Engineering Structures, Vol. 20, Nos 4 6, pp.

336-346, 1998
1997 Elsevier Science Ltd
All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain
PIh S0141-0296(97)00022-9 014141296/98 $19.00 + 0.00
ELSEVIER

Recent developments in hybrid

structures in Japan research,
design and construction
S. Morino
Department of Architecture, Mie University, Tsu 514, Japan

A variety of uses for combined reinforced concrete and steel have

recently been applied in actual construction, which are called
hybrid structures. The appearance of the hybrid construction is the
result of pursuing the economical, high-efficiency of the construc-
tion. This paper first introduces the present situation of design, con-
struction and research on hybrid structures, and details of several
selected hybrid structural systems are discussed: SRC structures,
CFT column systems, RC column S beam system and hybrid wall
system. The US-Japan Cooperative Earthquake Research Program
on Composite and Hybrid Structures is briefly explained, and
finally, research needs are shown.

Keywords: steel r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e , c o n c r e t e - f i l l e d t u b e , RC c o l -
u m n S beam system, hybrid wall

1. Introduction Details of the present design and construction of the three

Concrete-encased steel construction is called steel-
reinforced concrete (SRC) construction in Japan and is
often applied for mid- to highrise buildings, in which all
beams and columns are usually made of SRC. Recently,
different types of combined reinforced concrete (RC) and
steel (S) structural systems are encountered, which are
called hybrid structures. A wide variety of hybrid construc-
tion is found in actual buildings, from simple composite
members to a system in which a reinforced concrete core is
combined with steel frames. In order to clarify the present
situation of the design and construction of hybrid structures,
an investigation was carried out in 1989 using question-
naires sent to general contractors, engineering offices, fabri-
cators and steel manufacturers ~. Questions concerning the
following were asked: application of the system, number
of constructions, total floor area, number of floors, typical
span, characteristics and expected merits, and design con-
siderations. Questionnaires were again distributed in 1990
to clarify the details of the structural design and construc-
tion of three popular hybrid structures: concrete-filled tubu-
lar (CFT) column system, structural wall with encased steel
brace or plate, and combination of RC column with S
beam 2.
In this report, we first introduce the classification of
hybrid structures with examples, the present situation of
design and construction, design standards, and research on
hybrid structures, based on the results of literature surveys
and the questionnaire distributed to structural engineers.
popular hybrid structural systems are discussed, in addition
to the SRC structural system. The US-Japan Cooperative
Earthquake Research Program on Composite and Hybrid
Structures is briefly explained and, finally, research needs
are shown.
2. Present status of hybrid structures
2.1. Design and construction
According to a 1989 investigation ~, hybrid constructions
are classified into five groups: ( l ) h y b r i d members;
(2) hybrid assemblages; (3)hybrid systems; (4) half-pre-
cast (PCa) constructions; and (5)other constructions, in
which the ordinary SRC structure is not included. A rela-
tively large number of applications of the following items
in each category were reported: (1) CFT column and con-
crete-encased steel tubular column with or without filled-
concrete; (2) combination of SRC column with RC or SC
beam, where SC means steel encased by concrete without
main reinforcements other than thin longitudinal bars sup-
porting stirrups, and a combination of RC column with S
or SRC beam; (3)combination of SRC or RC core with
steel perimeter frame; (4) half-precast slab; and (5) special
use of structural cables and strands for prestressed concrete
structure. Details of the application of hybrid structures
were reported in Ref. [3] and Figure 1 shows an example
of half-precast construction.
Structural engineers expect to obtain the following merits

336
Recent developments in hybrid structures in Japan: S. Merino 337

Figure 1 Half-precast construction

by employing the hybrid structural systems: the increase of 1--] Total papers
stiffness, strength, ductility and fire resistance capacity; the 193 (44)
199
reduction of amount of steel; the compact cross-section of 1 Paperson CFT structures
highrise and long-span framing systems; and the reduction (Number of papers in parentheses) 127(~ ~
122 (29)1 ILj
of construction cost and rime. It was noted that the motiv-
ation behind employing the hybrid system was to make up
Number of Papers (2)~ ~ [,JIq
for mutual deficiencies of RC and S systems. Design con- 50 I- 42 ~ n f l l l
siderations were mainly given to the evaluation of stiffness,
strength, ductility, and structural characteristic coefficient 40 (~1)
Ds; modeling of restoring-force characteristics for dynamic
analysis; confirmation of smooth stress transfer; and prob- 30 17
lems associated with the construction at the site, such as
concrete compactness in 1:he steel tube. Many of these were 20 8 to t i l e
solved experimentally. 10 7 7 ~ ~ (7)(8X3)7 4 6
It seems that the design and the construction technique
have attained a sufficient level of application for the actual
building in the case of the CFT column system, the framing 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92
system with RC columns and S beams, the structural wall Year
with encased steel brace or plate, the frame system combin- Figure2 Number of papers on hybrid constructions
ing SRC or RC cores with a S frame, and half-precast mem-
bers, among which the former three systems were also
investigated using questionnaires in 19902 . The results are II Hybrid members I [ Hybrid assemblages
discussed below.
~ ] Hybrid systems [EEl Half-PCa
2.2. Structural design standards Constructions
Structural standards often used in the design of hybrid Year
structures are the standards for SRC structures 4 and rec-
ommendations for compesite constructions 5, both published
by Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ), and the structural
requirements published by the Building Center of Japan
(BCJ) 6. It is often the c~.se that new systems are designed
using formulas derived from experimental and analytical
investigations. The present edition of SRC standards of E! 1
AIJ ~ does not take into account the confining effect of a
steel tube on concrete strength in the CFT column. The
confining effects on concrete strength were taken into
account in the evaluation in the CFT report 7, which was an
experimental investigatie,n performed jointly by a number
of construction companies and steel manufacturers.
81
2.3. Recent research trends
8,
Figure 2 shows the number of papers on hybrid construc-
tion reported at the Annual Meetings of AIJ. A significant 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
increase in the number of papers occurred twice, in 1987 %
and 1990. About half the; papers presented each year were
on CFT structures until 1989, but decreased greatly after Figure3 Percentage of papers in each group of hybrid con-
1990. The percentages of papers reported in the last 7 years structions
for each group of hybrid construction are shown in Figure
3. Up to 1989, most papers mainly concerned the groups of investigated during the period from 1987 to 1993. About
hybrid members and hybrid assemblages, with the former 66% of the papers were on CFT columns in the group of
showing a gradual decrease. However, the graph for 1993 hybrid members, and 64% on the combination of RC col-
shows that the subjects of investigation are scattered rather umns with S or SRC beams in the group of hybrid assem-
evenly amongst the hyb~fd construction groups. Figure 4 blages.
indicates the kinds of hybrid structures that have been The objectives of research are classified into four categ-
338 Recent developments in hybrid structures in Japan: S. Merino

aicvr
D Concrete-encased-and-filled
steel tubular columns
~7~ Concrete-encased steel
beams (SC)
I ~ Prestressed concrete (PC)
beams with encased steel
1 RC structural walls with
encased-steel brace or plate
7-1993 [ ] Others

(a) Hybrid members

3/168
1
I
Combination of SRC
columns with RC or SC
beams
~] Combination of RC
columns with S or SRC
beams
~~108/168 ) ~ ] Combination of hybrid
members with conventional
or hybrid members
[~ Others
87-1993
(b) Hybrid assemblages
Figure 4 Percentage of papers in the groups of hybrid members and hybrid assemblages

1 Structural ~ ] Construction method 1990 and 1993 are shown in Figure 6. A large percentage
performance and management
of the improvements was concerned with the structural per-
~"~ Oumbili~ and ~ Structural formance, but that concerning construction methods and
fire resistance t=zaplanning
Year management has recently increased, which may be con-
sidered to be the result of countermeasures against the
shortage of manpower and skilled workers. The improve-
ments of strength and ductility in the structural performance
were the main concerns of the engineers. The hysteresis
92
loop and stress transfer were also considered important. For
the construction methods and management, it was aimed to
simplify the form work for concrete casting, make precast
members, increase construction efficiency, save manpower,
90 achieve low-cost construction and simplify the arrangement
of reinforcing bars. The development of long-span, light-
weight and highrise framing systems and a free choice of
89
structural systems were the main concerns in structural
planning.
88

87 3. Steel-reinforced concrete (SRC) structures

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 3.1. Design and construction

% Composite structures composed of steel members encased
Figure5 Percentage of papers in each research objective
group
ories based on the kind of improvement that could be achi-
eved by employing the hybrid system: structural perform-
ance, construction methods and management, durability and
fire resistance, and structural planning. Figure 5 shows the
percentage of papers classified according to the objectives,
and the items of improvement in the papers published in
in reinforced concrete are called steel-reinforced concrete
(SRC) structures, and they have become one of the most
popular structural systems in Japan. They originated in Eur-
ope and came to Japan in the 1910s. The good seismic
performance of the SRC structures was recognized after the
Great Kanto earthquake in 1923 and, since then, most of
the building structures of 6-9-stories have been constructed
with SRC systems. Figure 7 shows the change in the cross-
section of SRC columns and beams. In the very early times
of SRC construction, large rolled steel sections were
imported, but open-web steel composed of angles and flat
Recent developments in hybrid structures in Japan: S. Merino 339

5/126
Crack
[~] Strength
[7~ Stiffness
~ ] Ductility
Hysteresis loop
[] Dynamic characterstics
~0 93 [ff] Stress transfer
(a) Structural performance
Form work
D PCa
~'~ Construction efficiency
Manpower
0173 Inspection
~Low cost
~0 93 ~-~ Re-bararrangement
(b) Construction method and management

[] Long span

[---J Light weight

[ ] Highrise

PO 93 [] Freedom
(c) Structural planning
Figure6 Improvements proposed in papers published in 1990 and in 1993

column
1..Fbeam column column beam
(a) 1910-1920 Co) 1930-1970

column
(c) 1960-1970
llzlv J: il [:z:r ]:I:F
beam column column
(d) after 1970
beam

Figure 7 Change of cross-.sections

bars, as shown in Figure 8, were mainly used until 1970,
since full-web steel was expensive. However, full-web steel
made of H-shaped sections has been used since 1970 for
several reasons: initiation of the manufacture of H-shaped
rolled sections, popularization of welded construction, and
rise in the cost of fabrication of bolted or welded open-
web steel. Figure 9 shows a typical SRC beam-to-column
connection currently used.
The cost of an SRC structure per unit area is the highest
among all structural systems. This is related to the amount
of steel used, which is approximately equal to 120 kg/m 2,
40% of which corresponds to the reinforcements. Other
340 Recent developments in hybrid structures in Japan: S. Morino
I I
| 1958, based on intensive research supervised by the Com-
| mittee for SRC structures in AIJ. This first edition was
(a) Batten plate Co) Lattice (c) Full web
Figure 8 Types of steel web
Figure 9 SRC beam-to-column connection
characteristics of SRC construction are as follows: it is very
often used for buildings taller than 10-stories; the floor area
per building can be much larger than those of other struc-
tural systems; and most of the SRC buildings are apartment
houses and offices.
The standard design strength of concrete Fc for SRC
structures in Japan is usually less than 360kgf/cm 2,
because of the limit specified in JASS58, and Fc of
240 kgf/cm 2 and 270 kgf/cm 2 are popularly used. Grades
of reinforcements are SD295 (standard design strength F
= 3000 kgf/cm 2) for D16 and smaller bars, SD345 (F =
3500kgf/cm 2) for D19 to D32, and SD395 (F =
4000 kgf/cm 2) for D35 and larger bars. The maximum steel
grade used for SRC structures has been as high as SM520
(F = 3600 kgf/cm 2) in accordance with the SRC standards
of AlL However, intensive research has been done for the
application of high-strength steel 9, and design formulas for
SRC members using steel whose ultimate strength is as
high as 8000 kgf/cm 2 has been prepared ~.
3.2. Advantages and disadvantages
The advantages of SRC construction over RC construction
are: greater ductility, more compact cross-section, smaller
creep deformation, and use of top-down method of concrete
casting. Those over S construction are: multiple roles of
concrete as structural, fireproofing and buckling-restraining
elements, higher stiffness, and greater damping. Disadvan-
tages are higher construction costs compared to RC con-
struction, and heavier weight compared with S construction.
In addition, the greatest disadvantage is the very compli-
cated ,arrangement of steel and reinforcements, especially
in the beam-to-column connection, as shown in Figure 9.
In order to overcome this complexity, a simpler arrange-
ment of reinforcements has been recommended' ~, and the
use of precast SRC beams has been attempted.
3.3. SRC standards of AM
The first edition of SRC standards of AIJ was published in
characterized by the introduction of the concept of super-
posed strength to the design formulas for SRC members
subjected to axial force and bending moment, that is, the
concept that the strength of the SRC member is given by
the vector sum of the strengths provided by S and RC por-
tions. The superposed ultimate strength is illustrated in Fig-
ure 10, where the strength vector OC of an SRC column
is given by the strength vectors OA of the S portion and
OB of the RC portion. The theory of superposed strength
was established for the calculation of the ultimate strength
of a composite member based on the mathematical theory
of plasticity '2.~3, but it has been applied to the calculation
of allowable strength for convenience. The second edition
was published in 1963 with a small change: the provisions
for shear design, which were shown in the Commentary in
the first edition, were included in the main body.
In the third edition published in 1975, significant changes
in the concept of shear design were introduced, in which
emphasis was placed on the deformation capacity of the
member: the member should fail in flexure than in shear;
S and RC portions should individually resist the shear
forces acting on them, without considering the bond
between the two portions; and the axial force of the column
should be limited to a certain value. These were based on
the results from the Tokachi-oki earthquake in 1968, during
which brittle failure of RC columns occurred.
The fourth, that is, the present edition, was published in
1987, following the revision of the Enforcement Order of
the Building Standard Law of Japan enforced in 1981 ~4, and
N~
Figure 10 Superposed strength of column section
Recent developments in hybrid structures in Japan: S. Morino
included research findings since 1975. The main features of
the revision are as follows:
(1) As many design formulas as possible are included in
the main body of the standards. They are for the flex-
ural, shear and bond designs of not only the beam and
the column, but also of the beam-to-column connec-
tion, the column base, the steel joint and the structural
wall. All formulas are systematically written, based on
the concept of supeqgosed strength.
(2) Formulas used to evaluate the ultimate strength and
items necessary for the evaluation of the ultimate hori-
zontal load-carrying capacity of a frame are presented.
The calculation of the ultimate load-carrying capacity
is required for the slructure size and height of which
exceed the limit specified by the Enforcement Order
of the Building Standard Law of Japan ~4.
(3) Design provisions for composite structures consisting
of steel tubes and concrete are included.
The Enforcement Order of the Building Standard Law
of Japan revised in 1981 requires two steps of structural
design for building struc~Eures exceeding a certain limit in
terms of the size and height. First, the structure should
behave elastically under a moderate earthquake, and mem-
bers should be proportioned by the allowable stress design
method; then it must be proved that the maximum horizon-
tal load-carrying capacity of the designed structure, determ-
ined by inelastic analysis, is larger than the value required
to resist a severe earthq~aake. The required load-carrying
capacity is specified in terms of the structural characteristic
coefficient Ds (the ratio of the required horizontal strength
of an inelastically designed structure to that of an elastically
designed structure, equivalent to the coefficient Rw in the
US), which is determined relative to the ductility of the
structure. SRC standards show the method for determining
the ultimate strength design, but no provisions for D~. BCJ
requirements 6 are for the structural design of three major
structures, i.e. S, RC and SRC, and indicate the values of
Ds of SRC structures: 0.30 and 0.55 for ductile and brittle
structures, respectively, tlybrid structures are not covered
by the SRC standards or the BCJ requirements. The struc-
tural designer usually determines the value of Ds of hybrid
structures by applying appropriate provisions according to
the hypothetical failure mode, that is, if the RC column
fails at the ultimate stage of the frame composed of RC
columns and S beams, provisions for RC structures in BCJ
requirements are applied, and if the steel beam fails, pro-
visions for S structures ~ e applied. The concept of a limit
state design has not yet been employed in either the AIJ
standards or the BCJ requirements, except in the draft of
S standards of AIJ '5.
3.4. Damage due to eaJ'thquakes
There was no severe earthquake damage to SRC buildings
reported during the 55 years between the Great Kanto earth-
quake in 1923 and the Miyagiken-oki earthquake in 1978,
since no major SRC buildings had been built in the areas
affected by these earthquakes, as well as by the Niigata
earthquake in 1964 and the Tokachi-oki earthquake in
1968, except for the shear failure of nonstructural walls
in apartment houses during the Miyagiken-oki earthquake.
However, the Hyogoken-Nanbu earthquake in 1995 caused
very severe damage to all structural systems including SRC
structures. Most of the SRC buildings damaged in the
341
Hyogoken-Nanbu earthquake were built before 1975, and
open-web steel of batten plate type and lattice type com-
posed of angles and flat bars had been used. The third edi-
tion of the SRC standards of AIJ in 1975 recommended the
use of full-web steel, based on experimental investigation
which verified that the energy dissipation capacity of a SRC
column with open-web steel is rather poor. An outline of
the observed damage to SRC structures caused by this
earthquake is given below 16,17.
(a) Column: buckling and fracture of the angle used as the
main member of the built-up steel column, fracture of
the splice plate at the column joint, and fracture of the
web member at the net section in the riveted connec-
tion were observed.
(b) Unembedded column base: fracture of the main mem-
ber of the steel column, buckling and fracture of main
reinforcements, crushing of concrete under the base
plate, and expulsion and fracture of anchor bolts
were observed.
(c) Beam-to-column connection: one case of shear failure
of a connection panel was reported, although details
such as type of steel web, amount of shear reinforce-
ments, and deterioration of concrete strength, were
not clarified.
(d) Transition zone from SRC to RC construction: the
most distinctive characteristic of the damage caused by
this earthquake was the concentration of damage at the
transition zone, which caused a complete disappear-
ance of a certain story in some cases. Similar damage
was observed in the SRC column at the transition zone
from the full-web to the open-web steel.
(e) Building frame in which the floor area of the upper
story was much smaller than that of the lower story:
damage concentration at the transition zone, at which
the floor area becomes much smaller than the area one
floor below was observed, since the vibration charac-
teristics differ between the upper and the lower parts
of the building.
(f) Wall: structural wails whose horizontal reinforcements
were not securely anchored to columns were damaged,
although the damage to the surrounding SRC frame
was rather slight. Many cases of shear failure of non-
structural walls occurred, mainly because walls were
not able to accommodate the ductile deformation of
adjacent SRC columns.
(g) Poor construction and deterioration of concrete: dam-
age which may have been caused by poor construction
was reported, such as insufficient concrete cover thick-
ness, insufficient hook angle of shear reinforcements,
shortage of strength at main reinforcement joined by
pressure welding, and deterioration of concrete with a
low standard design strength Ft. Test data of concrete
core specimens taken from columns of damaged SRC
buildings showed that the strength deteriorated to 9 3 -
187 kgf/cm 2 in the case of a building designed with
Fc equal to 210 kgf/cm 2 constructed in 1957, and 123-
178 kgf/cm 2 in the case of a building designed with
Fc equal to 180 kgf/cm 2 constructed in 1971.
For buildings constructed after rhe regulation concern-
ing the seismic design was changed by the revision of the
Enforcement Order of the Building Standard Law of Japan
in 1981, no case of complete collapse was reported, and
342 Recent developments in hybrid structures in Japan: S. Morino
thus it may be concluded that the new regulation was effec-
tive. There was no report of damage to CFT structures.
4. Concrete-filled steel tubular structures
4.1. Characteristics and research trends
The advantages of CFT structures are as follows: high
strength and ductility, resistance to local buckling of steel
tube due to concrete filling, increase of concrete strength
due to confining effect provided by steel tube, reduction of
construction costs, and elimination of form work. On the
other hand, the following issues are usually raised: stress
transfer mechanism from a steel beam to a CFT column
related to low bond strength between the steel tube and
concrete, and compactness of cast in situ concrete under-
neath the diaphragm at the beam-to-column connection. In
addition, engineers often complain that the same amount of
fireproof material as in the case of a pure steel structure is
still required for the CFT column by law. Recent research
investigations have focused on these issues, and the struc-
tural behavior and performance of normal CFT columns
and beam-to-column connections, shown in Figure 11, have
been experimentally investigated. Concerning stress trans-
fer, the use of steel tubes with embosses on the inner sur-
face and cast-steel stiffener has been considered. It has been
revealed that in Japan, the steel tube had been expected to
act as both a load-carrying element and a confining element
for concrete simultaneously, while it is applied only as a
confining element in the United States. The latter concept
was recently adopted also in Japan, and the behavior of a
reinforced concrete column strengthened by steel tube,
which does not carry either axial force or bending moment
has been investigated. Experimental work on the fire resist-
ance characteristics of CFT members has been carried out.
4.2. Design and construction
The results of the investigation using questionnaires in
19902 were as follows. The use of concrete-encased-and-
filled steel tubular columns was rare. The use of CFT struc-
tures was not limited, but they were mainly used for office
and hotel buildings. The structural walls were not often
Used in CFT structures. The merits of CFT structures com-
pared with RC and SRC structures were applicability to
highrise and long-span structures, improvement of stiffness,
reduction of manpower and elimination of form work. The
structural performance of CFT structures was on the basis
Outer diaphragm Inner diaphragm
Figure 11 Types of diaphragm
of SRC standards 4 in most cases. In some cases, the con-
crete was taken into account only to evaluate the stiffness.
Square and circular tubes were used with comparable fre-
quencies in CFT structures. Circular tubes (diameter of
450-1000mm, diameter-thickness ratio of 17-65) were
used for buildings with irregular plan grids, and square and
rectangular tubes (width of 400-900 mm, width-thickness
ratio of 10-54) were used in the case of regular plan grids.
Most tubes were cold-formed, which were inexpensive and
widely available on the market. Box sections built-up by
welding were used when the plate became thick and/or
large ductility was required. Cast-steel tubes were used to
simplify the beam-to-column connection. Annealing for the
removal of residual stresses was rarely performed in Japan.
The type of diaphragm of the beam-to-column connec-
tion shown in Figure 11 was selected according to plate
thicknesses of the column and the beam. The through-type
diaphragm was often employed when the beam plate was
thicker than the column plates; otherwise, an inner dia-
phragm was employed. This tendency led to the use of
through-type diaphragms for cold-formed tubes, and inner
diaphragms for built-up box sections. The use of an outer
diaphragm was adopted as an easy way of assuring concrete
compactness of CFT. Through-type and inner diaphragms
usually have an opening with a diameter of 200-300 mm
for concrete casting, with several small holes for the pas-
sage of air. Beam-to-column connections were built-up
using welding flanges and welding or bolting webs.
The design standard strength of concrete was between
210 and 270 kgf/cm 2 in most cases, and administrative per-
mission must be obtained for any construction in which
the concrete strength exceeds 360 kgf/cm 2. The maximum
strength reported in the questionnaires was 870 kgf/cm 2
concrete for which was compacted by the centrifugal
method and cured in an autoclave. In the questionnaires,
80% of respondents stated that special consideration was
given to the mixing proportion of concrete. Air-entraining
high-range water-reducing agent was often used to obtain
good workability of concrete with low water content. Con-
crete was cast by pumping or by the use of a tremie tube
in most cases. The casting height was about 30 m in the
former case and about 10 m in the latter. In about 50%
of the responses, the efficiency of the casting method was
confirmed experimentally. The construction technique is
well established on the basis of actual construction of high-
rise buildings taller than 100 m.
I
i
Tlu~ugh-type diaphragm
Recent developments in hybrid structures in Japan: S. Morino
The stiffness and strength of CFT columns and the
strength of beam-to-column connections were evaluated by
the method of superposkion according to SRC standards.
The increase of concrete strength and deformation capacity
of the CFT column due to the confining effect were taken
into account according to the CFT report 7 in some cases.
The structural characteristic coefficient Ds was determ-
ined according to the rank of beams, since the frame was
usually proportioned so that it would fail with the plastic
hinges forming in beams. However, engineers thought that
D~ should be determined according to the overall character-
istics of the frame. The load-deflection curve of the frame
was approximated as triilinear for the dynamic analysis,
which was obtained from the incremental analysis, based
on the bilinear characteristics assumed for CFT columns
and S beams. Viscous damping was often assumed to be
proportional to the frequencies, and the damping constant
was taken to be 2%. Design criteria were usually set as
follows: elastic response and story drift angle not greater
than 1/200 under the level 1 seismic input which corre-
sponds to a moderate earthquake; and plastic deformation
ratio not greater than 2 and story drift angle not greater than
1/100 under the level 2 seismic input which corresponds to
a major earthquake.
5. Structural walls "with encased steel braces or
plates
5.1. Characteristics and research trends
The structural wall containing steel brace is used to control
the lateral stiffness and strength of a building frame. When
the sway deflection of the frame is small, the reinforced
concrete wall mainly resists the lateral load, and the brace
carries the load after shear cracks occur in the wall. The
role of the wall is to prevent the strength deterioration of
the brace due to buckling, so that the brace can achieve
large energy dissipation under repeated loading caused by
earthquakes. The bond between the steel brace and sur-
rounding concrete is usually cut to avoid early cracking of
concrete along the brace., and to simplify the evaluation of
the overall behavior. When applied to the steel frame, this
type of wall is usually made of precast concrete, and the
wall and the brace are connected to the frame by bolts.
Some difficulties arise concerning such details as those of
bolting, stresses generated in the brace under the gravity
load condition and fireproofing for steel elements.
Sometimes, the concrete wall is only connected to the
floor slab, but not to the columns or the upper beams, and
it acts only to prevent buckling of the brace. The same idea
was realized in the composite brace made of a steel plate
core member enclosed in a concrete-filled steel tube which
was not connected to the frame. Figure 12 shows an
example of an unbonded brace encased in CFT 18. Note that
the hysteresis loops between axial load P and axial defor-
mation A of the unbond brace are spindle-shaped and
stable, indicating equal strength in both tension and com-
pression, while an ordinary brace shows the boomerang-
shaped hysteresis loops indicating strength deterioration
due to buckling. For the structural wall containing steel
elements, hysteretic behavior, details of the connection,
details to prevent the local buckling occurring at the very
end of the plate brace enclosed in the precast concrete wall,
details for unbonding, and reinforcement of concrete in the
neighborhood of the brace have been investigated.
343
5.2. Design and construction
The results of the investigation using questionnaires in
19902 were as follows. Structural walls containing steel
elements were employed in the construction of apartment
houses, hotels and office buildings. Both bonded and
unbonded steel elements were used in apartment houses and
hotels, but the bonded elements were used in almost all
cases of office buildings. In contrast, the unbonded element
was often used in the construction of highrise apartment
buildings and hotels. Precast walls with flat bars were only
used for apartment houses and hotels, and the concrete por-
tion did not carry the load. On the other hand, several types
of rolled shapes were used for office buildings, where con-
crete was cast in situ. The ratio of the lateral load carded
by the wall to the total lateral load was more than 50% in
all responses.
Stiffness of walls in apartment houses and hotels was
evaluated mainly in terms of the steel elements, while that
for office buildings was evaluated taking into account the
RC portion of the wall as well. This is because the struc-
tural wall containing steel elements is used as partitions
and is rather thin in the case of the former, while that in
the latter is used to transfer the stresses in the upper S frame
to the lower RC structure smoothly. Engineers seem to feel
that the value of Ds should be equivalent to that for the
unbraced frame, and should be determined according to the
deformation capacity.
6. Frames composed of RC columns and S
beams
6.1. Characteristics and research trends
The frame composed of RC columns and S beams is
characterized as a good combination for its capability in
carrying high gravity load of the RC column with the span-
ning ability of the S beam. The key point of this system
is the moment transfer mechanism at the beam-to-column
connection; a number of innovations have been reported
with the results of the proof tests in Japan 3. Those inno-
vations are separated into five groups according to the
method of transferring the bending moment from the beam
to the column, as shown in Figure 13. The moment transfer
device is composed of vertical plates projected from the
flange of the beam or face bearing plates, and relies on the
bearing stress generated in concrete by the plying action.
These moment transfer mechanisms were all developed by
leading construction companies, and some were made using
the precast system.
6.2. Design and construction
The results of the investigation using questionnaires in
19902 were as follows. The system composed of RC col-
umns and S beams was often applied to frames with low
height and long span. About half the buildings mentioned
in responses were not combined with structural walls, even
when this system was applied to a shop building surrounded
by blind walls which can be used as structural walls. Merits
of this system compared with S, RC and SRC systems were
applicability to long-span frames and capability to reduce
the construction cost and time. Rationalization of construc-
tion was targeted in the efforts to prefabricate the beam-
to-column connection including beam brackets and precast
columns, and to use as-rolled S beams.
344 Recent developments in hybrid structures in Japan: S. Morino
"hJ.bonde St l Steel
" material tube tube [
Compression
(a) Composition of an unbonded brace (b) Behavior of an unbonded brace
Figure 12 Unbonded brace
Figure 13 M o m e n t transfer mechanism of RC column S beam system
Beam-to-column connections of this system were
designed so that the failure of the connection should not
occur prior to the failure of columns or beams. The strength
of the connection was confirmed by tests in most cases.
The value of Ds was determined according to the rank of
members in which plastic hinges presumably formed, or a
value equivalent to that of the RC structure was taken to
be a safe value. Some engineers felt that the value of Ds
should be based on test results, if plastic hinges form in
both RC columns and S beams in the same story. This sys-
tem has been applied in small structures and, thus, the
dynamic analysis was usually not performed. However,
respondents said that if dynamic analysis was needed, simi-
lar types of restoring-force characteristics and design cri-
teria as those explained previously for CFT structures
should be adopted with some modifications: trilinear
restoring-force characteristics assumed for RC column, and
damping constant equal to 3%.
7. The US-Japan cooperative earthquake
research program
The US-Japan Cooperative Earthquake Research Program
began in 1979 following the recommendations outlined in
the final report of the US-Japan Planning Group for the
program 19. The overall objective of the program is to
improve seismic safety practices in both countries through
cooperative studies to determine the relationship among
full-scale tests, small-scale tests, component tests, and
related analytical and design implication studies. The first
four phases of the program concerned reinforced concrete
structures, steel structures, masonry structures, and precast
concrete structures. Research on mixed steel/RC structures
Compression
(c) Behavior of an ordinary
brace
has been identified in the planning group report as an
important phase of the program together with the other
four phases.
During the past 10 years the use of composite and hybrid
structures has increased in the US and Japan. In spite of
some research and development work, not enough is known
at present regarding their seismic behavior or performance.
Design procedures and codes for use in typical design
offices are currently nonexistent. Considering the impor-
tance of developing design guidelines (a unified code
development) for these typical composite and hybrid struc-
tures that are currently used in practice, and also of
developing new and innovative composite structural
elements and hybrid systems using advanced new materials
and/or devices, a five-year research program on composite
and hybrid structures was recommended as the fifth phase
of the US-Japan Cooperative Earthquake Research Pro-
gram.
Because of the diverse scope of the subject area, the
research program was organized into the following four
groups: ( 1 ) C F T column systems; ( 2 ) R C column and S
beam systems; (3)hybrid wall systems; and (4) new
materials, elements and systems. The detailed research rec-
ommendations for each group were based on a number of
technical meetings of the US and Japan Planning Groups
and a Joint Planning Group Workshop held in Berkeley in
September 19922,21 . Except for group (4), the work in each
group involves experimental investigation of the structural
behavior, development of design recommendations contain-
ing design formulas, mathematical modeling of the system
for static and dynamic analyses and constructional details,
development of a database including data of similar work
done in the past, trial design of theme structures to clarify
Recent developments ,in hybrid structures in Japan: S. Morino
design characteristics and merits of the system, and
exchange of the design documents prepared in real practice.
The experiments done so far by the Japanese side in each
corresponding group are on the following: ( 1 ) centrally and
eccentrically loaded compression members and beam-col-
umns of rectangular and circular CFTs; (2)force-transfer
mechanism and interior and exterior connections of through
columns with several different force-bearing mechanisms;
and (3)boundary link beam, T- and L-shaped core walls,
and a 12-story T-shaped coupled wall. In addition, inten-
sive analytical investigation has been carried out on the
behavior of CFT beam-columns, the behavior of the RC
column and S beam system using the finite element method,
and static and dynamic response of three-dimensional
frames with core walls. Several trial designs of theme struc-
tures using the systems of groups (1) to (3) have been
presented by the Japan Structural Consultants Association
(JSCA), a member of the program. In group (4), feasibility
studies have been continued on the application of fiber-
reinforced plastics to RC panels, to retrofitting of the exist-
ing RC members, and to electric facilities having the prob-
lems of electric corrosion of reinforcements and electric
noise, and on the development of high-performance con-
crete, that is, ultralight-weight, high-strength concrete, and
high-tensile strength and ]aigh-ductility concrete. Some of
the results of investigations mentioned above were
presented at the 2nd Joint Technical Coordinating Commit-
tee Meeting held in Honolulu in June 199522, and published
in Abstracts of Annual Meetings of AIJ. Overviews of the
work done by each group have been reported annually 23.
The work on the US side is about 2 years behind that of
the Japanese, and now a total of 10 projects are on-going
concerning CFT beam-columns, connections in CFT col-
umn systems, bond between concrete and steel tube, con-
nections in RC column and S beam systems, composite
beams, composite coupling beams, and fiber-reinforced
concrete-encased steel joists.
8. Concluding remarks
The appearance of hybrid constructions is a result of pursu-
ing economical, high-efficiency construction. At present in
Japan, it is required to obtain special permission from the
Minister of Construction for the construction of most of the
hybrid structures mentioned above, because a method of
assuring the structural safety of these structures has not yet
been fully established. However, the questionnaire survey
on the present situation of hybrid structures revealed that
the design and the construction technique of the following
three hybrid systems have attained a sufficient level of
application for the actual building; CFT column systems,
RC column and S beam systems, and structural walls with
encased steel braces or p]iates. For these structures, inten-
sive research has been done, and design and construction
techniques have been established as a result of actual con-
struction experience. Preparation of the necessary docu-
ments for the design and construction is now needed.
Smooth stress transfer is a key point in successfully con-
structing a hybrid structure, but in many cases it is con-
firmed only by experiment because of the lack of an estab-
lished theory. Structural engineers feel that a rational
method of evaluating the structural characteristic coefficient
Ds for hybrid structures based on its overall performance
should be established and, thus, research work on Ds is
urgently needed. Information obtained from the US-Japan
34,5
Cooperative Earthquake Research Program on composite
and hybrid structures will help to clarify these points.
The structural design method is now moving towards
limit state design, which is a worldwide tendency. This is
giving rise to a new problem of how to determine the load
factors, since it depends not only on the statistical charac-
teristics of loads, but also on the characteristics of the struc-
ture and reliability index set in the design. The research on
this topic has not yet started.
Acknowledgements
A part of this report was written based on the results of the
investigation and discussion carded out by the Committee
for the Investigation of Hybrid Construction (Chairman:
Professor Seiji Nakano, Tokyo Denki University) and
Technical Coordination Committee of the Japanese side of
the US-Japan Cooperative Earthquake Research Program
(Chairman: Professor Hiroyuki Aoyama, Nihon
University), both attached to the Building Center of Japan.
The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to the
members of these committees, particularly Dr Masahiko
Tachibana, Tokyo Denki University, Dr Isao Nishiyama,
BRI, and Dr Noboru Sakaguchi, Shimizu Corporation.
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