987)
F= -EA ...(4.lO)
Sr
By substituting forF into Equation 4.9:
EAJI ...(411)
5x2 St2
For equilibrium, the condition is:

52u
EA___-pA_J=O ...(4.12)
The wave propagation velocity is given by c2 = E/p, from Equation4.4 so that

Equation 4.12 can be expressed in the form:
CIRIAReportl44 145
Arflval of
Impact 2L reflection
C
Time, I'
I
L
Figure 4.16 Characteristics of downward- and upward-travellingstress-waves
.!!
ox2
-L..!! =o
c2 8t2
Equation 4.13 is the standard wave equationrelatingto the displacement, 11.

along a uniform prismatic rod or bar; its general solution is:
u=f(xc:)+f(x+ct) ...(4.14)
Wherefj is a function representing a wave moving down the pile shaft. andf is
a function representing a wave moving up the pile shaft.
Thus the general solution to Equation4.13 is expressed in terms of two
travelling waves, each propagating throughthe rod with a velocity, c, but in
oppositedirections.
The detailed derivation of the above equations is dealt with in standard texts,
such as Graffe (1975). The above particular derivation and the following further
analysis is based upon that published by Voitus van Hamme et ci. (1974) and
extended by van Weele (1987). The principles of wave propagation covered by
the stress-wave theory also have direct application to dynamic load testing. as
referred to in Section 7.
From Equation4.10 the force, F, acting at any point within the rod is given by:
146 ClRlAReportl44
F=EA_=-EA dfd dfU
fix d(x - ci) d(x + ci)
or
F=Fd+FU ...(4.15)
Where Ed and F are two force waveswhich are propagated undisturbed with a
velocity
c = (E/p) in the positive and negative (i.e downward and upward) directions,
respectively.
In the same way, the particle velocity, v, at any point within the rod is given by:
v=_
St
=c. did
d(x ci)
+c. df
d(x + ci)
or
VVd+Vu ...(4.16)
v
Where i'd and are the particle velocities associated with the two force waves
d E
and respectively.
v and v are also linked to Ed and E by the following relations:

= + ...(4.17)
z
F
= .....! ...(4.18)
and thus
Z.V=FdFM ...(4.19)
The above relationships obtained in Equations 4.15 to 4.19 are used

(e.g. Voitus van Hamme eta!., 1974) to examine the behaviourofthe
stress-waves at external boundaries or internal discontinuities within the pile as
outlined below.
CIRIAReportl44 147
Reduction ofimpedance. i.e. free end
In the case of a free-ended pile, no force can bc transmitted across the toe
boundars'. and thus in Equation 4.15:
Ed+EU=OorFd=-FU
Hence, substituting in Equation 4.19:
2Fd
...(4.20)
z
Thus, the particle velocity at a free end resulting from an initial impulse at the
head of the pile, is equal to twice the particle velocity imparted bs' that initial
impulse, while the resultant force is zero, as illustrated in Figure 4.16. It should
also be noted from this figure, that the downward4ravclling compression wave
is reflected back throughthe body of the pile from the boundary as a tension
wave (F = -Fd). and the resulting particle velocity is positive (i.e. downwards).
When the upward- travelling tension wave is reflected at the head ofthe pile,
which is also a free end it will be reflected from the boundary as a compressive
wave, and the resultant particle velocity will again be positive.
Thus a relative decrease of impedance from a relative reduction in section or

internal pile properties would be typified by a free-end type of response. On a
standard signal response plot, the reflection from such a decrease in impedance
would be represented by a return pulse on the same side ofthe horizontal (time)
axis as the initial impulse.
The interface between the pile toe and the underlying soil usually involves a
reduction in impedance, since it is unusual for soil to be stiffer than the pile
material. Thus the toe reflection is usually a free-end response. Similarly a
reduction of section represented b' a neck or a discontinuity such as a crack
also displays a free-end response. Typical free-end responses are shown on
Figure 4.17.
/ncreas'e in impedance. i.e. /Ixed end
At a fixed end, the resultant particle velocity will be zero: from Equation 4.16:
= 0, i.e.
Va + Va =-v
Substituting from Equations 4.17 and 4.18 gives:
= (-a) =
z z z
and from Equation 4.15:
148 CIRIAReportl44
F = 2Fd ...(4.21)
Thus at a fixed end the resultant force is twice the value of the force imparted
by the initial blow and the resultant particle velocity is zero.
It can be seen from Figure 4.18 that the stress-wave is reflected back from such
a boundary as a compressive stress-wave (F = Fd), and the resultant particle
velocity is negative (v = - i'd), or upwards, in sense. Thus when the reflected,
upward-travelling, stress-wave reaches the head ofthe pile the resultantparticle
velocity at the pile head is also negative (i.e. upwards from the pile and in the
opposite direction to the velocity imparted by the original impulse).
At the pile head, as it is a free end, the resultant force is zero and the particle
velocity at the pile head is twice that originally imparted by the initial impulse,
as shown in Figure 4.18(a).
Thus a relative increase in pile impedance, typical of a relative increase in either

the pile cross-sectional area or its internalproperties (or a combination of
these), would give a fixed-end type ofresponse. A standard signal-response plot
would show the reflection from such an increase in impedance as a return pulse
on the opposite side of the horizontal (time) axis to that ofthe initial hammer
impulse.
Such a fixed-end response would be typical ofa bulge or increase in pile

section, such as an under-ream, or where a cast-in-place pile has been
constructed against a buried concrete or masonryobstruction (such a feature is
commonly termed an 'anchorage' in low-strain integrity test terminology).
Typical fixed-end responses are shown on Figure 4.18.
Impedance change andpartial reflection
The impedance change associated with a particular feature within the pile might only
be sufficient to cause partial reflection of the downward-travelling stress-wave. The
remainder of the signal would be transmitted onward down the pile. An example of
such a partial feature would be a neck or bulge in the pile section.
It can be shown by further analysis (e.g. Voitus van Hamme eta!., 1974), that
stress-waves arriving at a plane of discontinuity will be partly reflected and partly
transmitted across the discontinuity according to the following relationships:
CIRlAReportl44 149
z z 2z2
.F1, +
=
+ z1) .F2
Flu + ...(4.22)
z1 (z2
z
2
z 2z
= 1
+ ...(4.23)
.F1,
z2 (z2 +z1)
Where Fid. F1. 2d, F2, z1 and z2 are as shown in Figure 4.19.
Van Koten and Wood (1987) also developed a solution for the effect of a
gradual change in diameter with depth, as opposed to a sharp change in
diameter.
Detailed explanation is beyond the scope of this report. but the interested reader
is referred to the standard works listed in the Bibliography. Suffice it to say that
the Stress Wave Theoiy provides a powerhil method for analysing the signal
response of a pile to impulsive forces and explaining the behaviourof the signal
in terms of changes of the impedance ofthe pile and pile/soil system.
The practical significance of a partial reflection within the pile is that the pile-
head response is a function of the effect of more than one impedance change
upon the transmitted or reflected waves. The response might show for instance
the effect of a partial loss of section at some intermediate depth together with
the effect of the toe ofthe pile. With increasing numbers of partial reflections,
such as an irregular pile section or many soil layer changes. the signal response
becomes extremely complex. Figure 4.20 illustrates typical combined
responses.
Effect ofa very longpile
For an infinitely long pile, with no intermediate impedance changes, there

would be no toe reflection. Over the period of the test on a yen' long pile, the
velocity-time graph at the pile-head would simply indicate the initial impulse
from the hammer blow, as indicated on Figure 4.21.
Effect ofembedment within soil
Skin friction along the pile dissipates the energy of the initial impulse and. thus,
progressively reduces the amplitude ofthe stress-wave, as illustrated in
Figure 4.22. In order to counter this effect, a time-dependent amplification is often
applied to the signal to accentuate and differentiate the remote-end response from
the surrounding signal. Amplification can either be linear with time or exponential.
150 CIRIAReportl44
2L
C
Time,
L S
0
(a)
2L
Time, t
d
L
(b)
2d
C
F. lime, t
dl
L S
0-
(c)
Figure 4.17 Typical simplified free end responses for time-based tests
(a) toe of pile (note: repeated reflection at time intervals of 2L/c)
(b) intermediate decrease in cross-section (partial reflection at change
of section, reduced toe reflection)
(c) broken pile/completeloss of section/crack (free end reflection from
break, r&peated at time intervalsof 2d/c)
ClRlAReportl44 151
2L
c
Time,t
8
V
0
L 0
0
/
(a) Fixed toe
2L
d
L
(b) (Free end)
Figure 4.18 Typical simplifiedfixed-end response for time-based tests

(a) toe of pile (note: repeated reflection at time intervals of 2LIc)
(b) intermediateincrease in cross-section(partial reflection at change of
section, reduced toe reflection)
Ifthe cumulative skin friction is too high, (e.g. either a very long pile in a weak
soil or a long pile in a stiffsoil), the returning signal can be attenuated to such
an extent that it cannot be distinguished from the background noise.
Marked changes in the surrounding soil effectively act as changes to the

impedance of the pile. A change from a stiffto a weak soil layer has the same
ts'pe of effect on the signal response as a decrease in cross-section or a frec end
of the pile. Conversely, a change from a weak to an underlying stiff layer has
the same effect as an increase in cross-section or a fixed end to the pile.
152 CURIA Report 144

Time, t
2'
8
z1
0
C F1d F10
0
0.
F2d
z2
Figure 4.19 Reflection and transmission of stress-waves at a change of pile

impedence
Furthermore, a cast-in-place pile often has a marked change in diameter at the

boundary between soils of widely differing characteristics, particularly where
soft alluvial soils or filled ground overlie a stiffclay. The pile, oversized in the
upper soft material, returns to its nominal diameter within the stiffer underlying
soil. The reflected signal from such an interface would thus be represented as a
reduction in relative section although the pile is actually its specifieddiameter
or greaterfor its whole length. A similar change in nominal pile diameter can
result from the use of temporary casing or casings throughthe upper soils in the
case of bored piles.
It should be noted that the two effects described above, (i.e. changes in soil
stiffness and corresponding changes in pile diameter because of construction
features) can and do occur simultaneously and interact with one another.
4.4 FREQUENCY-BASED ANALYSIS OF PILE-HEAD RESPONSE
It is convenient first to consider the theoretical pile response to an external,

cyclically varying, excitation force, which is applied at a constantfrequency
(the 'steady-state' method). The use of the more common hammer-based
'transient' methods can then be considered in terms of their refinement to the
basic analytical technique.
ClRlAReportl44 153
lime, t
r
L
(a) (Free end)
(b)
Figure 4.20 Typical 'combined' responses for time-based tests

(a) free end with neck (partial reflections at both changes in section,
reduced toe reflection)
(b) Free end with bulb (partial reflectionsat both changes in section,
reduced toe reflection)
154 ClRlAReportl44
lime, t
1'
8
C
V
0w
C
L=oo 0
No reflection from toe
Figure 4.21 Signal response for an infinite pile (no toe reflection)
Reduced signal
/\
lime, t
2'
V
0
8
S
>
S
A
S
0
Figure 4.22 Attenuation of stress-wave because of skin friction
ClRlAReportl44 155
S'ieadi-state techniques
In the steady-state method, the pile-head excitation is providedby an

clectro-dvnamic vibrator or shaker. The shaker applies a sinusoidallv van'ing
force impulse to the pile head at any particular frequency within its working
range. It sweeps across the available frequency range in a series of steps. and
the pile-head response is measured at each step.
In principle, for each step, the wave from an incident pulse travels throughthe
pile and is partly or wholly reflected at impedance changes within the pile. If
any of these returning reflections are in phase with the incident frequency,
resonance males the pile-head response maximum. Conversely, if the returning
reflections are out of phase. the pile-head response is reduced. A graph of
maximum pile-head velocity against frequency of excitation would thercfore
show a series of resonating peaks with intervening troughs. as indicated in
Figure 423. and which depend only upon the pile properties.
From standard wave theory, relating to vibrations in long slender rods, the
resonating length. L. ofthe pile is given by
_L ...(4.24)
2.41
where c = the velocity of plane wave (stress-wave) propagation

along the pile.
and Sf = the frequency interval between successive resonances.
Thus in a perfect straight-sided pile in free air with no toe restraint, the
expression L = c/24fgives the length ofthe pile.
In practice. the pile-head response is normalised by plottingthe value of the

pile-head velocity at maximum force (VmaxlFmax) for each frequency increnient.
This is to take account of practical variations ofthe maximum force Emax, which
have a corresponding effect on maximum pile-head velocity. It can be seen that
if max is constant,as required by the test method. Vmax/Fmax will be proportional
to Vmax.
The parameter Vmax/Fma.c is termedthe Mobility. M. ofthe pile (equivalent to the

Mechanical Admittance. N, of Davis and Dunn, 1974), i.e.
vmax I
M(j) = ...(4.25)
Emax V')
where = Mobility at frequencvfi.

Vmax (fj ) = maximum pile head velocity at frequenev.
and max () = maximum applied force at frequencyfj.
156 CIRIAReportl44
At- Af=
2L
F 1
8
S
S
S
a.
E
E
Frequency, f
Figure 4.23 Typical idealised graph of maximum pile-head velocity, against

frequency, f
Thus Figure 4.23 could be redrawn with the Mobility, M. replacing Vmax on the
abscissa,as illustrated in Figure 4.24.
This characteristic plot of alternating resonating peaks and troughs of Mobility

against frequency is termedthe frequency-response curve or, in common with
that for the time-based techniques, the signal-response curve for the pile.
These peaks and troughs are caused by interference between downward-travelling

stress-waves from the vibrating impulse force and the upward-travelling reflected
waves from impedance changes within the pile. The interaction ofthese sets of
waves causes axial resonance of the pile shaft, analogous to vibration in bars or
acoustic standingwaves in pipes.
2L 2L
F 1
'
' .%
II
.1'
Frequency, /
Figure 4.24 Typical idealisedfrequency-responsecurve

Transient, hammer-based, techniques
When using hammer-based techniques. the signal obtained from the test has to
be broken down into its component frequencies to allow analysis of the signal
response in the same was' as the steadv-state' method. The signals are recorded
in terms of time and have to be transformed to terms of frequency.
The impulse from the test hammer and the returning reflected responses from
within the pile can be regarded as a wave train, passing a given point in a finite
time. The wave-train is a combination ofa large numberof separate oscillations.
In practical terms, the wave-train has a finite length. i.e. it has a beginning and an
end, and cannot therefore be a pure vibration of a single frequency. Other
vibrations must be superimposed to cause it to begin at a certain time and end at a
certain time. The wavetrain thus consists of a wave group with components of
different superimposed frequencies, amplitudes and phases.
When exaniined in terms of frequency. the impulse from the hammer blow and
the resulting reflections can be understood to be composed of a series of
sinusoidal waves all moving in the same direction but of vaning amplitude and
frequency. Thus they are sometimes in phase and sometimes out of phase. with
the result that the net amplitude of the wave group will van in a predictable and
calculable manner, to produce the characteristic shape of the response seen at
the pile head. The complex wave-train, therefore, can be broken down into its
component series of interacting individual sinusoidal waves of given
frequencies and amplitudes.
Many other complex practical problems concerned with such periodic firnctions
are similarly solved by this simplifling technique of breaking down the
function into its component parts. The device used to undertake the analysis of
such outwardly complex wave motion is referred to as a harmonic analyser, or.
more commonly, a spectrum analyser. A spectrum analyseris an instrument
capableof determining and measuring the relative amplitudes of the sinusoidal
components of a periodically recurrent function. The first recorded harmonic
analyser was mechanical, and was invented and used by Lord Kelvin in the late
19th Century for the harmonic analysis of tidal observations, and embodied
eleven sets of mechanical integrators. The technique is used for the analysis of
all types of periodic motion, including sound-wave propagation and machine
motions and vibrations. Modemanalysers are usually electronic or
electro-mechanical. but the fundamental theoretical basis remains the same.
The principle that ans' periodic motion can be built up by superimposing a

series of pure harmonic vibrations was studied and formalised by the French
mathematician Fourier. in the early 19th Century. Any periodic motion can be
represented by a Fourier series, in which, aside from a constant, each term is a
sine (or cosine) function of time. and each such term varies with a single
frequency that is either a fundamental frequency or an integral multiple of one.

Thus, if a periodic function of time is given byf). the Fourier series forf(e) is:
fit) = a0 +
a1cos[2m.fit)] + b1sin[2itflt)1
+ a2cos[21t2J(f)] + ...(4.26)
b2sin[2it2fifj]
+ a3cos[2m.3j(t)] +
where a0 to a,, and b1 to b are constants equal to the amplitude of the

oscillations.
This relationship implies that the terms of the series will involve higher and
higher frequencies.
By the principle of superposition, a wavetrain of any shape can be constructed

out of its component vibrations, as illustrated in Figure 4.25.
Mathematical series such as Fourier series can be evaluated by the use of

integral transforms. An integral transform is a mathematical fnctionj(y)
resulting when a given function E(x) is multiplied by a kernel functionK(xy)
and the productis integrated throughsuitable limits. The process, called
transformation, is symbolised by the equation:
= ...(4.27)
fK(x,y).F(x).dx
The Fourier transform, in which the kernel is (2it).exp(-ixy) and the limits are
+ and - infinity, is used to evaluate a Fourier series. The value of integral
transforms is in the simplification they bring in dealing with complexand
intractable differential equations subject to particular boundary conditions.
An efficient computational method of evaluating Fourier series is the Fast

Fourier transform, or FFT, and the use of this method is often referred to in
published works on the transient, hammer-based, frequency response test
method.The FF1 is therefore the mathematical technique used to evaluate and
extract the component frequencies forming the pulse wave imparted by the test
hammer blow. A more detailed description ofthis and related topics can be
obtained from texts such as Bracewell (1986) and Randall (1987).
The power ofthe new generations ofmicrocomputers developed in the late

1970s and early 1980s was essential for and well suited to carrying out such
complex analyses rapidly and in on-site conditions, and thus rendered the
'transient' or 'dynamic' frequency response method viable in comparison to the
steady-state method.
Once the force and velocity signals have been converted from functions of time
into functions of frequency, the analysis program can produce the typical
frequency-response plot of pile-head mobility (pile-head velocity divided by
force) against frequency.
CIRIAReportl44 159
t
4-.
a.
E
(a)
V
a
E
Time,
(b)
Figure 4.25 Illustrative Fourier analysis of a squarewave pulse showing (a) the first
three sinusoidal components; (b) the sum of the first three components
and their approximationtowards the square wave pulse

Reduction of impedance - i.e. free end
In the case of a perfectly elastic. frictionless body, with no toe restraint, the
initial behaviour at very low frequencies will be rigid body motion. Thereafter.
from Equation 4.24. resonance will occur at frequency intervals of c/2L. as
illustrated on Figure 426.
The stress-wave theory considered in Section 4.3.2 demonstrates that, at a given

frequency of vibration. ans' particular incident compressive stress-wave from the
pile-head excitation will be reflected from a free end at the remote end of the
pile toe as a tensile stress-wave travelling back towards the pile head, and
having a positive particle velocity (i.e. downwards).
Thus at certain critical frequencies. given by whole numbermultiples of

Af= c/2L. the returning reflected wave is in phase with the succeeding incident
160 CIRIAReportl44
wave and both have particle velocities acting in the same sense. Thus the pile-
head velocity sensor measures a maximum response, or resonance.
C Al C A'
Af
2L aI_2L 2L
.0
0
Frequency, f(Hz)
Figure 4.26 Idealised frequency-response curve, free-end condition
As with time-based analysis techniques, a relative decrease or increase in pile

impedance produces a calculable effect on the signal-response curve in the
frequency domain. A relative decrease in impedance resulting from a relative
decrease in pile section or a reduction in pile properties would be typified by a
free-end type of response. Again, the toe ofthe pile usually produces a free-end
type of response because the pile material is usually stiffer than the material
beneath the toe of the pile. A reduction ofpile section such as a neck or a
discontinuity such as a crack also typically show a free-end response.
Increase ofimpedance- i.e. fixed end
When the remote end ofthe pile is fixed or held in contact with an infinitely
rigid anchorage, the lowest frequency of resonance occurs at a value of '/24f i.e.
cI4L, as illustrated in Figure 4.27. Thus the effect of a fixed end is to cause a
phase shift of the pile resonances.
In a similar mannerto the free-end response discussed above, this can again be
understood from the stress-wave theory outlined in Section 4.3.2. which
demonstrates that a fixed end will reflect a downward4ravelling incident
compressive wave from the pile head excitation as an upward-travelling
compressive stress-wave having a negative particle velocity (i.e. upwards).
fr
Thus at the critical frequencies given by whole numbermultiples of c/2L the
particle velocities associated with the incident and reflective waves are opposite
in sense and their net effect is a minimum. The location of maximum effect is
thus at the intermediate frequencies given byf= c/4L, = 3c/4L. = Sc/4L . .. etc.
CIRlAReportl44 161
f c C
2 =4L A' =

a =
a
z
E
.0
0
f
Frequency, (Hz)
Figure 4.27 Idealised frequency-responsecurve, fixed-end condition
A relative increase of impedance, typical ofa relative increase in pile section or

pile properties would produce a fixed-end type of response. Such a response
could be from a shaft enlargement or an under-ream or. perhaps. a pile founded
on a strong, incompressible medium.
Intermediateresponse
When the remote end ofa pile is in contact with an elastic base of intermediate
or normal compressibility, which could be likened to a soft spring, it will
exhibit a response that will be intermediate between a free (or infinitely
compressible) base and a fixed (or rigid) base, as illustrated in Figure 4.28.
Impedance change and partial reflection
As with the analysis in the time domain, a feature that causes only a partial
reflection ofthe stress-wave will give rise to a characteristic resonance
associated with that vibrating length, and a further resonance associated with the
wave travelling to, and being reflected from, a deeper level.
Ellwav (1987) pointed out that the reflection coefficient across the change of
impedance also depends upon the frequency of the vibration wave. In general,
the value ofthis coefficient increases with frequency, such that the higher the
frequency, the greaterthe proportion of vibration energy that is reflected from
the interface. The effect ofthis is shown on Figure 4.29. which illustrates that at
low frequencies ofvibration the full length ofthe pile can be discerned. At the
higher frequencies. the intermediate impedance change becomes increasingly
visible on the signal response curve.
162 ClRIAReportl44
c c
A
2L
1-
I F'
2'
.0
0
Frequency, f(Hz)
Figure 4.28 Idealised frequency-responsecurve, intermediate condition
At approx 600 Hz for intermediate

impedancechange
I I
L 11.0
2' I I I I I
At approx 140 Hz for pile toe
0
0 500 1000 1500
Frequency, f(Hz)
Figure 4.29 Frequencyresponse test, illustratingthe effect of an intermediate

impedancechange (after ElIway, 1987)
Effect ofa very longpile
As described by Eliway (1987), the sharpness ofthe pile-shaft resonances

depends upon the relative amounts of energy transmitted or dissipated each time
a stress-wave is reflected from a boundary layer such as the pile toe. A short,
perfectly elastic, pile in free air will therefore exhibit the very sharp, almost
infinitely high, resonant peaks illustrated in Figure 4.24.
With an infinitely tong pile, however, there would be no toe echo, no stress-wave
interference and consequently no resonances within the pile. Thus the frequency-
response curve of a very long pile will tend towards that illustrated in Figure 4.30,
where vmax/Fmax vill assume a constant value. This constant value is termed the
characteristic mobility, M0. ofthe pile (equivalent to the characteristic mechanical
ClRlAReportl44 163
admittance of Davis and Dunn. 1974). and depends only upon the internal
properties of the pile, i.e. independent of its length. It can be shown that the value
ofM0 is given by
...(4.28)
p.c.A
where p = density ofpile shaft material.

C = velocity of plane wave propagation in the pile,
and A = cross-sectionalarea ofthe pile
Mobility, lvi, is the inverse of impedance, z (see Equation 4.3). Other workers
use this inverse value, termed as mechanical impedance (Paquet. 1968) or
characteristic impedance (ElIway, 1987); the two parameters are
interchangeable.
The theoretical characteristic mobility. M. for a particular pile is therefore a

unique calculable value.
.0
0
/ Characteristic mobility
Frequency, I
Figure 4.30 Idealised frequency-responsecurve for an infinEtely tong pile
Effect ofembedment within soil
Themovement ofan installed pile and its ability to propagate the stress-wave
are damped by the surrounding soil. The signal-response curve then has a form
as in Figure 4.31. The attenuation or damping ofthe signal, because of energy
dissipation within the system, can be the result of either a stiffer soil on a
shorterpile or a weak soil on a longer pile. For a pile of given length. the
frequency-response curve will be attenuated by increasingly stiffer soil in a
similar mannerto that illustrated in Figure 4.32, such that the difference in
amplitude between maxima and minima is reduced, gradually approaching the
value of the characteristic mobility, M0, for the pile.
164 CIRIAReportl44
.0
0 P
Frequency, f
Figure 4.31 Effect of soil damping on signal-responsecurve
Briard (1970) derived a parameter, the soil damping factor, a, which gives a
measure ofthe soil-damping on a cylindrical pile:
1 Ip'.13'l ...(4.29)
r p.c j
where a = soil dampingfactor,per metre ofpile length

= bulk density of soil
p'
Pc
= density ofpile material
= velocity of propagation oftransverse waves in soil
c = velocity ofplane-wave propagation in the pile
and r = radius of pile.
Paquet and Briard (1976) further developed this expression to the form:
alL = L p1 1' ...(4.30)

r C
where aL is the damping factor forthe whole pile.
The pile damping factor, aL, thus depends upon the aspect ratio (Lir) ofthe
pile, and (p'JY)/(p.c) which will vary with the varying properties ofthe
surrounding soil.

/ \
/
,
.0
0
Frequency, f
.0
0
Frequency, I
.0
0
Frequency, f
Figure 4.32 Effect of increasing soil stiffness on signal-responsecurve
Davis and Dunn (1974) pointed out that the ratio of the maxima and minima of
Vmax/Fmax from the signal-response curve also provides a measure ofthe damping
effect ofthe soil. They derived the following relationships from this curve:
166 ClRlAReportl44
P = Mcoth(aL) ...(4.3l)
Q = Mtanh(cL) ...(4.32)
where P and Q are the maximum and minimum values of vmaxlFmax,

respectively, as illustrated in Figure 4.31.
Thence by substitution it can be seen that
M= P.Q ...(4.33)
Again, this relationship indicates that the signal response curve will approach
the Characteristic Mobility as the maxima and minima of Vmax/Fmaxare
attenuated by damping effects on the pile.
Marked changes in soil characteristics also act as reflecting layers, effectively

alteringthe impedance ofthe pile/soil system. A change from a stifflayer to an
underlying less stifflayer has the same effect as a reduction of impedance and
tends to produce a free-end response. Conversely, the boundary betweena less
stiffsoil and an underlying stiffsoil acts as an increase in impedance and
produces a fixed-end response.
As described forthe time-based techniques, cast-in-place piles can have marked

changes in diameter between soils of widely differing characteristics.
Additionalfeaturesof 'transient 'frequency-response techniques
A featureof 'transient' frequency-response testing is that the input force from

the hammerblow is measured using a dynamic load cell attached to the test
hammer. The input force is then used to nonnalise the velocity response ofthe
pile head to give mobility (v/F). This makes allowance for the variation in
energy ofthe hammerimpulse over the frequency range being examined. If only
the velocity response ofthe pile was monitored, the resonance peaks would
show differentparticle velocities for different frequencies. Thus the resonant
peaks would tend to be lower at higherfrequencies because ofthe lower energy
content of the signal at these frequencies. As each individual hammer blow will
input a different total force into the pile head, a range of pile-head velocities
will result from a range of blows on the same pile, as illustrated on Figure 4.33.
The use of a dynamic load cell to measure the input force, however, allows
additional information to be obtained on the pile characteristics, besides its
resonant frequencies and the relative displacement ofthe resonantpeaks (which
indicates a fixed- or free-end response). Two additional parameters that can be
determined are characteristic mobility, A'!, and pile head dynamic stifThess, F',
as described by Davis and Dunn (1974).
CRlAReport144 167
, '
\ Blow I/ /

/ / / S.
II /
S.
1
I S. / S.
/ S.
/
/ S
/
/ S.
S.
1' I/
/
8
w
>
'0
(U
a)
a,
0 2
Frequency, f
Figure 4.33 Variation of pile-head velocity with magnitude of input force and
frequency (after Paquet, 1992)
4.4.3 Characteristic mobility
In that the theoretical characteristic mobility. I/pcA. is independent of the soil

properties. it is an index ofthe behaviour ofa pile free of external damping restraint
from the soil. It can therefore be taken as an indicator ofthe pile properties over the
upper portion of the shaft: Davis and Dunn (1974) suggested that this would mean.
typically, the uppertwo or three metres. The actual characteristic mobility of a finite
real pile, from the preceding discussion, is given by the geometric mean of the
signal-response curve obtained from the frequency-response test, as illustrated on
Figure 4.34. and can be compared with the calculated theoretical characteristic
mobility based upon assumed or known reasonable values of p. c and A for the pile.
.0
0
Frequency, f
Figure 4.34 Signal-responsecurve for typical pile
168 ClRlAReportl44
A high characteristic mobility, compared with the theoretical value, would
therefore be an indicator of low or reduced pile parameters. This could be
caused by low-density concrete (with consequential lower stress-wave
propagation velocity), a low stress-wave velocity or a cross-sectional area less
than the constructed nominal value.
4.4.4 Pile head dynamic stiffness
It has been pointed out by Davis and Dunn (1974) that the initial portion ofthe
response curve below the first resonance, illustrated on Figure 4.34, approximates
to a straight line. They suggested that over this low-frequency part of the response
curve inertia effects are insignificant, and the pile-soil system behaves as a spring.
The inverse ofthe slope of this low-frequency portion of the curve is therefore a
measure of the stiffuiess, E', ofthis spring system, and is given by
= 2 Jm
...(434)
[Vm/Fma.ij
where.fm and (Vmax/Fmax) are the co-ordinates ofthe point in on Figure 4.34, at
the end of the straight-line portion ofthe frequency, response curve.
E' may thus be regarded as a measure of the apparent stiffliess ofthe pile close
to the pile head, it being most influenced by pile and soil properties close to the
head. As pointed out by Eliway (1987), the sensitivity ofE' to pile and soil
properties diminishes exponentially with depth.
F' is termedthe dynamic stifibess of the pile head and is a function of the
stiffliess ofthe pile material and the soil surrounding the pile. Pile-head
dynamic stifihess is therefore specific to a particular pile or class of piles of
given cross-sectional area, length and unit weight installed within a given soil
profile. This parameter is normally measured in units of MN/mm. A typical
relationship of P to pile length is illustrated in Figure 4.35.
It has been suggested by Davis and Dunn and other workers in this field that
pile-head dynamic stiffness correlates approximately with the slope of the initial
elastic portion of the load - settlement curve obtained from a normal full-scale
static load test on a pile, at the stage where load and settlement are roughly
linear, and 100% recovery is obtained. Although this particular point has not
been universally accepted, it has been demonstrated that it is worth
investigating any pile with a markedly lower dynamic stiffliess within a group
of similarly formed piles in similarground conditions. Other researchers
emphasisethat the pile-head response at the veiy low strain and energy levels of
low-strain integrity testing has not been reliably shown to have any meaningful
correlation with the load-carrying capacity ofthe pile.
CIRIARepcrtl44 169
1.6
a,
a,
12-
0-
a,
0.8 Pile diameter: 500 mm

Soil type: London Clay
Shear wave velocity: 225 mIs
Density: 1800 kg/rW
a0
I
0 I
0 5 10 15 20
Pile length (m)
Figure 4.35 Typical relationship between pile-head dynamic stiffness and pile length
(after ElIway, 1986)
As a rider to the above. McCavitt and Forde (1990) of Edinburgh University,

based upon work by Ewins (1984). point out that the initial slope of the
Mobility-frequency graph is not linear but appears so because of the low
sampling rate at low frequencies. They suggest that the Effective Mass. i.e. how
much of the pile/soil system is being excited by the test, is a more useful
parameter. The effective mass ofthe pile is obtained from a plot of a parameter
they term the 1nertance of the pile against frequenc\'. Figures 4.36 and 4.37
summarise data obtained by the Edinburgh workers at the Blvth test site (see
McCavitt et aL. 1989). The figures show values of pile-head dynamic stiffiess
and pile effective mass respectively, for both bulbed and necked piles at the
Blvth site, plotted against the ratio Ld/L, where Ld is the length to the defect and
L is the length ofthe pile. These researchers suggest that the effective mass
appears to be a promising parameter in determining the type of defect. since,
depending upon whether the feature is a loss or gain in section. it will plot
either on or close to one ofthe two lines of Figure 4.37. Few additional data are
currently available on this analysis technique.
4.5 THE LINK BETWEEN TIME- AND FREQUENCY-BASED

MEASUREMENTS
From Equation 4.8 the depth ofa particular reflecting surface. Lref, is given by:
= ...(4.35)
Lrej .2
170 ClRlAReportl44
* S
0- (p
so
00 0 0
4
-S 0
0-
3*
$00
00
00 0 0
4 ar.4 -o S I I. C a
1. 4
I1
0C' 7
Similarly, from Equation 4.24, the length. Lres. of a resonating length of pile. is
related to the frequency interval between successive resonances as follows:
C
L res = ...(4.36)
2.Af
Since the resonating length L1, and the depth to a reflecting surface L1 are the
same:
L ref _C.t_L - C
resygj
i.e. = ._L. ...(4.37)
Sf
The simple relationships of Equations 4.35 and 4.36 and their inter-relationship
as defined by Equation 4.37 fonu the entire basis of low-strain pile integrity
testing.
1. Low-strain integrity testing relies upon the detection and evaluation of

reflections of shock- or stress-waves imparted into a pile. These reflections
stem from changes in the external dimensions or internal properties of the
pile, i.e. where there is a change in the impedance of the pile.
2. The impedance of a pile is the ratio of the input force at a point to the
resulting induced particle velocity and is a measure ofthe dynamic
characteristics ofthe system.
Impedance, z = p.c. A (kg/s or sN/rn)
where p is the density ofthe pile material, c is the velocity of plane wave
propogation in the pile and A is the cross-sectional area ofthe pile.
3. Analysis can be by reference to time- or frequency-based methods.
4. For time-based tests, the characteristics of the reflected wave will indicate a
free- or fixed-end response. For frequency-based tests these responses will
be indicated by lateral displacement of the characteristic frequency interval
along the frequency axis.
5. A fixed-end type ofresponse is characterised by an increase in impedance
and is indicative of one or more ofthe following:
increase in pile cross-sectional area, e.g. bulb or under-ream
increase in internal pile properties, e.g. concrete strength
fixity ofthe shall by anchorage (e.g. buried concrete or masonry
obstruction)
change from weaker to underlying stronger soil layer.
172 CIRIAReportl44
6. A decrease in impedance (free-end type of response) is indicative ofone or
more of the following:
reduction in pile cross-section, e.g. necking
reduction in internal pile properties, e.g. cracks, low concrete strength
interface between the pile toe and the underlying soil, where the
underlying soil is weaker than the pile
change from stronger to weaker underlying soil layer.
7. The characteristic mobility of a pile is independent of its length and is the
velocity produced per unit of input force. It is thus the inverse of the pile
impedance.
8. For a pile of given length, the frequency-response curve will be attenuated
by increasingly stiffsoil, such that the value of the characteristic mobility
is approached.
9. The dynamic stiffness of the pile head is a fUnction of the stifThess ofthe
pile material and the soil surrounding the pile.
REFERENCESCITED IN SECTION 4
BRACEWELL, R. N. (1986)
The Fourier Transform and its applications
Second Edition, Revised
McGraw-Hill
BRIARD, M. (1970)
Controle des pieux par le methode des vibrations
Annales de 1 'Institut Techniquedu Batimentet des Travaux Publics
23rd Year No. 270, June, pp 105-7
DAVIS, A. G. and DUNN, C. S. (1974)

From theory to field experience with the non-destructive vibrationtesting of
piles
Proc. Institution ofCivilEngineers, Vol. 57, Part 2, December, pp 571-93
ELLWAY, K. (1987)
Practical guidance on the use of integrity tests for the quality control of
cast-in-situpiles
Proc. International Conference on Foundations and Tunnels
London, March 1987, pp 228-34
also printed as:
Practical guidanceon the use of integrity tests forthe quality control of
cast-in-situ piles
Ground Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 7, October, 8-13
CIRIAReportl44 173
ELLWAY. K. (1993)
Letter to GroundEngineering, Vol. 26, No.5, April. p8
EW[NS. D. J. (1984)
Modal testing: theoryand practice
Research Studies Press
GRAFFE. K. F. (1975)
Wave motion in elastic solids
Clarendon Press, Oxford
McCAVITT. N. and FORDE. M. C. (1990)

Dynamic stiffness and effective mass parameters of bored cast-in-situ concrete
piles
Research Report. Dept of Civil Engineering and Building Science, Edinburgh
(ini'ersit'v
McCAVI1T N., FORDE. M. C. and BATCHELOR. A. J. (1989)

The Edinburgh pile integrity'testing technique
Proc. Second International Conference on Foundationsand Tunnels
London, 19-21 September, Engineering Technics Press, Vol. 2, pp 293-99.
PAQUET. J. (1968)
Etude vibratoire des pieux en beton, reponse harmonique et impulsionelle
application au controle
Annales de / institut Technique du BatEment et des Travaux Pub/icy. 21st year.
No. 245, May
PAQUET. J. and BRIARD. M. (1976)

Controle non-destructifdespieux en beton
Anna/es de / institut Technique dii Batiment et des Travaux Publics
Supplement No. 337. March. Serie: Sols et Fondations. No. 128
RANDALL. R. B. (1987)
Frequencyanalysis
Third edition
Bruel and Kjaer
STAIN. R. 1. (1993a)
Letter to GroundEngineering. Vol. 26, No. 1. January/February. p 7
STAIN. R. T. (1993b)
Letter to GroundEngineering, Vol. 26, No. 3. April. p 15
TURNER. M.J. (1993)

Letter to Ground Engineering. Vol. 26, No. 6, July/August, pp 27-28
174 CIRlAReportl44
VAN KOTEN, H. and WOOD, W. R. (1987)
Determination ofthe shape of cast-in-situ foundation piles using the sonic echo
technique.
Proceedings' ofan International Conference on Foundations and Tunnels,
London. March 1987, pp 205-10
VAN WEELE, A. F. (1987)

Sonic integrity testing
2nd InternationalSymposium ofthe Deep FoundationsInstitute
Luxembourg. May 4-7
VAN WEELE, B. (1993)

Discussion in Ground Engineering, Vol. 26, No. 3, April, pp 14-15
VOLTUS VAN HAMME, G.E.J.S.L., JANZ, J.W., BORNER, H.

and AARENTSEN, D. (1974)
Hydroblok and improved pile driving analysis
De Ingenieur, Vol. 86, No. 8
WHEELER, P. (1992)
Stresswave competition/Making Waves.
Ground Engineering,Vol. 25, No. 9, November, pp 25-28
CIRlAReportl44 175
5 Low-strain integrity testing: practice
This sectiondealswith the features of echo and frequency-response testing

techniques and the methods of carving them out in the field. The means of
interpreting the signal response curves obtained from these tests, and the
limitations that should be placed upon this interpretation are also considered.
5.1 TIME-BASED TECHNIQUES: ECHO TESTING
Echo techniques rel upon analysing the response ofthe pile to a small
impulsive force, such as that provided by a blow from a small hand-held
hammer. The method measures echo-type responses from the toe of the pile and
intervening points within the pile.
Echo-type integrity testing was developed in Holland bs' the Dutch research
organisation TNO Institute for Building Materials and Structures (TNO-IBBC)
in the late I 960s and early I 970s. as described by van Koten and Middendorp
(1980). This technique was designated sonic echo testing by INO. The method
was also investigated by the French research organisation CEBTP during the
course of its research into the integrity testing of piles. piers and barrettes. Since
that time the technique has been refined and extended b' TNO and other
research workers in both North America and Europe. as outlined for instance by
van Koten and Wood (1987). van Weele eta!., (1987). Starke and Janes (1988)
and Rausche eta!,. (1988).
In the UK an off-shoot ofthe echo test is usually termed the Pulse Echo test (as
referred to in Eliway. 1987(a and b). and further described by Howell. 1987).
This differs from conventional' echo testing in the signal response obtained
from the test. In what follows the term echo testing is taken to encompass both
sonic and pulse echo techniques. Most of the discussion applies to both
techniques. but the text is generally written and illustrated with reference to the
conventional echo techniques. This is because virtually all the published
theoretical and research work has been centred aroundthis method. Where
specific differences within the pulse echo method apply. these are highlighted
within the text. Particular features characteristic of this test method are also
outlined in Section 5.1.4.
5.1.1 Basis of the method

The echo test is undertaken by striking the head of the pile with a light
hand-held hammer and observing the response of the pile to this impulsive blow
by means of a sensor held in tight contact with the pile head. The sensor is
normally a small piezo-electric accelerometer or a velocity transducer
(geophone).
176 CIRIAReportl44
The hammer blow induces a compressive stress-wave (or 'shock wave') into the
pile which travels down the pile shaft and is reflected back towards the pile
head, either wholly or in part, by a change ofimpedance within the pile. Such
changes are caused, for instance, by the pile toe or some other intervening
discontinuity or feature within the pile shaft. Because the stress-wave is
transmitted through the body of the pile at a velocity, c, (where c is the velocity
of plane-wave propagation through the pile material), the time lapse, 1, between
the first hammer impulse and the arrival of the returning reflected wave from
the remote end of the pile is a measure ofthe distance travelled by the
stresswave, such that:
where L = distance to the reflecting surface
Thus, the distance is given by simple transposition, as:
L=f2
It follows, therefore, that ifthe value of c is known, or can be estimated within
reasonable limits, the time delay between the initial impulse and the receipt of a
reflection will give a measure ofthe length of the pile or the depth to the reflecting
surface. Ifthe pile length is known, the comparison between calculated length from
the test and known length enables a cross-check that the depth to the reflecting
surface is correct. If a discrepancy is evident between these two values then an
investigation into the causes of this difference may highlight a feature affecting the
adequacy or otherwise of the pile.
5.1.2 Test procedures
Preparation ofpile head

Pile-head preparation is important in order to impart a clear impulse into the
pile and allow the detection of the returning reflected signals. See Section 3.1
and Figure 3.8 for advice on pile-head preparation.
Testing
The sensor is held against or fixed to the pile head while the pile is struck with
the hammer, preferably at or near the pile centre. The sensor is usually an
accelerometer or a velocity measuring device, such as a geophone. The weight
of hammer and type ofhammer material may have to be adjusted by
experimentation to suit the pile size and material. Normally a plastic-ended
hammer weighing less than a kilogram is used for echo testing.
CIRIAReportl44 177
Signal conditioning Information processing
Including: including:
Filter (High or low pass) Display
Integration of signal, if necessary Store
Amplification Amplify
Analogueto digitalconversion Printout
t
Time base selection I
Pre-amplification
Sensor
//7ff/ff/fi'',
Figure 5.1 Elements of a typical sonic echo test layout (after Schaap
and de Vos, 1984, and Reiding et al., 1984)
Heavier hammers, perhaps even with steel ends, may be found to be more
suitable for larger piles (greaterthan one metre in diameter). For the smaller
diameter piles in particular, a metal hammer often producestoo high a
frequency range of impulse forthe sonic echo method. Conversely, pulse echo
testing more usually employs a steel hammer or striker. The arrangements for a
typical echo test are shown in Figure 5.1. Typical views oftesting in progress
are shown in Figures 3.16 and 3.17.
Data processing anddisplay
The reaction ofthe pile head to the imposed blow and the resulting incident and
reflected stress-waves are generally examined in terms of the induced pile-head
velocity or displacement. It may be necessary to process the signal from the
pile-head sensorto obtain these parameters. The processing often involves the
integration ofthe original signal with respect to time in order to obtain either
pile-head velocity or displacement.
The signal is then plotted to show the pile-head response against elapsed time,
giving a graph of the form shown in Figure 5.2. This plot is usually displayed
on a VDU. As a refinement to this, because elapsed time is proportional to the
distance the stress-wave has travelled through the pile body (from Equation 5.2
178 ClRlAReportl44
above), the time axis can be represented as the depth of the pile, as shown on
Figure 5.3, by using an estimated or measured value for c, the velocity of
Initial hammer Reflection from

blow impedancechange
I
Time (ms)
Figure 5.2 Sonic echo test: typical pile-head response signal
3
Initial hammer Reflection from
blow impedancechange
80
>
0
C
0
0.
4 8 12
Depth (m)
Based upon c= 4,000 rn/s
Figure 5.3 Sonic echo test: pile-head response versus depth
propagation ofthe stress-wave through the pile. Thus, the plot enables the
testing engineer to evaluate the occurrence of reflections ofthe stress-wave
directly with depth below test level. This plot of pile-head response against time
or depth is usually termedthe signal-response curve.
Because the attenuation ofthe return signal increases with the distance oftravel
(i.e. time), it is quite common to amplifjthe signal on an increasing scale with
time in order to emphasise weak reflections from the region ofthe toe or the
lower regions ofthe pile, as illustrated in Figure 5.4.
Several hammer blows are usually recorded on each pile to confirm that a
consistent repeatable response is being obtained. Some systems allow several
signals to be superimposed and averaged to reduce the effects of extraneous
random signals from other site activities or internal system 'noise'. As the
effects ofbackground or extraneous electronic noise on the data are reduced, so
ClRlAReportl44 179
therepeatable, constantparts of the signal. which are related to features of the
pile, soil or test system, are enhanced. I-Eggs and Robertson (1979), for
instance, point out that background noise can reduced by this method by a
factor of 'in, where n is the numberof superimposed signals from tests on the
pile.
8
C
a, Toe reflection
0
4 8 12
Depth (m)
(a) Before amplification
3 Signal from remote end of

pile increasinglyamplified
2'
8
V
C
C
4 8 12
Depth (m)
(b) After time-dependentamplification
Figure 5.4 Sonic echo test: time-dependent amplification
5.1.3 Interpretation of the pile-head response

Acoustic length
The depth to a reflecting layer (impedance change) within the pile, be it the toe
of the pile or an intermediate feature, can be readily calculated from the arrival
time ofthe reflected wave on the signal-response curve, using the relation in
Equation 5.2.
Deductions about the nature of the reflecting feature can be made by comparing
it with a free-end or fixed-end condition, as described in Section 4. As this
180 CIRIAReportl44
reflecting surface may or may not be the toe ofthe pile, the term acoustic length
is used. The acoustic length of the pile may be deduced to be the pile length
only if other data, such as pile records, are availableto support such a
deduction.
The calculation ofthe acoustic length ofthe pile, or the depth to other
intermediate features on the signal response curve, is directly dependent upon
the value of c used in Equation 5.2. The value of c in sound concrete is typically
quoted as varying between 3700 and 4300 mIs. Often a value of 4000 mIs is
used for analysis, as it is most unusual to measure it for a specific pile or site.
Variations of the actual propagation velocity from that used in calculation lead
to the suggestion by most practitioners that the calculated pile length or the
depth to a particular feature from the signal-response curve could generally be
expected to be within 10% ofthe actual value.
Ifa featureaffects only part ofthe pile shaft, a portion ofthe signal is reflected
and the rest transmitted past the feature. Because of the type and number of
variables in the signal, evaluation ofthe significance of a partial discontinuity in
terms of its physical size in proportion to the complete pile is a matter of
interpretation relying on the skill and experience ofthe interpreter. Computer-
simulation techniques and comparative catalogues (e.g. Rausche et al., 1988)
can assist interpretation.
Peakparticle velocity
Some systems record the peak particle velocity, Vmax, of the pile-head sensor
under the impulsive force ofthe hammer blow. Since v = F/z (Equation4.17),
within a range of blows by the same tester, the value of vmax could be
considered proportional to the impedance of the pile shalt immediately beneath
the pile head. Thus relatively high values forVm imply a lower impedance for
the pile, either because of poorerconcrete (lower density, or lower strength
giving a lower wave propagation velocity) or a smaller cross-sectional area. In
practice, echo-testing researchers attach little importance to this.
Soil stiffness
Soil layer changes affect the impedance ofthe pile and may manifest
themselves as apparent increases or decreases in section. Figure 5.5 illustrates
echo signal-response curves obtained from straight precast concrete piles which
were 450 mm square and 22 m long. The signal response curves were typical
for all the piles tested at the site. Variations can be seen that appear as increases
and relative decreases in impedance between 9 m and 20 m. The soil profile at
the site obtained from cone penetration testing is displayed below the signal-
response curves, and illustrates that the characteristic 'signature' ofthe piles
reflects the soil conditions within which the pile is embedded.
CIRlAReport144 181
5.1.4 The pulse echo test
General characteristics
In the pulse echo test method, the blow to the head of the pile produces a
characteristic two-fold reaction in the sensor held against the pile head. The
sensor is typically a velocity-measuring device, generally a standard geophone.
mounted with a metal to concrete connection. A steel hammer is normally used.
I Time-dependentexponential amplification: x500
Pile toe
8 0
C
> I I
V V0 3 6 9 12 151 18 21 24 27
C
C Depth (m)
C
+
0 [ Sonic echo response curve
Stratum 1 Stratum 2 Stratum 3

Soft alluvial Stiff clay Gravel
silt and clay
2
C
0
I 0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
Depth (m)
Cone penetrometer test result
Figure 5.5 Sonic echo test: effect of soil layer changes on signal-responsecurve
(after Middendorpet al., 1991)
ofthe measured response to the blow produces a

The first component
characteristic 'ring-down' effect in the geophone which takes the form of a
time-dependent decaying sinusoidal waveform, typical ofthe response of a
damped, single degree-of-freedom, system to an impulsive blow, as illustrated
by Figure 5.6.
At the same time, reflections ofthe downward travelling stress-wave from

impedance changes within the pile arrive back at the pile-head sensor in a
similar manner to a conventional echo test. These arrivals interact with the
original decaying signal in the manner shown in Figure 5.7.
Commonly, a logarithmic plot ofthe overall decay envelope can be drawn to

enhance the detection of perturbations caused by returning reflected waves. The
envelope so obtained should then be a straight-line forthe theoretical ring-down
182 CIRlAReportl44
curveas in
Figure 58. Perturbations
irregularities withinthe from returningechos
envelopeas shown in are manifested as
Figure 5,9.
Asaflurtheraid to
be plotted, which interpretation, the medianofthe
may highlight original
indicativeofpile irregularities withinthe wavefonn can also
irregularities, ofthe toe echo.
or decayingsinewave.
The original
sinusoidal wave
measuredby the form, which
instrument,thereforecontains represents the pile-head
wave information velocityas
typical ofall time-based upwardanddownward
phase informationon the echotest travelling
withinthe pile characteristics ofthe techniques.Thus itcontains
this information(i.e. whetherit has the pile toe or intermediate
can be masked characteristics features
ofa free end or fixed
should in by the ring down of end), but
ofobtainingprinciplebe possibleto the
the tog ofthe removethe ring downmeasuringtransducer,it
information,sothat no standardvelocityamplitude effects, but thetechnique
from an conclusionson the nature curve,destroysthe
of
interpretation thisaspectofthe of the pileresponseare phase
signalalone. possible
\Jv Time, t
Figure 5.6 Typical

impulseresponsecurve
for a pulseecho
Data responsetest
processinganddisplay
The resulting
waveforms are
systemforlater usuallystored
digitallywithina
on aVDU, an plotting andanalysis.Formost microprocessor
oscilloscopeor an X-Y systemsthe signal is
adoptedfordisplayand plotter.A fixed time-scale displayed
scale would plotting is usually
accommodatethe purposes, typicallyofacound20 ms.
lengthsof35 to 40m, stress-wave This
travellingandreturningfrom time-
piles ofless than 25 m.although such a scalelength is pile
40 or50 ms Forlonger the typically restricted to
piles timescale
(Howell, 1987). would be
lengthenedto
ClRiAReportl44
183
+
Arrival of echo
Ct
0 LJ
0
E
cc V Time, t
'I
Figure 5.7 Interaction of returning echo on impulse response curve
S.-
Ct
0
a
E
0)
0
-J
Time, t
Figure 5.8 Log amplitude plot of typical impulse response curve
Arrival of echo
0
V
a.
E
0,
0
-J
Time, t
Figure 5.9 Pertubation in log amplitude plot from returning echo (after ElIway, 1987a)

Unlike sonic echo techniques, it is less usual to apply a time-dependent
amplification to the obtained signal. to highlight the reflected stress-waves from
the lower portion ofthe pile.
Interpretation f the pile-head response
It is inherently more difficult with pulse echo testing to provide a reasoned

interpretation of the pile response because of the nature of the sinusoidal decay
curve. A major source of difficulty in the interpretation of pulse echo signals is
the overriding influence ofthe 'ring-down' effect. Paquet (1992) suggested that
this is a function ofthe instrumentation rather than the pile. All pulse echo
methods mount the pile-head sensor in a different way from 'standard' sonic
echo or frequency-response systems, such that there is the potential forthe
sensor to vibrate in the mode typified by the ring-down signal. Thus analysis of
pulse echo signals tends to involve visual cross-comparison of original,
logarithmic and median response curve plots, in order to identify changes and
differences within the three wave plots.
Near-surface discontinuities or features are often readily discernible from their

effect on the response curve, as illustrated in Figure 5.10. With depth, the
identification of the definitetoe signal from within the decaying sine wave
curve often rapidly becomes more difficult than with the other echo techniques.
5.2 FREQUENCY-BASED TECHNIQUES: FREQUENCY-RESPONSE

TESTING
Frequency-response, or vibration, testing of piles was pioneered in France by

the Centre Experimental de Recherches et d'Etudes du Batiment et des Travaux
Publics (CEBTP), as described by Paquet (1968) and Briard (1970). Davis and
Dunn (1974) outlined the major features ofthis testing method in the UK, and
developed further many ofthe basic concepts that still apply in current use of
the technique.
In its initial development, the technique used an electrodynamic 'shaker' to

apply a sinusoidally varying force ofknown frequency to the head of the pile.
The response ofthe pile was measured for a series of applied frequencies. For
each frequency the pile was allowed to reach an equilibrium condition, or
'steady state', and its response was measured, before selling the shaker to the
next frequency.
What have been termed 'transient' frequency-response methodswere a

development of steady- state vibration testing, and are based upon the same
principles. In these methods, the pile is acted upon by an external impulsive force
of short duration, such as may be provided by a light hand-held hammer. The force
pulse imparted by the initial hammer blow and the resulting pile-head velocity
response are analysed into their component frequencies as described in Section 4.4.
Transient techniques were developed because of the need to produce a more
portable and rapid system than the rather cumbersome steady-state method. The
CIRIAReportl44 185
developmentofthetestwas also
increasinglypowerful vet aidedby the
concurrent
use. The
techniquewas physicallysmallermicrocomputers. developmentof
France in the
1970s. as developedforintegritytesting
made
rugged forsite
where itwas called described purposesby
the shock orbyHiggs andRobcrtson(1979) CEBIP in
introduced into the transient-dynamic method.
and Stain
UK in the late The (1982).
also
developedin the UK in the 1970s by CEBTP. A similarly methodwas
frequency response or earlyto mid 1980s based system
IPFR.method. and termed the was
Impulsepile
a
0.
E
30
Depth (m)
(Assumedwave
propagalionvelocity:4000
mIs)
(a)Eflectofbreak in
pile nearsurface
Cu
0a
Depth (m)
(Assumedwave
propagationvelocity: 4000
mIs)
(b) Responsecurve
aftercutting pile
Figure &10 Pulse down
echo test:
(after Kemp, 1988)typical effect ofnear-surface
discontinuity
Ellwav (!987aand
thegeneric name b) refers to both
of steady-state andtransient
under the same frequency-response testing, techniques
genera! heading.The
term therebygroupingboth under
frequency methods
responsehas been
adopted
186
CIRtAReport 144
in this text for all types of frequency-based low-strain integrity testing, because
of the essential similarity of their analysis. regardless of the source ofthe
external excitation force.
In the following discussion, the development and methodology of the steady-state

methods are discussed first, as an introduction to the philosophy behind the use of
frequency-based methods. The use of the common hammer-based transient
techniques is then considered, in terms of their refinement to the basic analytical
techniques. The use of the terms 'steady state' and 'transient' are used, therefore,
only to identify the means of providing the external excitation to the pile head. In
general discussion the term frequency-response testing refers to either type of test.
5.2.1 Steady-state frequency-response testing

Basis qfmethod
The test is undertaken by placing an electrodynamic vibrator or 'shaker' on the

head ofthe pile. The shakerapplies an axial, sinusoidaily varying, force of
constant amplitude to the pile head, and the response of the pile to this imposed
force is measured by means of a suitable sensor placed on the pile head, such as
an accelerometer or a velocity transducer. The movement of the pile head under
the action of the sinusoidally varying force is a measure ofthe response of the
pile to the excitation,
The frequency of the electrodynamic shaker used is capableofbeing varied over

a typical frequency range of between 20 and 2000 Hz, and of applying a force
of some 50 to 100 N to the pile head. The behaviourofthe pile can therefore be
studied as the frequency of the applied sinusoidal force is slowly increased from
the minimum to the maximum frequency ofthe device.
The maximum force applied by the shaker is kept constantby means of a

feedback loop incorporating an accelerometer attached to the vibrating mass of
the instrument. This loop constantly monitors and adjusts the amplitude of
vibrationofthe shaker throughout its frequency range so that the maximum
force applied to the pile is a constantvalue, for the reasons explainedbelow.
By this means the response ofthe pile can be examined for a uniformlyapplied
oscillating force over a range of impulse frequencies. As described in Section 4.1,
at certain frequencies the pile head will demonstrate a maximum, resonant,
response, while at intermediate frequencies the response will be a minimum. The
position ofthese maximum and minimum values depends upon the travel time of
the incident and reflected stress-waves transmitted through the pile, which in turn
is directly proportional in a uniform pile to the length of the pile or to the depth of
an intervening discontinuity.

The resonating length. 11. of the pile can be obtained from the relationship:
C.
2.
where c = the velocity of propagation of the stress-wave along the pile
Al = the frequency interval between successive resonances.
If the value of c is known or can be reasonabh' estimated, the frequency interval

between adjacentmaxima gives a measure ofthe length of the pile or. stricth'.
the depth to a reflecting surface caused b a change in pile impedance.
Test procedures
1. Preparation ofpile head
Pile-head preparation usually has to be of a higher standard than for the

hammer-based 'transient' techniques. The concrete ofthe pile head is scabbled
to be roughly square to the axis of the pile and with no surface irregularities
greaterthan 25 mm. Reinforcing bars are bent awa from the central area. A
level bed is made with a suitable polyesteror epoxy resin: alternatively, a 150
to 200 mm square or circularsteel plate can be fixed to the pile top
perpendicular to the pile axis with a suitable resin. In the latter method,two
plates typically of 50 to 60 mm dia. are similarly fixed near the edge ofthe pile
and diametrically opposite one another.
The electrodynamic vibrator or shaker is placed in the centre ofthe pile, aligned
with its axis and precisely levelled. The contact between the instrument and the
pile surface or steel plate is usually smeared with a silicone grease to make
good sonic contact and ensure good transmission ofthe vibration energy.
The pile-head sensor is placed on one of the peripheral plates, again often with a
greased contact. The other peripheral plate is for a second run of the test to
detect changes in response across the pile diameter.
2. Site testing
The arrangement of the test equipment is shown in Figure 5.11 and a view of a
typical test on Figure 5.12.
As can be seen in Figure 5.11, the constant force is achieved by a feedback loop
from an accelerometer mounted on the vibrating mass of the shaker. From
Davis and Dunn (1974), the vertical force, F. imparted into the pile by the
vibrator is given by:
F = m.a
where = mass of the moving weight of the vibrator

a = accelerationof mass in
188 CIRIAReport144
Signal proportional to v XY plotter
Signal proportional
to f
Signal proportional
to
Sinenn
1'
&gn&
Accelerometer, generator
Vibrator
I
Velocity Signal
transducer frequency, f
4.
'I
Figure 5.11 Elements of a steady-state frequency-responsetest
The maximum force, F, is given by:
"max = m Umax
1
=
where U) = angular velocity

and a = amplitude ofvibration.
Thus the output ofthe accelerometer is continuously fed back through the
feedback loop to a regulator which monitors and adjusts the amplitude of
vibration, a, of the shaker so that ama,, and Fmax are kept constant over the flill
frequency range of the instrument.
ClRlAReportl44 189
Figure 5.12 Typical test set-up using electrodynamicshaker
The applied force, F. generated by the vibrator is measured by a force

transducerbetween the vibrator and the pile head.
The test commences with the vibrator operating at its lowest selling of approximately
20 Hz which is then steadily increased to 1000 Hz. Throughout the test, readings of
f
pile-head velocity. v, applied force, F. and frequency, are recorded for each
frequency change. such that a graph of normalised pile head response per unit of
applied force can be plotted against the frequency of vibration.
3. Data processing and display
For any particular frequency the applied force. F. at the pile head and the
resulting pile-head velocity. v, are usually digitised and stored for subsequent
analysis. For each measurement frequency, the pile head mobility, given by the
ratio v/F. can be subsequentls plotted, to provide a signal-response curve of the
form illustrated in Figure 5.13.
5.2.2 'Transient' frequency-response testing

Basis fmethod
The test is carried out by applying an impulsive force to the head ofthe pile.
usually by striking it with a light hand-held hammer, in an identical manner to
the echo testing methods.
This impulsive force is measured by means of a small electronic dynamic load

cell. The load cell was initialls' placed on the pile head and struck with the
hammer, as outlined by Higgs and Robertson (1979). In later developments, it
is usually integrally attached to the hammer head (e.g. ElIway. 1987 a and b. or
Testconsult. 1988). as illustrated in Figure 5.14.
190 ClRlAReportl44
C C
2L 2L
I 1 1
'S
'S
S. S
0
-C
0
Frequency, f(Hz)
Figure 5.13 Typical signal-responsecurve for a frequency-based low-strain integrity test
Figure 5.14 Typical transient frequency response test in progress, illustrating integral
hammer/loadcell and geophone
The load cell therefore measures the dynamic force imparted to the pile by the
impulsive (ortransient) blow from the hammer. The response of the pile to the
hammer blow is measured by a velocitytransducer (or geophone) held on the
upper surface of the pile, in a similar manner to the time-based echo techniques.

The force wave imparted into the pile and the resulting velocity response of the
pile are separately analysed into their component frequencies using a Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) as described in Section 4.4.1. The pile-head response.
measured by its mobility. M(where M= v/F). can then be studied over the
range of component frequencies. typically between zero and 2000-2500 Hz. in
an identical manner to that outlined forthe steady-state vibration technique.
Test procedures
1. Preparation of pile head
As with the time-based echo techniques, pile-head preparation is important to

the accuracy and validity ofthe test. This aspect. common to both time- and
frequenc-based techniques. is described in Section 3. 1.
2. Site testing
The arrangement of a typical site-testing layout for a transienf frequency

response test is illustrated in Figure 5.15. The pile-head sensor is placed against
the pile head and the pile is struck with the instrumented hammer, preferably at or
near the pile centre. The weight ofhammer and type of hammer material may
have to be adjusted by experimentation to suit the pile size and material. Usually
a light plastic ended hammer weighing approximately a kilogramme is suitable.
3. Data processing and display
The signal from the dynamic load cell at the pile head and the corresponding
pile-head velocity signal are collected and displayed on an oscilloscope or a
VDU as functions oftime. Ifthe signals are acceptable they are (typically)
immediately passed through an analogue-to-digital converter and stored in the
memory of an on-board microcomputer.
When acceptable signals have been obtained and stored, the signal analysis is
carried out and the measured force and velocity signals mathematically
transformed from time-domain to frequency-domain measurements. The
processed data are then plotted as a graph ofpile-head mobility (v/fl against
frequency. The resultant plot is termed the frequency response or signal-
response curve for the pile, and is of the same form as illustrated on Figure 5.13
for the steady-state method.
It is usual that several hammer blows are recorded to confirm the repeatability
of the signal response of the pile. Signal averaging like that described in
Section 5.1.2 can also be applied to reduce 'noise' effects.
192 CIRIAReportl44
H
Test
instnjmented
Figure 5.15 Elements of a typical transient frequency-responsetest (after Stain, 1982)
5.2.3 Properties of the pile or pile/soil system that can be deduced

from the results
Acoustic length
Interference between the downward- and upward-travelling stress-waves causes

axial resonances within the pile shaft. The resonating length, L, and hence the
depth to the pile feature, can be calculated from Equation5.3, by measuringthe
resonantfrequency interval 4f It follows from Equation5.3 that the shorterthe
resonant frequency interval the greaterthe depth to the featurecausing that
resonance. Thus a feature located above the pile toe will cause a reflection of
the downward-travelling wave that will show itselfas a longer resonant
frequency interval. Ifthe feature is such as to cause total reflection of the
downward-travelling stress-wave, it totally masks any other feature below it,
including the pile toe. In other cases, however, the feature might only occupy a
part ofthe pile section, a small bulge or partial neck in the pile shaft, for
instance. In such a case, when only a portion ofthe incident stress-wave is
reflected back towards the pile head, the remainder of the wave passes through
ClRIAReportl44 193
the feature to the toe of the pile and is reflected towards the pile head in turn.
The two wave fronts would thus tend to interfere and overprint one another as
indicated on Figure 5.16 (and Figure 428).
afdue to level feature
0
0 1000 2000
Frequency, f(Hz)
Figure 5.16 Influenceof a partial feature on the signal-responsecurve

(after Davis and Dunn, 1974)
From Section 4.4.2, the nature ofthe impedance change, whether it be the toe of
the pile or an intermediate feature or defect, can be deduced from the position of
the resonating peaks relative to the origin. If the first discernible peak is at a
distance of 4for a multiple of 4ffrom the origin then this will indicate a free-
end type oftermination, typical of a crack or loss of section, for example. On
the other hand, ifthe resonant peaks are displaced to 4/12, this would indicate a
fixed-end or anchorage form oftermination, such as a shaft enlargement,
attachment to an obstruction outside the pile or a pile socket into very stiffor
strong material.
The separation ofthe resonant frequencies is therefore an indication of the depth

to a reflecting feature within the pile, and the relative shift ofthe frequency-
response curve relative to the vertical axis is an indicator ofthe nature ofthe
feature.
Pile-head dynamic stiffliess
The pile head dynamic stiffness, E', is given by the inverse of the slope of the
initial portion ofthe signal-response curve (as described in Section 4.4.4). K is
a measure of the apparent stifthess ofthe upper part of the pile, and is most
strongly affected by the pile and soil properties close to the pile head.
Baker eta!. (1991) concluded from transient frequency-response testing on trial

piles in the USA that comparisons of pile-head dynamic stiffliess could be
worthwhile fortests properly executed by the same firm and at the same
approximate date. The results did not correlate well with stiffness data derived
by other test methods, such as static load tests or dynamic load tests, nor with
194 ClRlAReportl44
similar tests by other testing organisations. However, for tests executed by the
same firm within a short period of time and with all other factors constant,
observed differences in K of more than 10 or 15%, were found to be indicative
of significant pile features.
Characteristic mobility
The theoretical characteristic mobilityofthe pile, M0, is given by the equation:
M= 1
p.c.A
The value ofM0 depends only upon the properties of the upper, near-surface,
section ofthe pile shaft. The avenge mobilityM0derived from the signal-
response curve can therefore be compared with the theoretical value. A mjor
discrepancy between the two or in comparison with the average results ofother
piles at the site could indicate a near-surface anomalywithin the pile.
It should be noted that, since mobilityis the inverse of impedence, some

practitioners record characteristic impedence, z0, rather than characteristic
mobility.
5.3 DATA CAPTURE AND PROCESSING
5.3.1 Data quality
Two featuresassociatedwith the signal processing of the system can affect the
subsequent signal analysis. First, the quality ofthe data can be affected by
inherent errors associated with the integration process used to transfomi the
measured pile-head signal into velocity or displacement. Problems can be
caused by gross or 'runaway' accumulating zero errors during this process (see
Reiding, Middendorp and van Brederode, 1984). Secondly, the quality ofthe
data is directlyproportional to the quality or power ofresolutionof the
recording and analysis equipment. The associated electronics systems for
information handling and decoding of the signals are thus all-important to the
relative sensitivity or accuracy ofthe particular testing device.
5.3.2 Processing of pile-head signal

With regard to the signal processing, two systems are currently used to
transform and record the pile-head movement data into velocity or displacement
information: those employing what are termed 'analogue' techniques, and those
using 'digital' methods.
In either case, the initial signal from the pile-head sensorhas an analogue form.
With an analogue data-processing system, in orderto obtain the pile-head
velocity from an accelerometer signal, for example, the signal is passedthrough
an electronically integrating circuitto produce a fUrther analogue signal ofpile-
CIRIAReportl44 195
head velocity. Alternatively, with the digital system, the analogue acceleration
signal is digitised by means of an analogue-to-digital converter immediately it
is received from the accelerometer and is recorded in this form on a
microcomputer. Each digitised segment of signal can then be integrated
individually by an on-board computer program to produce the signal of pile-
head velocity in digital form.
Regardless ofits means of conversion, the resulting signal is generally stored on

a microcomputer to allow subsequent evaluation and analysis. Thus, even ifthe
integrating circuitmethod is used, the resulting analogue velocity signal still
has to be digitised at some stage by an analogue-to-digital converter for it to be
stored and processed by the current generation ofmicrocomputers.
The analogue signal-processing technique may thus involve a number of

operations which can introduce errors into the derived signal. The integrating
circuits through which the incoming signal is passed tend to be noisy
electronically and to introduce zero-shift errors which produce a characteristic
signal distortion or 'overshoot' in the signal directlyafter the impact, as
illustrated in Figure 5.17. It can thereforeon occasion be difficult and require
considerable skill to distinguish between an initial signal distortion caused by a
near-surface feature within the pile and one which is a productofthe electronic
conditioning process. In addition, because extraneous noise has been introduced
into the electronic system by the integrating process, it is less satisfactory to
amplifi the attenuating remote end ofthe signal, because a uniform noise level is
also being amplified and this will increasingly tend to swamp the weak return
signal. This may mean in practice that such a signal cannot usefully penetrate as
deeply into a long pile, or a pile that has considerable soil friction acting upon it.
Further information on digital techniques is contained in van Weele eta!. (1987)

and Reiding eta!. (1984). The advantage claimed for such techniques is that no
noise is introduced into the signal by the integration process. In addition, the
method avoids the characteristic overshoot ofthe signal caused by the electronic
integrator/filter unit, which is a feature ofthe electronics not the signal.
5.3.3 Power of resolution
Two aspectsofthe acquisition system that have a significant bearing on the

quality of resolution ofthe test equipment are its dynamic range and its
resolution.
Dynamic range
The dynamic range of a signal is the ratio between its smallest and largest
components. As a rule, the largest component ofthe signal will be the peak
value of the initial impulse from the test hammer. By comparison, the peak
value ofthe toe response, being the reflection ofthe stress-wave from the toe of
the pile. may often be only a very small fractionof the hammer impulse because
of attenuation ofthe signal by pile and soil effects. The greaterthe ability of the
system to differentiate a very small signal compared with the initial signal, the
196 ClRIAReportl44
higher its dynamic range. Most current systems have a dynamic range in excess
of 1: 4000.
0 0
IiIISi4
a)
I I. 'overshoof
0
I j I
5
I j I [
10
I
o \'I
5 10
lime, t (ms) Time, t(ms)
(a) Initial triangular input pulse (1) (b) Response of Integrator and filter (2)
0
C
tt
a I.
I I
0 5 10 0 5 10
Time, t(ms) Time, t (ms)
(c)Applicationof time-dependent amplification (d) Overail response (3)
Figure 5.17 Signal distortion and 'overshoot' in analogue signal processing

(after Reiding et al., 1984)
Resolution
Analogue signals have to be digitisedat some stage for analysis by the current
range ofdesk-top computers, i.e. the signal must pass throughan
analogue-to-digital (A/D) converter. This piece ofprocessing equipmentshould
have a high enough sampling frequency and a sensitive enough scale to ensure
that all the information from the pile-head signal is faithfully represented. This
latter feature is referred to as the resolution ofthe system.
The resolution of an analogue-to-digital converter is expressed in bits. A 10-bit

converter has a scale length of 210 or 1024, and similarly a 12-bit converterhas
ClRlAReport 144 197

a scale length of212 or 4096. In other words, a 12-bit converter (which is a
currently generally available component) can scale the information output
between 1 and 4096 units. This resolution approaches the dynamic range ideally
required for the system. A 10-bit converter, on the other hand, has only a
quarter ofthe sensitivity in its representation of a pile-head response.
However, with respect to the power of resolution ofa system, three interacting
factors should be borne in mind:
1. The pile and the soil both attenuate the signal exponentially.
2. The equipment has a certain resolution.
3. The equipment has a certain noise level.
The attenuationdepends upon the pile diameter and soil stiffhess. For a given
diameter, therefore, beyond a certain depth, the returning signal from the pile
toe will be too small with respect to the resolution of the AID converter, or it
will be below the noise level of the equipment. This will limit the penetration
depth ofthe particular system. Ifthe resolution is increased, and the noise level
is lowered accordingly, the toe reflection of longer piles can be detected. Thus,
the higher the resolution and the higher the signal-to-noise ratio the better. A
high resolution, however, is ofno assistance ifthe toe reflection signal is
smallerthan the noise level. In that case the toe signal will essentially be
invisible.
It should not be presupposed that vezy high definition is always essential.

Proper functioning ofan integrity testing system depends on whetherthe toe
echo is within the dynamic range of the equipment. The important point is that
such improved definition helps to ensure that the data obtained are as accurate
as possible and not distorted or obscured by features that are a functionofthe
measuring or processing equipment.
Figure 5.18 is an example ofthe effect of varying levels of signal-processing

accuracy using digital techniques. This shows that although the degree of
sensitivity is changed, the main features ofthe signal can still remain. The
importance of better definition and clearer resolution become more significant
where the signal response is increasingly attenuated from a long slender pile or
a pile embedded in a strong soil. Such techniques thus enable more marginal
cases to be analysed.
5.4 LIMITATIONS AND RESTRAINTS
The major limitations oflow-strain integrity methods are determined by the

physical laws governing the tests. The major factors that may limit the
usefulness of low-strain methods or their ability to penetrate the full length of
the pile are summarised as follows.
198 CIRIAReportl44
Attenuation ofsignal due to pile and soil effects
The soil surrounding the pile is a cause of significant attenuationofthe waves

as they travel both up and down the pile. As a consequence, the relative
amplitude of the reflected signal at the top ofthe pile is reduced with respect to
the input signal. In the limit, the reflected signal may be so small that it cannot
be detected by the pile-head sensor and its associated signal-processing
equipment, either because the return signal is beyond the dynamic range ofthe
equipment or because the equipment cannot distinguish the signal from the
background noise.
For given ground conditions and pile diameter, the signal is further reduced as
the piles penetrate more deeply into the ground. In general, the stifferthe soil
layerthe greaterthe damping effect and the smaller the amplitude ofthe
reflected signal returning to the pile head from a particular depth. Thus in
general, the degree ofattenuation increases with aspect ratio.
USJPILt
I
Resoludon $ bits
Reectilon9 bits
VP.O aUI tt1I'iii
ResolutIon 10 bits
rho
- flflfltt
[rti&i. 400
.14114
P
S
to. tO.a t 17.1 fltt
Resolution 12 bits
Figure 5.18 Illustration of the effect of increasingpower of resolution on the sensitivity

of the pile head velocity versus depth curve (after Reiding et al., 1984)
Davis and Dunn (1974) suggested that an aspect ratio ofgreater than 20:1
would cause problems in interpretation because ofdissipation of the signal
response, except in the case of a pile in a veiy weak soil but bearing on strong
stratum. Subsequent writers suggest, as a general guide, that a test is likely to be
less effective (or ineffective) at pile aspect ratios ofbetween 20:1 and 30:1 for
piles embedded in dense gravels or stiffchalk or very stiffto hard glacial tills,
and between 30:1 to 40:1 in stiffto very stiffclays such as London Clay
(e.g. ElIway, 1987(a and b); Fleming et al., 1985). McCavittet cii. (1989) noted
ClRlAReportl44 199
that pile toe levels could be discerned using advanced signal-analysis techniques
with aspect ratios ofup to 33:1 in very stiffto hard glacial tills overlying
bedrock at the Blvth test site (see Lilies' eta!., 1987. for a description of this
site). In loose alluvial silty sands, valid results have been reported on piles with
aspect ratios of 40: Ito 60:1 and even higher. In dense to very dense sands,
however, effective penetration of the technique has been limited to aspect ratios
of less than 20:1. As a guide. Table 5.1 summarises published data on limiting
aspect ratios that have been encountered in practice.
Table 5.1 Limiting values of aspect ratios encounteredin practice

Soil type Typicallimiting Source
aspect ratios
Very stiff to hard glacial till Up to 30:1 McCavitt eta!. (1989)
Stiff cla 2030:1 Fleming eta!. (1985)

Soil clay overlying strong founding 50:! Fleming eta!. (1985)
strata
Dense sands and gravels 20:1 Ellwav (I 987(a and b))
Soil soils >50:1 ElIway (1987(a and b))

London clay 30-40:1 Ellwav (1 987(a andb))
Stiff chalk 20:1 ElIway(1987(a andb))
As a general statement, therefore, the degree of attenuation of the signal can be

expected to vaiy greatly, depending upon the characteristics of the material
within which the pile is embedded. Attenuation is increased by soil variability
and by surface irregularities on the perimeter ofthe pile - cast-in-place piles
usually have rougher surfaces than precast concrete or steel piles.
Attenuation ofthe pile signal by soil damping is probably the most severe
limitation to the usefulness ofthe method.
Reflection ofthe signal at intermediate depths within the pile
At any change of impedance within the pile/soil system, part of the wave is
reflected back towards the pile head and part transmitted onwardstowards the
pile toe. In accordance with the principle ofthe conservation of energy, the sum
of the amplitude of these reflected and transmitted waves equals the amplitude
of the original wave when it reached the impedance change. Depending on the
relative size ofthe impedance change, only a small part of the wave may be
transmitted across the impedance boundary towards the pile toe. Consequently
the information returning from levels below a significant impedance change
may be too small to be detectable by the pile-head sensor.
In the extreme, ifa horizontal crack in the concrete is encountered by the wave.
only a small fraction ofthe wave will be transmitted across the crack and often
none ofthe reflections from below the crack can be detected. That portion ofthe
wave transmittedbeyond the feature and reaching, say, the toe ofthe pile to be
200 ClRlAReportl44
reflected as an upward travelling wave, would once again have to traverse the
major feature on its upward path. Only a small portion of that signal would be
transmitted beyond the feature. Practically, therefore, no thither information can
be obtained below a reflecting surface caused by a major change in the
impedance ofthe pile. This characteristic, whereby a deeperdefect or feature is
obscured b the reflection from a higher feature, is known as 'masking'.
A horizontal feature within the pile, such as a joint in a segmental precast

concrete pile, will have a similareffect.
Magnitude ofchanges in impedance
To be detectable by the most sensitive current equipment, the ratio of

impedance change at the reflecting surface generally has to be greater than 1:0.8
(in the case of a decrease in pile properties) or 1:1.2 (where there is a relative
increase) (EfIway, 1987(a and b). These values represent a change in pile
diameter ofaround 10% or a reduction in concrete strength ofaround
15 N/mm2. Smaller impedance changes are not normally detectable as such.
Repeated minor irregularities of the pile shaft, for instance, may give rise to
multiple reflections that degrade and attenuate the downward4ravelling wave.
When the ratio of the impedance change exceeds 1:0.25 (or, correspondingly,
1:4 fora relative increase in pile properties) the incident wave is almost
completely reflected. These values could represent a reduction ofpile diameter
of 50% (or an increase of 100%), or a reduction in concrete strength to very low
values.
Length ofan impedance change
The length of an impedance change will also have a relative effect upon the
nature ofthe signal response curve. Van Weele (1993) has suggested that,
because the length ofthe wave pulse in the pile caused by the hammer blow is
perhaps 3 to 4 m, defects or features with an axial length of less than 0.8 to
1.0 m cannot be uniquely determined. Because ofthis characteristic, a feature of
small axial extent may not be detectable or may be only barely detectable by the
test, (See section 4.2 also).
Gradual changes ofimpedance
Ifany ofthe properties that affect the impedance at any point along the pile valy
gradually with depth, these may go undetected if the magnitude of any
reflection is so small as to be outside the sensitivity range ofthe equipment.
Pile alignment or straightness
The waves imparted to the pile head generate plane waves that travel the length
of the pile. These are generally bound by the interface between the concrete and
the medium outside. The waves therefore follow the boundaries of the pile and
CIRIARepartl44 201
thus no information about the inclination of the pile can be retrieved with this
test, nor can bent piles be detected.
Upper section ofthe pile
If the incident stress-wave is not a plane wave when it reaches a reflection

position, the characteristics ofthe pile may not be determined accurately. It is
thus possible that significant changes in impedance in the top section ofthe pile
(generally within 2 pile diameters) might not be properly detected, because of
the time taken for lateral propagation of the wave over the full cross section of
the pile following the initial impact. Frequency-response methods, which also
give a direct measure of pile-head impedance (the inverse of pile-head
mobility), can be useful in indicating malformed piles near the pile head. Since
impedance is proportional to p, c and A, variation in any of these parameters
will result in a change in measured pile-head mobility.
Detection ofthe toe ofthe pile
If there is no significant change of impedance at the toe, i.e. the pile toe is
embedded in material ofalmost identical properties to those in the pile, a
discernible acoustic boundary will not be defined as no reflections of the wave
will be produced.
Furthermore, no indication will be given of the presence of any debris at the

pile toe, for its reflection will be indistinguishable from the reflection of the pile
toe. Occasionally the methods have been tried to identify 'soft toes' in piles, on
the basis ofthe larger amounts ofwave energy reflected from their free ends.
However, the information gained is usually comparative across a particular site,
and interpretation relies upon the experience ofthe specialist.
Detection ofconcrete quality
Although the density of the pile material has a significant effect on the acoustic
impedance at any point down the pile, a change in concrete density,
representing a quality change, would not necessarily produce sufficient change
of acoustic impedance to distinguish the reflections from such a feature reliably.
As noted in Section 4.2, a large difference in concrete strength or density is
needed for there to be a distinct change in wave-propagation velocity and result
in an identifiable impedance change.
Depth to a change ofimpedance
In the case of concrete piles, the velocity ofplane-wave propagationthroughthe

pile depends on the strength, age, constituent materials and consistency of the
concrete mix. In practice a stress-wave velocity of 3500 to 4000 mIs can usually
be assumedfor concrete with characteristic 28-day strengths ofbetween 30 and
40 N/mm2. Weakerconcrete that is correspondingly less dense, has a lower
stress-wave velocity. If not taken into account, this will result in an
overestimate ofthe pile length or length to a defectifeature.

As a guide, it is usually considered that the calculated resonating length ofa
pile should correspond to the overall pile length with an accuracy of1O%,
when taking into account the likely variation in pile material properties. Thus a
defect near the toe of the pile would not necessarily be identifiable as such.
Static hearing capacity
The test does not provideinformation about the static bearing capacity of the
pile. Interpretation offrequency-response testing with force measurement can,
however, indicate piles with lower pile-head stiffliesses or characteristic
mobilities. Both parameters have been used to indicate piles that could have a
smaller load-carrying capacity, because their upper shaft characteristics were not
as good as other similar piles at a particular site. The test is not capable of
determining the load-canying capacity ofa pile in absoluteterms.
Variation in ground conditions
Variations in the relative stiffliess of the soil through which the pile passes can
cause secondary reflections from the soil layer interfaces which will affect the
signal response curve, masking the pile signal.
Discussing the interpretation of frequency-response testing, ElIway (1987 a and b)

suggests that an increase in shear modulus from an upper to a lower soil layer in
the ratio of 1:2.5 will cause a partial reflection ofthe stress-wave. ElIway suggests
that a ratio of 1:5 will cause a complete reflection of the stress-wave, such that the
integrityof the pile shaft below this point could not be evaluated. This factor
would be of particular significance when piles are installed throughvery weak soils
into a much stiffer bearing stratum. In such circumstances, the reflection from the
boundary betweenthe two materials may mask the signals from the pile below this
level.
Interpretation ofsignal response
Impedance depends upon several interlinked properties ofthe pile, so it is not

generally possible to know whether a particular impedance change is a result of:
a change in section
a change in material quality
some combination of both
soil changes.
The interpretation of a particular test therefore is a questionof examining these

possibilities in the light ofother available information about the piles and the
site. It is always advisable for a number ofpiles to be tested in order to obtain a
site 'signature'.
The method, in principle, is a qualitative one, and information cannot

necessarily be obtained on the seriousness of a defect. An estimate can be made,
however, ofthe nature and seriousness ofa defect, using, for example a

computer-basedsimulation program. comparative case studies or catalogues
(lists of comparative signals from known pile features or defects, usually
produced by computer-generated simulations). Computer-simulation programs,
however, have to make the simplif\'ing assumption of an axial symmetry to the
pile. so they are not able to identi asymmetric defects.
lntegrit\ tests cannot determine the axial extent ofanomalies where there is
complete reflection of the incident stress-wave. A 'hairline' crack extending
across the full area ofthe pile would therefore produce a result similar to that of
a completevoid.
I. With time-based (echo) tests the depth, L, to a reflecting surface or change

of impedance is given by the relationship:
ci
2
where c is the velocity of propagation of the wave through the pile, and t is
the time taken for the wave to travel through the pile and return to the pile
head
2. With frequency-based tests the depth, L, is given by:
C
2.41
where c is as above. andfis the frequency interval between successive
resonancies
3. In good commercial testing practice, pile lengths or depths to a particular
feature calculated from the signal-response curve are generally within 10%
ofthe actual value.
4. Correct preparation of the pile head is important to allow a clear hammer
blow impulse to be imparted into the pile and to aid the detection of the
returning signals.
5. In suitable conditions, interpretation ofthe pile head response can give
information on the acoustic length, peak particle velocity, soil layer
changes, pile head stiffliess and mobility.
6. Data quality and processing is important to the usefulness and interpretation
of the test.
7. The signal acquisition and processing equipment should have a wide
dynamic range and high resolution. Analogue signal-processing techniques
can introduce errors into the derived signal, which are avoided by the use of
digital methods.
X. The major factors that may limit the useftulness of low-strain methods, or
their ability to penetrate the hill length of a pile include:
. attenuation ofthe signal because of pile and soil effects
204 CIRIAReportl44
reflection ofall, or part ofthe signal at intermediate depths within the
pile
the relative magnitude and characteristics of an impedance change, or
changes
variations in ground conditions.
9. Properties ofa pile which cannot be determined satisfactorily from low-
strain integrity methods include:
pile alignmentor straightness
concrete quality (unless large differences in strength or density occur)
detection of pile toe levels ifthere is no significant change of
impedance at the toe
the axial extent ofanomalies where there is complete reflection ofthe
incident stress-wave
static bearing capacity.
BRIARD, M. (1970)
Controle des pieux par Ic methode des vibrations
Anna/es de / Institut Techniquec/u BatEinent et des Travaux Publics
23rd Year, No. 270, June, pp 105-7
DAVIS, A. G. and DUNN, C. S. (1974)

From theory to field experience with the non-destructive vibration testing of
piles
Proc. the Institution ofCivil Engineers, Vol. 57, Part 2, December, pp 57 1-93
ELLWAY, K. (1987a)
Practical guidanceon the use of integrity tests forthe quality control of
cast-in-site piles
Also in:
ELLWAY, K. (l987b)
Practical guidance on the use of integrity tests forthe quality control of
cast-in-site piles
Ground Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 7, October, 8-13
EWIINS. D. J. (1984)
Modal testing: theory andpractice
CIRIAReportl44 205
FLEMING. W. G. K.. WELTMAN, A. J., RANDOLPH, M. F.
Piling Engineering
HIGGS, J. S. and ROBERTSON, S. A. (1979)

Integrity testing of concrete piles by shock method
Concrete, Vol. 13, No. 10, October, pp 31-3
HOWELL, M. I. (1987)
Civil Engineering. September, 1987, 30-5
LILLEY, D.M., KILKENNY, W.M. and ACKROYD, R.F. (1987)

Investigation ofstructural integrity ofpile foundations using a vibration method
London, March, 1987
McCAVIfl, N., FORDE, M. C. and BATCHELOR, A. J. (1989)

The Edinburgh pile integritytesting technique
Proc. SecondInternational Conference on Foundations and Tunnels
London, 19-2 1 September, Engineering Technics Press, Vol. 2., 293-9
PAQUET, J. (1992)
Pile integritytesting - the CEBTP reflectogram
Conference on PilingEurope
Institution ofCivil Engineers, London, 7-9 April, 1992, 177-88
PAQUET, J. (1968)
Annales de I 'Institut Technique du Batiment et des Travaux Publics, 21st year,
No. 245, May
RAUSCHE, F., LIKINS, G.E. and HUSSEIN, M. (1988)

Proc. Third International Conference on Application ofStress- Wave Theory to
piles
Ottawa, pp. 44-55
REIDING, F.J, MIDDENDORP, P. and VAN BREDERODE, P.J. (1984)

Second International Conference on Application ofStress-wave Theory on Piles
Stockholm, 1984
STAIN, R. T. (1982)
Integrity testing
CivilEngineering,April/May
206 CIRIAReportl44
STARKE, W. F. and JANES, M. C. (1988)
Accuracy and reliability of low strain integrity testing
Third International Conference on Application ofStress- Wave Theory to piles,
Ottawa, pp. 19-32.
TESTCONSULT (1988)
Technical data sheet
VAN KOTEN, H. and MIDDENDORP, p. (1980)

Equipment for integrity tests and bearing capacity of piles
Proc. International Seminaron the Application ofStress-Wave Theory on piles,
Stockholm, 69-76

Determination ofthe shape ofcast-in-situ foundation piles using the sonic echo
technique
VAN WEELE, B. et al (1993)

Discussion in Ground Engineering, Vol. 26, No. 3, April, pp. 14-15
VAN WEELE, A. F., MIDDENDORP, P. and REIDINO F.J. (1987)

Detection of pile defects with digital integrity testing equipment
CIRIAReportl44 207
6 Cross-hole sonic logging
Cross-hole sonic logging, or sonic coring, was developed in France bs the

research organisation Centre Experimental de Recherches et d'Etudes du
Batiment et des Travaux Publics (CEBTP) in the late 1960s.
It is believed it was first introduced into the UK in 1969. when the Greater
London Council (GLC) arranged for a series of tests to be carried out on
specially constructed piles to examine the possibilities of the method. This work
was reported by Levy (1970) and Bobrowski, ci cii. (1970). These trials were
undertaken because of concern within the GLC's statutory building control
departments regarding the quality of construction of large-diameter bored piles.
Single piles, capable of carrying loads in the region of 1000 tonnes. were
becoming more common at that time, but there was no accepted method of
investigating their integrity.
6.1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The velocity ofpropagation, c, of a train of ultrasonic waves travelling through

a known path length, L. through the body of a pile is given by:
L
I
where / is the transit time ofthe waves traversing the path length. L.
Transposing Equation 6.1, the transit time. I, of such waves is given by:
L
C
In addition,the propagation velocity ofan ultrasonic wave train travelling

through an isotropic elastic medium of infinite dimensions is related to the
elastic constants of the medium by the following expression
E(1-v)
N p0 + v)(1

2v)
where E is the dynamic elastic modulus of the material

p is the detisitv
v is the dynamic Poisson's ratio.
208 CIRIAReportl44
Hence substituting into Equation 6.2, the transit time, I, can be expressed as
follows:
= 1Jp(1 + v)(1
- 2v)
J E(1-v)
Thus, if the distance oftravel ofthe wave is a constant, the transit time, 1, is a
function of the properties of the medium defined by E. p and v.
Sonic logging utilises the relationships of Equations 6.2 and 6.4 to investigate
the internal properties of a pile, usually concrete, by measuring the transit time
of a sonic/ultrasonic pulse travelling between two known points.
6.2 BASIS OF THE METHOD
The test is undertaken by lowering two piezo-electric probes, one a sonic

emitter and the other a receiver, down two parallel access ducts embedded
within a pile, barrette or diaphragm wall. The emitter transmits a combined
sonic/ultrasonic pulse at predetermined time intervals. Each pulse radiates away
from the source as a spherical wavefront consisting of a train ofacoustic waves.
A part of this expanding wavefront is recorded by the receiver probe. The sonic-
logging method utilises signals in a frequency band ofup to 100 kHz. CEBTP
(1969) suggest that such frequencies are less affected by attenuation effects but
are also long in wave length compared with the typical defect size. The
frequency spectrum of the pulse is a cross between sonic and ultrasonic,
although the term 'sonic' is normallyused to describe the method.
The transmission of the pulse from transmitter to receiver involves the passage
of the wavetrain across successive boundaries: ceramic (ofthe transmitter) -
water - plastic or steel (duct wall) - concrete - plastic or steel (duct wall) -
water - ceramic (of receiver). All these materials have differentmechanical
impedance values which cause reflections and resonances within the signal.
The method tests the continuity ofthe concrete between the ducts by measuring
its effect upon the propagation of the sonic wave between the emitter and the
receiver. Sound concrete shows good transmission characteristics, but the
presence of soil or other foreign material, or washout of cement paste within the
concrete, may affect the transmission ofthe signal. Such weak materials in the
path of the wave affect the propagation velocity and the amplitude and shape of
the received signals.
The ducts are usually placed a known distance apart, so that L in Equations 6.2
and 6.4 is sensibly constant. In fact, however, the first arrival ofthe wave train,
or ultrasonic pulse, at the receiver is that part of the signal that has travelled the
shortest acoustic path between the instruments. Thus in practice the effective
travel length, L, in Equations 6.2 and 6.4 can also vary, since the signal can
travel arounda limited obstruction by adopting a slightly longertravel path
CIRiAReportl44 209
through the water filled duct or along the sides of the tube. This may be likened
to hearing a sound from behind an intervening building. The first arrival ofthat
sound may travel around the outside ofthe building, but that does not prevent
the listener from hearing it. It may be slightly attenuated b) having to travel
around the obstruction, and in addition may be slightly delayed in its arrival.
Interpretation ofthe test depends upon an appreciation that variations in both

the elastic properties ofthe pile and the actual acoustic travel length of the pulse
affectthe travel time.
6.3 TEST PROCEDURES
6.3.1 Preparation
When it is knot in advance that sonic logging will be needed, the access tubes
are usually incorporated into the pile as it is constructed, Sonic logging has also
been carried out using ducts cast into the pile for other purposes, such as pile
base grout injection (e.g. as described by Sherwood and Mitchell, 1989). In
exceptional cases, the testing can be carried out in holes drilled or cored into the
pile after construction.
The access ducts are filled with water prior to test, in order to provide an
acoustic coupling between the probes and the pile concrete.
6.3.2 Testing
The test equipment comprises an impulse generator, two piezo-electric probes, a
winch (for controlled lowering and raising ofthe probes) and the data
acquisition and display system, which amplifies, displays and stores the
received signal. The winch is linked via a depth-related voltage control to the
data acquisition system so that the depth ofthe probes can be recorded. A view
of acquisition, display and printoutequipment is shown on Figure 6.1.
The probes are first lowered to the bottom of adjacent access tubes and then
slowly raised in unison at a rate of about 100 to 200 mm/s, while the transmitter
probe emits a sonic pulse at the rate often pulses per second. Thus the
measurements are taken at approximately evezy 10 to 20 mm of pile depth.
Additionally, the winch can be used to control the rate ofemission of the
pulses, so that if the probes are raised more slowly the emission rate of the
emitter will decrease. This ensures that the vertical intervals between each test
are kept constant. As the probes are lifted, therefore, a vertical picture or 'sonic
profile' ofthe zone of concrete between the pair of probes can be built up, as
described in Section 6.5 below.
The typical test layout is illustrated in Figure 6.2. A view ofa typical test in
progress is given in Figure 3.2,
210 CIRIAReportl44
Figure 6.1 Cross-hole sonic logging: typical data aquisition display and printing
equipment
6.3.3 Test sequence
Each pair oftubes is sounded in turn, and the results for each soundingare
recorded, analysed and reported. Thus a three-tube system will have three
soundings and a four-tube system six, as illustrated in Figure 6.3.
6.3.4 Positioning of probes

In the great majority of cases, the probes are positioned on the same horizontal
level (Figure 6.4 and Figure 3.1). The wavepath is therefore substantially
horizontal, Thus the method is well suited to detect defects or anomalies which
have a pronounced vertical extent, but less so to thin horizontal features.
A transverse feature such as a near-horizontal crack, if suspected, can be

investigated by staggering the probes, as illustrated on Figure 6.5.
The use of fan-shaped arrays (Tijou, 1984), where the emitter is held at one
position, and the receiver moved as shown in Figure 6.6, can also aid the
investigation into an anomaly.
Tijou has also suggested that the transmitterand receiver could be mounted one
below the other as in the single hole test to gain further informationin some
cases.
CIRIAReportl44 211
go-
Electrical Received Sonic profile

in signal print-out
Voltage proportional
to the depth of the test
Winch
sensor
Concrete pile
Figure 6.2 Elements of a cross-hole sonic logging system (after Stain

and Williams, 1991)
(a) (b)
Figure 6.3 Typical tube layouts for sonic togging (a) with 3 tubes (3 paths); (b) with 4
tubes (6 paths)
6.3.5 Layout and design of tubes

The method will detect defects which intersect the paths of the sonic waves. (It
has also been reported by CEBTP, 1969, that it is possible to identify signals
reflected offthe sides of a pile and thus to detect defects located outside the
directpath ofthe wave train. It is not known how often this has been applied in
commercial usage)
212 ClRlAReportl44
Figure 6.4 Typical horizontal positioningof probes
The direct path requirement means that usually at least three tubes are used
within a pile to ensure substantial coverage of its cross-section. Typically, for
piles of 600 to 750 mm dia. three tubes are used, and above 150mm dia., four.
It is not usual for piles ofless than 600 mm dia. to be tested by sonic logging
techniques, mainly because ofthe cost of installing the access ducts and testing
compared with the unit cost ofthe pile.
The tubes are usually attached to the reinforcing cage of the pile, so that they
are at a sensibly constantspacing. Ifthey extend below the depth of the pile
reinforcement, the tubes should be held by hoop-shaped spacers to ensure
separation.
Transmitter
Receiver
Thin
sub-horizontal
feature
Figure 6.5 Use of inclinedtest line for horizontalfeature

(afterTijou, 1984; CEBIP 1969)
ClRlAReportl44 213
Receiver
Transmitter
(stationary)
Figure 6.6 Use of fan-shaped test lines for investigatingextent/shape of feature (after
Tijou 1984, CEBIP 1969)
Steel pipe is the usual form ofaccess tube, although plastic (PVC) has been used
on occasion. The disadvantage ofplastic is that the external surface of the tube is
often difficult to wet, with the possibility ofpoor bonding to the surrounding
concrete (whichcan therefore give the appearance of an anomaly). In addition
there is a greaterrisk ofdamage to the tubes during installation, with the
consequential loss ofmeasurement below a damaged portion. CEBTP suggested,
however, that an advantage of plastic tubes is that the propagation velocity ofthe
sonic pulse in PVC is intermediate between its velocity through the water filling
the tubes and the concrete ofthe pile. In addition, the tubes are acoustically fairly
well damped so as not to present resonant interference to the signal.
In the case of steel tubes, the advantages and disadvantages are reversed. Steel
tubes are robust and normallyhave a good bond to the pile concrete, except
where there is contamination. Because the signal has a high propagation
velocity through steel, the tube can provide a preferential path aroundan
obstruction, without any important lengthening ofthe transit time ofthe signal,
as illustrated in Figure 6.7. In addition, steel has a very high mechanical
impedance, so that the tube introduces a discontinuity into the transmission,
resulting in a resonance effect that can obscure the signal response. Nonetheless,
in practice, the construction advantages of steel tubes, because oftheir
robustness and their ease of fixing, are generally considered to outweigh any
disadvantages in their signal response characteristics.
The probes usually have an outside diameter of between 10 and 25 mm, and it
is normal to use tubes with an internal diameter of 25 to 50mm. A typical set of
probes is illustrated on Figure 6.S,
214 CIRIAReportl44
Cs
TransmltteL Receiver

III1
C,
_ -_-
Figure 6.7 Possible diversion of signal path by metal tubes
Characteristic configurations fortubes within diaphragm wall panels or barrettes

are shown on Figure 6.9. Maximum spacings between sonic logging access
tubes in such usages are typically recommended as around two metres.
Sonic pulses are emitted at the rate ofaround 80 per linear metre. They pass
through the concrete and are detected by the receiver. The propagation velocity
of the pulse through sound concrete is typically about 4,000 rn/s. With
separation ofthe access tubes of400 to 1000mm within a pile, the transit time
of the pulse is thus around 100 to 250 ss. A typical pulse is illustrated on
Figure 6.10(a).
For ease of display, the received wave train is converted to a variable density log,
which means that the negative part ofthe waveform is shown dark and the
positive portion is shown light. As the probes are raised a variable density log of
the wavetrainarriving at the receiver is drawn for each pulse. Thus the data from
the chosen, vertical intervals (ofbetween 10 and 20 mm) are compiled into the
plot, known as the sonic profile. The build-up of a typical sonicprofile is
illustrated on Figure 6.10 (b) to (d). A typical field result is illustrated in
Figure 6.11. The horizontal axis ofthe profile represents the transit time of the
pulse, usuallyto a scale ofbetween50 and 100 microseconds per centimetre
(5 to 10 ts/mm). The vertical axis represents the depth ofthe probes within the
pile, typicallyto a scale of around 1:200 (5 mm/rn). This often may be amplified
to 1:50 (20 mm/m) to examine suspected anomalous zones in greaterdetail.
Ifthe pulse should encounter a zone of weaker material, not only is the arrival
time ofthe wavetrain delayed, but the signal may also be attenuated, changing
the shape ofthe wavefonn. This attenuation often assists interpretation. The
variable density log is a convenient and powerful way to inspect variations in
ClRIAReportl44 215
the apparent response of the pile with depth. As originally conceived,it shows
results only in terms of arrival time. As a refinement, the degree of attenuation
of the signal is represented on some versions ofthe variable density log by
relative shadings of grey and black.
Figure 6.8 Typical sonic logging probes
6.5 PROPERTIES OF THE PILE THAT CAN BE DEDUCED FROM

THE TEST RESULTS
Sonic logging is similar in essence to the time-based low-strain integrity tests

outlined in Sections 4 and 5, except that the receiver is placed in a different
location within the pile to the excitation device. The method is rather that of
sonic transmission than sonic echo but, as with the low-strain integrity tests.
cross-hole sonic logging techniques are based upon detecting changes in the
impedance of the pile along the transmission path of the signal.
The main measurement of cross-hole sonic logging techniques is the transit

time of the signal from emitter to receiver, in homogeneous concrete, free of
defects and variations in quality, the propagation velocity. c. ofthe acoustic
waves is constant at about 4000 mIs. Concrete containing inhomogeneities.
such as soil inclusions, wash-out. bentonite. honecombing. etc. has a lower
propagation velocity, and it can also attenuate of the signal.
6.5.1 Inhomogeneities in the pile section

In principle, the technique is suited to identifying features which cause internal
impedance changes within the pile, such as concrete contaminated by foreign
material, provided these substantially affect the propagation velocity or
216 ClRlAReportl44
attenuation ofthe sonic pulse. External variations in the shape of the pile,
whether losses or increases in section, would not generally be detectable by the
method, unless the section loss was of sufficient magnitude that it impinges into
the transmission path between two measurement tubes.
A
0- -o
x
II 'I
Ultrasonic logging tubes _________

(45mm ID mild steel) .... -
Transmission paths X
-
A c
Xis typically
lessthan2m
-I
x
Figure 6.9 Typical layout of tubes within diaphragmwall panels

(after Stain and Johns, 1987)
Stain and Williams (1991) describe the results ofa series of laboratory tests to
determine the effects ofvarious defects or inhomogeneities within a concrete
section. The tests were carried out on small test panels constructed to model
various pile construction defects and anomalies. The results from these panels
were related to tests on control panels formed from homogeneous concrete with
unconfined compression strength (UCS) of 33 N/mm2 at 28 days.
CIRIAReportl44 217
(a) Single ultrasonicpulse.
The point of transmission
and receptionare clearly
visible.
Transmitted Received
j
(b) Signal modulated so
that only the positive
portion is displayed.
Transmitted Received
(c) Pulsesare produced

at pre-determined intervals
as the probes are raised.
Transittime
(d) A full sonic profile

is produced
a
0
C
Figure 6.10 The construction of a sonic profile

(after Stain and Williams, 1991)
218 ClRlAReportl44
Signal Sl9nal
transmitted received
Top of tubes
Top of concrete
0 400
Time (pa)
Figure 6.11 Typical sonic profile from cross-hole logging
They reached the following conclusions:

1. Weak concrete, with a measured 28-dayUCS of 20 N/mm2, had very little
effect on the signal transit time and would not be detected by sonic
logging techniques.
2. Weak grout, with a measured 28-day UCS of 14 N/mm2, resulted in a
20% decrease in apparent signal propagation velocity (i.e. an increase in
transit time of only 25%) compared with the control panel, together with a
slight signal damping.
3. Signal transmissionthroughwater-filled voids was very strong, but at a
reduced propagation velocity of 1500 rn/s. The composite velocity
throughwater and concrete was in proportion to the length oftravel path
througheach medium.
4. The effect of gravel-filled voids was predominantly dependent upon
whether or not the materialswere water-saturated. Dry gravels gave total
effective signal attenuation. Wet gravel gave attenuation similarto a
signal throughwater.
5. Sand, and gravel with an increasing percentage of fines, gave high signal
attenuation, so that the signal was rapidly lost with an increasing thickness
or percentage of such finer material, even when wet,
ClRlAReportl44 219
6. Bentonite-fllled voids rapidly attenuated the signal such that no signal was
visible through a 122 mm thickness of bentonite. Smearing of the surface
ofthe access duct, however, even with up to 5 mm of bentonite on each
tube, did not materially affect the results.
7. Concrete contaminated with 30% bentonite attenuated the high-frequency
components of the signal and caused a significant increase in transit time.
8. Debonding of metal tithes caused no significant change in the signal.
9. The results using thin-walled plastic ducts were essentially the same as
those obtained from mild steel. This latter conclusion differed from the
findings of Baker et al. (1991) who found significant debonding in plastic
tubes.
Thou (1984) pointed out that signal attenuation is typically associated with
unbound or open aggregate, e.g. in segregated concrete. His experience was that
weak concrete or plain mortar increases transit time of the signal, but with little
attenuation. This echoed by the conclusions reached by Stain and Williams.
6.5.2 The horizontal extent of anomalies
The horizontal extent of an anomaly that has been detected on a standard sonic
profiling log can be further investigated by staggering the probes as illustrated
on Figures 6.5, 6.6, and 6.12.
6.5.3 Anomalies near the base of the pile
Staggered probes cannot be used to investigate the pile shaft near the pile base,
because the probes cannot be advanced below the toe of the pile. In such a case,
Stain and Williams (1991) suggest that analysis ofthe characteristics of the
sonic profile, as revealed by the effect known as 'signal skipping', can be
helpful, where the signal diverts around a feature by utilising a preferential path.
Their study described in Section 6.5.1 above was on samples where the signal
was essentially forced to travel along a single path between transmitterand
receiver. In a pile, the signal with the lowest transit time might have taken one
of several possible paths to avoid a defect of limited extent. In particular. the
steel ducts provide a preferential high-velocity path, as suggested in Figure 6.7.
If the material filling the defect has a characteristic transmission velocity (such
as a water-filled void), there will be signal skipping, as the probes are raised,
until the point where the direct transit time through water is equal to the
skipping time. From then on the direct path throughthe weaker medium is the
shortestacoustic path, and transit times will remain constant. This phenomenon
is illustrated in Figure 6.13.

Staggered profilesto
Perceived determinehorizontal
extent of extent of anomaly
Horizontal profilesto
Signal determinevertical
attenuating extent of anomaly
material
Receiver
Maximumpossible
horizontalextent
of anomaly Concrete
pile
Figure 6.12 Typical means of investigatingthe extent of an anomaly (after Stain

and Williams, 1991)
Probe posffions
Level at which signal _____

travels along direct path
Signal travelling
along duct
Anomaly aroundone tube Anomalies around both tubes
Figure 6.13 Signal skipping - expected preferred paths around anomalies (after Stain
and Williams, 1991)
ClRlAReportl44 221
Stain and Williams suggest that, where a defect intersects both access tubes, the
slope of the signal-skipping profile, S, is equal to halfthe propagation velocity,
c1. of signals travelling vertically in the tubes. Thus:
S = O.5c
This expressionis independent ofthe spacing ofthe tubes.
Where a defect intersects only one of the tubes, they suggest that the transit
time, t, is given by:
+
c. N
where I is the depth ofthe probe below the interface

d is the separation ofthe access ducts
CT is the propagation velocity throughthe tubes
and Cc is thepropagation velocity through sound concrete.
This allows the slope ofthe signal-skipping profile to be calculated in a

particular case, as illustrated in Figure 6.14. In general, the study by Stain and
Williams shows that the signal-skipping profile would be expected to be steeper
where the anomaly intersects only a single tube.
Transmissiontime through
sound concrete
Time (ps)
0 100 200 300 400

0
200 x
Anomalyaround both
tubes below X-X
400
Anomalyaround one
tube only below XX
600
Figure 6.14 Signal skipping: theoretical sonic profiles, based upon Figure 613
(after Stain and Williams, 1991)

6.5.4 Characteristics of the pile toe
If information is required on the characteristics ofthe pile toe and its contact
with the underlying bearing stratum, Tijou (1984) suggests that this can be
achieved by extending one ofthe access tubes below the toe ofthe pile by
coring. In the case ofa single extension, the transmitter is lowered, say, two
metres below the pile toe and then raised progressively while the receiver is
held at a constantdepth in an adjacent tube. This gives a fan-shaped test array
signal, as illustrated in Figure 6.15. Where two or more access tubes are
extended, standard sonic logging can be undertaken. It has to be realised,
however, that many ground conditions are not readilyamenable to extension of
the access tubes below the toe, e.g. where piles are founded in water-bearing
sands. In such cases, information about the pile toe is curtailed.
0 400
Time (ps)
Figure 6.15 Sonic profile from a fan-shaped test array
Signal-skipping techniques, as described above, can help interpretation of pile-

toe characteristics.
6.6 LIMITATIONSOR RESTRAINTS UPON INTERPRETATION OF

THE TESTS
6.6.1 Interpretation techniques

With regard to interpretation of the sonic profile, a note of caution should be
sounded. What appears to be a pictorial record ofthe pile looks easy to interpret
by inexperienced engineers. Althoughthe method is extitmely useful, in
common with all indirecttechniques it requires both theoretical knowledge and
practical experience of the test and its capabilities to allow a reasoned
interpretation to be made ofthe reasons for particular features of the profile log.
Because the method may perhaps appear deceptively simple in its approach and
interpretation, possibly not as much theoretical research work has been done on it
compared with other acoustic techniques, such as the low-strain hammer-based
systems. Another reason may be that it is still not very widely used, though its
use is growingfor large-diameter bored piles, diaphragm walls and barrettes. The
investigations by Stain and Williams (1991), referred to in Section 6.5.1, were
designed to extend knowledge ofthe capability of the test and interpretation of its
results.
ClRlAReportl44 223
6.6.2 Sensitivity of the test
The most significaiit test observation is the transit time of the signal between
emitter and receiver. It is important, therefore, to expect a degree of variation of
this parameter from extraneous causes not necessarily indicative of a defect or
anomaly in the pile. Furthermore, some potentially detrimental features might
not alter transit time enough for identification. Weak concrete, for instance,
could be impossible or difficult to detect by sonic logging methods, if the
increase in transit time ofthe signal through such material is less than the
possible errors either in measuring transit time or in the true separation of the
probes or both.
England (1991) points out that variations in transit time can be caused not only
b' changes in the physical properties of the materials being traversed by the
acoustic wave, but also by factors within the measuring system itself These
could include:
free movement of the probes within the access ducts
mismatched probe positions, especially at the toe of the pile
measurement resolution
incorrect (orvariations in) positioning ofthe access duct
air gaps or different material around the access ducts
aggregate variation (in the case of base grouting).
Based upon a consideration of the above factors, England suggested that only
variations of transit time more than 15 to 20% ofthe norm for the site should be
regarded as warranting further investigation. He estimated possible variations
from the above factors as follows.
Movement ofprobes within access ducts
The internal diameter ofthe access ducts used in practice is typically between
35 and 50 mm. By comparison the external diameter ofthe transmitter/receiver
probes range between 10 and 25 mm. Probes are not usually centred in the duct.
so the gap between probe and duct wall can van, as illustrated in Figure 6.16.
This applies to both transmitterand receiver.
Ena typical case, the gap between a probe and the inside wall of the duct could
vary between 0 and 7.5 mm. Ifthe tube is water filled, with a wave-propagation
velocity within water of 1500 mIs the potential variation in transit time could be
10 .ts. If the separation of the ducts is, say, 700 mm. assuming a 4000 mIs
velocity of propagation in concrete, the transit time would be 175 i' Thus the
position of the probes could affect the transit time by 6%.
224 CiRlAReport 144

Access duct
Transmitter/
ID of duct
Possible free movement=ID of duct-CD of probe
Figure 6.16 Free movementof probeswithin access ducts
England noted that although this effect might not be immediately apparent
during the normal travel of the probes, it could be quite pronounced if the
probes are resting on the bottom ofthe duct, as they could lean in any direction,
but shift position as they are lifted clear ofthe base.
Mismatched probe positions
If the ends ofthe ducts are not at the same level, errors can arise in measuring
the transit time at the pile toe ifone probe is lifted off the base ofthe duct
before another (Figure 6.17). To avoid this, the depth of each test duct should
be measured.
Concrete pile
Transmitter
Receiver
Figure 6.17 Mismatched probe positions, e.g. at base of pile (after England, 1991)
ClRlAReportl44 225
Resolution oftime-of-arrival
A predetermined signal threshold has be set for the receiver, such that the
incident signal would have to exceed this level to be recognised. The frequency
of the signal emitted is typically between 40 and 100 kHz giving a wavelength
of 10 to 25 jn.
The amplitude of the received signal will van' with its degree of attenuation.
affecting not only the time of its first arrival for a given threshold, but also the
time to reach the threshold (see Figure 6.18). England suggested that such
variations can lead to differences of the order of 4 to 6 jis.
Normal' signal
+
Attenuated signal
Threshold value
U,
V
a.
E
(5
15
C
0)
to
1 1
Time of first
arrival
Figure 6.18 Possible variation in time of arrival of a specified threshold value, because
of signal attenuation (after England, 1991)
Location ofthe base ofthe access ducts

Access ducts reaching beyond the base ofthe pile can give rise to apparently
anomalous results but which might have no relevance to pile performance. e.g.
as illustrated on Figure 6.19. This could happen if the reinforcement to which
the ducts are attached sinks into the material at the toe of the pile under its own
weight.
Air gaps around access ducts
It has been suggested that shrinkage of concrete away from the access duct
could create an air gap. An air gap would increase the transit time ofthe signal.
equivalent to 3 ts per millimetre of gap.

Aggregate variation
If different aggregates are used within the pile concrete (e.g. in the case of a
base-grouted pile using a grouted aggregate base), the concrete density could
vary between2.0 and 2.4 Mg/rn3. England suggested that such a variation could
cause a 10% variation ofmeasured velocity and, hence, transit time.
Vr
kt
.Q4k14
Interrupted signal path
(a) Rounded base to pile
U:
trI Interrupted signal path
(b) Irregularbaseto pile
Figure 6.19 Possible signal discrepanciescaused by irregular base of the pile

(a) rounded base; (b) irregular base
6.6.3 The detection of an anomaly
Work by CEBTP (1969) and all subsequent researchers (e.g. Baker eta!., 1991)
shows that the detection of a defect is clearer when it surrounds at least one of
the tubes. Defects lying offthe path betweentubes are not shown so clearly.
Area! extent
The CEBTP research on a series oftrial piles suggested that it should be

possible to detect important defects, occupying more than a quarter ofthe
horizontal cross-sectional area ofthe pile.
ClRIAReportl44 227
Axial extent
The axial extent of a feature is also important to its detection. Because a

measurement is taken every, say, 10 or 20 mm, a very thin horizontal feature,
such as a crack or cold joint might be missed, unless specific measures are taken
(e.g. staggered arrays). Identified defects have been reported as having a
minimum vertical extent of about 0.5 to 1 m (Stain and Johns, 1987), or 1 m
(inferred from Tijou, 1984, although Tijou does mention the detection of cold
joints' which are essentially thin horizontal surfaces). The proving tests on
specimen cast-in-place piles described by CEBTP (1969) and Paquet and Briard
(1976) identified built-in defects of only 0.2 m vertical extent, but these workers
emphasised that the tests were carried out under more controlled conditions than
are usual on a piling site.
Stain and Williams (1991) emphasise that the interpretation of sonic profiles
near the base of a pile shaft remains difficult, primarily because staggered
testing to assess the extent ofanomalies is restricted. The use of signal-skipping
analyses described in Section 6.5.3 can help this.
Pile toe
The question ofthe detection of anomalies associated with the pile toe is a
vexatious one. It is generally agreed that the method cannot give information on
the contact between the pile toe and the underlying bearing stratum unless
measures are taken to extend one or more ofthe access ducts below the toe of
the pile.
The main difficulty (and controversy) is in the identification and quantification

of contamination and irregular bases at the toe ofthe pile, usually in relation to
bottom-cleaning ofthe pile under bentonite, and the efficacy of base-grouting.
In order to minimise the potential for disagreement about the significance of

apparent anomalies at the pile toe, it is essential to eliminate, so far as is
possible. the sources of error listed in Section 6.6.2 or, at least, to recognise
their implications.
6.6.4 Age of concrete under test

The strength ofthe pile-shaft concrete increases with age. As with all
acoustic-type tests, therefore, the transit time ofthe signal can be expected to
decrease with time as the concrete gains in strength. Comparison of results of
tests on piles across a site should take account ofthis.

1. Cross-hole sonic logging requires at least two and preferably three or four
access tubes to be installed in a pile, i.e. it is used for large diameter piles.
Two probes are lowered into the access tubes, one an acoustic transmitter,
the other a receiver.
2. Cross-hole sonic logging can provide information about pile material
properties along the sonic paths ofthe waves betweenthe two probes.
3. As the probes are usually positioned at the same horizontal level, the
method is most suitable for detecting anomalies, or features, which have a
pronounced vertical extent, but is less suitable forthin horizontal features.
Horizontal features may be assessed using staggered probes. Other probe
configurations, such as fan-shaped arrays, can also be useflul for
investigating anomalies.
4. Steel access tubes are most often used, although PVC is also used. The
choice ofthe tube material will have an effect on the signal response
characteristics.
5. Although the test is superficially straightforward, both theoretical
knowledge and practical experience ofthe test and its capabilities are
important to allow a reasoned interpretation of a sonic profile log.
6. Factors that can affectthe sensitivity and interpretation ofthe test include:
increasing concrete strength (age of pile)
possible air gaps around access ducts
variation in concrete aggregate composition
access duct bases protruding beyond the pile toe
lateral movementof probes within access tubes
mismatched probe positions.
7. The detection ofa defect or anomaly is clearer when it surrounds at least
one ofthe tubes. Defects lying off the path between the tubes are not
shown so clearly.
8. The axial extent of an anomaly is also important to its detection. Features
of small axial extent, such as cracks, are more difficult to detect.
9. The interpretation offeatures at or near the pile toe requires careful
measurement and an understanding of the piling process.
BAKER, C. N. (Jr), DRUMRIGHT, E. E., BRIAUD,

Drilled shaftsfor bridgefoundations
Final Report to Office of Engineering and Highway Operations, Federal
Highway Administration
National Technical Service, Springfield, VA 22161 October 335 p
CIRIAReportl44 229
BOBROWSKI. J.. BARDHAN-ROY. B. K.. MAGIERA. R. H.
and LOWE. R. H. (1970)
The structural integrity of large diameter bored piles
In: Proc. Conf. Instn. Civ. Engrs.. The Behaviour ofPiles
London 15-17 September, pp 179-184
CEBTP (1969)
Inegritv testing qtpiles by sonic coring
Internal Test Report Ref 1
Centre Experimental de Recherches et dEtudes du Batinient et des Travaux
Publics
12 Rue de Briancon 75. Paris. l5eme
ENGLAND. M (1991)
Cementation Piling and Foundations
(Private Communication)
LEVY. J. F. (1970)
Sonic pulse method of testing cast-in-site concrete piles
Ground Engineering, Vol. 3, No. 3. 17-19
PAQUET, J. and BRIARD, M. (1976)

Controle non destructifdes pieux en beton
Anna/es de / institut Technique du hatiment et des Travaux Publics
Serie: Sols et Fondations, No. 128, Supplement au No 337, Mars
SHERWOOD, D. E. and MITCHELL. J. M. (1989)

Base-grouted piles in Thanet Sands, London
Proc. International Conference on Piling and Deep Foundations
London, 15-18 May
A. A. Balkema. Rotterdam
STAIN. R. T. and JOHNS. D. (1987)

Integrity testing ofdeep foundations
SecondInternational5)'mposium ofthe Deep Foundations Institute
Luxembourg, May 4-7. pp 1-21
STAIN. R. T. and WILLIAMS H. T. (1991)

Inteipretation of sonic coring results - a researchproject
Proc. 4th International Conference on Piling and Deep Foundations
Stresa. Italy, April 7-12, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam
ThOU. J-C. (1984)

-
Integrity and dynamic testing of deep foundations recent experiences in
Hong Kong (198 1-83)
Hong Kong Engineer, September, pp 15-22

7 Dynamic load testing and high-strain
integrity testing
7.1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The techniques of dynamic load testing grew out ofthe long-recognised need of
piling engineers for a reliable method of predicting the load-carrying capacity of
driven piles. Not so long ago, most piles were driven into place by some form
of falling weight or hammer. It was thought evident that the static load-carrying
capacity had to be related in some way to the energy expended on the pile in
driving it into place. In attempts to predictthe bearing capacityof a driven pile,
a wide variety of pile-driving formulae were developed by piling practitioners
over the years, based upon pile-driving characteristics. Of these, the best known
are probably that developed by Hiley (1925) in Europe and the Engineering-
News Record formula used in North America.
These driving formulae attempted to link the energy imparted to the pile by the
pile driving hammer to the resultant downward displacement of the pile, which
was perceived to consist of both elastic and permanent components.
The basic dynamic pile-driving formulae so developed were generally of the

following form (e.g. Fleming eta!., 1985):
R = ______
(s + q!2)
where R = pile resistance

ii = efficiency ofthe hammer (allowing for energy loss on
impact)
W11
= weight of the hammer
h = drop height
s = permanent set ofthe pile
and q = elastic or recoverable movementofthe pile.
Figure 7.1 illustrates the interaction of these parameters and the subdivision of
the pile head displacement into elastic and permanent components. Various
values or modifiers were often then applied to particular parts of the basic
formula to arrive at proprietary contractor-specific or even site-specific driving
formulae. However, the mechanical model represented by these driving
formulae were found to be too simplistic to describe the real conditions of
impact pile-driving.
CIRIAReportl44 231
Pile driving
('Capblock'or 'Dolly')
Helmet
Cushion ('Head packing')
----(s q)
Pile
(a)
Pile head
displacement
S
(b)
Figure 7.1 Basic concept of pile driving (a) pile driving parameters; (b) schematic
variation of pile resistance and displacement
Two types of difficulties are involved in improving empirical driving formulae.

First, methods had to be developed to measure accurately the energy (orforce)
input into the pile from the hammer and the corresponding response of the pile.
Secondly, the fundamentals ofthe behaviour of the pile and its interaction with
the surrounding soil had to be understood more clearly and expressed in a
usable mathematical form.
It had long been realised that the action of pile driving involved the transfer of
energy within the pile by means of longitudinal wave motion, in a similar
mannerto wave transmission in long elastic bars. Timoshenko and Goodier
(1951) pointed out that, as long ago as 1S67, St Venant had analysed the
mathematics of one-dimensional wave propagation in an elastic rod and derived
the governing differential equation, together with its solution.
232 CIRlAReportl44
This equation is known as the wave equation (see Section 4.3.1) and is normally
expressed in the following form:
I 6u
= .
5x2 c2
Where: ieis the axial displacement of a point along the pile shaft
x is the distance along the x-axis
(is time
c is the wave propagation velocity, or wave speed.
The general solution ofthis equation is given by:
u = Lix
ci) + fx + ci)
where: .fd is a function representing a wave moving down the pile shaft,
and is a function representing a wave moving up the pile shaft.
Wave action during the driving of piles had also been studied by Isaacs (1931)
and Fox (in (Ilanville el at, 1938). Partial solutions to the resulting equations
had been obtained, but progress to a usable solution of pile-driving problems
was limited because ofthe complex iterative hand calculations.
By the late l950s and early l960s these related problem areas were being
addressed by researchers in Europe and North America, and at other centres
throughout the world. With the concurrent development ofthe electronic
computerdiscrete solutions ofthe wave equation became practical.
The work of Smith (1960) was pivotal to the mathematical modelling ofthe pile
driving process. He again highlighted the fact that pile-driving involved the
transmission of longitudinal stress-waves through the pile and that this problem
could be solved mathematically by the use of wave theoiy and the wave
equation. The mathematical methods developed by Smith, using the technique
of numerical integration and computer-based processing allowed discrete
solutions ofpile-driving problems to be obtained forthe first time. As pointed
out by Goble ee' at (1980),the work by Smith was one of the very first
applications ofthe digital computer to solve problems in mechanics. This work
gave impetus to the development of the current generation of numerical
solutions to the dynamic behaviour of piles, known generally as dynamic
analysis, stress-wave analysis or dynamic load testing.
En the 1960s and 1970s, Rausch and Goble, working at Case Western Reserve
University, extended the work of Smith. Amongst other aims, the researchers at
Case Western investigated a numberoftechniques to, amongstother aims, improve
prediction ofstatic bearing capacity from the dynamicbehaviourof a driven pile.
The technique developed became known as the Case Method (based on a similar
approach to Smith) and CAPWAP (for Case Pile Wave Analysis Program) an
iterative computer program which matched the output signal against that predicted
CIRIAReportl44 233
by a mathematical model. Research and development on these and similar
techniques has continued throughout the world since that time. spurred particularly
by off-shore piling for the oil industry in the North Sea and else here.
These numerical analysis techniques have also found use in the examination of
the internal properties and integrity of individual piles: a technique commonly
known as high-strain integrity testing (e.g. Rausche ci a!.. I 988) as outlined
further below.
It is not proposed here to give a complete description of dynamic analysis

techniques. but rather to explain the essentials of dynamic load testing and its
application in the evaluation of pile integrity. It should be borne in mind that
dynamic load testing is primarily intended to determine the static load-carrying
capacity of piles by extrapolation from their response to a dynamically applied
load, and to determine and examine pile driveability. driving stresses and
hammer performance. Mainly for driven piles, its use is extending to bored
piles. Thus the first purpose of dynamic analysis techniques in the evaluation of
piled foundations is the load-carrying capacity of an individual pile or grouping
of piles, as with static load tests. They are generally quicker and less expensive
to set up and undertake than conventional load tests. To use them solely to
examine pile integrity is relatively rare and considerably more expensive than
low-strain integrity tests. Nonetheless, engineers, e.g. Buttling and Leong
(1988) have reported the use of large-strain testing to supplement low-strain
integrity testing. In this role they are often used in an attempt to resolve points
of issue raised by low-strain techniques. It is likely that this trend will continue.
7.1.1 The methods developed by Smith
Smith (1960) represented the driving hammer and the pile. together with the
other components involved, such as the helmet and the cushioning material as a
series of weights and springs, as shown in Figure 7.2. Ifthe pile is uniform in
cross-section, the weights and springs representing it are identical. In the case of
a pile of non-uniform cross-section, such as a tapered pile, the weights and
springs can be adjusted to represent the distribution of weight and stiffness
along the pile length.
The soil resistance was divided into point resistance at the toe of the pile, equal
to its end bearing resistance, and the shaft resistance along the sides. The side
resistance was assumed to act on each ofthe elements ofweight representing
the pile model. By this means the distribution of soil resistance along the pile
shaft could be modelled by vaning the magnitude of this parameter on each pile
element.
The sequential response of these units, or elements, under the action ofthe
falling hammer, could then be studied througha succession of small time
intervals which modelled the progress ofthe stress-wave along the pile. The
actions of each weight and spring and their interactions with the soil resistance
were calculated separately for each time interval. By this means the pile stresses

and pile penetration under the action of a given blow could be calculated for a
defined ground resistance.
I
'I Stroke
Ram
Iwil
Helmet ____
Ki
Cushion ___ C
1w21
K2c
Kp
IWsI
KtR3
1w41
I Ws
____ __ Pile jWeJ

Side
frictional
1ttA6 resistance
HI
Ki_fm
IwaI
ktRs
H'I
K9
Iw'oI
f i
1
Rio Point resistance

Actual As represented
Figure 7.2 Method of representinga pile for the purpose of calculation
(after Smith, 1960)
In terms ofthe soil resistance at the toe of the pile, a model ofthe form illustrated
in Figure 7.1(b) was used by Smith (see Figure 7.3). In this model the ground at
the pile toe compresses elastically for a certain distance, q, tenned the 'quake' of
the pile, and then fails plastically with a constant or ultimate resistance R. The
permanent set ofthe pile, s, is given by the distance OC or AB.
It was realised, however, that this stress-strain relationship also depends upon
the rate ofstrain. In general the ground offers a higher resistance to a rapid
motion than a slow one. To take account ofthis phenomenon, Smith introduced
the conceptofviscous damping into his pile-driving model. Smith suggested
that the calculated velocity, v1, induced at the pile toe would be acted on by a
CIRlAReport 144 235

damping constant .J, so that the product Jv
could be used to increase (or
decrease) the ground resistance, so as to produce damping. This damping
resistance would be velocity dependent, and thus temporary, and would not
contribute to the static bearing-capacity ofthe pile.
U)
a,
I-
4-
C') a
Figure 7.3 Stress-strain diagram for soil at the pile toe (after Smith, 1960)
Smith's model forthe resistance ofthe toe of the pile therefore attempted to
take account ofthe following:
1. The elastic compression ofthe soil beneath the toe ofthe pile fr quake, q).
2. The ultimate static resistance, R, of the soil beneath the toe.
3. Viscous damping because ofthe dynamic behaviour ofthe soil, based on a
constant J.
The soil resistance along the shaft ofthe pile was modelled in a similar manner
to that for toe resistance, with the shaft damping factor assigned the designation
ofJ'.
In addition to the dynamic behaviour ofthe soil, consideration was also given to
the physical characteristics ofthe driving hammer, the cushioning system, and
the pile itself, to construct a mathematical model ofthe pile/soil/hammer
system.
7.1.2 The methods developed by Case Western Reserve University
General
The research work in the USA at Case Western Reserve University in the 1960s
and 1970s has probably been the most influential to date, with regard to the
application of stress-wave measurements and the analysis ofthe dynamics of
the behaviour of driven piles.
In 1964 an extensive research programme was begun at the Case Institute of

Technology (subsequently renamed Case Western Reserve University) into the
measurement and interpretation ofthe dynamics of pile driving. The aim of this
research was to develop a reliable predictive technique forthe static load-
236 CIRlAReportl44
carrying capacity of bearing piles from their driving characteristics. This
programme, which extended over a period of some twelve years, involved the
development of the techniques and equipmentnecessaryto measure the pile
behaviourunderthe dynamic loads induced by piling hammers. At the same
time, the programme also pursued the development ofthe theoreticaland
interpretative analyses ofthe resulting detailed field measurements.
The work at Case has been extensively described in many research papers and
reports, it was summarised in the final report on the project by
a
Goble aL (1975). Apart from the extensive research and development work
on pile and hammer instrumentation techniques, the projectproduced two
separate complementary analytical techniques for calculating the load-carrying
capacityof driven piles. Both techniques were based upon predictionsand
analyses of pile behaviourusing the wave equation method, as developed by
Smith, and sprang from the realisation that it was possible to determine the
magnitude and distribution ofthe resistance along the pile using only the
measurements offorce and acceleration at the pile head.
The first techniquehas become known as the Case Method and was based upon
the use of damping coefficients, in a similar approach to that of Smith, to
produce a closed-form solution to the wave equation. The techniqueis, strictly,
applicable to end-bearing piles.
The second approach, developed later in the research programme, uses an

iterative procedure to compare force and velocity values measured in the field
with those predicted from a suitablepile/soil model. Assigned soil resistances
along the shaft and at the toe ofthe pile can be related to the effect they would
have on the resultant pile-head movements in the model and compared with
those measured. By adjustments to the model until the computed effect matches
the measured effect, the soil model can be used to calculate the static load
behaviourofthe pile. This second computational method, using simulationand
signal-matching techniques, has become known as the Case Pile Wave Analysis
Program, known by the acronym CAPWAP.
The Case method
The research at Case Westerninvestigated two methods of predicting static

load-carrying capacity by means of standard soil-dependent coefficients or
constants, linked with the pile-head force/time and velocity/time relationships.
These were identified as the time delay and the damping methods. The former
was pursued in the initial stages ofthe research, but was replaced by the
damping method as the research progressed and data accumulated. The damping
method has subsequently become identified as the Case method.
The Case researchers proposed that the pile-soil model could be expressed by
assuming that the sum of all the individual soil resistances, R, has two
components. The first, static resistance is the sum of individual static soil
resistances R. The second component, RD. is from dynamicresistance, or
CIRIAReportl44 237
damping. forces. These damping forces RD were considered as being related to
the relative pile velocity under the impact ofthe piling hammer.
Thus the total driving resistance R can be divided into two distinct portions:
R = +
RD ...(7A)
Where: R = total driving resistance

= static resistance ofpile
RD = dynamic resistance of pile under the particular blow.
Thus if the value for RD can be obtained, a value for the static resistance R can
be derived, by deducting RD from the measured total driving resistance.
From their site measurements, the Case researchers suggested that, for
end-bearing driven piles, most ofthe damping resistance could be assumed to
be concentrated near the pile toe. The toe velocity of the pile will normalls'
reach a relative maximum, Vt(max), when the incident stress-wave from the pile-
head impulse first reaches the toe ofthe pile (i.e. at a time. I = tmax + Lic, where
Imax is the time of impact).
As the damping force is taken to be proportional to the toe velocity, the

maximum damping force. Rn(max). is:
=
Rmax) b.Vl(max)
where h = coefficient of viscous damping.
Goble eta!. (1975) based upon the work of Meirovitch. demonstrated that:
b =
where the relationship EA/c is the pile impedance (as in Section 4.2) and J is a
dimensionless constanttermedthe Case damping constant.
The Case researchers demonstrated that the maximum toe velocity. Vt(max). can
be directly related to the maximum pile-head velocity. Vh(ma). and thus that the
maximum damping force RD(max) could in turn be related to the maximum pile-
head velocity.
A specific form of Equation 7.4 is:
=
RS(m)
+
RD
which, by rearrangement, becomes:

=
Rm - RD(mn)
Thus, as the Case researchers (Goble et a!., 1975) demonstrated,Rs(max) can be
calculated from:
= I2.EA
RS(max) Rmax Rmax
L
where Vh(max) is the measured pile-head velocity at time I = 'max, the time of impact.
As Rs(max) can be determined from a static load test, and Rmax and Vh(max) derived
from the pile-head instrumentation, the value of.J0 can be back-calculated to
establish its value for a particular pile and particular soil conditions. Conversely,
in the case ofknown soil conditions, an assigned range ofvalues off0 can be used
to calculate a value forthe static load-carrying capacity of the pile.
The Case researchers suggested, therefore, that, if, as demonstrated by the

experimental evidence of Goble eta!. (1975), the damping resistance is
concentrated at the pile toe, it is a function of:
I. The pile properties, E, A and c.
2. The bottom velocity at the pile toe, which can be calculated from the head
velocity, pile properties and total driving resistance.
3. A damping constantf0, which is related to the soil type at the pile toe.
The Case researchers established values for f0, the Case damping constant, by
back-analysis of field correlation studies of dynamic and static tests.
The Case method was not really intended as a predictive method. Rather it was
suggested that a correlation be made between static and dynamic tests on the
same pile or series of piles, yielding a site-specific value off0. This value ofthe
damping constantcould then be used on other dynamically tested piles driven to
the same soil stratum at the site, to control and check the pile driving. The
CAPWAP method, the numerical analysis program, was developed by the Case
researchers to be a predictive tool. CAPWAP and similar programs are
described in Section 7.1.5 below.
7.1.3 TTI Analysis program
Ena direct evolution of Smith's work, researchers at Texas A & M University

developedthe Texas Transportation Institute (UI) wave equation analysis
program (e.g. Edwards, 1967).
The group at Texas A & M performed extensive correlation studies between

dynamicwave equation predictions and the results of static load testing, in
order to obtain values forthe soil constants required within the analysis
programme (e.g. Lower>' et at, 1968 and Samson et at, 1963). The TTI
program has achieved wide usage in the USA.
CIRIAReportl44 239
7.1.4 Numerical simulation techniques
CAPWAP-tvpe analj'ses
The development ofdynamic analysis techniques demonstrated that it was

possible to draw conclusions about the characteristics of the soil resistance
forces, along the whole length and at the toe of a pile, based only upon a
knowledge ofthe response of the pile head.
Numerical wave simulation programs such as CAPWAP (Gobleet al.. 1980).

CAPWAPC (Davis ci cii.. 1987). TNOWAVE (Middendorp and van Weele.
1986). SVIDYN (Nguyen eta!.. 1988). PiD (Jwanowski and Hellman. 1987)
and others have been developed using the stress-wave theory as the means of
extending such analyses to model the pile/soil system, without recourse to
empirical damping factors.
The measured velocity response at the pile head, under the impact of the test
weight. is obtained from accelerometers mounted on the pile shaft near the pile
head and used to provide the necessary input data. From these data, and using
an assumed set of soil resistance forces, the resulting force at the pile head can
be computed using a suitable pile/soil resistance model. The resulting computed
force based upon assigned soil resistances can then be compared with the
measured pile-head force obtained from a complementary set of strain gauges
mounted close to the accelerometers.
Typical force/time and velocity/time records measured at the pile head for a
single hammer blow upon a driven pile are illustrated in Figure 7.4
It can be shown (e.g. Goble ci a!.. 1970) that there is proportiona1it between
force and velocity at the pile head during and after impact so long as no return
waves have arrived back at the pile head. Thus, for a pile with a uniform
cross-section the measured force, F. and particle velocity. v. are related by:
F = _____ ...(7.IO)
where E = modulus of elasticity of the pile material

A = cross-sectionalarea ofthe pile
c = wave speed.
Thence, if the measured pile-head velocity is multiplied by the pile impedance

LA/c. the value of the pile-head force so obtained should be the same as the
measured pile head force. F. This relationship will hold true as long as no
reflected waves have returned to the pile head, for the reasons outlined below.
Any divergence between the value ofthe directly measured force from the strain
measurements and that derived from the pile-head velocity measurements is a
result ofthe generation of upward-travelling waves from the pile or pile/soil

boundaries. Such a divergence is thus a measure either ofthe interaction
betweenthe pile and the surrounding soil or ofproperty changes within the pile.
z
C
e
0
0 10 20
Time (ms)
(a) Measured pile head force against time
/
8 I
C
>
-
//
/
I
I
C
-C j
C
a. I
o I I
n -.
_%
10 20
Time (ms)
(a) Measured pile head velocity against time
Figure 7.4 Typical measurements of force-time and velocity-time at pile head
The conversion ofthe velocity measurements into a measured force allows the
pile-head force derived from both strain and motion measurements to be plotted
on the same axes, as shown in Figure 7.5. This format is the standard method of
displaying the pile-head force and velocity measurements.
Figures 7.4 and 7.5 illustrate the fundamental principle of the use of wave
mechanics in the analysis of the dynamic behaviour of foundation piles. This is
that the stress (and, consequently, force) and velocity at a point within a
rod-like body such as a pile, are proportional, as long as the stress waves at that
point are travelling in the same direction. This is because stress is a tensor
quantity while velocity is a vector. Thus stress values at a point are additive
whatever their relative magnitudes, while the interaction of particle velocities
depends not only upon their relative magnitude, but also their relative directions
of motion. (Figure 7.6, from Seaman (1989), illustrates this in the simple case
of two stress-waves travelling in opposite directions within a rod-like body. The
ClRIAReportl44 241
figure demonstrates that once the two waves have passed one another, they
continue unchanged in their original directions.)
Force from velocity (vx EAIc)

z
a, Force
8
0
U-
0
0
10 20
Time (ps)
Figure 7.5 Force (from strain) and force (from velocity x EAIc) measurements at pile
head
Thus, the proportionality between the force and velocity curves is destroyed as
soon as waves travelling in the opposite direction are superimposed on the
original waveform. The cause of this loss of proportionality would howeverbe
calculable using the laws of wave mechanics.
In a pile which is a straight uniform rod-like body, with no changes of section

or material properties. there are only two sources of such upward-travelling
waves. The first ofthese is the pile toe itself, which reflects the downward-
travelling stress wave as either a compressive or tensile upward4ravelling wave.
depending on the toe conditions. The second source is the resistance of the soil.
A suddenlyapplied force because of the downward-travelling stress-wave
infringing upon an intermediate location of soil resistance will produce two
waves: one travelling downwards and one travelling upwards. as illustrated in
Figure 7.7. If the upward4ravelling component wave is in compression, say, F.
the downward componentwill be of equal magnitude but will be in tension. -F,
and thus by the principle outlined above the net force of the onward, downward-
travelling stress wave will be (F1 -Ft).
In an unbroken, straight-sided pile, therefore, the arrival of such

upward4ravelling waves would be identifiable as being caused either by soil
resistance or by pile-toe effects. In addition, since the stress wave travels
through a pile ofknown characteristics at a known (or measurable and
calculable) wave speed, c. the time delay to travel along the length ofthe pile,
L. and return to the pile head is readily calculable as 2L/c. Thus any returning
upward-travelling stress waves arriving at the pile head before a time. , given
by '= 2L/c. will be a result of the effects of soil resistance. This is illustrated on
Figure 7.8, which shows the effect of the arrival at the pile head of
upward-travelling stress-waves from soil effects.
242 CIRlAReportl44
a C
.4
p
x
Vu
____
(a)
X
a.
I I
I.
a2
all
x
(b) _____________ x
V1-"2
a2:. ai[
(c) _________________________________________
F
Figure 7.6 Superpositionof stress-wavestravelling along a rod in opposite

directions (after Donnell, 1930, from Seaman, 1989)
In the case of an irregular pile, where there is a marked change of section, a part
of the stress-wave would be reflected back to the surface and the remainder would
be transmittedthrough the change of section towards the toe of the pile.
Figure 7.9 illustrates the effect ofthe arrival at the pile head ofupward-travelling
waves from a mechanical joint within the pile (equivalent to a loss of section).
ClRIAReportl44 243
C
Surface ofpartiaJ reflection
C
1
L x
Figure 7.7 Effect of partial reflection of the stress-wave at an intermediate resistance
0 Force from velocity (vx EA/c)

2 Force
g too
on pile
Measu 0 20
level
Time (ms)
Stiff soil
Figure 7.8 Effect of soil resistanceon force and velocity x ENc graph
(after Davis et al., 1987)
A CAPWAP-type analysis involves iteratively adjusting the estimated soil

resistance forces, and balancing the relative magnitudes ofthe static and
dynamic components. By this means the computed pile-head force curve
obtained from the velocity record is constantly adjusteduntil it agrees with the

measured force obtained from the pile-mounted strain gauges. Once a good
match of computed versus measured forces has been obtained, the soil model is
deemed to mirror the in-situ soil resistances, for most practical purposes. This is
thetechnique adopted by all CAPWAP-type numerical analysis programs.
z Forcefrom velocity (vx Eke)

0
2
Measurement Tkne(ms)
level
Figure 7.9 Effects of intermediatechange of section on force and velocity x

E.AIc graph (after Davis et al., 1987)
With such techniques the analysis is carried out on a single selected blow on the
pile head. Further analysis can, of course, be undertaken on other blows, to
examinetime or set-up effects,but each analysis is a separate iterative process.
The original analysis programs (e.g. Goble, eta!., 1980), used a lumped mass-
and-spring system similarto the Smith model. This approach, however, was
found to produce small inaccuracies for long piles. The advance ofthe method
into off-shore pile testing, which involved long piles, prompted the
development of a pile model composed of continuous segments, as shown in
Figure 7.10 (as described in Davis et cii., 1987, for example), and known as
CAPWAPC. Each segmentofthe continuous model has associated static and
dynamic soil resistances which are represented by an elasto-plastic spring
(representing static resistance) and a viscous dashpot (representing the dynamic
resistance component). The time increments used for calculation purposes are
between 0.2 and 0.3 milliseconds and the segment lengths are selected so that
the stress wave will travel from one end ofa segment to the other during one
time interval. Thus the typical chosen segmentlength would be approximately
between 0.8 and 1.2 metres.

Hammer
Accelerometer and
strain gauge
Segment (a)
Segment (ii)
Typical soil
resistance
Segment (I)
Segment (i + 1)
Segment (n) tRn
Pile with variable Pile

soil resistances model Each pile segment may
(notshown) have a soil resistance thus
Figure 7.10 CAPWAPC continuous pile model (after Davis eta!., 1987)
From such analyses it is possible in principle to make estimates of the following

parameters
1. The distribution of soil resistance along the pile length
2. The calculated pile resistance force when no correlating static load tests
are available.
3. The prediction of induced tensile and compressive stresses within the pile,
for the purposes of limiting driving stresses in the pile to acceptable
values.
Figure 7.11 illustrates the progress of a typical iterative matching procedure.
Most such simulation programs incorporate an option whereby a predicted

load/deflection curve for the pile head may be obtained. This analysis employs
the quakes and elemental soil resistances obtained from the signal-matching
analysis ofthe pile-driving data. These quakes and resistances are used in the
generation of equivalentground springs to model the pile/soil interaction under
toad. The calculation is based on a simple elastic solution and may be used to
provide an estimate of the pile-head settlement under working load. The
analysis does not include consolidation settlements and the settlements
predicted are therefore considered as representing immediate settlement.

3
12
4
e
0
U-
1
0
0 20 40
Time (ms)
12
2
0 4
1
00 20 40
lime (ms)
KEY
1: Measured force curve
2: Low damping
3: High static resistance
4: High skin friction, low end bearing
5: Final solution
Figure 7.11 Pile-head force-time match, computed by CAPWAP-typeanalyses,

illustratingthe iterative matching procedure (after Goble et al., 1980)
The SIMBAT technique
The SIMBAT method developed by CEBTP in France (e.g. Paquet, 1988),

primarilyfor testing bored cast-in-place piles utilises numerical simulation
techniques.
Unlike driven piles, bored piles usually have to be built up above ground level
for a length oftwo to three diameters prior to test to allow the attachment of
strain gauges and accelerometers. The drop weight of between 0.25 and 8 t is
placed within a guide tube which is aligned axially at the head ofthe pile, as
outlined by Stain and Davis (1989); see Figure 7.12.
The method utilises an electronic theodolite to obtain a direct measure ofpile-

head displacement. Paquet (1988) suggests such a method providesa more
ClRlAReportl44 247
accurate measure of pile displacement than pile-head accelerometers, which
require a double integration process to obtain displacement data.
Figure 7.12 View of Simbat test
The test is undertaken b' striking the pile with a series of blows (typically ten
or more). During this series the hammer height is progressively increased and
alternately decreased, as illustrated on Figure 7.13. This is unlike the
CAPWAP-type analyses, *hich are carried out on the measurements from a
single blow.
The set of the pile is measured for each blow and the displacement curve from
the electronic theodolite is used to correct the pile velocity calculated from the
accelerometer signal. The advantage of using both accelerometers and a
theodolite is that the pile velocity can be obtained either by integrating the
accelerometer signal or differentiating the displacement signal. In practice. the
248 CIRIAReportl44
theodolite signal is used as a control to remove the integration constantfrom the
accelerometer signal.
Drop height (mm)

0 200 400 600 800 1000
0 I
12
Figure 7.13 Typical manner of variation of hammer drop height for Simbat test
(after Stain and Davis, 1989)
The total reaction (RD) foreach blow is determined in the same way as in a
typical CAPWAP-type analysis.
At this point the interpretation of the test departs from CAPWAP-type methods,
which state that the dynamic/static correlation is related to the pile-head velocity.
Paquct (1988) suggests that it is more relevant to use the pile-penetration velocity
with respect to the soil rather than the simple pile-head velocity.
The CEBTP relationship may therefore be expressed as follows:
=
R4t,vpen) ...(7.I 1)
whereJ(vpen) is a function ofthe velocity of penetration of the pile with respect

to the soil, and is the cumulative penetration from the beginning ofthe test.
The interpretation ofthe test is based upon the principle that the ratio between
the dynamic and static resistances of the pile depends upon the rate of strain. In
general, the greaterthe drop height and the heavierthe blow, the higher the rate
ofstrain, between the pile and the soil, and the larger the dynamic/static
resistance ratio. The SIMBAT test, therefore, uses a range of strain-rates, which
allow the static soil resistance to be calculated.
The value ofthe fnctionfiv) contains a damping constant, K. The measured

dynamic reactions ofthe pile are plotted against the cumulative pile settlement.
By progressively increasing the value ofK, a series of load-settlement plots are
obtained, as illustrated on Figure 7.14. The average of this family of curves,
calculated by a regression analysis, is taken to represent the static load-
settlement curve ofthe pile, similar in principle to a constantrate of penetration
(CRP) test. It is necessaiy to add the computed elastic shaft compression to this
settlement curve to give the total predicted load-settlement curve.
ClRlAReportl44 249
Load (kN)
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000

0
Uncorrected (i.e. K = 0)
Overcorrected (i.e. K = 1000)
Figure 7.14 Typical predicted 'static' load-settlementcurve from Sirnbattest

(after Davis and Stain, 1989)
The Statnc,mic method
A further development of dynamic toad testing methods is the Statnamic method.

described by Berminghani and Janes (1989). In this technique a reaction mass is
placed over a pressure chamber on top ofthe pile head. The loading sequence is
started b' igniting a solid fuel propellant within the pressure vessel which forces
the reaction mass upward through a predetermined stroke. This accelerating mass
causes an equal and opposite reaction in the pile head. As the reaction mass rises,
granular material falls into the void left by the rising mass and acts as a cushion to
damp the reaction mass as it falls at the end of its stroke.
The test allows the application of forces of high magnitude (over 5 MN) to be
applied to the pile head, with a pulse duration of up to 80 milliseconds,
approximately an order of magnitude longer than achieved using a drop hammer.
Its inventors suggest that the slow rate of loading means that the pile shaft
behaviour is not dominated by stress wave action as in other dynamic
load-testing. Rather, the rate of loading allows the pile shaft and the soil to act as
a single unit, in a similar manner to a static load test. The test is thus described
as quasi-static. The principle of the test, which is still at a relatively earls'
development stage, is illustrated on Figure 7.15. The acceleration of the reaction
mass is measured together with pile-head deflection (using a laser theodolite).
7.1.5 Comparisons between static and dynamic load tests

Many casestudieshavebeenpublishedcorrelatingpredictionsfrom dynamic
techniquesofthe static behaviour of a single or series of piles with their
measured response under static load. In particular, two recent studies have been
undertaken at Ghent in Belgium, in 1987, and in the USA (by the Federal
Highways Administration) in 1990/91 Baker et a!. (1991). Both these research
programmes compared the predictive performance of several dynamic analysis
250 CiRlAReport 144

techniques. Many other 'single system' correlations have also been reported.
outlining the performance of a particular dynamic analysis system. The work by
Baker eta!, also included some comparative results with Statnaniic testing.
Loose granular fill
Venting/silencing system
Reaction mass
Fuel chamber
vessel
Steel base
Plate bolted to pile head Laser theodolite

Pile
Figure 7.15 Cross-sectionalview of the Statnamictest (after Baker et al., 1991)
Both CAPWAP-typeand SIMBAT-type predictive tests have been shown to

give correlations with static load test results that vary between fair and excellent
in a wide range of soil/rock and pile conditions. A general difficultyof
comparison is that there is no standard definition of failure of a pile under a
static load test. Thus, assigned static ultimate values could vary widely
depending upon the failure criterion chosen.
CAPWAP-type tests analyse the data from a single blow (although several
blows may be taken on the pile and each analyses separately). On the other
hand, SIMBAT-type techniques use the data obtained from a series of blows.
A possible problem ofrepeated blows is that the soil resistance may change; in
sensitive soils it can decrease; in granularsoils it could increase. It may be
significant that CAPWAP-type methods were developed from driven piling
techniques, on preformed piles ofknown cross-section and properties. The
problems of soil set-up (also known as soil freeze) and soil relaxation are
well-known phenomena in driven piling, as is soil densification caused by
displacement. The SIMBAT techniques, on the other hand, were developed to
predict the behaviour ofbored cast-in-place piles from dynamic measurements.
Such piles are generally in intimate contact with the surrounding soils and their
installation involves the removal and replacement of soil. The pile design often,
therefore, reflects a reduction of soil parameters compared with driven piles.
ClRlAReportl44 251
It is perhaps to be expected that the two techniques, though using the same
input data, would have differing results, depending upon the pile type being
tested and the soil within which it is embedded.
The SIMBAT method was found to give good correlation between predicted
and actual load! settlements for a series of Class A prediction tests carried out
on four cast-in-place piles installed and tested under the control ofthe Belgian
Group ofthe ISSMFE at Brussels in 1987. The results ofthe FHWA tests have
been reported by Baker eta!. (1991) and showed a wider variation of results for
all the dynamicanalysis techniques tested. This is flirther discussed in
Section 7.5.2 below.
It is beyond the scope ofthis report to do more than touch upon this matter. For
more information, the interested reader should refer to some of the published
works cited in the text.
7.1.6 Pile damage and integrity evaluation
As described in Section 7.1.5, the records of force/time and velocity/time at the

pile head are proportional to one another, before stress-wave reflections arrive at
the pile head from soil resistance effects. This knowledge allows a calculation
ofthe soil resistance forces to be made. In the same way, changes in pile
properties cause similar effects on the force-and velocity-time curves. However,
while resistance effects cause the force to increase relative to the velocity, a
reduction in the pile cross-section causes the opposite effect.
Thus, before any upward travelling waves arrive at the pile head, the force, F, at
the pile head will be given by the relationship:
F(t) = v(t)... ...(7.12)
(see R.ausche and Goble, 1979; Goble Rausche and Likins, 1980).
Thence:
F(t) = v(t).z ...(7.13)
Ifthe impedance ofthe pile changes from z1 to z2 at some point along the shaft
of the pile, an impact stress-wave having a force F and travelling down the pile
will be partly reflected as an upward4ravelling wave of force, F, and partly
transmitted as a downward-travelling wave of force, Ed. such that both
F
continuity and equilibrium are satisfied. The expressions for and Ed can be
derived as outlined in Rausche eta!., (1988) and Rausche and Goble (1979), to
yield the following relationships:
252 CIRIAReportl44
(z2 z)
FU =F..
I (714)
+
(z2 z1)
and
2z,
Fd = F. (7.15)
In a uniform pile z2 will equal z1. Thus, neitherupward-reflected nor downward-

transmitted waves are generated, and the impact wave will travel unchanged
throughthe pile. At the toe ofthe pile, ifthe pile is a free end, then z2 = 0. Thus
the downward-travelling wave will be reflected completely upward, and will
have a value of-fl (i.e. it will be a tensile force). A decrease in area, A, of the
pile will decrease z2 relative to z1 and again will tend to produce a tensile
reflected wave. A decrease ofthe pile modulus, E, will have a similar tendency,
although, as has been discussed in Section 4, the effect will not be as marked
unless changes dramatically.
Based upon this analysis, Rausche and Goble (1979) proposed a damage
classification factorB, where
z
B=J. ...(7i6)
Thus, for piles constructed ofuniform material, so that both E and c are
constantvalues, B can be expressed as:
A
Bz_i
A2
A tentative damageclassification was suggested, based upon the value ofB

derived from the force/time and velocity/time graphs, such that a value ofB
below 0.6 was thought to indicate that the pile was broken and a value of O.K
would suggestthat the pile was damaged. It is believed that this evaluation
method has not been extensively used nor validated.
Nevertheless, as stress-wave behaviour is clearly affected by major impedance

changes within a pile, low values of this parameter, typified by a free-end type
of response, would indicate in turn a reduction of pile properties at that level.
7.2 BASIS OF THE METHOD AS AN INTEGRITY TEST
The test is undertakenby striking the head ofthe pile with a large weight, such
as the ram ofa piling hammer. The method was developed for driven piles, and

thus is most suited to testing them by utilising the pile-driving rig. Other
researchers. (e.g. as described in Paquet, 1988, and Fleming et al.. 1985)
developed test rigs capable ofdropping a large mass independently of a piling
rig, so that dynamic load testing techniques are also increasingly being used for
bored piles.
The response of the pile to this large impulsive force, which is ofa similar
magnitude to that required to drive the pile into place, is measured by sensors
attached to the pile shaft near the pile head. These allow calculation of the force.
F, and the particle velocity, v, imparted into the pile by the hammer blow, and
the corresponding reaction ofthe pile-soil system to this input force. The force
is obtained from strain transducers attached to the pile, which allow calculation
of the resultant stress within the pile by the strain induced into the pile section.
This in turn enables the calculation of the force across the whole pile section.
The velocity response is normally measured using accelerometers and the
resultant particle velocity is thence obtained by integrating the measured pile
accelerations with respect to time.
7.3 TEST PROCEDURES
7.3.1 Preparation of the pile and pile head

The head of a driven pile would usually already be square and sound. For bored
cast-in-place piles, the head must be trimmed or cast so that it is level and
normal to the axis ofthe pile.
The pile shaft typically has to be exposed fora length of up to three times the
diameter, or, in the case ofa square or rectangular section pile, three times the
length of the longest side, to attach measuring instruments away from the
hammer impact. These are two pairs of strain transducers and accelerometers.
One of each pair is mounted on opposite sides to average the possible effects of
eccentric loading from the hammer blow.
The instruments are attached as illustrated on Figures 7.16 (and Figure 2.7). En
the case of concrete piles the instruments are attached by drilling small holes at
the correct centres into the pile and bolting them tightly against the pile surface
using expansion-type anchor fixings. In the case of steel piles, the sensors can
be attached by bolting through the steel walls ofthe pile, or by welding
mounting blocks to the pile (e.g. as described by Poskitt and Kip-Wong. 1991).
Figure 7.16 shows instruments mounted on a tubular steel pile and where the
strain transducer and accelerometer are in separate housings. Other systems
provide the two instruments within a single unit. The pile head instrumentation
can be made fully waterproof to allow the tests to be undertaken under water. In
addition, or as an alternative, the pile-head displacement can also be measured
on some systems by the use of an electronic theodolite. as has been noted by
Stain and Davis (1989).
254 CURIA Report 144

Figure 7.16 Pile-head instrumentationattached to a tubular steel pile
7.3.2 Testing
A layout diagram for a typical dynamic pile test is given in Figure 7.17. A view
of a typical test set-up can be seen in Figure 2.8. A closer view oftypical
on-site signal conditioning and analysis equipmentis shown in Figure 7.18.
Pile testing is accomplished by subjecting the pile to a blow or series of blows

with the test hammer. In the case ofa series ofblows, they may be undertaken
at a gradually increasing drop height, so that the applied force is also increasing.
It is important. however, that the tester should know the reasons forthe test and
the type of soil within which the pile is embedded. For some situations the first
blow may be the most important, and subsequent blows may be affected by
diminishingsoil resistance from the action of the pile-driving upon the soil.
ClRIAReportl44 255
Postanalysis:
e.g.:
Signal matching
Soil/pile modelling
Soil resistance
Hammer modelling
Printed
Display output
Connection box
Accelerometer
Strain signals
Figure 7.17 Elements of a dynamic pile test
Some test methods, such as the Simbat technique, alternate higher and lower
blows, all the while gradually increasing the overall drop height (Stain and
Davis, 1989).
The test can be undertaken during or at the conclusion of pile installation, in the
case ofa steel or precast concrete driven pile, or after a period oftime has been
allowed to elapse. The latter tests are often called restrike tests. It is most
important to understand that any load test, whether static or dynamic, only
determines the performance of the pile at the time oftesting and therefore the
designeror contractor should specify the time oftesting so that it is realistically
representative of the long4erm state ofthe pile. This factor is often overlooked
in dynamictesting since, unlike static load testing, preparation for the load test
is minimal and tests can be made either during or at the conclusion of
installation or at restrike.

alt

, ru-'
- S.
1
Figure 7.18 Dynamic pile testing - view of typical signal-conditioningand analysis

equipment
When a restrike test is proposed, it also has to be borne in mind by the designer
that because of soil set-up effects, the hammer may be too small to mobilisethe
ultimate capacity ofthe pile. In addition, in such circumstances, if it is desired
to obtain a measure ofthe ultimate capacity ofthe piles, full consideration
should be given to the desirability oftesting working piles to failure.
For all hammertypes, Kightley and Mure (1987) suggest that the best results
are obtained when the pile head is in good condition, the hammer is in proper
alignmentwith the pile and the blow is distributed evenly over the pile head.
The hammer should also be well-supported, as. for instance, when it is mounted
on a pile-driving rig.
The strain and acceleration data from the hammer blow are fed by cable into the
signal conditioning and analysis unit. The strain data are converted to force by
reference to the pile area and modulusofelasticity, and the resultant velocity is
calculated from the acceleration signals by integration. The velocity response is
then multiplied by the value ofEA/c (Equation 7.12) to give a force output. The
force (from strain) versus time and force (from velocity) versus time plots are
normally displayed on an oscilloscope or VDU in the form shown in Figure 7.5.

In addition the data are usually recorded on a microcomputer or magnetic tape
recorder for subsequent analysis.
The basic conceptcan be summarised as follows:

1. Measured pile-head strains and accelerations with time, from either a
single selected blow on the pile head or a series of blows, are recorded and
stored in the analysis computer.
2. The measured acceleration and time data are converted to pile-head
velocity and time, and used as the input boundary condition by the
numerical wave-analysis program, in conjunction with appropriate pile
and soil parameters. The soil parameters are selected by the analysis
engineer, based upon published or derived data.
3. After completion ofthe wave-equation analysis, the computed force/time
values at the pile head based upon the acceleration data are compared with
the measured force/time observations from the recorded strain data. Ifthe
computed and measured force4ime diagrams do not match, selected
parameters describing the soil model are changed. and the wave analysis is
repeated. This iterative procedure is repeated until a satisfactory match is
achieved between the computed and the measured force/time diagrams.
7.5 PROPERTIES OF THE PILE OR PILE/SOIL SYSTEM THAT CAN

BE DEDUCED
The use of numerical simulation programs allow the following to be examined:

I. The magnitude and distribution ofthe soil resistance along the pile length.
2. The calculation ofthe static load-carrying capacity ofthe pile.
3. An estimation ofthe immediate load-settlement behaviour of the pile.
4. The stress distribution within the pile during driving.
5. Analysis of pile driveabilit in particular soil conditions and with
particular hammer and cushion combinations.
6. Evaluation ofthe efficiency of the pile-driving system.
7. Integrity of the pile, in terms ofits intactness.
It is this last aspect which is discussed below - investigation of the integrity of a

pile by means of a large energy input into the pile, high-strain testing.
7.5.1 Pile integrity
Damage to a pile or its state ofstructural integrity can be investigated by dynamic

analysis techniques, as described by Hannigan (1986) and Rausche et cii. (1988).
In the case of driven piles particularly. measurements of compressive or tensile
driving stresses in excess ofthe yield stress of the pile may be an indicator of pile
damage. In addition, as described in Section 7.1.6, the early arrival of reflected
stress-waves from a level above that of the pile toe could indicate of a broken.
damaged. or otherwise fau1t' pile.
258 CIRIAReportl44
A reduction in the cross-sectional area ofthe pile, or a reduction of other pile
properties, will tend to cause a tensile reflected wave, which will manifest itself
as a convergence ofthe force-from-velocity and force-from-strain curves
described in Section 7.1.4. Thus, a convergence ofthe two values at any point
along the pile other than at the pile toe would be typical of a free-end response
and an indication of a reduction in pile properties - typically a loss of
cross-sectional area or pile damage.
The damage classification factorB proposed by Rausch et cii., described in

Section 7.1.6, is based upon an evaluation of the convergence ofthe two force
curves. Figure 7.19 illustrates an example ofthe onset pile damage in a driven
pile, described by Hannigan (1986).
7.5.2 Static load capacity

Of importance to most designers or engineers concerned with the results of
dynamic load testing on construction sites, is the ability to use numerical
simulation techniques to predicta static load capacity and a load-settlement
curve forthe pile. Current computer models do not include consolidation
settlements, so that the settlements predicted are essentially immediate. It has
been pointed out that the analysis does not necessarily model the onset of
failure correctly and care should be exercised when predicting deflections at
loads close to the ultimate pile bearing capacity.
Baker et cii. (1991), summarising comparisons of dynamic and static load tests
on bored cast-in-place research piles in Texas and California, found significant
differences betweenpredicted and actual performance under static load. On the
California site, where advance knowledge of the static load test capacity was
available to the test houses, the static capacitypredicted by three dynamic load
test systems was within 20% ofthe measured static capacity under the Davisson
failure criterion. The limiting value given by this criterion is defined as the load
corresponding to the movement which exceeds the elastic compression of the
pile by a value of4 mm plus a factor equal to the diameter ofthe pile divided
by 120 (Fellenius, 1980).
At the Texas site, where no advance knowledge of static load test performance
was available, a majority of the test predictions were more than 20% to as much
as 50% (and occasionally more) offthe static capacity as defined by Davisson.
Baker ci cii. pointed out, however, that, in the case ofdriven piles, predictability
within 20% is common. They suggested that the variability ofthe bored-pile
predictions could be from there being less information about the shape of the
constructed shaft. This information is essential forthe modelling/simulation
process.
CIRIAReportl44 259
Force
Force from velocity (v x EA/c)
z
3 Blow no.1
w Beta: 100
2
0
U-
0
0 Time (ms)
z Blow no.2
0 3 Beta: 69
H
0
U-
0
lime (ms)
0 '
Developmentof damage
"I
z
Blow no.3
0 3 Beta: 26
20
U-
0
0 2Uc Time (ms)
2 Blow no.4
0 3 Beta: 16
B
0
LI.
0
0 // ' Time (ms)
I
Pile type: 250 mmOctagonal prestressed

Pile length: 28.7 m
Figure 7.19 Progressive pile-head damage during pile driving (after Hannigan, 1986)

7.6 LIMITATIONS AND RESTRAINTS
The limitations briefly listed below mainly reflect upon the ability of dynamic
load testing techniques to determine the static load carrying characteristics of a
pile. As such, therefore, they are not necessarily related to the questionof pile
integrity, but of the performance of the pile as a workingunit. Dynamic load
test techniques can often be used to evaluate the effect of impedance changes
within the pile on its static load performance.
1. Most research into dynamicpile test techniques has been based upon the
testing of straight shafted driven piles. Care is needed when testing piles
with unknown or varyingcross-sections, typical ofmany cast-in-place
piles. Under such circumstances, it may be necessary to carry out
site-specific static load testing for correlation purposes.
2. The soil resistance obtained from any analysis is that mobilisedat the time
of the test. Iftime-dependent effects are considered to be ofimportance,
this must be taken account ofby the designerwhen choosing how long
after installation the test is to be carried out.
3. Caution must be exercised in extrapolating the results when the test has
not filly mobilised the bearing capacityofthe pile (as is also the case with
a static load test).
4. Caution must be exercised when testing piles in unfamiliarsoils or
conditions for which a databank of knowledge is non-existent or small.
5. The correlation ofthe dynamic pile test results with static load testing may
be complicated by the possible variations in the choice ofthe failure point
within a particular static test.
1. Dynamic load testing is primarily intended to determine the static load-

capacityof a pile by extrapolation from its response to a dynamically
applied load, and to determine and examine pile driveability, driving
stressesand hammer performance.
2. High-strain integritytesting uses stress-wave reflections as a means of
examining the piles for evidence of defects.
3. Compared with static load testing, the methods are particularly applicable
when large numbers ofpiles on a single site are to be tested.
4. The performance ofthe pile is only determined at the time oftesting. This
should be chosento be representative of the long-term state ofthe pile.
5. Dynamic analysis techniques allow assessmentof the soil resistance forces
along the whole length and at the toe ofa pile, based upon the response of
the pile head and use of site-derived, or empirical constants.
6. Numerical simulation techniques are used to model the pile/soil system by
iterative signal-matching processes, using force-from-strain and force-from-
velocity measurements. Divergence ofthe value offorce derived from
strain measurements and that derived from velocity measurements is
CiRlAReport 144 261

indicative ofthe interaction between the pile and the surrounding soil, or of
property changes within the pile.
7. CAPWAP-tvpe tests analyse data from single blows: SIMBAT-tvpe
techniques interpret data obtained from a series of blows.
8. Pile properties which can be investigated by dynamic load testing include:
magnitude and distribution ofthe soil resistance along the pile length
calculation of the static load-carrying capacity of the pile
estimation of the immediate load-settlement behaviourof the pile
stress distribution within the pile during driving
suitability of pile-driving systems for specific pile types and in
particular soil conditions.
9. By comparison, high-strain integrity tests provide an indication ofthe
integrity of the pile, in terms of its intactness.
BAKER. C.N, ELLIOfl, ED. MENSAH. F., PARIKH. G.

and EALY. C.(1991)
Dynamic testing to predictstatic performance of drilled shafts:
results of FI-IWA research
Proc. ASCE Geotechnical Engineering Congress
Boulder. Colorado. (to be published)
BERM[NGHAM. P and JANES. M (1989)

An innovative approach to load testing of high capacity piles
Proc. International Conference on Piling and Deep Foundation. London.
15-18 May
A. A. Balkema. Rotterdam. pp 409-13
BUTTLING. S. and LEONG. L. Y. (1988)

Low and high strain pile integrity tests
Third International Confrence on Application ofStress- Wave Theory to piles
Ottawa. pp 99-106
DAVIS. R.A., MURE, J.N. and KIGHTLEY, ML. (1987)

The dynamic analysis ofpiled foundations using the CAPWAPC method
Ground Engineering, November, pp 16-22
EDWARDS. T.C. (1967)

Piling analysis wave equationcomputer program utilization manual
Texas Transportation Institute. Research Project Report 33-Il
Texas A&M University, 40 pp. August 1967
FELLENIUS, B. H. (1980)
The analysis of results from routine pile load tests
Ground Engineering, Vol. 6. September, 19-31

FLEMING. W. G. K. WELTMAN, A. J., RANDOLPH, M. F.
and ELSON. D. H. (1985)
Piling engineering
GLANVILLE, W.H, GRIME, G., FOX, E.N and DAVIES, W.W. (1938)
An investigation ofthe stress in reinforced concretepiles during driving
Building ResearchBoard,TechnicalPaper No. 20, D.S.I.R.
GOBLE, G.G., LIKIINS, G.E. and RAUSCHE, F. (1975)

Bearing capacity ofpilesfrom dynamic measurements
Final Report, Department ofCivil Engineering, Case Western Reserve
University, March 1975
GOBLE, G.G., MOSES, F. and SNYDER, R.E. (1980)

Pile design and installationspecification based on loadfactor concept
Transportation Research Record No. 749, National Research Board, National
Academy of Sciences, Washington D.C.
GOBLE. G.G., RAUSCHE, F., and LIKINS, G.E. (1980)

The Analysis of Pile Driving - a State Of the Art
international Conference on the Application ofStress Wave Theory on Piles
Stockholm
GOBLE, G.G., RAUSCHE, F., and MOSES, F. (1970)

Dynamic studies on the bearingcapacity ofpiies, Phase III
Report No. 48, Division of Soil Mechanics, Structures and Mechanical Design,
Case Western Reserve University
HANINIGAN, P.J. (1986)

Dynamic pile testing and analysis
11th Annual FundamentalsofDeep Foundation Design
St Louis, Missouri, Nov 10-14
HILEY, A. (1925)
A rational pile-driving formula and its application in piling practice explained
Engineering,Vol. 119, 657-721
ISAACS, DV. (1931)

Reinforced concrete Pile Formulae
Transactionsof the Institution ofEngineers, Australia
Paper No. 370, Vol XII, pp. 312-23
IWANOWSKI, T. and HELLMAN, L. (1987)

Stress-wave testing ofpiles
London, p 262-66
CIRIARepcrtl44 263
KIGHTLEY. ML. and MURE. iN. (1987)
Some practical experiences of the dynamic load testing of driven precast
concrete piles
London. March 1987
LOWERY. L.L.. EDWARDS. L.C. and HIRSCH. T.J. (1968)

Use ofthe wave equation to predict soil resistance on a pile during driving
Texas Transportation Institute. Research Report 33-10. August 1968
MIDDENDORP. P. and van WEELE. A. F. (1986)

Application ofcharacteristic stress-wave method in offshore practice
Proc. Third International Confrence on NumericalMethods in Ofjihore Piling
Names. 1986. Additional contribution
NGUYEN. T. T.. BERGGREN, B. B. and HANSBO. S. (1988)

A new soil model for pile driving and driveabilitv analysis
ThirdInternational Conference on Application ofStress-Wave Theoty to piles
Ottawa
PAQUET. J. (1988)
Checking bearing capacity by dynamic loading: a choice of methodology
Proc. ThirdInternational Conjrence on Application ofStress-Wave Theory to
piles
Ottawa. pp. 383-98
POSKITT and KIP-WONG (1991)

Frequency response problems to instrumented pile tests
GroundEngineering.May 1991
RAUSCHE. F. and GOBLE. G.G. (1979)

Determination of Pile Damage by Top Measurements
In: BehaviourofDeep Foundations
ASTM Special Technical Publication 670
(Raymond Lundgren, ed.)
American Society for Testing and Materials. Philadelphia. Pa., pp. 500-06
RAUSCHE. F.. GOBLE, G.G. and LIKINS. G.E. (1985)

Dynamic determination of pile capacity
Journal of the SoilMechanics and FoundationsDivision. Proc. American
Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 111, No. 3. pp. 367
RAUSCHE. F.. LIKINS, G.E. and HUSSEIN. M. (1988)

Third International Conference on Application ofStress-Wave Theory to piles
Ottawa. pp. 44-55

SAMSON. C.H., HIRSCH, T.L. and LOWERY, L.L. (1963)
ComputerStudy ofthe Dynamic Behaviour of Piling
,Journalof/he Structural Dlvision
Proc, ASCE. Paper No. 3608. ST4, August 1963
SEAMAN. J. W. (1989)
The use ofthe dynamic pile testing method in determining the static load
dejiection behaviourofdrivenpiles
Unpublished MSc Dissertation, University of Surrey
September
SMITH, E.A.L (1960)

Pile-driving analysis by the wave equation
.Journai ofthe Soil Mechanicsand FoundationsDivision
Proc. American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 86, pp. 36-6 1
STAIN, R.T. and DAVIS, A.G. (1989)

An improved method for the prediction of pile bearing capacity from dynamic
testing
London, 15-18 May
A.A. Balkema, pp 429-33
TIMOSHENKO. S. and GOODIER, J.M. (1951)

Theory ofelasticity
Second Edition
McGraw-Hill
CiRlAReport 144 265

8 Testing within the contract
Traditionally, an owneror developer engages professional advisers to undertake

the design, procurement and supervision ofconstruction of a building or
structure. Based upon their designs, the advisers prepare a specification and
tender documents forthe supply and construction of the structure and.
subsequently. a contract is entered into between the owner, as 'Employer' or
'Client' and a main works contractor, the 'Contractor'.
These arrangements still apply on many occasions, but in recent years there has
been an increase in Management Contracts, Design and Build and other forms
of Contract. However, the basic contractual relationships still hold good.
The advisers' work usually includes the investigation for and requirements of
the foundations to support the structure. When piled foundations are needed, the
piling work is usually identified as a specific item within the contract drafted by
the advisers. Often, but not invariably, the construction of piled foundations.
sometimes their design too, is carried out by a specialist piling contractor, as a
nominated or direct sub-contractor to the main works contractor appointed by
the Employer.
There is consequently an interlinked, but not necessarily continuous, chain of

responsibility passed down through the contract. The Employer enters into a
contract with the Contractor to provide the structure. The Contractor in turn
agrees a sub-contract with a piling sub-contractor for the provision of piled
foundationsto the structure. The responsibility for the design ofthe piles might
or might not be part ofthese contractual responsibilities. It is also quite likely
that the Contractor enters into a separate sub-contract with a specialist
groundworks sub-contractor to excavate aroundthe piles and constructthe
ground beams or pile caps that complete the foundation system. The Contractor
could, however, retain responsibility for providing some ofthe interface
services betweenthe piling and groundworks sub-contractors, such as the
removal of excavated spoil from the pile construction.
Furthermore, there are outside organisations which may have a statuton' or

other responsibility to inspect or accept the foundations, that might be
additional to or even outside the framework of the contract between the
Employer and the Contractor.
All these activities have to be undertaken within an agreed programmed routine

to enable the complete structure to be erected within a specified time-scale. The
completionof the structure to specification, programme and budget depends on
successful integration of each party's activities and responsibilities within
agreed terms of contract. This remains a requirement when non-destructive pile
testing is needed either as a specified contract item (control testing) or as a
266 CIRIAReportl44
result of circumstances revealed during the contract (retrospective
investigation). The use of non-destructive testing techniques, particularly for
control testing, all too often causes difficulties. This is because what is involved
in its proper employment and interpretation are not fully understood by all the
parties within the contract chain. Yet each is concerned with particular aspects
that are crucial to its successful use.
This section suggests how the use ofnon-destructive (i.e. integrity) testing of
piles can be more effectively managed within the contract.
8.1 PILING, TESTING AND THE CONTRACT
8.1.1 Common forms of contract
Typical contractualarrangements under which the foundation works, including

any testing and evaluation, are carried out can be summarised as follows.
Building works, with an Architect responsible to the Employerfor the design

and supervision ofthe works.
The Architect might be advised by an Engineerwith regard to the structural

elements ofthe building, but the Engineer would have no formal status under
the contract unless authorised to act as the Architect's Representative. In the
UK, the JCT form of contract is ofthis type. The main building works are let to
a Contractor responsible for undertaking the whole of the works. The piling
works are often, but by no means always, let as a nominated sub-contract to a
Piling Sub-Contractor, who might also have responsibility under the terms of
that sub-contract for the design ofthe piling works. As an alternative, there is an
increasing trend forthe piling contractor to be a 'named' specialistwithin the
contract. In addition, certain site services to be provided by the Contractor are
often specified within the nominated or named sub-contract.
Civil engineeringworks, with an Engineer responsible to the Employer for the

design and supervision ofthe works.
The piling works are usually undertaken as a domestic sub-contract to the

Contractor. The Piling Sub-Contractor does not normally have responsibility for
the design ofthe piling works under such a contract. There could be a
requirement forproviding an acceptable design to the Engineer, but the
responsibility forthe acceptance and use ofthis design under the contract
normally remains with the Engineer. These types of work are usually
undertaken under the ICE form of contract in the UK.
Building or civil engineeringworks with a Contractor responsible to the

Employer Jbr design and construction ofthe works.
The Contractor appoints either an independent or an in-house Engineer to be

responsible forthe design and/or supervision of the works. In these cases, the
CiRlAReport 144 267

piling works are normally undertaken as a direct sub-contract to the Contractor.
The Piling Sub-Contractor often designs the piling works, but ultimate
responsibility could again devolve to the Engineer.
Works ofbuilding or civil engineering construction on behalfofdepartments of

the Crown.
These are commonly carried out under a (IC/WORKS/i form of contract. The
Employer and his advisers and designers are designated as the Authority. The
general supervisory duties undertaken by the Engineerin other forms of contract
are delegated to the Superintending Officer. Such contract forms quite often
place responsibility for the safe design ofthe piles upon an independent
engineer appointed for the design of the project. or upon the Contractor, and
thence to the Piling Sub-Contractor.
The Institution of Civil Engineers (198S. l98Sa) makes clear, however, that
irrespective of the form of the contract, the design responsibilities of the parties
should be clearly stated and understood. While in some cases, the Piling
Sub-Contractor is responsible for the design of the pile as an element to support
the structural loads defined in the contract documents, it is the Designerwho
has overall responsibility for the design of the foundation system and the
structure that depends upon it. In this context, the term 'Designer' is taken to
mean the person or body ultimately responsible for the design of the structure
on behalf ofthe Employer. The Designer could therefore be the Engineer,
Architect or some other nominated member ofthe Emploer's advisory team,
depending upon, and as defined in, the contract. As the ICE documents also
point out, proper consideration of the effects ofthe interaction between the
structure and the supporting ground is more difficult if the Designerdoes not
have overall design responsibility.
If the Designerdecides to delegate some or all of the responsibility for design ofthe
piles to the Contractor, who would usually pass this on to the Piling Sub-Contractor,
it is necessary for a means ofstating and measuring compliance with the Designer's
requirements to be given to the Contractor, i.e. a perfonnance specification must be
provided. A typical performance specification for foundation piling might consist of
a layout drawing showing the positions of individual piles and their required working
loads. The limitations on settlement at the pile head at working load and at the
specified proof load should also be defined, because only the Designerofthe whole
structure is in a position to determine its acceptable total and differential settlement.
The specification should cover any other aspects ofpile construction considered to be
important by the Designer; these could include requirements for any works testing.
such as static load tests, either specified by the Designeror to be submitted by the
delegated pile designer.
The design of the individual piles to support the specified loadings might then
be the responsibility of the Contractor or the Piling Sub-Contractor. It should be
borne in mind, however, that ultimate design responsibility will very often still
rest with the Designer.
268 CIRlAReportl44
Theprocedures for specifying and using non-destructive testing techniques,
whether for routine purposes or in a problem-solving role, also have to fit
within these contractual frameworks.
8.1.2 Changing contractual frameworks

The 'conventional' form of construction or building contract is characterised by
a Client-Contractor-Subcontractor/Supplier chain, with a separate Client-
Designer relationship, as in Figure 8.1.
Client
Conditions of MS
appolniment!
Drawings and
Sub-contract
of sale
Supplier Sub-contmctr
Figure 8.1 Organisationchart of conventional construction contracts

(after Ashford, 1989)
However, as highlighted by NEDO (1983, 1988), there has recently been

increasing change in the way that major construction projects are undertaken
within the UK. Changes of responsibility for design and co-ordination of a
project have led to misunderstandings about the roles of the parties and
professionals involved.
The NEDO reports point out that, in practice, most clients expect the architect
or professional designer ofthe projectthat they have appointedto take
responsibility for bringing the different parts ofthe design into order and
combiningthem as a whole. NEDO suggests that this expectation was reflected
in the 1979 RIBA Conditions of Engagement, which stated that 'the architect
will advise on the need for independent consultants, and will be responsible for
the direction and integration of their work, but not forthe detailed design,
CIRlAReport 144 269

inspection and performanceofthe work entrusted to them'. This was replaced
by the current RIBA (1982) Conditions ofAppointment. the relevant equivalent
clause of which states that 'the architect will have the authority to co-ordinate
and integrate into the overall design the services provided by any consultant.
howeveremployed'.
NEDO points out that the replacement of 'will be responsible' b viI1 have the
authority', changes a professional duty to a less onerous requirement. Thus, should
the Architect elect not to exercise the right to direct and integrate, no other
professional within the design team is under an obligation to undertake this duty.
Despite the change in wording of the conditions of appointment, NEDO. in its

1988 report. found that most clients and, indeed, most design professionals
were still underthe impression that it was the contractual responsibility ofthe
Architect to co-ordinate the design effort. NEDO found that contracts were
performed 'better'. i.e. to a client's better satisfaction, which usually meant
delivered on time and ofthe correct 'quality', when such areas of responsibility
were properly defined and understood within the contract.
The changes highlighted above are, to an extent, a function ofthe trends that
have gathered force over the last decade. Increasingly, professionals from
different autonomous organisations are involved in the design process these
include consultants, specialist sub-contractors and suppliers. NEDO (1988)
reported that this has often resulted in ambiguity regarding leadership of the
project. the distribution of duties, and responsibility ofthe various parties under
contract and law. On many major. and even relatively minor, projects this
situation has led clients to seek alternative ways of procuring works of building
and civil engineering construction.
Ashford (1989) also points out that the trend towards alternative forms of
building or civil engineering contracts is in part a result of the growing
proportion of work let to sub-contractors, as the building and civil engineering
industry becomes more specialised. Sub-contractors also often have a design
input into the works.
Another factor identified by Ashford is the growing trend towards litigation by

clients seeking redress. As a consequence, the design professionals have sought
to attempt to limit their degree of responsibility under the contract by passing
varying degrees of responsibility for design down the line to the specialist
contractors.
In an attempt to restore or clarify responsibility into the contractual relationship,

the 'project management' t'vpe of contract has developed, whereby the client
appoints a management or managing contractor to co-ordinate and manage both
the design and construction phases ofthe projecton his behalf The management
contractor seldom undertakes the construction work but may providecertain
common services to the construction contractors. The primary role of the
management contractor is the co-ordination of all the disciplines necessary for the
completion of the project.
270 CIRIAReportl44
Management
Drawings and
specifications
(a) The management contract
Contract
Drawings and
specifications
(b) The construction management contract
Concept
Design
(c) The design and management contract
Figure 8.2 Organisationcharts of other forms of construction

(after Ashford, 1989)

Typical contractual relationships within some of current forms of management-type
contracts are illustrated on Figure 8.2 to show the responsibility of the various
organisations for particular aspects of the design and construction ofthe works.
8.1.3 The management of testing
Non-destructive testing and evaluation of its results, in common with other

specialist services, has to fit the prevailing contractual framework. The work
should be specified, supervised, and reported within the contractual framework
which applies to the particular project.
In a 'conventional' construction contract, the test house or testing specialist

might be employed by the design organisation, by the contractoror b' the
piling sub-contractor. In view of the nature, phasing and possible implications
of this work, the decision to incorporate non-destructive testing as part of the
testing requirements places particular demands on the contract team, which
should be recognised and built into their control ofthe project.
vpica1 arrangements
Figure 8.3 illustrates the typical organisational arrangements within a

'conventional' building or civil engineering contract, when an integrity or other
non-destructive test programme is incorporated into the contract works and the
test work is carried out underthe control of: (a) the piling sub-contractor. (b) the
contractor, or (c) the design organisation.
These flow charts illustrate the necessary lines of control and communication
within the contract framework. External lines of communication needed with
other parties outside the contract are also highlighted, such as the insurers ofthe
completed structure or statutory. regulatory or checking bodies. Similar
diagrams can be envisaged for other forms of contract organisation.
Three points are highlighted by Figure 8.3:

1. The organisation charged with responsibility for controlling the testing or
investigation work is a nodal point within the contract for this work. All
information and liaison must be throughthis organisation ifthe
maintenance of proper control is to be assured.
2. There is an ancillary. entirely separate, flow of information and
communication outside the contractual chain to other interested parties.
This flow is normally channelled through the design organisation.
3. The organisation charged with responsibility under the contract for
controlling the testing or investigation work is not necessarilythe one that
initiates the requirement for it. The initiator could be either the person or
organisation responsible under the contract for the design ofthe piles, the
Designer ofthe overall structure, or even some other person or
organisation outwith the contract (such as the insurers of the structure or
the local building control office). It is often the case. for instance, that the
Designer incorporates into the overall contract specification the

requirement for integrity testing, even when the piling design is
undertaken by another parties, e.g. the piling sub-contractor. The
requirement for integrity (or other control) testing may come about
throughpressure from outside agencies.
L0.
____ tt I
4cLor +4 I
I I
Work I I
lCfldout
-
Pie
preparation
(a) (b)
--- Coinmw,ication
Control
(C)
Figure 8.3 Typical lines of communicationand control for integrity testing,

(a) testing controlled by piling sub-contractor;(b) testing controlled by
contractor; (c) testing controlled by design organisation
CIRlAReport144 273
It is essential then that the organisation charged with administering control
testing (especially when using low-strain integrity tests) understands its
responsibilities and the requirements forthe work. These include ensuring that
the testing is properly and hilly programmed, that there is proper liaison with
the testing specialist and that any services of preparation and attendance are
arranged. The test results should be communicated to the necessary parties
through agreed channels, speedily and to an agreed programme. all of which
should be set out in the contractual arrangements.
It is usual for integrity testing to be undertaken as a sub-contract. i.e. as in

Figures X.3(a) or (b). One advantage claimed for this approach is that only the
contractor or piling sub-contractor is in a position to programme the work
properly with the necessary liaison and preparation. Furthermore, the piling
contractor often prefersto be able to intercede between the test specialist and
the design organisation. in the event that the tests appear to reveal points of
concern. As a counter, it has been suggested that this arrangement risks
undermining the independence of the testing (e.g Turner. 1989. but see also
discussion below). General experience suggests that, while it may be
administratively more expedient to carry out routine integrity testing as a
sub-contract (or sub-sub-contract). it is more satisfactory from an engineering
point of view when the testing specialist is considered to be a part ofthe design
team. This requires more input, control and liaison on the part of the design
team. Of paramount importance. whichevermethod is chosento control and
integrate control testing into the contract, is establishing good communications
between all parties involved.
Independence oftesting specialist
There are two aspects to the question ofthe degree of independence of the
testing specialist from the piling sub-contractor. The first is whetherthe
specialist should be emplo\'ed as a sub-contractor by the piling contractor. The
second is whether the piling contractor should undertake the testing using
in-house specialists.
It is suggested that the Designer should take these decisions, being the person or
organisation with overall responsibility for the safe design and construction of
the structure. including the piled foundations. It is forthe Designer (with advice
from the actual designer ofthe piles) to decide and instruct (1) how and by
whom the integrity testing work should be controlled and managed, and (2) the
testing specialist. The questionof use of a testing specialist that is a part of the
piling contractor's own organisation need not cause difficulties, provided that
the same consideration is given to the manner ofthe control of the work by the
design organisation.
8.2 THE ADVANTAGES OF A CONTROL-TESTING PROGRAMME
The benefits of a control-testing programme. particularly of low-strain integrity

testing or cross-hole sonic logging, should be weighed against its possible
274 CIRIAReportl44
implications, e.g. it has to be planned and the results evaluated within the main
works programme. On the benefitside, no other methods currently available are
capable of providing, relatively inexpensively, a profile ofthe condition ofthe
pile population at a site at a particular time after the installation process. In
certain situations, the testing can provide a clear, unequivocal record ofthe
soundness of the piles on the basis of their acoustic response. In addition,
deviations from the average forthe site pile population can form part of the
evidence to justify further investigation to confirm a pile's structural adequacy
or otherwise. Analysis ofthe response ofa particular pile in terms of the
variation of its internal and external properties and the effect ofthe surrounding
soil is improving notjust in technique refinements but as a result ofgreater
experience. Reasoned evaluation ofthe state ofthe pile is increasingly possible
from the interpretation of test results with other information.
The use of the various non-destructive evaluation techniques, therefore, in

suitable circumstances, can increase confidence in the quality of the constructed
pile foundations. Foundations are vital to the security ofthe structure, but they
are much more difficult to inspect or test than components ofthe superstructure.
Even where the tests might be inconclusive (in the sense of providing less
information about a pile) this is not to deny their usefulness in the majority of
cases as a first line of defence. In effect a screening, the testing compares the
comparative responses of a large numberof piles to tests which are sensitive to
their structural integrity.
8.3 THE PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONSOF CONTROL TESTING
8.3.1 The need for planning
Traditionally in the UK, the acceptability ofpiled foundations has been based
upon full-scale load tests of a small percentage ofthe piles, togetherwith tests
on samples of the pile materials and visual inspection ofthe as-trimmed piles
before their incorporation into the foundation works. This has been
supplemented by on-site inspection ofthe works in progress by engineering
staff employed both by the design team and the contractor, together with
contemporaiy records ofthe installation ofthe piles to an agreed method.
In UK civil engineering practice, up to 2% of piles on a contract are subjected

to some form of static load test, although this depends on specificsite
conditions and contract requirements. The model procedures and specification
for piling, published by the Institution of Civil Engineers (1978), suggested that
at least one preliminary pile should be installed for each major groupingof
piles, or at least one pile for each hundred working piles, on a large site. It
recommended that subsequent workingpiles should be testd in such numbers
and locations as would provide reasonable assurance that the specification was
being met. The current issue of these procedures (Institution of Civil Engineers,
l988a) also suggests the same general guidelines, tempered by the acceptance

that familiarity with the particular ground conditions might permit fewer works
test piles.
Thus unless the soil conditions or foundation scheme are complex, it is unusual
for more than a few piles to be tested by direct loading. In many cases.
particularly on smaller projects, it is not uncommon for no load testing to be
undertaken. This approach is often justified by adopting a more conservative
design factor of safety forthe ultimate bearing capacity, coupled with previous
experience or knowledge ofthe site and/or the surrounding area.
The development and growth of indirectnon-destructive testing techniques place

a series ofadditional evaluation tools at the disposal of the designer, installer and
user of piled foundations. These techniques supplement other investigatory or
checking regimes, when used in an appropriate manner. Whereas relatively few
tests were made during earlier contracts, use of integrity testing or sonic logging
for control testing may involve the examination of many, even all, ofthe piles.
This makes it even more important that the testing should be integrated into the
works programme and that, as noted in Section 8.1.3, procedures are established
to allow the examination, assimilation and interpretation ofthe results. It is also
essential that due account be taken ofthe possible follow-on effects in the event
of adverse test results. It has to be accepted that more stringent testing will result
in the identification, investigation and possible rejection of a number of suspect or
sub-standard piles. This could mean, on the practical side, that piles should be
tested as early as possible within the contract programme or that the testing has to
be in smaller batches at shorterintervals in order not to prejudice progress of the
main contract.
8.3.2 Implications of testing large numbers of piles

The Client. Designer, Contractor and Piling Contractor should all recognise the
implications for the control and programming of the foundation works using
non-destructive testing as a screening or evaluation tool. These are:
1. There will be piles with test results that differ from the site norm.
2. There could be piles with test results showing anomalies that would have
to be investigated or, at least, considered further, with a consequential
delay to the works.
3. The testing or investigation could discover piles unsuitable for inclusion
within the works. Replacement or rectification will result in furtherdelay.
4. The test results could indicate anomalies within a pile that on further
review can be identified as not being deleterious to its performance. Any
additional testing or examination and the review process might also cause
delay.
5. The test results might not identifr piles that are unsound in the sense that
they would not be capable of supporting their design loads for the life of
the structure.

In order to take accountof these eventualities, allowance has to be made within
the contractprogramme for:
the possibility of additional testing or investigation
the delay in considering, analysing and discussing the results ofthe initial
and any subsequent test
the delay in replacing or rectiing defective piles.
Such considerations have to be assessed in temis of additional cost to the

contract. The relative benefits oftesting at an early stage of construction can be
balanced against the advantages of later testing. Other ways of ensuring or
judging pile quality might be found to be more cost-effective, e.g. the provision
of closer supervision for critical piles, or the use of automatic data recording of
the pile construction process, as in many cfa pile systems.
8.3.3 The need for programme allowances
The experience ofpiling contractors makes it clear that few construction project
teams understand or have contingency plans to cope with the implications of
suspect piles found as a consequence ofmore extensive post-installation
inspection. It is strongly recommended that a programme allowance should be
considered within the contract to allow the inspection, investigation,
consideration and repair/renewal or acceptance of a pile as a part ofits
construction and acceptance cycle. The major problem faced by both contractors
and designers and, ultimately, clients, is the high consequential costs of opening
up the works, inspecting and testing, reaching a decision and implementing that
decision, in the face ofmounting disruption to the contract.
The conclusion, therefore, is that ifmass control testing is contemplated,

allowance must be made on all sides for the consequential costs that might flow
from the use ofsuch testing - regardless ofwhether any piles are ultimately
found to be faulty or not.
One suggestion that has been put forward is that an agreed no-cost period could
be allowed in the piling contract after the discovery of a suspect or faulty pile,
in order to allow the timely rectification of any defects.
8.3.4 Signal interpretation

The signals obtained from indirecttests, whether low-strain integrity or sonic
logging tests, might not be amenable to an interpretation that would give an
unequivocally positive or negative answer about a pile. Conclusions may have
to be put forward on a balance ofprobabilities or risks. It is quite possible that
contrary interpretations may be made of the same data.
Section 9 addresses signal interpretation in more detail.

8.4 RESPONSIBILITIES
In order to ensure the shortest lines of communication it would be preferable for

the testing to be under the direct control of the design organisation, as in in
Figure 8.3(c). This is not to say that the Designer ought to avoid the contractual
arrangements whereby the tests are undertaken by the Contractor, or Piling
Contractor, as in Figures 8.3(a) or (b). But, in these cases, the Designer should
have available to the design team an expert (in-house or independent) to advise
on problems of interpretation. Whichever arrangement is adopted. a proper
performance specification should be provided for the work, against which a
testing specialist can demonstrate sufficiency. Guidance on the preparation of
such a specification is given in Section 10.
When the use of indirect test methods is proposed. not only should the method
be properly specified, but the principles ofthe test and its interpretation must
also be understood by the Designer, as the specifier of the works. This is not to
expect the Designer be able to make a detailed interpretation ofthe test results:
rather it is to be able to recognise what information can and cannot be
reasonably derived from the testing. Thus, the principle behind the test and the
logic of the processing and interpretation of the test results should be
appreciated. This could be achieved by retaining the necessary expertise as an
independent adviser to the Designeror, by speciing within the contract a
particular testing specialist or range of testing specialists that may be used for
the work. Thus the Designer may make expertise available through nomination.
in the same was' that the pile design expertise is made available.
Extending the argument, integrity tests should not be requested as a matter of

course by an outside party, such as a statutory or regulatory authority or insurers
of the structure, unless they, too, have available to them some means of
checking or understanding the validity ofthe results.
All indirecttests require a degree of interpretation. Some call for a great deal of
judgementor subjective interpretation. The tests should not be regarded as
providing a Certificate of Quality for a particular pile or piles. They are part of
an engineering tool-box, not an end productin their own right.
8.5 TIMING OF THE TESTING
Section 8.3 discusses the planning and programming implications of control

testing on a site. This leads naturally to the question of when is the best time for
testing, particularly the low-strain integrity tests.
In relationto the pile-installation process, the best time appearsto be as soon

after installation as possible, provided that the concrete of a cast-in-place pile
has cured sufficiently for a satisfactory test. Problems in the construction
process are seen early and rapid corrective action can be taken. A 'test-early'
approach would probably suit the piling contractor.
278 CIRIAReportl44
A difficulty of early testing is that several other construction processes may
have to be carried out on and around the piles before they are finally
incorporated into the foundation. The piles usually have to be trimmed to their
cut-off level and excavations formed for pile caps or ground beams.
Fleming et cxi. (1985) noted that a large proportion of the damage to piles is
caused during this post-installation phase. Thus early testing of piles may miss
later damage to the piles from external forces. Trimming the piles to facilitate
early testing may mean doing it twice: once for testing and later to reduce the
pile to its design cut-off level. The Designer will consider the piles to be critical
(as far as the client's interests are concerned) from the time it is about to be
incorporated into the structure, i.e. whether or not it providesan acceptable
foundation. Integrity testing at that time as part of the verification process ofthe
piles would automatically be on the last stage critical path. Any delay at that
stage, because ofuntoward results, can have an immediate effect on the
progress of the main works. Testing at the last stage may be somewhat
self-defeating in its use ofthe technique, in that one great advantage of integrity
testing systems is their ability to screen and so to identifky potential problems as
soon as practicable.
The two objectives are not compatible. It is necessary, therefore, to consider

carefl.illy the purpose ofthe control testing. If it is to identify possible pile
construction difficulties, with a view to minimising risk, disruption and delay to
the contract, the emphasis should be on testing piles as early as possible, and,
hence, probably in smaller batches. Attention should then be given to the
control and supervision ofall related construction work undertaken after pile
installation. On the other hand, ifthe tests are to check the piles immediately
prior to incorporating them into the works, testing should be as late as possible.
The latter approach would obviously have serious programme implications if
problems come to light.
One solution could be to test the piles at more than one stage during the
contruction process. An initial test (or series of tests on selected piles) could be
undertaken immediately after installation or curing of a pile, with a repeat test
immediately prior to incorporation into the pile cap or ground beam.
8.6 QUALITY ASSURANCE
One advantage of a quality management systems is that it draws attention to

areas of unclearresponsibility or control between the various interlocking
activities on site.
A control-testing programme utilising indirect techniques is particularly

appropriate within a formal quality assurance system.
Thus, for pile integrity testing, another scenario could develop from the current
moves to quality assurance procedures. Routine testing could be included as
part of the piling contractor's quality management process covering pile
installation (i.e. to the extent to which the piling contractor provides satisfactory
CIRIAReportl44 279
piles in the ground). What then happens to the piles, prior to their being
incorporated into the foundation, would be the responsibility of others. such as
the ground works contractor or the main contractor. These organisations in turn
might incorporate into their procedures some form of routine testing covering
this aspect of the work.
8.7 IMPLICATIONSFOR PRACTICE

I. The control testing of piles using non-destructive testing techniques
requires that particular attention be paid to the management and reporting
of the testing.
2. The use ofnon-destructive testing techniques such as low-strain integrity
tests or cross-hole sonic logging offers clear benefits to all parties from the
increased insight that they can give to the quality of the pile construction.
3. However, the responsibilities of the various parties have to be clearly
understood and defined. Ifthe testing is to be carried out under the control
of the Contractor (whether the Main Contractor or the Piling Contractor)
then the scope and requirements ofthe work must be properly specified.
4. Attention and thought has to be given to the timing and programming of
control testing. Consideration should also perhaps be given to the
contingency plans that may be necessary in the event of unforeseen
results.
5. Guidance on these issues is given in the following section.

1. Non-destructive testing and the evaluation of its results have to fit into the
prevailing contractual framework and construction programme on a site.
2. The use of non-destructive techniques as a control test for piles requires that
particular attention be paid to management and reporting arrangements.
3. The contractual responsibilities for the testing programme ofthe various
interested parties have to be clear. In particular, there must be no doubt as
to who is the decision-maker. Notwithstanding the above, good
communication between all parties (designer, consultant, contractor, piling
specialist and tester) is vital to the satisfactory execution of a testing
programme.
4. The testing programme should be integrated into the works programme and
procedures established to allow time for the examination, assimilation and
interpretation of results.
5. It is essential that the contractual arrangements provide for the possible
follow-on effects in the event of adverse test results.
6. If mass control testing is contemplated, allowance should be made by all
parties forthe consequential costs that might flow from the use of such
testing regardless of whether any piles are ultimately found to be faulty or
not.
280 CIRIAReportl44
REFERENCES CITED IN SECTION 8
ASHFORD, J. L. (1989)
Themanagement ofquality in construction
E. & F. N. Spon Ltd
London
FLEMING, W. 0. K., REIDING, F. and MIDDENDORP, P. (1985)

SecondInternational Conference on Structural Faults and Repair
London

Piling: model procedures and specifications
Institution of Civil Engineers
London

Specificationfor piling

Specification for piling - contractdocumentationand measurement
NEDO (1983)
Faster buildingfor industry
Report prepared by the Steering Group and Research Team, Building EDC
(Economic Development Committee) of the NEDC
NEDO (National Economic Development Office)
Millbank, London
NEDO (1988)
Faster building for commerce
Report prepared by the Commercial Building Steering Group ofthe
Construction Industry Sector Group ofthe NEDC
Millbank, London
November
144 pages
TURNER, M. J. (1989)
London, 19-21 September
Engineering Technics Press

9 Recommendations for the analysis,
interpretation and reporting of
low-strain integrity tests
It would seem a reasonable proposition that the results of integrity testing on a

particular site should be capable of being readilyunderstood by any
non-specialist civil or structural engineer. While the detailed interpretation of
complex signal responses will have to remain the subject of skilled specialists.
it should be the case that, on an average site, if a testing method is to be of use in
the routine evaluation ofthe quality of construction of the piles on that site, then
most of the signals ought to be understandable to the non-specialist engineer,
This is considered to be particularly true of routine control testing. In this case, a

numberof tests have to be undertaken and the results discussed and disseminated
through a number of contracting or interested parties. It is important that the
engineering advisers to those parties are able, with proper guidance, to agree the
validity of the basic information being demonstrated by the tests.
In the case of a retrospective investigation, the solution might be arrived at by

piecing together a wide range of associated data. One ofthese pieces of
information could involve analysis of a complex signal response from a
low-strain integrity test. The signal response would not be readily understood
by a non-specialist, but the interpretation ought to be consistent with other data,
such as pile construction records or site geology, examined to help solve the
particular problem under investigation.
With regard to routine testing, on the other hand, at the present state ofthe art,
the detailed analysis of complex signals will not necessarily lead to certain
identification ofthe true nature of a feature or features. In these situations,
low-strain integrity testing on its own could not serve as the basis for a sound
engineering decision on the acceptability or otherwise ofthe pile.
This is not to detract from the use of integrity testing in such situations, but.
practically, it is often necessary to give less and less weight to the testing as it
requires more and more subjective interpretation. It has to be accepted,
therefore, that for some situations the methodswill give no clear answer. The
more readily that users can differentiate between signal responses that are
straightforward to interpret and those that are complex. the more useful and
trustworthy will they find integrity testing to be.
In order that the results of integrity testing should be readily understandable to

an engineerwho has no specialist training in the subject, a signal classification
system is proposed that helps to differentiate the simpler signal responses from
those that are more complex.
282 CIRIAReportl44
9.1 PROPOSED CLASSIFICATIONOF SIGNAL RESPONSES
It is suggested that the signal response of a pile can be classified into one ofthree
categories, depending upon the nature of the signal response curve from the test.
These categories are based upon an evaluation ofthe number of significant

impedance changes identifiable within the pile, which cause portions of the
input signal to be reflected back to the pile-head sensor. The signal response
could thus be categorised into Signal Types 0, 1, or 2 as outlined below.
Type 0 signal
A Type 0 signal is one in which the damping effect of the surrounding soil
attenuates the return signal from the toe or remote end of the pile to such a low
level that the toe cannot be discerned from the internal noise within the signal
with the available resolving power ofthe system.
Thus, the signal response would suggest that there is no significant impedance
change within the pile capable of detection within the effective depth of
penetration of the particular system. The reason forthis would be readily
understandable to the non-specialist engineer, provided the basic principle of
the test is understood.
Figure 9.1 illustrates typical examples ofType 0 signals for time-based and
frequency-based systems.
20
a Dopth(m)
(a)
6-
I I I
0 I I I
0 1000 2000
Frequency(Hz)
(b)
Figure 9.1 Examplesof Type 0 signals (a) sonic echo test; (b) frequency response test
ClRlAReportl44 283
Type 1 signal
A Type I signal contains one clear, major response, indicating that the pile is
responding as a single, simple acoustic unit. A Type 1 signal thus represents a
pile containing a single impedance change, either the pile toe or some intervening
major feature. No other significant extraneous response (attributable to another
intervening feature) would be visible on the recorded trace. In this respect,
significant' would mean some defined critical level: perhaps an intermediate
response with a magnitude greaterthan, say. 50% ofthe remote-end response, or
some other acceptable criterion. Type 1 signal responses should be very similarto
the theoretical simple signal expected from the test, and easily recognisable.
Typical Type I signal responses would be like those in Figure 9.2.
Type 2 signal
A Type 2 signal is one containing more than one major response, such that the
interaction of overlapping responses from different levels within the pile make
interpretation ofthe resulting response curve a complex matter.
Recorded pile length :21.5 m

10 - Assumed wavespeed : 4,000 nI/s
Time-dependent ampthcabon : x 100 (exponential)
Calculated depth to impedence change : 20.5 m
0 10 20 30
I Depth (m)
(a)
Recorded pile length 20.0 m

Assumed wavespeed :4,000cr1/s
Measured frequency interval Al 500 Hz
Calculated depth to impedancechange 8 m
j
thus an increase in impedence
3 x At= 1500Hz. Af=500Hz
6
0
0 1000 2000
Frequency (Hz)
(b)
Figure 9.2 Examp'es of Type 1 signals (a) sonic echo test; (b) frequency response test
284 ClRlAReportl44
At one extreme, Type 2 signals might display a clear major response indicative
of the length ofthe pile responding as a single acoustic unit, but with
intermediate responses to local changes in pile impedance within that acoustic
unit, as in Figure 9.3. At the other extreme, Type 2 signals might contain no
clear major response to indicate ifpart ofthe pile is responding as a single
acoustic unit, as in Figure 9.4.
A Type 2 signal would typically not be intelligible to an untrained engineer

except with the assistance of a reasoned interpretation by a specialist, because
the responses would not necessarily be similar to those of simple models. In
extreme cases, explanation of the response would not be straightforward and
interpretation could only be undertaken by a specialist. For such signals, the
influence of extraneous features, attributable to soil effects, local changes in pile
diameter, etc., overprint the remote-end response of the main acoustic unit to
such an extent that it would not be possible to distinguish it from the
background. The magnitude ofthe toe or remote end-response would be of a
similar size to or smaller than other adjacentparts ofthe signal response curve.
The toe or remote-end response signal might be identifiable by the specialist by
virtue of experience or throughthe use ofsophisticated enhancement or analysis
techniques.
Table 9.1 summarises the proposed classification of the signal-response curves.
Table 9.1 Proposed classificationof low-strain integrity test signals

Signal Characteristics of Signal responses obtained from Remarks
type signal
Remote end Intermediate
sources
0 No impedance change Not distinguishable Not distinguishable The reason for the response
within depth of because of soil because of soil is readily understandable to
penetration of signal damping or other damping or other the non-specialist engineer.
effects effects, or not Caution required in
present evaluating depth of
penetration of signal
I One clear impedance Clear majorsignal, Absent or very The response is readily
change indicating the pile subordinate. Less understandableto the non-
system is responding than 50% ofrelative specialist engineer
as a single acoustic magnitude ofremote
unit end signal
2 More than one (I) Clearly Moderate to strong The response is
impedance change discernible, signals, but not understandable to a non-
reasonably completely specialist engineer only with
prominent signal obscuring the expert assistance
remote-end response
(2) Not clearly Signals of similar The response is not capable
discernible, because strength to or of interpretation by a non-
it is similar to or stronger than specialist engineer
weaker than other remote-endresponse
parts of signal from
intermediate levels
ClRlAReportl44 285
Classification in these terms ofthe signal responses obtained on an individual
site will help to assess how much weight should be given to the test results of
the specific test method at that site. As described in Section 5. the quality ofthe
test results depends upon the following:
1. The characteristics of the test system. particularl its dynamic range. its
resolution and its signal-to-noise ratio.
2. The characteristics of the pile, especially its aspect ratio the quality of the
pile material and the shape of the pile also affect the signal.
3. The nature ofthe surrounding soil within which the pile is embedded.
Thus the stifferthe soil, the greaterthe attenuation of the signal.
A boundary between soils ofdifferent relative stifThesses acts as a
reflecting layer or impedance change within the pile-soil system.
Recordedpile length : 22.0 m

Assumed wavespeed :4,000 rn's
Time-dependent amplification : x 500 (exponential)
Calculated depths to major impedence changes: 9.5 m, 15.5 m, 22 m
SOIl layer effects
80
V 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Depth (m)
0 +
0
(a)
Recorded pile length : 10.0 m

Assumed wavespeed : 4,000 m/s
Measured frequency intervals
High level feature : 980 Hz
Low level feature : 200 Hz
Calculated depth to impatience changes
High level feature : 2m
Low level feature : 10 m
At due to high levelfeature
.0
0
00 1000 2000
Frequency, ((Hz)
(b)
Figure 9.3 Examples of Type 2 signals (a) sonic echo test; (b) frequency response test
286 ClRlAReportl44
Recorded pile length :15.0 m
10 - Assumed wavespeed : 4,000 rn/s
Time-dependent amplification: x 500 (exponential)
2
I_
8
A
0 10 20
Depth (m)
(a)
Recorded pile length : 15.0 m

Assumed wavespeed 4,000 rn/s
I
1000 2000
Frequency (Hz)
(b)
Figure 9.4 Examples of complex or indeterminateType 2 signals (a) sonic echo test
(b) frequency response test
9.2 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Two stagesin the interpretation process can be considered:

1. Depths are calculated ofthe impedance changes identified from the signal-
response curve. As part of this process, the characteristics of a feature
represented by an impedance change should be evaluated, e.g. whether it
represents a relative increase or a decrease in pile impedance (implying an
increase or a reduction of pile properties). This first stage is the acoustic
interpretation.
2. A separate interpretation is ofthe significance and meaning of each feature
in terms of the pile construction. This must take into accountother
relevant information, such as the site geology and ground conditions, the
pile construction records and particular features ofthe piling system (e.g.
the use ofpermanent casing to the upper section ofthe pile), etc.
A hypothesis can then be formed as to the type of feature or combination of

features ofthe pile-soil system that might have given rise to the signal-response
curve for that pile. The two-partdivision ofthe interpretation distinguishes
betweenwhat is known from the results and what is inferred. That which is
inferred requires information otherthan the signal response. It also involves, to
a greateror lesserextent, thejudgement and experience ofthe interpreter.
ClRlAReportl44 287
As an example. the response ofthe pile toe in a Type 1 signal might be
detectable because of a change in impedance between the pile material and the
underlying soil or rock. The feature on the signal response curve, however, is a
marked change in impedance. which can be assumed to be the pile toe if its
depth matches the record of the constructed length of the pile.
In order to evaluate the test results properly, the interpreter requires additional
information, which includes:
pile construction logs, including depth, diameter, date constructed, depth
and type of pile reinforcement, and details ofany construction problems or
features
details of ground conditions at and across the site
pile concreting records and test results
other site information relating to the piles and the operations associated
with them.
The purpose of a test is to help evaluate the pile, not the testing system or the
specialist, so as much information as possible should be given to the specialist.
It is generally considered that low-strain integrity tests allow estimation of the

depth to an impedance change to an accuracy of plus or minus 10%. Thus a
feature closer to the pile toe than this tolerance would not usually be identifiable
as such from the test.
The implication of the three signal response classes is that the more complex
the signal and the less clear the response from the remoteend ofthe pile, the
greaterwill be the interpretative effort required to arrive at a solution. As a first
step. the acoustic behaviour of the pile/soil system has to be analysed. Its
meaning in terms of the actual pile/soil system has to be adduced and explained
clearly to be of use to an engineer faced with making an evaluation of the piled
foundation in a short space of time.
Using the proposed signal classification, the general level of interpretation

possible from the various signal types is summarised below. Figures 9.5 to 9.8
outline the procedure that would be followed in a typical interpretative process.
Tipe 0 signals
With thesesignals. no acoustic length can be determined for the pile because no
variations of impedance are present. The pile appears to be of uniform
impedance over the full depth of penetration of the test.
It should be noted that although valid conclusions can be drawn from Type 0
results, on the basis that no significant change of impedance occurs forthe
depth of penetration of the test, the lack of a definitive remote-end response
leaves the true depth of penetration forthat particular pile and conditions as an
open question.
288 CiRlAReport 144

Figure 9.5 First stage: analysis of signal responses
The fact that no intermediate response has been received would indicate that the
pile is intact and uniform to the depth that the equipmentwould be able to
detect a return signal ifone were to be present. It would be permissible, indeed
advisable, forthe integrity test specialistto state this typical depth of
penetration, in the prevailing ground conditions, provided that the specialistcan
substantiate it by data from similarpiles constructed in a similar manner in
similar ground conditions with that particular equipment.

INPUT DATA
3 3 1
Known
II Pile Othersite II characteristics
Site Experience
TypeO I construction construction I geotechnical of testing
signal of the piling data
records data specialist
system
Ilnterpretation
I,
I What is recorded length

j and diameter of pile?
= Pile Aspect Ratio
I What is expected
penetration of signal?
Pile length similar Pile length shorter

to or in excess of than expected signal
expected signal penetration depth
penetration depth
Consider:
Other pile features
Acceptable signal Pile material shortfall
(decreasing p, c)
Equipment malfunction
Comparison with other
Butconsider... - signals on site
I
I Comparison with othersignals at the site?
Figure 9.6 Second stage: typical interpretationprocess for Type 0 signal
Type 1 signals
The signal indicates that the pile is of single acoustic length (one variation of
impedance is present) and ofuniform impedance to the depth ofthe impedance
change The depth to the location of impedance change can be calculated.
Identification ofthe sense ofthe impedance change (increase or decrease) will
indicate the probable physical significance.
The interpretation by the specialist ofthe reason forthis signal should thus be
seen to be reasonable and in accordance with the known data. It would allow
recommendations to be made on the advisability or otherwise of furtherwork.
290 CtRlAReportl44
INPUT DATA
,1 Depth to
Interpretation
What is recorded length

POe AspectRatio
and diameter of pile?
I 'I,
Does this match with What Is expected

depth of Type 1 signal penetration of signal?
L!i Depth to impedence

change SHORTER i
toimi
change GREATER
than known pile length
L!!!i2n pile length
Decrease/increase Decrease in Increase in

in pile impedence? pile impedence? pile Impedence?
I
Consider: Consider Check:
Major DECREASE Major INCREASE Pile constructed
ofsection, e.g. pile of section, e.g. longerthan recorded.
break, crack, neck, under-ream,bulb, Correct wave speed in
step, inclusion, pile anchorage, step. calculation.
joint. Major soil change. Pile concrete strength.
Major soil change. Age of pile at test.
Major reduction in
material properties.
Pile constructed
shorter then Decrease/increaseIn
recorded pIleimpedence?
I
I Comparisonwith othersignals at the site?
Jr
Report
(Repo)
Fjgure 9.7 Second stage: typical interpretation process for Type 1 signal
Type 2 signals
This signal type means that the pile displays multiple acoustic reflections of
varying significance indicating more than one variation of pile impedance, with
or without a malor remote-end response.

Figure 9.8 Second stage: typical interpretationprocess for Type 2 signal
It ma or may not be possible to calculate the depth of each major impedance

change. The identification ofthe sense of each impedance change (increase or
decrease) may indicate the physical significance. The interference effects
between more than one change of impedance are often sufficient, however, to
render such analysis difficult or speculative.
In the simpler cases, the interpretation by the specialist should be seen to be

reasonable, taking into account the known soil data and construction records. it
should demonstrate whether or not the signal response exhibited by the major
'remote end' response is in accordance with the recorded pile length.
Alternatively, the response might be attributable to some other known
292 CIRIAReportl44
extraneous feature, but would be interpretable as the effective length of the pile,
as far as the test method could determine.
In complex situations a numberof acoustical interpretations may be possible

and the results become increasingly difficult for non-experts to comprehend and
experts to interpret.
The interpretation by the specialist should, if possible, allow recommendations

to be made on the advisability or otherwise of further work.
9.3 AIDS TO INTERPRETATION
Simulations
In a similar mannerto the simulation programs developed for dynamic load

testing techniques, some low-strain integrity test systems have the facility to
model the pile profile to match the signal response expected of a particulartype
of feature with that actually obtained in the field. The modelling process has to
take accountofthe soil within which the pile is embedded, as both the soil type
and changes in the soil profile affect the nature of the response.
Another aid to interpretation is the compilation by test houses of examples of

signal-response curves, which illustrate the effect on the signal ofvarious types
and combinations of feature. These catalogues derive from field results or, more
commonly, they are computer generated.
Computer-based simulations or signal-matching programmes can be powerful

aids to understanding complex signals. A requirement for these should be
identified in the enquiry or contract documents.
Knowledge-based syctems
Interpretation of signal response data involves engineering judgementand

experience. Several research organisations are pursuing the development of
computer-based, expert or knowledge-based systems for use in the
interpretation of low-strain integrity tests.
Knowledge-based systems lead the user through an analysis and, hence, to an

interpretation using not only the test data, but also qualitative information (e.g.
about the site and ground conditions, the pile types, and the construction
process) and judgemental choices (see Comerford eta!., 1991). While still in
their relative infancy, these systems will have a role in the interpretative
process.
Paquet (1992) describes a technique of interpretation, which combines time-

and frequency-domain measurements to produce an 'impedanceprofile' of a
pile under test. Since impedance is described by p. c and A, if p and c are
reasonably constant, the impedance profile in effect, is a profile ofthe relative
CIRIAReportl44 293
cross-section ofthe pile. By correcting the response curve to allow for the
characteristics of the surrounding soil, the remaining impedance profile, free of
soil influence and with due correction for attenuation, is claimed to be an
indication ofthe pile profile.
9.4 REPORTING ON THE TESTING
It is usual that the report on the testing submitted by the testing specialist
contains factual data, the identification of points of note on the signal responses
obtained from the tests, and an interpretation ofthe significance ofthese
features in relation to the pile.
It is recommended that such reports should include the following, as a

minimum.
Factual data
I. Identificationof site and location, dates and times of testing.
2. Identification of the piles tested and their type. Pile reference numbers
should be related to specifically identified contract drawings (including
the date and revision numberofdrawings).
3. Description of the pile preparation, test method and equipmentused.
4. Calibration data and certificates.
5. Test results.
(a) Signal responsc curves for each pile.
(b) Parameters derived from the test data, e.g. pile-head dynamic
stifThess. characteristic mobility.
6. Notes of any on-site features, e.g. damaged pile heads.
Anthysis ofsignal responses
The analysis and classification ofeach pile's signal response and the
identification and appraisal ofeach impedance change should include the
following records (probably in tabularform):
I. Pile reference number.
2. Pile size. e.g. diameter.
3. Installed length in the ground and stick-up.
4. Classification of signal-response curve (CIRIA Classification or similar).
5. Identification of acoustic length. if possible.
6. Identification of (other) impedance changes within the pile.
7. Note of whether each impedance change is an increase or decrease.
8. Estimation of the relative magnitude of each impedance change.
9. Derived parameters. e.g. pile-head dynamic stifihess. characteristic
mobility.

Interpretation ofsignal responses
Statements giving the interpretation ofthe signal responses should note the
specific information, additional to the test data, used to reach that interpretation,
such as:
1. Details of piles and their installation: type, length range, diameter,
reinforcement, temporary casing, concrete mix and strengths.
2. Ground and groundwater conditions of the site including variations.
3. Details of other site operations associated with the piles (e.g. excavations,
piles broken down from original cut-offlevels).
The interpretation statement should address the following points, for each pile.
1. Whetheran acoustic length was determined.
2. If not, the reasons why not.
3. If so, the acoustic significance ofthe acoustic length, and whether it
represents an increase or decrease in impedance.
4. The interpretation ofthe acoustic length.
5. The identification and significance of other intermediate features within
the signal.
6. An estimation ofthe magnitude of the impedance features identified.
7. Comparison ofthe signal ofa particular pile with other piles of similar
length and diameter across the site.
By addressing these points the interpretation by the specialistought to be seen

as reasonable, and that it has taken into accountsuch soil data and construction
records as have been made available to the specialist. Each interpretation should
state whether or not the signal response exhibited by the major 'remote end'
response accords with the recorded pile depth and if not, whether it is because
of a known extraneous factor or an internal feature that might have a bearing on
the satisfactory performance ofthe pile.
A valuable attribute of low-strain integrity tests is that their results can often be
used comparatively. Even though the results might not distinguish an unsound
from a sound pile, they can show areas ofhigher risk or uncertaintyin a pile
population. In these situations, the testing should be regarded as an additional
investigation tool, not as the final arbiter ofgood or bad piles. Testing can be
very effectively used to give a picture ofthe characteristics ofthe piles across
the site so that decisions on further testing or investigation are clearly focused.
In more favourable circumstances the methodsgive a good indication ofthe
soundness of construction ofthe pile population and would identify an isolated
problem pile.
As an example, the tests on the site might show a great majority of Type 0 (or
Type 2) signals. Certain piles, however, might have clear Type 1 responses,
with the acoustic length being far less than the nominal installed length. The
CIRIAReportl44 295
deviation of these individual piles from the site norm could indicate a problem
that had to be addressed.
As noted in the discussion on the classification of signals. some signal

responses do not allow firm conclusions. In such a case, this should be stated in
the report.
The presentation offactual test data
The signal-response curves, together with any parameters calculated from the
data, such as pile-head dynamic stifThess. are the primary informationon the
performance of a particular pile test. It is this information that has to be
communicated to an engineering team who may not be at all familiar with the
test technique, so it should be clear, complete and, so far as possible, self-
explanatory.
Many current test reports seem designed to obscure the information rather than
to present it clearly. In many cases this is a function ofthe computer software
used to process and print out the test data. In common with many such
programs, while perfectly adequate to provide the graphical data, the collection
and presentation ofthe ancillary information often leaves much to be desired
from the point of view of the end user.
It is recommended that the presentation of test information takes accountofthe

following points, which should be presented clearly and unambiguously.
(a) Signal-responsecurves
Horizontal and vertical axes should be properly scaled in engineering units.

Adequate intermediate points should be given to allow interpolation. Numerical
values should align with scale marks. In time-based plots, where the horizontal
axis essentially represents time, an alternative scale can be presented in terms of
pile depth. In such cases the plot should be accompanied by the value of c, the
propagation velocity ofthe stress wave used in the calculation. In
frequency-based plots the value of c is again used to calculate resonating
lengths, and the chosenvalue should be indicated.
The points of measurement used to obtain calculated values should be indicated.

Many time-based plots do not start at time zero and extend well beyond time =
2L/c. For frequency-based plots the identification ofthe chosen resonance peaks
used for calculations ofthe depth to a change of impedance should be similarly
identified.
(7,) Additional data
In addition each signal response curve might be used to identifythe following

parameters:
296 CiRlAReport 144

Time-based plots:
Pile-head movement (peak particle velocity)
Time-dependent amplification of return signals: (exponential or linear)
Magnitude of the amplification
Repeated tests
Average of several blows.
Frequency-based plots:
Pile-head dynamic stiffliess
Pile-head characteristic impedance or characteristic mobility.
Some of these could be tabulated separately or indicated graphically on the

signal-response curve.
Whichever method is chosen, clear uncluttered presentation is important. Where

abbreviations are used, there should be a key and their engineering units stated.
(c) Pile information
It would help those looking at a signal-response curve if the constructed size

and depth of the pile were included in the caption. While the infonnation will
be elsewhere in the report, its inclusion with the test curve as a courtesy to the
user will be appreciated.
I. A three-fold classification of signal responses is suggested:

Type 0 no distinct return signal received, i.e. no significant
impedance change within the pile
Type I one clear major response, i.e. one significant impedance
change within the pile
Type 2 more than one major response, i.e. two or more impedance
changes within the pile.
Interpretations can be made about the condition of the pile following
determination ofthe type of response obtained from the test.
2. The analysis and interpretation should be considered as two stages:
analysis ofthe acoustical data
an interpretation ofthe significance of this analysis, taking accountof
all other relevant information for the pile.
3. As much construction and other site information as possible should be
given to the pile testers to maximise the benefits ofthe interpretation stage.
4. Interpretation can be helped by the use of simulations which facilitate the
matching of real data to those expected from particular pile features.
CIRIAReportl44 297
5. Test reports should be comprehensive,with coverage of
factual data (site. location, date, pile type. etc.)
analysis of signal responses (impedance changes. etc.)
interpretation of signal responses (estimation of magnitude of features
identified, etc.)
the use made in the interpretation ofthe records of pile installation and
ground conditions provided by others
conclusions drawn about pile conditions, on an individual or
comparative basis
recommendations (where called for in the contract).
COMERFORD,J.B., BLOCKLEY. D.T. and DAVIS. J. P. (1991)

A knowledge-based system to interpret results from pulse-echo integrity tests
Proc. Jn.s'tn. Civ. Engrs
Part I. Vol 90 February. pp 189-204
PAQUET. J. (1992)
Pile integrity testing - the CEBTP reflectogram
In: Piling Europe
Proc. Conf Institution of Civil Engineers, London. 7-9 April
pp 177-88
298 CIRIAReportl44
10 The specification and use of
non-destructive testing
10.1 PLANNING THE TESTING PROGRAMME
With thewiderange ofmethods available the first questionsto be answered are:

what test or series of tests will best suit the problem or situation at hand? and is
the purpose ofthe testing to:
form a part of a planned control testing regime? or
investigate a problem that has become apparent following installation of a
particular pile or series of piles, i.e. a retrospective investigation.
In either case, it is most important for all available information relevant to the
construction of the piles to be collated, i.e. piling records, concreting or
pumping records and ground investigation information as in Table 2.1 and
Section 2.1.1.
10.1.1 Control testing
The choice of control testing method has to take account of:

whether the method is suitable for the piling system
whetherthe method is suitable for the ground conditions
whether, prior to commencing pile installation, there is a perception of the
potential for problems related to either the ground or the pile, and which
the proposed method could identify
the availability and relevance of otherpile construction information, such
as pile driving records, volume of concrete used to form the pile, stoppages
in the pile construction process, or other contemporaneous records,
observations and measurements
the level of supervision ofthe pile construction works
the cost-effectiveness ofthe investigation method
whether all the parties involved agree on the method of testing and on
relevant courses of action to take if anomalies are detected.
The suitability ofthe several types of investigative techniques in relation to

different pile defects is discussed in Section 1.
CIRIAReportl44 299
In current UK practice the most commonly used methods for control testing are.
either
direct tests. involving the application of load (by either static or dvnaniic
loading), or
indirect tests, involving either low-strain integrity tests at the pile-head or
internal cross-hole sonic logging.
A staged process. such as is shown in Figure 10.1. can be used to develop a

control-testing strategy suitable for the contractual framework and works
programme. I-Tow well this can be integrated into the programme depends not
only on clear definition of the testing itself but also on appreciating the
different eventualities to be faced if the results are unexpected.
10.1.2 Retrospective investigation

The choice of retrospective investigation method has to take account of
the suspected nature of the problem or requirement ofthe investigation
the accessibility of the pile head(s)
the accessibility of the suspected problem position
whether the problem is likely to be widespread
the importance of the pile (or piles) to the performance of the structure
whether it is possible to replace an affected pile (or piles) or otherwise
remedy the problem
whether all parties involved agree on the method of investigation and on
the actions to be taken in the light ofthe results.
Problems concerning pile integrity usually come to notice in one ofthe

following ways:
a pile fails to meet the specified requirements of a load test
a defect is found in a pile when it is trimmed down for incorporation into
the works
a defect is found in a pile when, for some other reason, it is exposed, e.g.
forthe construction of a lift-shaft or deep basement in part of the structure
other routine tests, such as cube tests on the pile concrete, have results
below specified values
identification of an anomaly from control testing or from checking pile
construction records
unexpectedly large seulement or evidence of distress in the superstructure
is observed late in the contract or after completion.

Step 1: Identifying the requirementsof the control testing programme, i.e.
identify responsibilities of the parties to the contract, and the level of
assurance required
identify the requirements ofcurrent codes or standards or other lead
documents
identify the requirementsofthe Designer
identify the requirements ofthe checking authorities and otherconcerned
parties
identify possible problem areas or areas of concern.
Step 2: Identifying appropriate test or monitoring procedures:
identify tests or monitoring procedures that will address those tctors or
areas of concern that have been highlighted
confirm the acceptability ofthe methods chosen with the otherparties
involved
prepare specification for the work.
Step 3: Identifying sequence and programming:
identify the sequence in which suchtesting andmonitoring procedures
should be employed
allow time for re-testing or further testing.
Step 4: Identifying hold points:

Identify 'hold points' within the contract process that require specific
points to be. addressed or proven satisfactorily, before the next stage of
work can proceed (e.g. foundation construction might not he permitted to
proceed until oneweek afterpiles had been integrity tested, and the results
submitted to the Designer).
Allow time withinprogramme for assessment of results prior to
acceptance/release of section ofworks.
Step 5 Identifying a what if' scenario.
Identify a series of alternative or remedial measures to be followed, in the
event of deviations from anticipated results: perhaps identify a worst
case' scenario. Perhaps evaluate acceptable confidence limits or rates of
non-conformance.
Allow time within programme for additional testing/investigation or
additional piling.
Reviewplanning and design ofthe foundation system if the risks oftilure
are unacceptable
Step 6 Analysing results

Monitor andprocess results and compare with other site specific
information from other parts ofthe testing and monitoring regime.
Figure 10.1 The developmentof a control testing strategy
It is usually necessary first to evaluate the possible consequences ofthe

problem, i.e. whether it is Type A, B, C or D (as in Section 1.5) and whether it
is ofmajor or minor significance. Guidance as to what further test or
ClRlAReportl44 301
investigative work may best 'kld information on the performance of the pile is
given in Section 1.
It may thereafter be necessary to check that other piles do not have a similar or
related problem. Section 1 also provides guidance as to what examination or
test method will be best suited to undertake this check.
The manner in which a strategy can be developed for the retrospective investigation
of post-construction foundation problems is illustrated in Figure 10.2.
10.2 SPECIFYING THE TESTING
10.2.1 Issues for the test programme
It is the responsibility of the Designer or Pile Designer to specifi the test technique
or combination of techniques. With particular reference to control testing by
indirect non-destructive methods, the following questions have to be answered:
1. What test or investigation method is to be employed?
2. What pre4est preparation requirements are necessary, either ofpile-head
preparation or incorporation of access tubes into the pile during
construction?
3. What does the envisaged programme involve in terms of
numberof piles to be tested in one visit?
the stage at which the pile will be tested: as soon after construction as
possible? or immediately prior to incorporation within the foundation
work? or at some intermediate stage?
the period to be allowed after completion of testing on a particular
pile before foundation construction work on that pile can continue?
4. What measures will be taken if it is found that pile-head preparation is
inadequate or access tubes are blocked?
5. What measures will be adopted should tests indicate anomalous
responses?
6. In the case of a suspect pile, what is the allowable time from the testing of
the pile to submission ofthe analysis and interpretation: and what period
can be allowed for consideration ofthe test result by the Designer (or Pile
Designer) and making a decisionon acceptance, rejection or further
investigation.
In respect of the testing work itself, there are additional questions for the
Designer. such as
I. What has to be measured and what data have to be provided in terms of
factual information by the testing contractor, in terms of:
graphical data?
numerical data?
302 CIRIAReportl44
2. What has to be included in the interpretative report ofthe testing specialist
by way of:
analysis and explanation ofthe measurements?
interpretation of the test results as an engineering appraisal ofthe
tested pile in the light of information such as construction records
and ground conditions?
I Are anomalous responses to be reported:
immediately to alert the Designer to the situation?
after flail technical analysis and interpretation?
4. What are the time limits for:
reporting analysis of the test data to the Designerso that there will
be sufficient information to allow the construction to proceed?
submission of the final test report?
10.2.2 Guidance on specifications for control testing
The most common control testing techniques are static load testing, dynamic
load testing, low-strain integritytests and cross-hole sonic logging.
Specifications for static load testing are adequately covered in the references
cited in Section 2.2.1. The specification of dynamic load testing is indicated in
Sections 2.2.2 and 7, but its use for control testing technique is still developing.
Low-strain integrity tests and cross-hole sonic logging are the most commonly
used and least understood control testing techniques. Guidance on these two
methods is therefore given in the following two sections.
The researchers on the FHWA drilled-shaft research programme

(Baker et a!., 1991) proposed a guideline specification for low-strain integrity
and cross hole sonic logging tests. Some care should be taken before adapting
this for UK usage and some ofthe points made in Sections 10.2 to 10.4 should
also be incorporated into a specification. However, this documentprovidesa
usefl.i1 base for the preparation ofa suitable specification.
10.3 RECOMMENDATIONSFOR THE SPECIFICATION OF

LOW-STRAIN INTEGRITY TESTING
It is recommended that the following points should be addressed in the

preparation of a specification for low-strain integrity testing ofpiles. The ICE
Specificationfor Piling (Institution of Civil Engineers, 1988) contains guidance
on this issue which is taken into account here. Turner (1989) has also discussed
some of the programme implications.
ClRIAReportl44 303
Step I: Discovery:
Discover the problem.
Step 2: Timing of discovery ofproblem:

Is it:
while pile installation is progressing?
alter pile installation, but prior to construction of foundation works?
alter construction of foundation works but prior to construction of
superstructure?
during construction of superstructure?
after construction of superstructure.but before flnal/acceptance/occupationby
user
after acceptance/occupationby user.?
Step 3: Class of problem (see Section 1.5):
Could it be:
problem of contact between pile and structure (Type D feature)?
problem of pile shalt continuity (Type A. B or C feature)?
S problem of pile shaft durability or sufficiency (Type A. C or D feature)?
S problem of contact between pile and load bearing stratum. either
(a) contact between pile shaft and surrounding ground (Type D
feature)?
(b) contact between pile toe and underlying ground (Ts'pe D feature)?
problem of additional load on pile, either
(a) vertical overload ofpile (Type B or D feature)?
(h) horizontal overload of pile (Type B or D feature)?

problem of external soil forces on the piles
(a) negative skin friction (Type D feature)?
(h) uplift or soil heave (Type D feature)?
(c) lateral soil movements (Type B or D feature)?
Step 4: investigation of the problem

Consideration of what tests or investigative methods may be suitable for the
identified class of problem
direct examination techniques:
(a) load testing

(h) excavationlextraction
(c) drilling, boring or probing

(d) addition to (c) of in situ tests and examinations
indirect examination techniques:
(a) internal
(b) external
(c) remote.
304 CiRiAReport 144

Step 5: Analysing results:
was nature of problem identified?
are further tests required?
Step 6: Conclusions
Determination of nature of problem:
design problem - too muchloadon pile
(a) underestimation ofworking loads
(b) underestimation ofextraneous loads (NSF, etc...)
(c) overestimation ofallowable shall friction
(d) overestimation of allowable endbearing
(e) underdesign of pile section.

unforeseen forces on the pile
(a) slope instability

(b) high lateral loads
(c) tensile loads
(d) adjacent construction

pile construction problem
(a) pile section substandard at right angles to pile axis, i.e. transverse
defects
(b) pile section substandard parallel to pile axis, i.e. logitudinal defects
(c) pile section damaged after construction ofpile
(d) pile toe poorly founded
(e) pile not vertical or not in correct position
foundation construction problems
(a) poorcontact between pile andpile caps and/or foundations

(b) incorrect construction
(c) deterioration/chemicalattack of concrete.
Step 7: Solution:
accept
repair
supplement
replace.
Figure 10.2 The developmentof a retrospectiveinvestigationstrategy
1. Methodoftesting
The type oftest should be specified. It is recommended that the general name,
low-strain integrity test, should be used. Such a descriptionincludesthe time-
and frequency-based methods outlined in Section 3.7.
CIRlAReportl44 305
Alternatively, depending upon the experience or requirements ofthe Designer,
either a time-based or a frequency-based method can be specified, or one which
combines these. Such a choice has the effect of limiting the numberof test
houses able to undertake the work. (The specification of frequency-based and
combined systems implicitly includes the measurement of input force from an
instrumented hammer. This additional instrument allows an estimation of pile-
head dynamic stifihess and mobility.)
As a general recommendation, unless the specifier wants a particular system, it

is not advisable to identif' low-strain integrity tests by such names as sonic
echo, pulse echo, transient-dynamic or shock methods. These all have
implications of systems specific to individual specialists.
2. Preparation ofpile heads
The standards of preparation and access (such as are outlined in Section 3.7)
and other services should be specified.
3. Programmingthefield-work
(a) Number of visits. If the plan forthe control testing includes provision of
hold points or programme float between testing and acceptance, there could be
implications forthe maximum numberofpiles to be tested at any one time.
This consideration includes not only the delay time betweenpile construction
and the release ofthe pile forthe succeeding groundworks, but also the time
required for the Designer to review the results ofthe testing.
The Specification should take account, therefore, of the number of piles to be

tested in a single visit, the numberofvisits and their scheduling in relation to
the piling and main works programme.
(b) Stage oftesting. The specification should identifv at what stage a pile
should be tested. Typically this might be either when the pile has been reduced
to its cut-off level, or at no specific time, other than prior to the construction of
the succeeding works and in the case of cast-in-place piles a minimum delay
after casting (usually seven days).
Construction of pile caps or ground beams, including the placing of steel

reinforcement, should not be permitted prior to the test as this would affect the
result or obstruct access to the pile head.
Other programming requirements are listed in item 5 below.
4. Testing Equipment
Ifconsidered necessary, the dynamic range ofthe equipmentcan be specified.

Current systems typically have a dynamic range of not less than 1:4000, but the
specifier could call for a greaterrange depending upon the particular
application.

The requirements for an on-site print-out ofdata or similar rapid provision of
test results, ifany, should be identified.
5. Reportingon the testing
(a) Factual data obtained from the test. A signal-response curve (as described in
Sections 3.7, 4.4, 5.1 and 5.2) should be provided for each pile tested. Both
horizontal and vertical axes should be scaled and labelled in engineering units.
Certain test systems can provideadditional results. Ifthe specifierhas a purpose

in calling forthese, i.e. that they will be ofvalue in the overall analysis process,
additional results include:
peak particle velocity (obtainable from some sonic echo systems)
pile-head dynamic stifihess and characteristic mobility (derived by
frequency-response systems with measurements of input force).
(b) Provision of supporting information. The interpretation of the test results

requires a knowledge not only ofthe physicalparameters measured by the test,
but also the construction records of the individual piles and an understanding of
the prevailing ground conditions. The specification should identifj the
requirement to providethis information to the interpreter (see Section 10.2).
(c) Reporting the results. The specification should make provision for test
results to be communicated to the Designer or Pile Designerprior to the formal
submission ofthe report, in orderto expedite action in cases, for example,
where there might be a need for further investigation or remedial work to piles.
It is usual for an interpretative report to be required from the testing specialistin

addition to the factual data ofthe tests. Alternatively, but less usual in UK
practice, the testing specialist would be required to report only factual data with
the interpretations being made by an in-house or independent consultant.
It is recommended that an interpretative report should include as a minimum,

the requirements identified in Section 9.4. The full report should cover factual
data, analysis and interpretation ofthat data, conclusions and recommendations.
(d) Programme for reporting the results. The specifier should identify the
following key points on timing and reporting:
to whom the results should be communicated (usually the Designeror Pile
Designer)
whether an immediate site print-out is required ofall results
how soon after testing a batch ofpiles that the factual data should be
submitted
how soon after testing a batch ofpiles the factual and interpretative reports
should be submitted.
CIRIAReportl44 307
how and to whom to report anomalous results, significantly differentfrom
the norm for the site or from what would be expected. (It is not unusual to
specify that suspect piles should be broughtto the attention ofthe
Designer, or other specified party. within 24 hours of testing)
a maximum time period should be specified between the receipt by the
Designeror Pile Designer ofthe factual or interpretative report and receipt
of a decision by the (main) Contractor on acceptance, rejection or further
investigative work on a particular pile.
10.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE SPECIFICATION OF

CROSS-HOLESONIC LOGGING
The general principles outlined in Section 10.3 apply to the specification of

cross-hole sonic logging. Points of difference arise mainly because of the need
for ducts in the pile, but the general requirements to be covered within a
specification are similar.
I. Methodofilesting
The test method should be as outlined in Section 3.1.1.
2. Pre-test requirements
The inside diameter, wall thickness and material forming the access ducts
should be specified together with the numberof ducts required. It is usual that
the tubes should be flush internally and watertight. Bearing in mind the points
made in Section 6.6, it is advisable that the specification should require each
duct to be plumbed and the base level recorded prior to test.
3. Programming ofthe site work
As for low-strain integrity testing, consideration should be given to the number

of piles to be tested in a single visit to be consistent with the overall
construction programme.
4. Testing equipment
The characteristics of the equipment should be as outlined in Section 6. The

requirements for an on-site print-out of data, if any, should be identified.
5. Reporting on the testing
(a) Factual data obtained from the test. A sonic profile as described and
illustrated in Section 3 1.2 and Section 6 should be plotted for each traverse
between ducts within a pile. The numbering of the tubes should be identified.
The scales ofthe horizontal and vertical axes should be identified and consistent
for all the piles at a site, with provision for an expanded scale ifnecessary.

(b) Provision of supporting information. The specification should identifS' the
requirement to provideany additional information required by the test specialist
to aid interpretation.
(c) Reporting the results. As with low-strain integrity testing, it is usual that the
testing specialistprovides an interpretative report on the results ofthe test. The
full report should cover factual data, analysis and interpretation ofthe data,
conclusionsand recommendations.
(d) Programme for reporting the results. The timescalesand requirements

identified for low-strain testing in Section 10.3 similarly apply to cross-hole
logging. As on-site print-outs are often provided as a matter of course, and the
work is somewhat slower in terms of numbers of piles completed in a day, the
results are often discussed and appraised on-site as work proceeds.
10.5 GUIDANCE ON NUMBERS OF TESTS
A Designerproposing to use low-strain integrity testing on a particular site

should considerwhat should be the minimum numberof tests.
Several papers have been published on the statistical approaches that may be
adopted in selecting the numberofpiles that should be tested on a particular site
in order to achieve pre-determined acceptable confidence limits (e.g. Preiss and
Shapiro, 1979 and 1981). Such methods require an estimateofwhethera
percentage of defective piles can be tolerated within the foundation (in the case
of a piled raft foundation, for example). Figure 10.3 from Williamsand Stain
(1987) shows the approach that could be taken. A difficulty is that defects or
problems with piles are not always randomly distributed, but can be persistent if
associated with more difficult ground conditions in a part ofthe site or the poor
workmanship of a particular rig operator or some other factor.
It is for this reason that most authorities tend to the view with low-strain
integrity testing that either all the piles should be tested or none at all. This
decision should take accountofall the circumstances at the site, e.g. the
availability ofother construction records or data, the consistency or variability
ofthe ground conditions across the site, and the type of pile and piling systems.
As a general recommendation, therefore, in situations where low-strain integrity
testing is considered to be worth doing, all the piles on the site or in a particular
area of concern should be tested.
If the picture emerging from the test results is sufficiently consistent, the
Designer may considerreducing the numberoftests. Conversely, if no
meaningful information is being obtained from the tests, the Designercan
choose to dispense with the testing.
CIRIAReportl44 309
Can a percentage of defective
piles be tolerated?
Will the design factor of
safety be maintained?
I
Ivesi
How many piles

on the site
E1
Lmst all pile] Test a percentage or sample of piles.

It is usually advantageous to test, say,
the first30 piles so that if there are
any problemsthey will be revealed at
an early stage and appropflate action
canbe taken before proceeding.
If the first30 are proven sound then
constructioncan proceed with
confidence.
Following this initial phase, test a
random sample of not less than 30%
of the total number.
If anydefective piles are found in the
sample then testat 100%.
Note:
A more statistically exact programme
can be devised by predetermining
acceptable confidence limits together
with the number of defective piles
that couldbe be tolerated.
(Rel:Preiss& Shapiro)
Figure 10.3 Evaluation of numbers of piles to test on a site

(afterWilliams and Stain, 1987)
310 CiRlAReport 144

1. Before a programme ofpile testing is designed, the purpose of the tests

should be understood, i.e. whetherthey are to be part of a planned control
testing regime, or forthe investigation of a specific construction problem.
2. All information relevant to the construction of the piles (e.g. piling records,
concreting/pumping records, site investigation information) should be
collated to assist with the testing and interpretation programme.
3. It should be the responsibility ofthe designer, or pile designer, to specify
the test technique(s).
4. When specifying testing, considerations include:
timing and logistical requirements of the testing, and any consequential
construction delays
when to test, e.g. construction stage, age of pile, etc.
pile preparation requirements, i.e. pile head, access ducts, etc.
performance and dataoutput of equipment
reporting procedures and lines ofcommunication.
5. Where low-strain integrity testing is considered worthwhile, all piles on the
site or in a particular area ofconcern should be specified for testing. Ifthe
feedback from the testing is sufficiently consistent, a reduction or
curtailment ofthe testing programme may be appropriate.
BAKER, C. N. (ir), DRUMRIGHT, E. E., BRIAUD,

Drilled shcsftsfor bridge foundations
Final Report on Report to Office of Engineering and Highway Operations,
National Technical Service, Springfield, VA 22161
October, 335 p.
PREISS, K and SHAPIRO, J (1979)

Statistical estimation ofthe number ofpiles to be tested on a project
RILEM Commissionon Non-Destructive Testing, Stockholm
PREISS, K and SHAPIRO, J (1981)

Statistical consideration in pile testing
Congress on the Mechanics ofSoils, Stockholm

SpecUlcationfor piling
CIRiAReportl44 311
TURNER. NI. J. (1989)
Proc. Second International Conjrence on Foundations and Tunnels
London. 19-2 1 September
Vol. 1. pp 307-16
WILLIAMS H. T. and STAIN. R. 1. (1987)

London 22 - 26 March
Engineering Technics Press. pp 184-91
312 CIRIAReportl44
11 Conclusions
Ofthe large numberof non-destructive test methods forpiles, the ones on which
this report concentrates are the indirect techniques of low-strain integrity testing
and sonic logging. The conclusions given below are mainly about the use of
these tests because they are not used as effectively as they should be. Often too
much is expected ofthe testing, or read into the results. Too often their use
seems to lead to costly delays and contractual disputes. It was to help overcome
these problems that this CIRIA projectwas commissioned. The conclusions
which have been reached, therefore, tiy to address how better use can be made of
integritytesting within the context of evaluating pile foundations.
I. There is a wide range oftechniques availablefor the investigation and
evaluationofa foundation pile. These can be considered as direct, where
the test exposes the pile material or its performance (e.g. a load test) and
as indirect, where the test measures properties ofthe pile from which its
likely character or performance can be inferred (e.g. acoustic tests).
2. The selection ofa suitabletest method depends not only upon whether it can
detect particular features within a pile and on matters such as availability,
cost and compatibility with the pile type, but also on the purpose ofthe
testing. There are two main purposes forthe testing: control testing and
retrospective investigation. Control testing is part of the pre-planned quality
control or monitoring. Retrospective investigation is to help find out the
condition of a pile and the reasons for it after some problem has arisen.
3. Static load tests are widely used but, because oftheir high cost, rarely for
more than 1 or 2% ofthe piles on a site. Dynamic load testing (and its
application as a high-strain integrity test), while increasingly used for
control testing, is still likely to be more associated with largerpiles and
special site circumstances, e.g. off-shore sites. It is the principal indirect
technique of low-strain integrity tests that permits a high percentage, or
all, of the piles on a site to be tested economically, for nearly all pile
types. Cross-hole sonic logging, the other main indirect test is particularly
associated with large-diameter bored piles.
4. When thoughtfully used and carefully integrated into the works programme
as control tests, low-strain integrity testing and cross-hole sonic logging
are important aids in the evaluation of foundation piles. The test results,
however, should not be taken as sole or final arbiters of pile acceptability.
5. There is much misunderstanding ofthe capabilities ofthese indirecttests,
which has led first to their being used with an unclearpurpose and,
consequently, to unnecessary contract delays and disputes. This has
resulted in distrust. While scepticism of promotional claims is valid, much
ofthe distrust is unfair. With better understanding oftheir capability,
more clearly defined responsibilities, and integration into the contractual
framework, the testing can play an important role.
ClRIAReportl44 313
6. When integritytesting is being used. several other points should be borne
in mind.
Integrity testing should be regarded as part of the quality control of pile
construction. In addition there should be attention to supervision and
construction records, the use of other direct or indirect techniques. and
appreciation of the ground conditions of the site. Indirect non-destructive
testing methods should not be the sole means of examining the
competence or suitability of a pile.
The testing methods should be properly specified. and the areas of
responsibility defined.
The reporting requirements should be clearly specified. in relation to
both the presentation offactual data and the interpretation, in the
recognition that current techniques do not necessarily identify piles
which are structurally unsound. Furthermore. they can give
anomalous results in piles which prove to be fit for their purpose.
7. Testing can affect the piling or main works programmes so it has to be
planned and integrated into the overall foundation works. In control
testing, the requirement for testing large numbers of piles, analysing and
interpreting the results, and making engineering decisions based upon
those interpretations, all require careful planning. Allowances should be
made within the programme for the evaluation and decision-making
processes. and for the possible consequences of replacing questionable or
faulty piles.
8. The testing has to be properly managed within the contract. Establishing
correct lines ofcommunication and defining responsibilities will encourage
better control of the work, fortimely, informed decisions to be made.
9. A consequence of more testing could be more anomalous results. These
will need further interpretative work. further engineering discussion and,
perhaps. further investigation. It is advisable that time is allowed for this.
Consequential delays to the works are possible whether or not a pile is
found to be defective.
10. With integrity testing, there is a need for a clearer classification and
interpretation process that allows the non-specialist engineer to appreciate
and participate in the evaluation process. It is often such an engineer who
has the responsibility of deciding the actions to be taken before accepting
foundation piles into the structure. The analysis and reporting should aim
for clarity in explanation and should make plain the degree of uncertainty
in interpretation. The signal classification proposed in this report was
developed to help improve the communication between the users of
integrity testing and the specialists.
Piled foundations are fUndamental components of a structure and their
installation is a critical part ofthe construction process. Much hinges.
therefore, on their acceptance into the works. Integrity testing, when
properly specified and managed, has an important role in the evaluation of
piled foundations. Attractive in being relatively inexpensive and rapid.
reaching to remote, inaccessible features, the techniques of integrity
314 CIRIAReportl44
testing vi11 be used more and more, not only as the techniques improve in
their capability, but also as engineers appreciate how to use them more
effectively.
CIRIAReportl44 315
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Hydroblok and improved pile driving analysis
De ingenieur, Vol. 86, No. 8
Integrity Testing ofPiles: A Review
DOE And CIRIA Piling Development Group, Report PG4
DOE And CIRIA Piling Development Group, Report PG7
WHEELER, P. (1992)
Stresswave competition/Making Waves.
Ground Engineering, Vol. 25, No. 9, November, pp 25-28
WILLIAMS, H. T. and STAIN, R. T. (1987)

London 22 - 26 March
Engineering Technics Press, pp 184-91

Appendix A Range and types of problems
in piling
Note: the following is generally based on Thorbum and Thorbuni (1977). Heals
and Weltman (1980) and Fleming c/ a!. (1985)
A.1 PROBLEMSASSOCIATEDWITH CAST-IN-PLACE PILES
I. During boring or drilling fror bored cast-in-place piles)

overboring in unstable water-bearing ground. with subsequent slumping of
pile concrete into water- or slurry-filled cavities. This can result in a loss of
pile section and segregation of pile concrete. In severe cases, water- or soil-
water slurry can penetrate into the heart ofthe pile
accumulation of debris at the base of the pile shaft after boring but before
concreting of the pile stalls, caused, for example. by siltation of material
falling from the sides or top ofthe bore, especially in the case of under-
reams.
2. Installation or extraction oftemporary casings

uncontrolled extraction of temporary casings. causingwaisting in soft
clays, or slumping and associated waisting in water-bearing cohesionless
soils
extraction of temporary casings where concrete of too low a sump (i.e. dry)
has been used, or the concrete mix has started to harden. In such cases. the
frictional forces between the casing and the concrete may be high enough
forthe concrete and reinforcement cage to be lifted, causing a separation of
the pile shaft near the bottom edge ofthe temporary casing. Alternatively, if
the pile reinforcement is firmly gripped by the concrete in the lower portion
of the shaft, below the foot ofthe temporary casing. only the annulus of
concrete outside the cage might be lifted
The potential for such problems is worsened in the case of smaller diameter
piles, lower slump concrete, more densely packed reinforcement, larger
aggregate size, and dented or dirty (concrete encrusted) pile casing
in the case of bottom-driven cast-in-place piles. allowing the lower edge of
the liner tube to be withdrawn above the upper surface of the batch of
concrete within the tube, letting water or slurry into the pile
debris within the pile shaft concrete caused by topping up the level of the
concrete after the temporary casing has been extracted, following partial
collapse of soil from the unsupported sided of the bore. In severe cases. a
'cold' joint could be formed.
328 CIRtAReportl44
3. Use ofbenionite or other drilling aids
looseningof base materials during bottom cleaning
inadequate bottom cleaning
heavily contaminated drilling fluid can have an excessive viscosity and the
piston effect on withdrawing the drilling bucket, for example, can cause
local collapse of the pile bore
contamination ofupper surface of concrete with debris and slurry.
4. Pile reinforcement
closely spaced vertical reinforcing bars can cause obstructionto the free
flow of concrete between the pile wall and the reinforcing cage, resulting in
incomplete filling ofthis annular space
the pile cage has to withstand the considerable drag and slump forces
exerted by the fluid concrete as it is being placed. Ifnot rigid enough it can
buckle and distort under these forces
lack of concrete cover to the pile reinforcing due to misalignment (or lack)
of spacers on pile cage.
5. Pile concretingprocess
poor concrete mix design or errors in mixing can lead to:
(a) too dry a mix (slump to low), giving a non-flowing and poorly self-
compacting mix
(b) too wet a mix (too much water), leading to high bleed
(c) low strength from insufficient cement content, over-watering, or
errors in the manufacture or use of blended mixes
(d) lack ofproper hydraulic continuity ofthe mix in order to resist the
ingress ofgroundwater into the body of the fluid concrete under the
action ofthe hydrostatic head
(e) segregation from falling concrete striking the reinforcement cage
when concreting using 'free-fall' methods
incorrect concreting procedures can lead:
when concreting in 'dry' conditions,
(a) to segregation at the base ofthe pile because of water percolation
during the period between completion ofboring and the placing of
the concrete into the pile
when placing concrete by tremie in 'wet' conditions,
(a) defects caused by intermixing between water in the pile and the
initial batch of concrete, if a separating device is not used
(b) contamination and segregation ifthe tremie pipe is inadvertently
brought above the rising concrete surface
undersupply of concrete to the pile. Couldery and Fleming (1987) reported
the formation of discontinuities to continuous flight auger piles, attributed
to undersupply of concrete to parts ofthe pile shafts, resulting in a loss of
CIRIAReportl44 329
section or spoil-contaminated concrete from the auger being allowed to
flow back into the pile
contamination of concrete by spoil. Debris within pile shaft concrete from
minor or partial collapse or spalling of sides of bore or from the ground
surface during concreting, because no temporary casing used or top of
temporary casing not above ground level.
6. Groundwater
failure to maintain a positive hydraulic head within the pile bore to prevent
inward flow of groundwater around the base of temporary casings during
extraction.
-. After casting
lateral movements or squeezing of the upper sections of freshly formed
piles in soft ground, because ofthe movements of heavy construction plant
such as the piling rigs.
A.2 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH DRIVEN PILES
the formation of transverse cracks in precast concrete piles during

manufacture and handling ofthe precast units, which may or may not be
deemed acceptable
soil displacement because ofthe installation of driven precast or cast-in-
place piles can lead to:
(a) uplift forces being transmitted to newly formed piles, causing
tension breaks within the piles
(b) piles that are essentially end bearing being lifted offtheir seatings
(c) piles being laterally displaced
(d) squeezing of freshly cast pile shafts
out of squareness ofjoint faces in segmental piles, leading to high soil
forces on the dog4egged pile
defects during the jointing of steel H or tubular piles
high driving stresses causing cracking ofthe pile
the use of force to correct a misaligned concrete pile during driving,
causing cracking of the pile.
A.3 PROBLEMS FROM FACTORS EXTERNAL TO THE PILE

CONSTRUCTiON PROCESS
lateralsoil movements, such as may be caused by mass movements

towards a deep excavation or cutting, can induce unacceptably high shear
forces on the pile shafts or bodily move the piles out of position
uplift movements from soil heave or swelling, causingcracking ofthe pile
shaft or uplift ofthe complete pile

problems associated with the lateral flow ofgroundwater past the shaft of a
freshly formed concrete pile can also occur. Very occasional instances have
been cited where large hydraulic gradients were experienced in highly
permeable ground, or from flow along the boundary between an upper
highly permeable layer and an underlying steeply dipping impervious
surface
where deep pile cut-offs are formed below the water table, excess
hydrostatic pressure may cause groundwater to pipe up throughthe freshly
placed concrete, leaching concrete paste and fines, and weakening and
honeycombing the concrete
damage to the heads of completed piles by impact of heavy construction
plant
damage to the upper section of the pile by soil movements caused by heavy
plant
damage to a pile caused by the method ofbreaking down a pile to its cut-
offlevel
piles constructed to the wrong length
poor connection into pile caps, ground beams or foundation slabs
thermal effects from the heat ofhydration ofthe pile concrete can give rise
to shrinkage cracks as the cast concrete returns to ambient temperatures.
REFERENCESCITED IN APPENDIXA
COULDERY, P.A.J.and FLEMING, W.G.K. (1987)

Continuous flight auger piling at St Enoch Square, Glasgow
Ground Engineering September, p 17-27
FLEMING, W. G. K., WELTMAN, A. J., RANDOLPH, M. F.

Piling engineering
HEALY, P. R. and WELTMAN, A. J. (1980)

Survey ofproblems associated with the installationofdisplacement piles
DoE and CIRIA Piling Development Group, Report PGX
THORBURN, S. and THORBURN, J. Q. (1977)

Review ofthe problems associated with the construction ofcast-in-place
concrete piles
DoE and CIRIA Piling Development Group, Report PG2.
CIRIAReportl44 331
Appendix B: Suggested classification of
construction features and
defects in piles
332 CIRIAReportl44
C-)
Table B1 Suggested classification of constructionfeatures and defects in piles
(D Typical pile type Activity Type of problem Type of feature Classification

-u
0
-S TypeA TypeB TypeC TypeD
a
a Borcd cast-in-place Boringldrilling of pile shaft (a) Overboringin unstablewater- (a) Slumping ofconcrete into wateror
piles bearingground slurry filled cavities giving:
(i) Loss of pile section S
(ii) Possible segregation of concrete possible

(b) Poor bottom (b) Accumulation of debris and weak toe
cleaninglsiltation/material falling
into bottom from sides or top of
bore
Drivenor bored Use of temporary casing (a) Uncontrolled extraction (a) S

(i) Waisting of pile in soft clays
cast- in-p lace
(ii) S
Slumprng/waisting in water-bearing
cohcson(esssoils
(b) Concrete too low a slump or (5) Waisting/separation of concrete
concrete starting to set column as casing is withdrawn
(c) Liner tube withdrawn above upper (c) Wateror slurry entering pile possible
surface of rising concrete
Topping up pile shaft concrete after (a) Partial collapse of pile bore on top (a) (i) Debris within pile shaft (inclusions)
extraction of temporary casing of concrete surface
or (ii) Loss of pile section
(b) S
Toppingup pile after pile concrete (5) Cold joint formed at interface
has gained initial set
Bored cast-in-place Use of bentonite or other drilling muds (a) Looseningof base during bottom (a) Poortoetopile
piles cleaning
(b) Inadequate bottom cleaning (b) Contaminated concrete at toe of pile S
(c) Local collapse of pile bore due to (c) Loss of pile section .
piston effects of drilling tools
Cd) Contamination of upper surface of (d) Contaminated concrete
Ca) concrete with debrisand slurry
Ca)
Ca)
Table B.1 Suggested classification of construction features and defects in piles
Typical pile type Activity Type of problem Type of feature Classification
Type A Type B Type C Type U
Driven or bored Placing/using pile reinlbrccment cage (a) Close spacing of reinforcing bars Concrete not able to flow throogh reinforcingcage
cast-in-place towardspile wall
(h) Fragile pile cage Pile cage damaged by drag and slump forces of Ibid
concrete
(c) Lack of cover Exposed reinforcement in sides of pile
Driven or bored ('oncreting pile (a) Poor mix design or enors in (a)
cast-in-place mixing:
0) Mix too dry: low slump (i) Pile concrete not completely filling pilc: S
non-flowing or
poorly voids/honey combing
self-compacting
(ii) Mix too wet (ii) (a) High bleed S
(h) Low strength
S
(iii) Strength too low (iii) Low strengthconcretein pile
(iv) Lack of hydraulic (iv) Wash-outof cement and fines

continuity
(v) Segregation dunng free- (v) Voids/honeycombing
fall' concreting
(h) Concreting in dry' conditions: (h) Wash-out of cement and fines
Water at base of pile
(c) Tremie concreting in wet (c)
conditions:
(i) Intermixing between (i) Segregation/wash-out of cedment and tines.
water and initial hatch ut Poor concrete in shaft
concrete
(ii) Tremie pipe brought (ii) Segregation/wash-out of cement and fines.
above rising concrete Poor concrete in shaft
surface
(d) Undersupply of concrete to CF/i (d)
piles:
(i) Contamination of pile (i) Voids or inclusions within pile shall. Weak
concrete concrete
C)
(ii) Loss of pile section (ii) Necking of pile S
> Bored east-in-place Concreting pile with no surface Debris falling into pile concrete from (i) Debris within pile shaft (inclusions)
CD protection around top of hole ground surface
'0 (no temporary top liner)
0
(ii) Debris at pile toe
-s
-A.
-A.
C-)
Table B.1 Suggested classification of construction features and defects in piles

CD
-o Typical pile type Activity Typeof problem Type of feature Classification
0
-s Type A Type B Type C Type D
Bored cast-in-place Groundwater Not maintaining a positive hydraulic head Wash-out of cement paste from concrete
piles within pile concrete,with consequential
ingress of groundwater
Driven or bored Heavy plantmoving near top of freshly Lateral soil movements causing squeezing Loss of section S
cast-in-place piles concreted pile of upper pile shaft
Drivenpiles Handling of precast piles High bending forces on pile Cracking of piles S
(precast/preformed
or cast-in-place)
Pile driving close to previously installed (a) Soiluplift forces on immature cast- (a) Tension breaks within piles
piles in-place piles
(b) Soil uplift forces on precast or (b) (i) Pile lifted off toe seating S
preformed pile
(ii) Tension fractures within piles
(c) Piles being laterally displaced (c) Piles out of position
(d) Squeezing of freshly cast piles (d) Loss of or changes m cross section
Jointing of piles (precast or preformed) (a) Out of square joints on precast (a) Crackingor fractureof piles .
segmental piles - causing high
lateral soil forces during driving
(b) Defects duringjointingof steel (b) Crackingat welds under driving stresses
piles
Pile driving (precastor preformed) (a) High driving stresses (a) (i) Crackingof pile
(ii) Damage to pile
(b) Forcible corrections to misaligned (b) Crackmgof pile .

precast pile
All piles Post-pile construction processes
(a) Soil movements (a) (i) Lateral deep-seatedsoil (a) (i) Fracture of piles .
movements
Piles out of position S
(ii) Uplift due to soil heave or (ii) Piles lifted off toe seating
swelling
Tension fractures within piles .
Ca)
CA)
th
3TS
C*)
a)
Table BA Suggested classification of construction features and defects in piles
Typical pile type Activity Type of problem Type of feature Classification
Type A Type B Type 1' Type I)
All piles Post-pile construction processes
(h) Groundwater movements (h) (i) Flow of groundwater past (h) (i) Wash-out of cement and fines '
freshly concreted piles
-- S
(IL) Deep pile cut-oils below (ii) Wash-out of cement and tines
the watertable
Construction-related features (i) of construction (c) (i) S

(c) (c) Impact Damage to upper section of pile
plant
-
(ii) Near-surface soil (ii) Squeezing ofpile shaft ifconcrete is
movements due to the still fluid
movement of heavy plant

S ---
Fracture of pile shall if concrete is
hardened
-
(iii) Poor methods of breaking (iii) Damages to upper section of pile
down pites
Piles constructed to -- --
(iv) (iv) Reduced load capacity of pile
wrong length
-
(v) Poor connection into sub- (v) Apparent high settlementsof uper-
structure structure
Formation --- S -- -
(d) Material-related features (d) High thermal gradients within the (d) of shrinkage cracks
pile concrete
CIRIA
Core Programme Members
June 1997
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AMEC Plc Miller Civil Engineering Ltd
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Cover photograph: Courtesy of Testconsult

REPORT 144
This report explains the basic principles and methods of

the several techniques of pile integrity testing, in particular
the low-strain acoustic methods of echo and frequency-
response testing and cross-hole sonic logging. These
methods and their use are set out in the context of the
contractual situationsin which they are used as a
means of confirming that piles have been satisfactorily
constructed and installed. Recommendations are made:
for the integration of control testing by these methods
into the contractual framework of responsibilities and
programmes; for the reporting of the test results and
their interpretation;and for the application of test methods
to different types of pile and circumstances. There is an
overview of possible pile defects and of the many options
for testing piles, whether by direct means such as load
tests, or indirectly by different types of investigation.
ISSN: 0305 408X

ISBN: 0 86017 473 5
CIRIA 1997
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Integrity testing in piling practice

CONSTRUCTIONINDUSTRY RESEARCH AND INFORMATION

All construction professionals: AVAILABILITY Unrestricted

This reportpresentsthe results ofa research projectto CIRIA's ground

Mr F R D Chartres (Chairman) Then of PSA Specialist Service, now of

CIRIA's research manager forthe projectwas Mr F M Jardine.

The project was ftinded bs CIRIA's Core Programme arid

Figure 2.4 Westpile Ltd

CONSTRUCTION RECORDS AND DIRECT TESTING

CIRIA Report 144 7

3.4.5 Nuclear-radiation methods

LOW-STRAIN INTEGRITY TESTING: ThEORY

An introduction to wave propagation in piles

5 LOW-STRAIN INTEGRITY TESTING: PRACTICE 176

7 DYNAMIC LOAD TESTING AND HIGH-STRAIN INTEGRITY

CIRIA Report 144 9

References cited in Section 8 281

9 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS. INTERPRETATION

10 THE SPECIFICATION AND USE OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE

References cited in Section 10 Ill

Appendix A Range and types of problems in piling 328

Appendix B Suggested classification of construction features and

Figure 2.1 Typical pile construction records for continuous flight

Figure 3.10 Typical cross-hole sonic logging operation 102

Figure 3.12 Examples of possible defectsoff the shortest direct

CIRIA Report 144 11

Figure 3.18 Parallel seismic test 114

Figure 3.19 Typical parallelseismicresult 115

Figure 3.21) Principle of the earth-resistancemethod 117

Figure 3.21 Typical form of the graph of current electrode

Figure 3.22 Displacement of electrode distance/resistance

Figure 3.23 Principle of self-potential method 119

Figure 3.24 Principle of resistivity method 120

Figure 3.25 Principle of induced polarity method 120

Figure 3.26 Nuclear backscatter logging 122

Figure 3.27 Gamma-ray backscatter test in progress 123

Figure 3.28 Gamma-ray backscatter results 124

Figure 3.29 Principle of cross-hole gamma-ray logging 125

Figurc 3.30 Gamma-raytransmissionresulton test samplepile 126

Figure 4.1 Analogs of wave propagation through a pile 13!

Figure 4.3 Impact of elastic spheres with end restraint 132

Figure 4.4 Response of impact sphere 133

Figure 4.5 Effect of a smaller diameterintermediate sphere 134

Figure 4.6 Effect of larger diameterintermediate sphere 134

Figure 4.7 Impact of elastically connected spheres with

Figure 4.9 Echo tests: theoretical response of pile head 136

Figure 4.10 Frequency response test: response of pile head 138

Figure 4.11 Typical relationship between velocity of plane wave

Figure 4.12 Change in impedance within a pile 141

Figure 4.13 Lengthofpile affected by a change of impedance 142

Figure 4.14 Idealised signal-response curve for a time-based