REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Environmental impact of pesticides:

George Tyler Miller (2004) stated that the impact of pesticides consist of the effects of
pesticides on non-target species. Pesticides are chemical preparations used to kill fungal or
animal pests. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination
other than their target species, because they are sprayed or spread across entire agricultural
fields.

Ashkent(1998), Retrieved on September 17, 2007 reported that runoff can carry
pesticides into aquatic environments while wind can carry them to other fields, grazing areas,
human settlements and undeveloped areas, potentially affecting other species. Other problems
emerge from poor production, transport and storage practices.

Damalas,C.A.;Eleftherohorinos, I. G. (2011) commended that over time, repeated

application increases pest resistance, while its effects on other species can facilitate the pest's
resurgence.

Lamberth, C. et.al., (2013) observed that each pesticide or pesticide class comes with
a specific set of environmental concerns. Such undesirable effects have led many pesticides
to be banned, while regulations have limited and/or reduced the use of others. Over time,
pesticides have generally become less persistent and more species-specific, reducing their
environmental footprint. In addition the amounts of pesticides applied per hectare have
declined, in some cases by 99%. However, the global spread of pesticide use, including the
use of older/obsolete pesticides that have been banned in some jurisdictions, has increased
overall.

Ram NS. (2014) stated that synthetic pesticides are important group of aquatic
pollutants affecting health of fish.

Veeraiah K.et.al.,(2013) observed that physiological and biochemical alterations in an

animal under any physiological stress can be correlated with the structural and functional
changes of cellular proteins.

Ganeshwade RM (2012) commended that wide use of pesticides in agriculture to

control the pests has indirectly created problem of pollution to aquatic environment.
 Anita ST.et.al., (2012) reported that due to increased public awareness of the potential
of persistent pesticides that cause harm to environment and public health, great stress is being
laid for developing least persistent and selective pesticides. Problem of agricultural pest
control has been dealt by formulating new and more potential pesticides.

Srivastav AK.et.al., (2012) stated that pesticides cause physiological and biochemical
changes in fish species and influence their activities. Gill is a multifunctional and complex
organ with which fish make intimate contact with the surrounding water.

Shiva Kumar et al.,(2004) reported that many studies have reported erratic swimming,
equilibrium loss and surfacing phenomenon in fish followed by pesticide exposure.

Trivedy, (2001) observed that modern agriculture is mainly responsible for polluting
soil through the nonjudicious use of chemical fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides and
fumigants.Pesticides particularly aromatic organic compounds are not degraded and they
have long persistance time and exert cumulative effect.

Naqvi and Vaishnavi, (1993) commented that a large number of pesticides are
commonly used to control various agricultural pests; however, their toxicological impact also
extends to nontarget species like fish.

Mishra and Shukla, (2003) revealed that fish is good indicator of aquatic
contamination because its biochemical stress responses are quite similar to those found in
mammals.

Garutti and Bristski, (2000) stated that the study of fish liver is very important in the
field of aquaculture induced by many problematic condition and aquatic pollution.

Ramah.K.,(2011) commented that to rescue the living world from the harmful effects
of these chemical substances as well as to find some alternative ways to control the pests, it is
very necessary to carry out works on diversity of organisms by applying varying
concentration of pesticides.

Bhadbhade of al., (2002) stated that the pesticides becomes inevitable despite
their known hazardous effects.
 Prakasam, A.S.Sethupathy and S.Lalitha (2001) stated that pesticides have been used
in agriculture for decades to enhance food production by eradicating out diseases caused by
insects and vectors.

Sancho.E.,Ferhandez_vega,C., Fernando,M.D and Andreu-Moliner.E (2003)

reported that fishes are able to up take and retain different xenobiotics dissolved in water via
active or passive processes. They can be used to detect and monitor pollutants released into
their aquatic environments. Sub-lethal concentrations of pesticides in aquatic environments
cause structural and functional changes in the body of affected fish.

Walker C.H.and Living stone D.R (1992) revealed that the organic pollutants
are fat soluble and are therefore readily taken up from the water, sediment and food sources
into the tissues of aquatic organisms.

Herger et al (1995) reported that the pesticides on reacting the aquatic ecosystems
greatly influences the non-target organisms, especially fish.

Freednar (1995) commended that organophosphates are more frequently used

pesticide among the different classes because of their high insecticidal property, low
mammalian toxicity, less persistence and rapid biodegradability in the environment.

Wijeyaratne and Pathiratne (2006) commended that histopathological

biomarkers in the gills may be valuable as indicators of the general health of the fish and
mirror effects of exposure to a variety of anthropogenic pollutants.

Adverse effects of pesticides:

Sangeetha S.et.al., (2011) commended that Toxicants produce physiological and

biochemical changes in freshwater organisms..

Ola-Davies OE.et.al., (2015) reported that Chlorpyrifos and Cypermethrin could be

Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals and suppress reproductive activities and could have direct
effects on gonads and gametes quality.

Chandrasekera, (2005) observed that with repeated inputs of anticholinesterase

chemicals to the aquatic environments, fish may be exposed to acutely lethal to sublethal
concentrations. The degradation of the chemical would allow the affected fish to recover
from the poisoning.
 AfsarS, Magar RS. (2013) commended that Malathion affected detoxifying organ
kidney of Channa punctatus and caused shrinkage of glomeruli, degeneration of renal tubules
and collecting tubule.

Kalivaradan and Ramudu (2005) reported by More damage to liver at higher

sublethal exposure than at lower sublethal levels, was in oreochromismossambicus exposed
to chlorpyrifos for 7 days.

Reddy PB, Rawat SS. (2013) observed histopathological evaluation is an important

part of the assessment of the adverse effects of xenobiotics on the whole organism.

Negin S, Mehdi Z. (2012) commended that exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of

environmental chemicals may lead to the histological structure alterations which can
significantly alter the function of tissues and organs. Histological and ultrastructural changes
in cells, tissues or organs can afford good biomarkers of pollutant stress.

Pathan TS.et.al.,(2010) revealed that histopathological studies are conducted to

establish fundamental relationships of contaminant exposure and its biological responses.

Ayoola SO, Ajani EK. (2008) observed that fusions of lamellae, diffused hyperplasia
are due to changes in pavement cells of gill. Inflammatory cell infiltration with congestion is
an adaptive response to the pesticide contaminant. The multifocal mucous cells hyperplasia is
a protective mechanism of mucous cells reducing pesticide exposure of the gill.
Clariusgariepinusexposed to cypermethrin were observed with cellular infiltration and
congestion.

Prashanth MS. (2011) reported that histological damage caused to the fish
Cirrhinusmrigalaexposed to lethal (5.13 g/l) and sublethal (1.026 g/l) concentration of
Pyrethroid derivative cypermethrin had induced marked abnormalities in the kidney initiated
with disruption of tubular organization..

Sharma RK, Bhat RA. (2014) commended that the most important significance of
follicular atresia during the normal course of reproduction is to limit the number of eggs that
could be supported for vitellogenesis, maturation and ovulation of the female fish.

Roberts (2001) reported that lamellar edema is most frequent following the exposure
to chemical pollutants such as heavy metals, red tides and certain pesticides (Roberts, 2001a).
Increased mucus secretion renders a defense mechanism to the stress by the pesticide but the
same fails when it is exposed for a prolonged time.

Tilaketal. (2005) observed the similar changes in liver of Catla cat/a. The
pathological changes included degeneration of cytoplasm in hepatocytes, atrophy, formation
of vacuoles, and rupture in blood vessels, necrosis and disappearance of hepatocyte cell
membrane disposition. Hepatic cords are found to be decreased in size and nucleus became
pyknotic.

Lease, H.M., Hansen, J.A., Bergman. H.L., Meyer J.S.,(2003) reported that gills are
among the most sensitive organ, which reacts first in changed environment Since respiration,
osmoregulation and excretion are performed through the gills.

De Silva and Samayawardhena (2002), Rao et al, (2003) observed that the most
common form of gill pathology in juvenile guppies (poe cite reticulate) and
(oreochromismossambicus) treated with chlorpyrifos were short and irregular appearance of
gill lamellae, increase vacuolation of gill lamellae, increase vacuolation of gill tissue, mucous
mould of secondary lamellae and complete destruction of many lamellae. The pathological
effects on the gills of freshwater fish showed necrosis, abnormalities to gill lamellae,
extensive fusions of secondary lamellae and a thick coat of mucus of the gill filaments upon
the exposure to chlorpyrifos.

Jiraungkoorgkul et al., (2003), Guirmaraes etak. (2007), kurjamma et al.,

(2008) and Mataqueiro et al., (2009) observed that hyperemia of the gill filaments, edema,
separation of primary gill lamellae, haemorrhage in the blood vessels, clubbing fusion of
adjacent filaments and hyperplasia in secondary gill lamellae in freshwater fish exposed to
chlorpyrifos.

Banerjee and Bhattacharya (1994) and Miller (2002) reported that kidney
plays the vital role in the maintenance of an organisms internal environment, being the key
to the regulation of extracellular fluid volume and composition as well as acid-base balance.
It is also a target of texic chemicals, which can disrupt its functions and cause temporary or
permanent derangement of homeostasis. Several authors recorded histopathological changes
in the kidney of freshwater fish. Puntius conchonius andchanna punctatus exposed to
organophosphate insecticides diazinon, monocrotophos, dimethoate and elsanrespectively.
 Mataqueiro et al, (2009) and scheil et al., (2009) commended that the most
histopathological changes in the kidneys of freshwater catfish (Heteropneutesfossilis)
Zebrafish (Danio rerio) exposed to organophosphate insecticide chlorpyrifos were shruken
glomeruli, dilated lumina of the renal tubules and vacuolated blood cells in the glomerular
tuft declared strong reaction or even destruction, vacuolization, disintegration of epithelia
resulting from necrosis and caryolysis in the kidney.

Barbhuiya and Dey (2014) stated that chronic exposure causes significant
histopathological changes in liver.

Alagoa KJ, Ekweozor, IKE (2009) reported that the exposure of aquatic
organisms to various stressors and pollutants including very low levels or sublethal
concentration of pesticides in their environment generally cause rapid changes in various
haematological characteristics of fish.

Li ZH, Velisek J, Zlabek V, Grabic R, Machova J, Kolarova J, Randak T

(2010) stated that Haematological parameters are important for toxicological research and
have been widely used in environmental monitoring and as indicators of disease and
environmental stress.

Velisek et al., (2009) reported that the assessment of the eco toxicological risks
caused by pesticides to ecosystems is based on data on the toxicity and effects of pesticide
preparations to non-target organisms. Fish are among the group of non-target aquatic
organisms.

Ogunfowokan et al., (2012) stated that in addition to broad applications of

synthetic pesticides for control of disease vectors like tsetse fishes and mosquitoes, farmers in
Nigeria have been using them for control of weeds, weevils of cotton, beans and cereals
borers of plant stalks and yams.

Wikipedia, (2016 (a) ) reported that environmental health concerns are

exposure during pregnancy, transport across the placenta, gestational weight, gain and new
born head circumference cardiovascular disease and cancer, obesity and diabetes.

Features of Emamectin benzoate:

Yen, T. H.; Lin, J. L. (2004) commended the Emamectin is widely used in controlling
lepidopterous pests (order of insects that as larvae are caterpillars and as adults have four
broad wings including butterflies, moths, and skippers) in agricultural products in the US,
Japan, Canada, and recently Taiwan. The low-application rate of the active ingredient needed
(~6 g/acre) and broad-spectrum applicability as an insecticide has gained emamectin
significant popularity among farmers.

Takai, K. et.al. K. (2001) reported the emamectin has been shown to possess a greater
ability to reduce the colonization success of engraver beetles and associated wood borers in
loblolly pines (Pinustaeda L).6 A 2006 study regarding bolt-injections of four types of
pesticides found emamectin to be the greatest reducer against these species with respect to the
amount of larval feeding, length, and number of egg galleries.6 Formation of long vertical
lesions in the phloem and xylem surrounding emamectin injection points were found
indicating some level of tree-toxicity to the emamectin.

Ikeda, H.; mura, S. (1997) observed the emamectin has also been successfully
employed by fish farmers in the control of sea lice in Atlantic salmon. The United Kingdom,
Chile, Ireland, Iceland, Finland, the Faroe Islands, Spain, and Norway are currently registered
to use emamectin in their fish feed.

Rodrguez, E. M.; et.al.,(2007) stated that emamectin works as a chloride channel

activator by binding gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) receptor and glutamate-gated
chloride channels disrupting nerve signals within arthropods.The compound stimulates the
release of GABA from the synapses between nerve cells and while additionally increasing
GABAs affinity for its receptor on the post-junction membrane of muscle cells in insects and
arthropods. The stronger binding of GABA increases the cells permeability to chloride ions
within the cell due to the hypotonic concentration gradient. Neurotransmission is thereby
reduced by subsequent hyperpolarisation and the elimination of signal transduction.

About Oreochromis mussambicus:

"Biology and ecology of Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus)"

Retrieved 24 October 2013) observed that Mozambique tilapias generally live
in rivers and lagoons, they can also colonize fast-flowing areas of water such as creeks
and streams. Due to their robust nature, Mozambique tilapias often over-colonize the habitat
around them, eventually becoming the most abundant species in a particular area. When over-
crowding happens and resources get scarce, adults will sometimes cannibalize the young for
more nutrients. Mozambique tilapia, like other fish such as Nile tilapia and trout, are
opportunistic omnivores and will feed on algae, plant matter, organic particles, small
invertebrates and other fish.

Mashifane, TB; Moyo, NAG (2014) observed that mozambique tilapia are resistant to
wide varieties of water quality issues and pollution levels. Because of these abilities they
have been used as bioassay organisms to generate metal toxicity data for risk assessments of
local freshwater species.