Material Joining for Components

in Space Applications
Suresh Chand1, Rajan Biswas1,
2 1#
Thomas Tharian and Krishanu Biswas
1
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, IIT Kanpur
2
Liquid Propulsion System Centre (LPSC), ISRO, Valiamala, Trivandrum, Kerala
# Corresponding author, email: kbiswas@iitk.ac.in

Abstract
An extended presence of humans in space requires extraordinary capability to construct various structures to
support power generation, communication and radiation shielding as well as to conduct scientific research.
Large (space based telescopes, antennas and power generation systems) and small (radiation shielding and
support structures) demand the development of capabilities to manufacture permanent and rigid joints among
the structural components. Welding and brazing are only two processes outside mechanical fastening, which can
provide permanent joints for components used in space. In the present report, the recent collaborative research
activities with ISRO on brazing and welding will be discussed. The basic scientific and technical issues will be
dealt with in the light of the existing literature. The design and development of filler metals, techniques of
welding and brazing and, quality of joints etc are prominent factors requiring further research.

space industry; L40 propellant tank and brazed shear

Introduction tubes. The former (Figure 1a) is made up of AA2219 Al-
Cu alloys consisting of cylindrical shells with end domes
Welding and brazing are the only two materials joining
employed for storing propellants (liquid/cryogenic
processes outside mechanical fastening, which provide
fuels). This is constructed by integrating shells with
the permanent, rigid and non-degradable joints for
forged rings welded longitudinally (long seam weld) and
components in the space industry [1]. Figure 1 shows
circumferentially (circular seam weld). The cylindrical
examples of e-beam welding and brazing used in the

(a) (b)

Figure 1 : (a) e-beam welded L40 propellant tank and (b) e-beam brazed lap shear tube [1]. Arrows indicate the
positions of welding/brazing.

66 Directions 2015 Vol. 15 No.1

 Material Joining for Components in Space Applications
Ti-6Al-4V alloy shear tubes (Figure1b) used in cryogenic
engine are brazed using Ag-based filler. Thus, research
activities on the joining of materials are of paramount
importance in the space industry. Since ancient times,
people have been joining metals. However, the scientific
understanding of the problems of materials joining is still
not clear to the community [1-2]. This is mainly because
of the complexities involved in joining two different
pieces of metals using a heat source. Apparently, it looks
trivial and a simple problem to join materials using
commonly available techniques. The complexities range
from heat transfer, fluid flow to nucleation and growth of
different phases in the weld/braze pool. The fusion
joining (widely used technique in the industry) is gener-
ally considered to be consisting of four broad sub-events,
namely, (i) heating and melting; (ii) key hole formation
for deep joining; (iii) fluid flow and (iv) cooling and
solidification of the melt formed [3]. These processes
take place concurrently at adjacent locations in the pool
and inter-dependent. The final goal of obtaining sound
and useful joints with specified properties can only be
achieved by properly understanding the complex
processes during the joining of materials. The compo-
nents requiring joining in the space industry need to
sustain harsh environment and thus, even require better
process control and sophistication.
Welding normally involves joining pieces of material by
melting and fusing them together with/without addition
of a filler metal. To fuse the metals, concentrated heat
source (laser, ebeam, electric arc, gas torch etc.) is used
directly to the area of the joint. The heat should produce
temperature high enough to melt the portions of the base
metals to be joined as well as the filler metal. On the other
hand, brazing joins materials by heating them in presence
of a filler metal having a liquidus temperature above
o joint. Welding two similar metals (Ti with Ti, Al-alloy
450 C but below the melting/solidus temperature of the
base metal/alloy. Brazing uses a braze alloy (brazing
filler metal or BFM) which becomes liquid at the brazing
temperature to join two materials. Unlike welding, the
joined materials are not molten in brazing. The braze
alloy melts and flows between the pieces of the materials.
Thus, brazing has only minimal impact on the material
properties of the base metals.
Ti and Ti-alloys are extensively used in space industry.
Thus, there has been a constant interest in the scientific
community in Indian Space programme to investigate the
issues related to joining of Ti and its alloys. The joining
couple can either be similar (Ti/Ti or Ti-alloy/Ti-alloy) or
dissimilar (Ti/Steel, Ti/Al-alloy etc.). The joining
techniques adopted are primarily welding or brazing. The
present authors will primarily focus on the issues related
to welding or brazing of Ti and its alloys. Over last 3-4
years sustained collaborative research activities have led
to understanding of the some of the basic problems and
possible solutions. In the following, these will be dis-
cussed and future course in this direction will be pro-
vided.
2. Welding
Welding, especially fusion welding has extensively been
used in ISRO due to its ability to produce weld with good
metallurgical bonds and mechanical integrity. ISRO
activities require both similar and dissimilar metal
welding. The similar metal welding (SMW) involves
mostlyAl-alloys, Ti-alloys. Ti reacts readily with oxygen,
moisture, grease, dirt and thus, common welding pro-
cesses such as gas welding, shielded metal arc or even
submerged arc welding are unsuitable. Thus, e-beam
welding is widely used for Ti and its alloys. Al alloys, on
the other hand, are relatively easy to weld with common
welding techniques. However, majority of applications
require welding of dissimilar materials. The examples of
dissimilar material welds involve Ti-alloys with Al-
alloys, copper with steels and Cu- alloys with Al-alloy. Ti
and its alloys being workhorse in ISRO, requires to be
welded with Cu, Al-alloys as well as steels. In the
following, some of the salient features and technological
challenges in each case are deliberated.
2.1 Similar metal welding (SMW)
Welding is a way of tightly bonding two metals by
melting them where they meet through application of heat
to melt the two metals so they fuse and form a secure
with Al-alloy) is widely done in space research. Figure 2
shows the electron beam (e-beam) weld of AA2219 (Al-6
wt% Cu alloy). These are deep key hole joints made using
two different modes of e-beam welding (a) constant
current and (b) pulsed current with pulse width of 7 ms.
The joints shown in Figure 2a and 2b respectively are
found to be sound and deep. Pulsed e-beam welding
provides wider joint with better homogeneity. The
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) micrographs of
the cross-section of the specimens are shown in Figure 2c
and 2d respectively. The microstructures, looking similar
in both cases exhibit multiple zones; equiaxed, columnar
and fine scale. The depth of zones varies. In the (b), depth
of equiaxed zone is smaller whereas fine scale grains are
more in (b). It is to be noted that gradient in the microstructure
Directions 2015 Vol. 15 No.1 67
 Figure 2: e-beam weling of AA2219 (Al- 6wt% Cu) alloy: (a) constant
current; (b) pulsed current; (c) and (d) corresponding micrograph of the
fusion zone. Depth of equiaxed zone is shown on the figures.

in the fusion zone is a requirement for the sound joint.
2.2 Dissimilar metal welding (DMW)
Even though much of industrial welding deals with
joining materials with very similar alloy chemistry, joints
between different metals become necessary in applica-
tions which take advantage of properties of different
materials. Dissimilar metals are classified into two
different types; (i) essentially same materials with
slightly different chemistry (eg. different steels to each
other, different series of Al alloys); (ii) same type of
material to each other and (iii) highly dissimilar materials
(metal to ceramic or metal to metal to organic). The
second one can be of two types; (a) compatible material
with some degree of solubility in each other (Cu with
steels) and (b) incompatible materials with little or no
solubility (Al with steels). Therefore, ISROs activities
on welding mostly fall on category (i) and (ii).
Conceptually, DMW contains at least two features which
distinguish it from the similar metal welding; different
thermo-physical properties of the metals affecting the
physical processes during welding and chemical differ-
ences between the metals leading to interesting structural
consequences. These differences show up markedly
when the constituents of the couple are from completely
different systems, the extreme case being the joining of
two pure metals.
Two main requirements for successful DMW are as
follows. Firstly, from practical viewpoint, it may not be
68 Directions 2015 Vol. 15 No.1
possible to make a fusion joint if the melting temperatures
of the two materials are too different because it is essen-
tial to have controlled melting on both sides of the joint
simultaneously (Figure 3). Secondly, even if this criterion
is met, it may not be possible to produce a sound and
adequate joint if two materials are metallurgically
incompatible. However, in such a situation, it may be
possible to make a satisfactory weld by addition of
suitable filler. The fusion welding of Ti or TiNi alloy with
Ni is considered to be incompatible. Thus, addition of Ta
filler placed at the interface prior to welding provides
good metallurgical bonding. This is mainly due to phase
e-
B
E
A
M
Base metal A
Weld
Base metal B
Figure 3: Schematic diagram showing the dissimilar metal
welding (DMW).

diagram compatibility between Ti and Ta forming
complete solid solution. Ni and Ta is complex with
formation of several intermetallic compounds [4].
6 2 -1
However, thermal diffusivity of Ta (20 x 10 m s ) and Ni
6 2 -1
(22 x10 m s ) being similar probably makes the forma-
tion of sound joint. An ISRO activity in DMW also
involves welding of Ti with Al, Cu with stainless steel.
However, fusion welding of Ti toAl is difficult because of
brittle intermetallic compounds which form at the joint
interface. In the field of cryogenic engines, Cu, steel
combinations are widely used due to their high electrical
conductivity and stiffness. However, high thermal
conductivity of Cu tends to rapidly dissipate heat away
from the weld, leading to difficulties in reaching the
melting temperature. The major problem in welding Cu
to steel is the hot cracking in the heat affected zone of
steel due to copper melting and penetrating into the grain
boundaries of ferrite grains of steel. Another important
couple is Al or Al-alloys and Cu, often used in the
propellant tanks. The penetration of the weld in Cu is
normally less, which leads to cracking. The cracks are
found to be brittle and stopped at the interface between
the weld and the Cu parent metal. Therefore, it is impor-
tant to work on these dissimilar couples and find a proper
solution to the problem associated.
3. Brazing
Brazing is considered as the most important joining
technique for Ti and it alloys for space applications. Like
welding, brazing can be of two types, similar and dissimi-
lar metal brazing. The complexities involved in the later
case are extremely high as compared to the former. The
major thrust in the research activity in this area is on the
development of new brazing alloys for filler material of
BFM and detailed brazing process [5-6]. It is to be noted
that the brazing alloy is termed as filler metal, which is
applied between the surfaces intended to be joined. There
has been a constant need to develop newer brazing alloy
to take care of the requirements of the space industry.
Conventionally, the brazing filler metals (BFM) for Ti
and its alloys are developed by considering the following
important aspects; (i) -Ti -Ti transition temperature;
(ii) the formation of brittle intermetallic phases at the
interface between the braze and base metal; (iii) con-
trolled or null erosion of the base metal; (iv) ability to wet
the surfaces of the base metal. Titanium exists in two
allotropic forms at atmospheric pressure. -Ti has
hexagonally closed packed crystal structure whereas -Ti
is body centred cubic [7]. The limitation of brazing
temperatures below the beta-transus temperature is
Material Joining for Components in Space Applications
especially important for thin-wall structures usually used
in the space applications. Undesirable structural changes
in the thin-walled components may cause a drastic
degradation of the mechanical properties as well as
reliability of the entire component. The effect of the
brazing temperature on microstructure of brazed joints is
not so unambiguous. On the one hand, the higher the
brazing temperature, the more intensive reaction occurs
between the filler metal and the base metal and conse-
quently, the thicker intermetallic layer may form at the
interface. The brittle intermetallic layer is considered as a
source of microcracks, which may appear during the
mechanical and thermal cycling of the brazed joint. On
the other hand, it is well known that the higher brazing
temperature results in the increase of static strength of the
brazed joints at room temperature [8]. This effect has
been explained as a result of forming specific
microstructure of the brazed joint at the optimal brazing
temperature parameter. The amount of liquid filler metal
also affects the joint microstructure and especially the
thickness of the intermetallic layer at the interface.
Generally speaking, small brazing gap (50 m) and
small amount of liquid metal result in the discontinuous
thin intermetallic layer or only island intermetallics,
which cannot generate cracks in the joint. The relatively
thick joints (the joint clearance 100 m) usually have
continuous intermetallic layer which generates cracks at
any thermal stress. The last metallurgical factor, that
should be considered, is a susceptibility to erosion of
titanium base metal in contact with the liquid filler metal
at high brazing temperatures. A significant erosion of
titanium alloys during brazing is well known, and it
adversely affects the reliability of brazed structures,
especially thin-wall structures. In order to prevent the
erosion of the base metal, the brazing temperature should
be as low as possible, and the time of contact between the
liquid filler and the base metal should be limited, as well.
3.1 Similar metal brazing
Despite the fact that numerous BFM compositions have
already been tested, we still do not have the filler metals
for low-temperature (<800C) brazing of titanium
which are produced for commercial markets [9]. Only the
simplest binary and ternary compositions of low temper-
ature brazing alloys based on silver, aluminum-silver,
and aluminum-silicon systems have been tested and
produced mixed results as low-temperature BFM. The
development of brazing techniques to prepare the joints
of desired properties would require the identification of
the chemical reactions between the molten filler and base
Directions 2015 Vol. 15 No.1 69

Figure 4 : (a) Vacuum brazed Ti/Ti couple with Ag-Cu-Sn
filler; (b) SEM microstructure of the brazed layer showing
different layers and phases. Inset shows typical eutectic
microstructure inside the braze [13].
metal and understanding the mechanisms of the reactions
so that the reactions can be minimized. It is difficult to
form reliable metallurgical bond between Ti and its alloys
as well as with other metals and alloys because of the high
reactivity of titanium. Titanium reacts with many
elements and form brittle intermetallics in the brazed
joints. All known brazing filler metals (BFM) for Ti and
its alloys can roughly be separated into five major
families according to the base component in their
chemical compositions:
(1) silver-based (especially,Ag-Cu-based) alloys
(2) titanium-based alloys (Ti-Cu-Ni)
(3) aluminum-based alloys (Al-Si)
(4) palladium-based alloys (Pd-Ti)
(5) zirconium-based alloys
A detailed literature survey indicates Ti and its alloys can
70 Directions 2015 Vol. 15 No.1
be brazed successfully using Ag-based filler metals [10-
11]. Ag having a melting temperature of 961.8oC is
required to be alloyed with other metals to decrease the
liquidus temperature so that transformation can be
avoided during brazing. Ag when alloyed with Cu and Sn
form low temperature eutectic [12], which have good
flow characteristics, high strength with sufficient
ductility. Using this strategy, brazing joints between Ti/Ti
and Ti-4Al/Ti-4Al were prepared using both vacuum as
well as torch brazing. Figure 4 shows vacuum brazed
Ti/Ti couple using hypoeutectic Ag89.9Cu14.6Sn16.5 alloy
o
with melting temperature 630 C, well below the
-Ti -Ti transition temperature. Figure 4a reveals the
photograph of the joint prepared whereas Figure 4b
shows the SEM micrograph of the brazed region. The
brazed regions appear to be sound and free of any crack.
The middle of the brazed pool shows typical
microstructure of the hypoeutectic alloy consisting of
primary (Ag) dendrites with eutectic between (Ag) and
(Cu) [shown as inset of Figure 4b]. However, detailed
microstructure of the interface between the braze and Ti
indicates the formation of few intermetallic phases,
especially, Ti2Cu and (Ti,Cu)3Sn along with solid solution
phase (Ti) consisting of Cu and Sn. The majority phase is
(Ti,Cu)3Sn. As indicated earlier, Ti is highly reactive and
forms various complex intermetallic phases with differ-
ent elements [14]. Thus, it is extremely difficult to stop
the formation of intermetallic phases at the interface
between the brazed joint and the base metal. By proper
adjustment of Cu and Sn concentration in the BFM, it has
been possible to reduce the amount of the intermetallics.
The best BFM composition is found to be Ag52.6Cu38.9Sn8.5.
Another way of solving the problem of formation of
intermetallic compounds is usage of new Al-based BFM.
Al-based alloys, especially, hypoeutectic Al-Si is found
to have better wetting characteristics on the Ti substrate,
when added with some other metals such as Ti, Sn, Zn and
Cu [10]. However, there are few demerits with Al-based
fillers. When pure Al melt comes in contact with Ti, it
reacts rapidly and forms thick intermetallic layer in the
joint. Alloying additions (Si, Zn, Cu, Fe and Sn) can
reduce the reactivity of pure Al and improve the wetting
characteristics. The main advantages of using Al-based
fillers are low liquidus temperature, low density, good
fluidity and wettability for capillary filling. Using these
aspects, new Al-based BFM has been designed in the lab
and used to prepare brazed joints between Ti/Ti and Ti-
4Al/Ti-4Al couples. Figure 5 shows the details of one
such joint made with Al89.5Si10.5Cu0.25Fe0.25Zn0.25 BFM
o
showing melting temperature of 600 C. The joint (Figure
5a) is found to be sound and free of any crack at the
 Material Joining for Components in Space Applications
Figure 5 : (a) Vacuum brazed Ti/Ti couple with Al-Si-Cu-Fe-
Zn filler; (b) SEM microstructure of the brazed layer showing
different layers and phases. Inset shows typical eutectic
microstructure inside the braze [13].
Figure 6 : (a) Torch brazed Ti/Steel couple with Cu|Ag|Cu filler; (b) SEM microstructure of the brazed layer showing different layers [17].
interface between the braze and Ti base metals (Figure
5b). Although, the bulk of the brazed area consists of
eutectic microstructure between (Al) and Si, the interface
consists of (Al,Ti)3Si intermetallic phase. However, the
bond between the base metal and braze is found to be
metallurgically strong and smooth. It is noted that the
choice of BFM is mainly limited the melting temperature
of BFM for Ti and its alloys in the space industry. That
limits choices of elements in the BFM.
3.2 Dissimilar metal brazing
Dissimilar metal joints are used in various engineering
applications, including space, nuclear power plants,
automobile manufacturing. Joining of dissimilar metals
involves higher temperatures and distinctly different choice
of BFM. Significant difference in material properties, such
as co-efficient of thermal expansion (CTE), elastic moduus,
Poissons ratio combined with configuration of the joint
leads to high stresses around the joint. ISRO is specifically
interested in finding proper BFM and brazing technique for
joining Ti with steel and Cu with steel. It is to be noted, Ti,
Cu and steels consist of bulk usage of metals in the space
industry. Therefore, finding optimum BFM for joining
dissimilar metal is of prime interest. It is to be noted that
conventional fusion welding of Ti and steels leads to
extensive segregation of various elements, formation of
thick intermetallic layers and stress concentration [15].
The combination of Ti and Fe causes the formation of
large number of different intermetallic compounds [16].
Added to fusion welding involves melting of the base
metal, which leads to distortion of the shape of the welded
metals and stress at the interface due to difference of CTE.
Directions 2015 Vol. 15 No.1 71
 Figure 7 : Vacuum brazed Cu/Steel couple with Ag|Cu|Sn filler.
Detailed litertature survey indicates that diffusion
bonding has successfully been used to join Ti with steels.
However, great care required for surface preparation and
mass production of diffusion bonded joints is rather
impractical. Thus, the best solution is usage of brazing to
join Ti with steel by proper choice of BFM. Detailed
literature survey indicates that pure Ag, Ag-alloys, Ti-
alloys as well as Cu-alloys have been used as BFM for
Ti/steel couple. The melting temperature of Ag is
o
961.8 C, well above transus and thus needs to be
alloyed with Cu. It is to be noted Ag-Cu forms eutectic
o
with 28.1 wt% Cu at 779 C. The liquidus temperature can
72 Directions 2015 Vol. 15 No.1
Figure 8 : Torched brazed Ti/Steel couple with Cu|Ag|Cu filler.
Formation of pores and erosion of the base metal on the Ti side
are visible [17].
o
further be lowered (to 600 C) by addition small amount of
In and Ti. One of the novel ways of making the dissimilar
brazing joint involves usage of stack of Ag|Cu|Ag foils
(thickness of each layer 100 m) instead of Ag-Cu alloy.
This decreases processing time and cost. Ag and Cu foils
are easily available in the market. Ag-foil (99% purity) is
used by sweet vendors in the market. In our endeavor to
find an easy and useful solution to the dissimilar metal
brazing, Ti and steel have been vacuum brazed using
stack of Ag|Cu|Ag foils. Figure 6a shows an optical
micrograph of such brazed joint, revealing absence of any
crack. The SEM image of the joint (Figure 6b) clearly
Figure 9 : (a) Torched brazed Ti/Steel couple
with Al-Si-Cu-Fe-Zn filler. (b) higher
magnification micrograph of the brazed layer.
Formation of intermetallic compounds
(Tiside) and erosion of the base metal on the
steel side are visible [17].

shows the formation of a sound joint without the
presence of any intermetallic compound. Thus, it has
been possible to form a sound joint between Ti and steel
using stack of Ag|Cu|Ag foils. Similarly, brazing
between Cu and steel has been done using stack of
Ag|Cu|Ag foils. Figure 7 shows optical micrograph of
the joint, free of any crack or intermetallic compound at
the interface between the braze and the base metal. Some
other dissimilar couples have brazed and joints have
been found to be sound. Therefore, usage of stack of
Ag|Cu|Ag foils on brazing Ti as well as Cu with steels is
found to be effective in making good joint. However, the
real problem is melting Ag and Cu foils to form a
o
eutectic with 779 C, which sets lower limit of brazing
temperature. (Ti) (Ti) transus of certain Ti-alloys
o
can be as low as 650 C and thus, it would require BFM
o
having melting temperature lower than 600 C. Thus, one
needs to design special BFM for the same. It is to be
noted that the addition of Sn to Ag-Cu alloys reduces the
o
melting to about 550 C (Ag71.74Cu11.52Sn16.74) and hence,
can be used to braze Ti-alloys with steel. However, the
presence of Sn in the alloy can have tendency of forma-
tion of Ti-rich brittle intermetallics (as indicated in
Figure 4b). Figure 8 shows a SEM micrograph of a
Ti/steel brazed joint prepared using Cu|Ag|Cu BFM.
The joint seems to be nice and crack free. However, Ti
side shows wavy interface indicating erosion of the base
metal. One cannot find presence of any brittle
intermetallic layer or island at the Tiside. The presence of
some pores, free Ag particles (white patches) are too
visible. Brazing temperature can further be reduced using
Al-based BFM (Al89.5Si10.17Cu0.11Fe0.12Zn0.1 ). Thus, there is a
natural tendency of using Al-based BFM to braze Ti with
steel. Figure 9a shows typical SEM micrograph of
brazed joint prepared. The interfaces between the brazed
and the base metal look flat and wavy. A close look (inset
of Figure 9b) indicates the formation of large amount of
intermetallics between the braze and Ti. The steel side
shows the evidence of extensive erosion of the base
metal. Thus, Al-based BFM is found to be not suitable
for Ti/steel joints. This is mainly due to the fact that Ti
has higher reactivity withAl.
4. Summary
The joining of metals and alloys has been increasingly
more important in the space science and technology as
the engineers strive for reduced weight and improved
performance of the engineering structure. Welding and
brazing are two common techniques extensively utilized
Material Joining for Components in Space Applications
in ISRO to obtain reliable and non-degradable joints
required for structures to be placed in outer space. There
are wide varieties of scientific and technological
challenges in the area of both welding and brazing.
Welding of dissimilar metals or alloys seems to be more
challenging and requires extensive research. The
pertinent issues are selection of filler metal, welding
technique and process parameter to obtain crack free
sound joint. Brazing involves joining two or more pieces
of materials by using BFM with a proper brazing
technique. ISRO utilizes vacuum brazing with resistive
heating. The design and development of BFM, joint
geometry as well as process control are pertinent issues.
The present authors briefly describe the issues involved
in the current report.
5. Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank STC, ISRO for generous
funding to carry out the research work.
6. References
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Professor Krishanu Biswas has obtained his Phd from Indian Institute of Science in 2006. After
spending almost 2 years as JSPS scholar at Tohoku University in Japan, he joined the institute in 2008 as
assistant professor. His research interest mainly lies on solidification of concentrated alloys, phase
transformation of alloy nanoparticles and multicomponent alloys. He has been associated with different
STC projects of ISRO, including development of brazing filler alloys for titanium alloys, steels etc.

Mr. K. Thomas Tharian (Scientist 'G') is a lead scientist working with Liquid Propulsion System
Centre (LPSC), ISRO at Thiruvananthapuram. He has obtained his M.Tech in Metallurgy from IIT
Kanpur and B.E. in Metallurgy from NIT Jaipur. He has involved in different projects of ISRO in
connection with material development and related issues.

Mr. Suresh Chand (right) and Mr. Rajan Biswas (left) are M.Tech students of Prof.
Krishanu Biswas. They have worked on the development of brazing alloys for a
variety of applications in ISRO. Mr. Suresh Chand has obtained his B.E. in Metallurgy
from NIT Durgapur and Mr. Ranjan Biswas has got his B.Tech in Ceramic Technology
from Calcutta University.

74 Directions 2015 Vol. 15 No.1