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Transformer-feeder Protection
Introduction 16.1
Winding faults 16.2
Magnetising inrush 16.3
Transformer overheating 16.4
Transformer protection overview 16.5
Transformer overcurrent protection 16.6
Restricted earth fault protection 16.7
Differential protection 16.8
Stabilisation of differential protection
during magnetising inrush conditions 16.9
Combined differential and
restricted earth fault schemes 16.10
Earthing transformer protection 16.11
Auto-transformer protection 16.12
Overfluxing protection 16.13
Tank-earth protection 16.14
Oil and gas devices 16.15
Transformer-feeder protection 16.16
Intertripping 16.17
Condition monitoring of transformers 16.18
Examples of transformer protection 16.19
16 Transformer and
Transformer-Feeder P rotection
16.1 INTRODUCTION
The development of modern power systems has been
reflected in the advances in transformer design. This has
resulted in a wide range of transformers with sizes
ranging from a few kVA to several hundred MVA being
available for use in a wide variety of applications.
The considerations for a transformer protection package
vary with the application and importance of the
transformer. To reduce the effects of thermal stress and
electrodynamic forces, it is advisable to ensure that the
protection package used minimises the time for
disconnection in the event of a fault occurring within the
transformer. Small distribution transformers can be
protected satisfactorily, from both technical and
economic considerations, by the use of fuses or
overcurrent relays. This results in time-delayed
protection due to downstream co-ordination
requirements. However, time-delayed fault clearance is
unacceptable on larger power transformers used in
distribution, transmission and generator applications,
due to system operation/stability and cost of
repair/length of outage considerations.
Transformer faults are generally classified into six
categories:
a. winding and terminal faults
b. core faults
c. tank and transformer accessory faults
d. onload tap changer faults
e. abnormal operating conditions
f. sustained or uncleared external faults
For faults originating in the transformer itself, the
approximate proportion of faults due to each of the
causes listed above is shown in Figure 16.1.
Core
15
The winding earth fault current depends on the earthing
90
Fault current high throughout the winding, the primary fault current is
80 (IF) large for most points along the winding.
70
60
50 16.2.3 Delta-connected Winding
40
16 30
No part of a delta-connected winding operates with a
20
voltage to earth of less than 50% of the phase voltage.
10
The range of fault current magnitude is therefore less
p)
than for a star winding. The actual value of fault current
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 will still depend on the method of system earthing; it
(percentage of winding) should also be remembered that the impedance of a
delta winding is particularly high to fault currents
flowing to a centrally placed fault on one leg. The
impedance can be expected to be between 25% and
50%, based on the transformer rating, regardless of the
normal balanced through-current impedance. As the
Ip
prefault voltage to earth at this point is half the normal
phase voltage, the earth fault current may be no more
IF than the rated current, or even less than this value if the
source or system earthing impedance is appreciable. The
current will flow to the fault from each side through the
Figure 16.2 Earth fault current two half windings, and will be divided between two
in resistance-earthed star winding
a. overload
Fault current in
80 short circuited turns 8
b. system faults
60 6
c. overvoltage
Primary input d. reduced system frequency
current
40 4 16.2.8.1 Overload
Overload causes increased 'copper loss' and a consequent
20 2
temperature rise. Overloads can be carried for limited
periods and recommendations for oil-immersed
0 5 10 15 20 25
transformers are given in IEC 60354.
Turns short-circuited (percentage of winding)
The thermal time constant of naturally cooled
transformers lies between 2.5-5 hours. Shorter time
Figure 16.4 Interturn fault current/number
of turns short-circuited constants apply in the case of force-cooled transformers.
Flux
the first cycle of the fault. Avoidance of damage is a
matter of transformer design.
16.2.8.3 Overvoltages Magnetising current
are usually limited by shunting the high voltage Steady flux state
terminals to earth either with a plain rod gap or by surge Voltage
diverters, which comprise a stack of short gaps in series
with a non-linear resistor. The surge diverter, in contrast Time
the working flux. The latter effect causes an increase in Zero axis
the iron loss and a disproportionately large increase in (c) Typical inrush current
magnetising current. In addition, flux is diverted from
the laminated core into structural steel parts. The core
bolts, which normally carry little flux, may be subjected
to a large flux diverted from the highly saturated region Zero axis
of core alongside. This leads to a rapid temperature rise
in the bolts, destroying their insulation and damaging
(d) Inrush without offset, due to yoke saturation
coil insulation if the condition continues.
16.2.8.4 Reduced system frequency Figure 16.5: Transformer magnetising inrush
Id>
The gain in protection performance comes not only from In applying the principles of differential protection to
using an instantaneous relay with a low setting, but also transformers, a variety of considerations have to be
because the whole fault current is measured, not merely taken into account. These include:
the transformed component in the HV primary winding (if a. correction for possible phase shift across the
the star winding is a secondary winding). Hence, although transformer windings (phase correction)
the prospective current level decreases as fault positions
b. the effects of the variety of earthing and winding
progressively nearer the neutral end of the winding are
arrangements (filtering of zero sequence currents)
considered, the square law which controls the primary line
current is not applicable, and with a low effective setting, c. correction for possible unbalance of signals from
a large percentage of the winding can be covered. current transformers on either side of the windings
Restricted earth fault protection is often applied even (ratio correction)
when the neutral is solidly earthed. Since fault current d. the effect of magnetising inrush during initial
then remains at a high value even to the last turn of the energisation
winding (Figure 16.2), virtually complete cover for earth
faults is obtained. This is an improvement compared e. the possible occurrence of overfluxing
with the performance of systems that do not measure In traditional transformer differential schemes, the
the neutral conductor current. requirements for phase and ratio correction were met by
Earth fault protection applied to a delta-connected or
16
the application of external interposing current
unearthed star winding is inherently restricted, since no transformers (ICTs), as a secondary replica of the main
zero sequence components can be transmitted through winding connections, or by a delta connection of the
the transformer to the other windings. main CTs to provide phase correction only.
Both windings of a transformer can be protected separa- Digital/numerical relays implement ratio and phase
tely with restricted earth fault protection, thereby provi- correction in the relay software instead, thus enabling
ding high-speed protection against earth faults for the most combinations of transformer winding
whole transformer with relatively simple equipment. A arrangements to be catered for, irrespective of the
high impedance relay is used, giving fast operation and winding connections of the primary CTs. This avoids the
phase fault stability. additional space and cost requirements of hardware
interposing CTs.
16.8 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
The restricted earth fault schemes described above in
16.8.2 Line Current Transformer Primary Ratings
Section 16.7 depend entirely on the Kirchhoff principle
that the sum of the currents flowing into a conducting Line current transformers have primary ratings selected
network is zero. A differential system can be arranged to to be approximately equal to the rated currents of the
16
Transformer connection Transformer phase shift Clock face vector Phase compensation required HV Zero sequence filtering LV Zero sequence filtering
16
Differential current ( Id)
3
Id>
2
Operate (c) Three winding transformer with unloaded delta tertiary
70%
slope Figure 16.10 Differential protection arrangements
1
for three-winding transformers (shown single
30% phase for simplicity)
Setting range Restrain slope
(0.1 - 0.5Id) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Effective bias (x In)
n
(percentage of rated current)
io
Where software ratio/phase correction is not available,
ct
e
Primary operating current
ot
60
pr
either a summation transformer or auxiliary CTs can be
t
ul
fa
used. The connections are shown in Figures 16.13 and
rth
ea 16.14 respectively.
ed
40
ict
n
tio
str
l pro
ia only significant disadvantage of the Combined
20 nt
fere
Dif Differential/REF scheme is that the REF element is likely
to operate for heavy internal faults as well as the
0 differential elements, thus making subsequent fault
100 80 60 40 20 0
Percentage of winding protected analysis somewhat confusing. However, the saving in
CTs outweighs this disadvantage.
Restricted
earth
fault I
relay
Figure 16.13 Combined differential and earth fault protection using summation current transformer
16
Restricted earth
I >
fault relay
Phase correcting
auxiliary current
transformers
Figure 16.14: Combined differential and restricted earth fault protection using auxiliary CTs
A
B
C
1/0.333
Earthing
transformer
Figure 16.15: Differential protection with in-zone earthing transformer, with restricted earth fault relay
A
16 B
C
Earthing
transformer
Figure 16.16: Differential protection with in-zone earthing transformer; no earth fault relay
I >
Earthing
transformer
relay
Geomagnetic disturbances may result in overfluxing
(a) Earth fault scheme
without the V/f threshold being exceeded. Some relays
provide a 5th harmonic detection feature, which can be
A
used to detect such a condition, as levels of this
B
harmonic rise under overfluxing conditions.
C
0.8 + 0.18 x K
A Operating t= 2
time (s) (M-1)
B
1000
C
V/f
M=
Setting
It does not respond to interturn faults, a deficiency that is
serious in view of the high statistical risk quoted in Section Figure 16.20: Typical IDMT characteristic
for overfluxing protection
16.1. Such faults, unless otherwise cleared, will be left to
develop into earth faults, by which time considerably more
damage to the transformer will have occurred. 16.14 TANK-EARTH PROTECTION
16 In addition, this scheme does not respond to any fault in This is also known as Howard protection. If the
a tertiary winding. Unloaded delta-connected tertiary transformer tank is nominally insulated from earth (an
windings are often not protected; alternatively, the delta insulation resistance of 10 ohms being sufficient) earth
winding can be earthed at one point through a current fault protection can be provided by connecting a relay to
transformer that energises an instantaneous relay. This the secondary of a current transformer the primary of
system should be separate from the main winding which is connected between the tank and earth. This
protection. If the tertiary winding earthing lead is scheme is similar to the frame-earth fault busbar
connected to the main winding neutral above the neutral protection described in Chapter 15.
current transformer in an attempt to make a combined
system, there may be blind spots which the protection
cannot cover. 16.15 OIL AND GAS DEVICES
All faults below oil in an oil-immersed transformer result
in localised heating and breakdown of the oil; some degree
16.13 OVERFLUXING PROTECTION of arcing will always take place in a winding fault and the
The effects of excessive flux density are described in resulting decomposition of the oil will release gases.
Section 16.2.8. Overfluxing arises principally from the When the fault is of a very minor type, such as a hot joint,
following system conditions: gas is released slowly, but a major fault involving severe
IS IF
Figure 16.22: Typical transformer-feeder circuits.
100%
IF
The saving in switchgear so achieved is offset by
where: IS = setting current
increased complication in the necessary protection. The
primary requirement is intertripping, since the feeder IF = steady - state r.m.s. value of fault current
protection remote from the transformer will not respond which when fully offset just operates the
to the low current fault conditions that can be detected relay
by restricted earth fault and Buchholz protections. The instantaneous overcurrent relays must be set
Either unrestricted or restricted protection can be without risk of them operating for faults on the remote
applied; moreover, the transformer-feeder can be side of the transformer.
~
I>>
IF1 IF2
IS
Setting ratio r =
IF2
Transient
over-reach (%) 5 25 50 100
Relay A I >
16
B
+
A B Trip
circuit
B
D D
Transformer and Transformer-Feeder P rotection
E E
16
Pilots
Relay electromagnets
(bias inherent)
Figure 16.25: Methods of protection for transformer-feeders using electromechanical static technology
MiCOM P630 series relay provides advanced software to star connected main CTs and Yy0 connected ICTs
simplify the calculations, so an earlier AREVA type KBCH provides a path for the zero sequence current to reach
relay is used to illustrate the complexity of the required the protection relay. On the primary side of the
calculations. transformer, the delta connected main primary winding
causes zero-sequence current to circulate round the
delta and hence will not be seen by the primary side
16.19.1 Provision of Zero-Sequence Filtering main CTs. The protection relay will therefore not see any
zero-sequence current on the primary side, and hence
Figure 16.27 shows a delta-star transformer to be
detects the secondary side zero sequence current
protected using a unit protection scheme. With a main
incorrectly as an in-zone fault.
winding connection of Dyn11, suitable choices of primary
and secondary CT winding arrangements, and software The solution is to provide the ICTs on the secondary side
phase compensation are to be made. With the KBCH of the transformer with a delta winding, so that the
relay, phase compensation is selected by the user in the zero-sequence current circulates round the delta and is
form of software-implemented ICTs. not seen by the relay. Therefore, a rule can be developed
that a transformer winding with a connection to earth
must have a delta-connected main or ICT for unit
Primary CT's Dyn 11 Secondary CT's
protection to operate correctly.
Selection of Yy0 connection for the primary side ICTs
and Yd1 (30o) for the secondary side ICTs provides the
10MVA
33/11kV
Primary CT's Z=10% Secondary CT's
Yy0, 250/1 Dyn11 Yy0, 600/1
Id >
16
Primary ICT's Unit protection relay Secondary ICT's FLC = 175A FLC = 525A
With the Dyn11 connection, the secondary voltages and R=1000 A Rstab
currents are displaced by +30 from the primary.
Therefore, the combination of primary, secondary and
phase correction must provide a phase shift of 30 of
the secondary quantities relative to the primary. Id>
For simplicity, the CTs on the primary and secondary Primary ICT's Unit Protection Secondary ICT's
windings of the transformer are connected in star. The Yy0 Relay Yd1
required phase shift can be achieved either by use of ICT Figure 16.28: Transformer unit
connections on the primary side having a phase shift of protection example
70 0.1
600
500 60
Overall operationtime - milliseconds
16
Differential current (A)
400 50
Operate 0.2
300 40
K Factor
0.3
200
Restrain 30 Overall op time
0.4
100 Unstable
20 0.5
0 Stable 0.6
K Factor
0 200 400 600 800 10 0.7
Effective bias (A) differential current 0.8
0.9
0 1
Figure 16.29: Transformer unit 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10
protection characteristic VK VS
16.9.2.3 Restricted earth fault protection Figure 16.30: REF operating characteristic
for KBCH relay
The KBCH relay implements high-impedance Restricted
Earth Fault (REF) protection. Operation is required for a
where: = 0.875
VF = If (Rct + 2Rl + Rstab ) Ratio compensation = 1/0.875
and = 1.14
If = fault current in secondary of CT circuit Both of the above values can be set in the relay.
Hence, the secondary current with ratio correction: Iopt1 = 0.2 + (0.2 x 0.952)
166.6 1.36 = 0.3904A
=
250 At the 15% tap,
= 0.906A Iop = IS + 0.2 +(Ibias - 1) x 0.8
At the -15% tap, the HV full-load current on the primary (since the bias >1.0)
of the CTs:
Iopt2 = 0.2 + 0.2 +(1.059 - 1) x 0.8
10
=
I bias =
( I RHV + I RLV )
2
16
where:
IRHV = relay HV current
IRLV = relay LV current
Hence,
I biast1 =
(0.998 + 0.906 )
2
= 0.952A
and
I biast 2 =
(0.998 + 1.12 )
2
= 1.059A