Clonan, S. M., McDougal, J. L., Clark, K., & Davison, S. (2007).

Use of office discipline

referrals in school-wide decision making: A practical example. Psychology In The

Schools, 44(1), 19-27.

Research has indicated that problem-solving approaches using multi-tiered interventions have

risen in popularity in recent years. Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is a

multi-tiered approach that has been developed to help schools promote positive student

behavior through a systematic approach to creating and evaluating school-wide behavioral

interventions. This article focuses on how data such as office discipline referrals (ODRs) can be

used to inform the decisions of school problem-solving teams. An overview of the PBIS model is

outlined, and specific recommendations for school psychologists regarding the collection and

use of ODRs for intervention design and evaluation are made. Preliminary data from a case-

study are examined, highlighting the use of a data-based decision-making model for facilitating

positive behavior.

Hoffman, S. (2014). Zero benefit: Estimating the effect of zero tolerance discipline polices on

racial disparities in school discipline. Educational Policy, 28(1), 69-95.

This study estimates the effect of zero tolerance disciplinary policies on racial disproportionality

in school discipline in a high achieving, diverse urban school district. The sudden expansion

of zero tolerance discipline policies in a mid-sized urban school district served as a natural

experiment. The study shows that black students in the district were disparately affected by the

change in policy, with an additional 70 Black students per year recommended for expulsion

following the change. The study uses statistical analysis to explore the effect of expanding zero

tolerance on the ratio of the days students are suspended. Following the policy change, the
already sizeable difference in days suspended between Black students and White students

increased.

Mayworm, A. M., & Sharkey, J. D. (2014). Ethical considerations in a three-tiered approach to

school discipline policy and practice. Psychology In The Schools, 51(7), 693-704.

Research has demonstrated that discipline policies and practices in schools have a significant

influence in schools at both the individual and system levels. The purpose of this article is to

discuss how ethical standards of the field of school psychology inform school decisions

about discipline in a three-tiered approach. Several approaches to discipline, such as zero-

tolerance and the multi-tiered approach, as well as empirical research evaluating the

effectiveness of these approaches and the role of school psychologists in school

discipline decision making, are examined. The article states that an integration of theory,

empirical research, and ethical standards points to the importance of creating comprehensive

and individualized school discipline policies that apply ethically sound practices at all three tiers

of intervention. Implications of this approach for practicing school psychologists are discussed.

Porter, T. R. (2015). The school-to-prison pipeline: The business side of incarcerating, not

educating, students in public schools. Arkansas Law Review, 68(1), 55-81.

An essay is presented on the definition, effects and factors related to an increase in school-to-

prison pipeline practices used against African American and Latino students. Zero tolerance

discipline policy is one factor that is discussed. The article explains that capitalistic principles of

profit maximization have led to an increase in the incarceration of students of color who were
expelled or suspended by school administrators. This highlights an unacceptable systemic

societal issue and a dramatic disservice to minority students.

Skiba, R., Ormiston, H., Martinez, S., & Cummings, J. (2016). Teaching the social curriculum:

Classroom management as behavioral instruction. Theory Into Practice, 55(2), 120-128.

Positive classroom management and climate building strategies have been identified as key

aspects for developing and maintaining effective learning environments. In this article,

literature that has identified effective strategies for building classroom climates that maximize

learning and minimize disruption is reviewed. These strategies may be capable of influencing a

shift from reactive and punitive discipline approaches toward an emphasis on instructional and

preventive approaches. Some strategies include setting clear expectations, implementing

appropriate curriculum to increase student engagement, practicing positive acknowledgment,

and building student-teacher relationships. Research that has begun to identify features of

culturally responsive classroom management that can engage and build relationships in diverse

student populations is discussed.

Skiba, R. J., Michael, R. S., Nardo, A. C., & Peterson, R. L. (2002). The color of discipline:

Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment. Urban

Review, 34(4), 317.

This article offers hypotheses as to why there is disproportionality among students who receive

discipline referrals, suspensions, and expulsions. Using one year of middle-school disciplinary

data of an urban school district, three of the most commonly offered hypotheses of factors

affecting disproportionate discipline- gender, race, and socioeconomic status- were analyzed. It
was found that disparities based on race and gender were somewhat more salient than

socioeconomic differences. Even after controlling for socioeconomic status,

both racial and gender differences remained. Although evidence emerged that supports the

idea that boys engage more frequently in disruptive behavior, there were no similar findings for

race. Instead, there appeared to be a differential pattern of treatment in which African-

American students were referred to the office for infractions that were more subjective in

interpretation. This differential treatment originated at the classroom level. Implications for

teacher training and systemic structural reform are explored.

Teske, S. C., Huff, B., & Graves, C. (2013). Collaborative role of courts in promoting

outcomes for students: The relationship between arrests, graduation rates, and school

safety. Family Court Review, 51(3), 418-426.

Research has shown that schools throughout the United States have adopted zero-

tolerance discipline strategies, resulting in a significant increase in suspensions and expulsions.

The problem has been amplified by increasing the police presence on school campuses, leading

to the use of arrests and referrals to juvenile court as disciplinary tools. This article discusses

the origins of zero tolerance and its negative effects on school safety and graduation rates.

Three jurisdictions and their application of a collaborative model using judicial leadership are

examined. This application of a collaborative model resulted in written protocols to

reduce school arrests and suspensions and the development of alternative approaches that

have produced better outcomes for students, the school, and the community.
Vincent, C. G., Sprague, J. R., & Tobin, T. J. (2012). Exclusionary discipline practices across

students' racial/ethnic backgrounds and disability status: Findings from the Pacific

Northwest. Education & Treatment Of Children, 35(4), 585-601.

2009-2010 data on exclusionary discipline practices from one state in the Pacific Northwest

were examined across students racial/ethnic backgrounds and disability status. The study

focused on proportionate representation in exclusionary discipline actions and in the duration

of those disciplinary actions. The results indicated that among students

with disability, American Indian and Alaskan Native students were over-represented in removal

from general to alternative education. Among students without a disability,

Hispanic students were over-represented in all exclusionary discipline practices. African-

American students with and without disability lost approximately twice as many days as White

students to exclusionary discipline. Chi-Square tests demonstrated that minority students were

statistically significantly over-represented in most exclusionary practices. ANOVA results

indicated that both disability status and race significantly impacted the length of exclusionary

discipline.

Whitford, D. (2017). School discipline disproportionality: American Indian students in special

education. Urban Review, 49(5), 693-706.

Research has shown that American Indian students are disproportionately represented in

school discipline referrals (ODRs) and administrative outcomes across general school

populations. The purpose of this study was to examine the ODRs and administrative outcomes

of 1612 students in special education, with particular attention to American Indian students

(29.2% of the sample). Results indicated that although American Indian students are
proportionally referred to school administration for disciplinary action, those in

special education were more likely to be given an out-of-school suspension and/or expulsion

for the same behaviors than both White and Hispanic/Latino students in special education.

Implications for improved practice are discussed.

Summary

Discipline is a significant aspect of public schooling in the United States. Effective

discipline practices are necessary for several reasons, including maintaining classroom order,

promoting student learning, and ensuring the safety of students and teachers. Unfortunately,

discipline is a controversial topic in education. I collected literature discussing the effects and

appropriateness of multiple approaches to discipline, including deterrence policies designed to

prevent problematic behavior through punishment such as zero tolerance, and rehabilitative,

multi-tiered approaches such as Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS).

There has been much debate over the merits of using zero tolerance policies in schools.

Zero tolerance has been shown to disproportionality impact disabled students, males, and

minority students in both general and special education (Hoffman, 2014; Skiba, Michael, Nardo,

& Peterson, 2002; Vincent, Sprague, & Tobin, 2012; Whitford, 2017). Hoffman (2014) found

that one urban school districts abrupt switch to zero tolerance resulted in a marked upswing in

suspensions and expulsions among African-American students, and an already disparate rate of

school missed due to suspension increased between black and white students. Zero tolerance

can result in differentially worse treatment of minority students compared to their Caucasian

peers. For instance, Skiba et al. (2002) found that African-American students were referred for

discipline more often than white students for subjective offenses. Furthermore, research has
indicated that zero tolerance often results in negative outcomes for students such as decreased

graduation rates (Teske, Huff, & Graves, 2013), more discipline referrals, longer suspensions

(Vincent, Sprague, & Tobin, 2012; Hoffman, 2014), higher rates of expulsion (Hoffman, 2014),

and even higher rates of incarceration (Porter, 2015). Teske et al. (2013) discuss how an

increased police presence in schools has led to the use of arrests and referrals to juvenile court

as disciplinary tools, and Porter (2015) explains that capitalistic principles of profit maximization

have led to an increase in the incarceration of students of color who were expelled or

suspended by school administrators. To a large extent, research has demonstrated the systemic

failings of zero tolerance.

Approaches that aim to educate students and promote positive behaviors seem

preferable to zero tolerance. In theory, these methods of discipline that emphasize growth over

deterrence allow students to learn correct behaviors instead of simply learning what not to do;

the ultimate goal of promoting responsible citizens cannot be realized if students do not have

the skills to do what is right (Mayworm & Sharkey, 2014). Approaches to discipline that do not

use zero tolerance may be effective in not just limiting disruptive or dangerous behavior, but

also in promoting classroom environments conducive to learning as well as the development of

responsible students capable of monitoring their own behavior. Positive classroom

management and strategies for building positive educational environments, such as setting

clear expectations, implementing appropriate curriculum to increase student engagement,

practicing positive acknowledgment, and building student-teacher relationships, have been

shown to maximize learning and minimize disruption (Skiba, Ormiston, Martinez, & Cummings,

2016). Multi-tiered, contextual approaches such as PBIS are designed to teach self-discipline to

the general education population, implement more intensive secondary prevention to students
who still show concerning behavior, and apply intensive interventions for students with more

serious emotional and behavioral challenges who repeatedly violate school rules (Clonan,

McDougal, Clark, & Davison, 2007; Mayworm & Sharkey, 2014). These alternatives may be

capable of reducing distractions and problem behaviors in the classroom, reducing

disproportionate impact of discipline on minority and disabled students, promoting more

positive outcomes for students, and incorporating ethical practice in discipline. The manner in

which discipline is enacted in schools is an important topic that has important implications for

school psychology as a profession.