Six Sigma Awareness

Evolution of Quality
Six sigma We are in Business to Earn Profit
Overview
Equation Before:
Price = Cost + Profit
Equation Now:
Profit = Price - Cost
NICHE QUALITY SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD.,

INDORE
NICHE QUALITY SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD., INDORE NICHE QUALITY SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD., INDORE
Evolution of Quality Evolution of Quality

The Common Perception
In Todays Competitive Scenario Organizational Challenges

are:
Develop a sustainable learning to support continuous
improvement and sustained business growth
Q C P
In Reality
Attain competitiveness through innovative approaches
Q C P
Evolution of Quality Segments in Quality
Methodologies Standards Capability Models
Reactive Quality
Proactive Quality
Quality Checks (QC) - Taking the Six Sigma ISO 9000, ISO CMM
Create process that will produce
defectives out of what is produced
less or no defects Lean 14000 etc.
Malcolm Baldrige
Sharing
Scientific way to Best practices
Benchmarked
improve to build
practices-
Historically capability? capability
Contemporary Standardizing
1
What is Six Sigma? What is Six Sigma?
A metric that demonstrates quality

Metric levels at 99.9997% performance for

Six Sigma is not: products and processes
Benchmark A benchmark for product and

A standard process capability on a quality basis
A practical application of statistical
A certification Sigma is a letter in
the Greek Alphabet
Tool tools to help measure, analyze,
improve, and control the processes
Commitment A commitment to customers to offer

the highest quality, lowest cost products
. . . to optimize the processes to perform efficiently

Meaning of Sigma Meaning of Sigma

For a process, the sigma capability (z-value) is a measure that indicates how
Sigma is a measure of Variation.
well that process is performing. The higher the sigma capability, the better is
Variation is a natural phenomenon. No process can produce exactly same the process.
output every time.
Sigma capability measures the capability of the process to produce defect-free
Lesser is the variation, more is the confidence on process. outputs. A defect is anything that results in customer dissatisfaction.
The term Sigma is a statistical measure called Standard deviation used to
measure the variation of a process
Meaning of Sigma Meaning of Sigma

16%
16%ofof 2.25%
16% of 2.25% 0.13% 0.13%
area area
area of area
of area of area of area
68.26%
95.5%
1 99.73%
2
3
1 1 2 2 3 3
Average-3 Average+3
68.26% 1
Average
95.45%
2
If the data are generated from a process in statistical control, the data as 99.73%
a group tend to form a stable pattern called a normal distribution curve or 3
bell shaped curve.
The spread of normal distribution curve is 3 from average (99.73%
observations) -2 -1 X=0 1 2 3
-3
2
Measure of Quality
Meaning of Sigma
182 186 192 192 196
Scrap
192 190 198 197 193
Specification
193 199 200 196 196
196 196 197 187 194
Upper
193 192 192 196 197
Limit
201 190 187 193 197
197 195 196 190 196
3
190 198 188 202 192
195 194 190 198 193
198 189 194 200 204
Average= 194.2, Sigma= 4.4

Average+3 = 194.2+ 3* 4.4 = 207.4
Specification
2
Average - 3 = 194.2 3*4.4 = 181
Lower
Limit
100% observations are between 181 & 207
Scrap
Average+2 = 194.2+ 2* 4.4 = 202
194.2-3*4.4 194.2+3*4.4
Average - 2 = 194.2 2*4.4 = 186
96% observations are between 186 & 202
194.2
Measure of Quality Measure of Quality
Specification
Specification
Upper
Upper
Limit
Limit
3
3
Specification
Specification
4
3
Lower
Lower
Limit
Limit
Measure of Quality Measure of Quality

Specification
Specification
Upper
Upper
Limit
Limit
3
Specification
Specification
5
Lower
Lower
Limit
Limit
3
Path to Six Sigma Path to Six Sigma
A 3 process because 3 standard deviations
fit between target and spec
6 Sigma
Target Customer
3.4 Defects Specification
Before
1
3
5 Sigma
Sigma levels and 6.6% Defects
233 Defects 2
Defects per million
opportunities (DPMO) 3
Customer
4 Sigma 6,210 Defects Target

Specification
After
3 Sigma 66,807 Defects

1
2
3
6 !
No Defects!
4
2 Sigma
5
308,537 Defects 6
NICHE QUALITY SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD., INDORE Reducing Variability is the

NICHE QUALITY Key toPVT.
SOLUTIONS SixLTD.,
Sigma
INDORE
Measure of Quality Origin of Six Sigma

Process Capability needs to be Better than you think !
Activity Defects @ 99% Defects @ 99.9997%
( 3.8 Sigma ) ( 6 Sigma ) Motorola
Motorola
Mail 20,000 lost articles 7 lost articles the
the company
company that
that invented
invented Six
Six Sigma
Sigma
Delivery of mail per hour of mail per hour
Drinking Unsafe drinking water Unsafe drinking water

Water for 15 min per day for 2 mins per year The term Six Sigma was coined by Bill Smith, an engineer with Motorola
Hospital 5000 incorrect 2 incorrect

Surgery procedures per week procedures per week Late 1970s - Motorola started experimenting with problem solving through
statistical analysis
Air 2 abnormal landings 1 abnormal landing
Travel at most airports each day every 5 years
1987 - Motorola officially launched its Six Sigma program
Sometimes 99% is just not good enough
The Growth of Six Sigma The Growth of Six Sigma
GE
GE The GE model for process improvements
the
the company
company that
that perfected
perfected Six
Six Sigma
Sigma
Jack Welch launched Six Sigma at GE in Jan,1996 Define Measure Analyze Improve Control
1998/99 - Green Belt exam certification became the criteria for management
promotions Combination of change management & statistical analysis
2002/03 - Green Belt certification became the criteria for promotion to

management roles
4
The Growth of Six Sigma The Approach
Practical
Problem
Statistical
Problem
Statistical
Solution
Practical
Solution
Methodology Define
D Identify and state the practical problem D VoC/VoB - Who wants the project and why ?
Define Define
M Validate the practical problem by collecting data M The scope of project / improvement
Measure Measure
Convert the practical problem to a statistical one, define

A statistical goal and identify potential statistical solution A
Analyze Analyze Key team members / resources for the project
I Confirm and test the statistical solution I

Improve Improve Critical milestones and stakeholder review
C Convert the statistical solution to a practical solution C

Control Control
Budget allocation
Measure Analyze
D Ensure measurement system reliability D
Define Define
M M
Measure Measure Understand statistical problem
A Prepare data collection plan A

Analyze Analyze
Define statistical improvement goal

I Collect data I
Improve Improve
C C
Control Baseline current process capability/ Sigma level Control Identify drivers of variation (significant factors)
5
Improve Control
D D Ensure measurement system reliability for
Map improved process
Define Define significant factors
M M
Measure Measure
Improved process capability
Pilot solution
A A
Analyze Analyze
I I
Improve Improve Sustenance Plan
- Statistical Process Control
Identify operating tolerance on significant factors
C C - Mistake Proofing
Control Control - Control Plan
DFSS or DMADV DFSS or DMADV

The Similarities of DMAIC and DMADV
D
Define
Let's first look at the DMAIC and DMADV methodologies and talk
about how they're alike. DMAIC and DMADV are both:
M Six Sigma methodologies used to drive defects to less than 3.4 per
Measure million opportunities.
Data intensive solution approaches. Intuition has no place in Six
A Sigma -- only cold, hard facts.
Analyze Implemented by Green Belts, Black Belts and Master Black Belts.
Ways to help meet the business/financial bottom-line numbers.
D Implemented with the support of a champion and process owner.
Design
V
Validate
DMAIC versus DMADV DFSS or DMADV
DMAIC DMADV When To Use DMAIC

Define
Define the project goals and customer (internal and Define The DMAIC methodology, instead of the DMADV methodology, should be used when a
external) deliverables Define the project goals and customer product or process is in existence at your company but is not meeting customer
(internal and external) deliverables
Measure specification or is not performing adequately.
Measure the process to determine current performance
Measure
Analyze Measure and determine customer needs When to Use DMADV
Analyze and determine the root cause(s) of the defects and specifications The DMADV methodology, instead of the DMAIC methodology, should be used when:
Improve
Improve the process by eliminating defects Analyze A product or process is not in existence at your company and one needs to be developed
Analyze the process options to meet the The existing product or process exists and has been optimized (using either DMAIC or not)
Control customer needs
Control future process performance and still doesn't meet the level of customer specification or six sigma level
Design
Design (detailed) the process to meet the
customer needs
Verify
Verify the design performance and ability
to meet customer needs
6
Six Sigma - Three Dimensions
Customer Process A Process B Vendor
Customer Process A Process B Vendor
Define Measure Analyze Improve Control
Driven by
customer
needs
Process Map Analysis
Six
Six Sigma
Sigma Organization
Organization
LSL US
L
Methodology
Led by
Senior
Mgmt Upper/Lower

specification
limits

Organization Tools

Regression
35 100%
30
80%
25
20 60%
15 40%
10
20%
5
Process variation 0 0%
Enabled by quality
L K A F B C G R D
team.
Frequency Cumulative Frequency
Pareto Chart
The Quality Team The Quality Team

1 Person Project Management Deployment champion
Master Black Belt --Thought
ThoughtLeadership
Leadership
--Expert
Experton
onSix
SixSigma
Sigma
--Mentor
MentorGreen
Greenand
andBlack
BlackBelts
Belts
1 from each unit
Handling Black Belts Functional Champions
-- Backbone
Backboneof ofSix
SixSigma
SigmaOrg
Org
Black Belt Black Belt -- Mentor
MentorGreen
GreenBelts
Belts
--Full Black Belts All Functional department Process owners
Fulltime
timeresource
Each BB handles 1-2 projects
resource
--Deployed
Deployedto tocomplex
complexororhigh
high
risk
riskprojects
projects All Functional department Team members
Green Belt
Green Belts That will Support BBs; 1-2 projects each
Green Belt
--Part
Parttime
timeor
orfull
fulltime
timeresource
resource
Green Belt
--Deployed
Deployedto toless
lesscomplex
complexprojects
projects Operator and Workmen Yellow Belt
ininareas
areasof
offunctional
functionalexpertise
expertise 25% of workmen
Understanding values of Six Sigma and helps GBs, BBs in data collection
Six Sigma Career Option! Six Sigma Application

Basic - Six Sigma Awareness
Green Belt Projects
Green Belt (GB) Participate in Black Belt Projects Engineering/Automobile
Assist business functions with day to day
activities Scrap reduction
Mentor/Train Green Belts
Black Belt (BB) Black Belt Projects Material savings
Change Agents
Work along with the business owners Cycle time reduction
Mentor/ Train Black Belts
Master Black Belt (MBB) Run Strategic projects Rework reduction
Selection/ execution and support six sigma
projects Elimination of chronic problems/ field failures
Highly paid!
Work like a Consultant!
Huge demand in the industry!
Overall
OverallA high flying Career!!
7
Six Sigma Application Six Sigma Application
Chemical/ Process Pharma Industries

Scrap reduction Reduction in recall rate
Yield improvement Reduction in a batches outside the regulatory or compendial
Cycle time reduction acceptance criteria
Parameter optimization Improvement in first time right
Rework reduction
Six Sigma Application Six Sigma Application
Software Health Care

Reduction in development cycle Minimizing waiting time for patients
Reduce released defects per function point Increasing resource utilization in hospital.
Improve Total containment effectiveness Improving efficiency of critical departments ( e.g. emergency
services) in hospital
Suggested Readings and Websites
Books
Business Statistics for contemporary decision

making by Ken Black
Statistics for Management by

Levin & Rubin
Websites
www.treqna.com
www.isixsigma.com 16 STEP PROCESS IMPROVEMENT
www.moresteam.com
------ DMAIC ------
8
Where to start?? Tools & Methods Whats next?? Tools & Methods
1 Understand customer/business requirements 4 CTQ Flowdown to Product reqmt and Detailed Process
Understand VOC: Map
Interviews components
Surveys FMEA
Focus Groups C & E matrix
Affinity diagram High Level Pareto
Kano Analysis
COPC
DMAIC -- Measure
DMAIC -- Define 5 Data Collection Plan and Asses Capability on
measurable Ys
Benchmarking
2 review product/process CT s QFD Baseline
SIPOC Center Limit
HOW 1
HOW 2
HOW 3
HOW 4
HOW 5
HOW 6
HOW 7
Theorem
LSL USL
Need 1
Need 2
5
5
H L
H
L M 65
45 6 Establish measurement system capability Sample size
Need 3
Need 4
3
4 H
M M L
21 calculator
Need 5
Need 6
2
4 M
L
L H
M 36
8 MSA
Need 7 1 L M 52
40 psi
3 mils
8 atm
1 mm
12 in.
3 lbs
4
3
57 41 48 13 50 6 21
3 Problem definition and goals to bridge the gap Project Charter
Whats next??? Tools & Methods Whats next??? Tools & Methods
7 Understanding the relationship between Y and X Graphical tools 10 Understanding Improvement Drivers Model DOE
Brainstorming Prediction Regression
Correlation & Minitab
Regression Analytical /
Simulation
8 Understanding the statistical significance of X Multi Vari analysis
Hypothesis Testing
Correlation
Regression DMAIC -- Improve
DMAIC -- Analyze Screening DOE
11 Analysis of variance drivers and process ANOVA

9 Establish Vital Xs High Level Risk capability Hypothesis Testing
Assessment Cross tabulation
Whats next??? Tools & Methods Whats next?? Tools & Methods
12 Optimize Response -- Make Robust to noise Optimization 14 Statistically validate/verify and Standardize Assess Performance
variables DOE Failure Modes
Process mapping Hypothesis Testing
5S
15 Develop Process/Product control plans SPC

Gauge R&R
DMAIC -- Improve 4.5
X-bar Chart
1
3.0SL=4.506
Mistake Proofing
DMAIC -- Control
Sample Mean
13 Understand/asses Risk FMEA

3.5 X=3.500
2.5 -3.0SL=2.494
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Sample Number
16 Document and closure Business Procedure

Update Score Card
with Improvements
9
Define Phase
The various stages of the Define Phase are:
Generate
Define Screen
Project Ideas
Prioritize
Select
Develop
Charter
Identifying a Project Sources of a Potential Project
There are various sources used to identify a project: Voice of the Customer (VOC) or Market
- Four Voices Hear the emotional outburst of the customer
- Voice of Business VOB Do a self review in comparison to the competitors
Example Coffee delivered by you is not as tasty as served by
- Voice of Customer VOC Mestle
- Voice of Employee / Associate VOE VOB
- Voice of Process - VOP Check if the business goals are being met and identify the gaps
- Cost of Poor Quality COPQ Find the opportunities for improvement
There are three language processing tools used to process the Example We have not been able to meet our annual plan for our
Cash flow in this fiscal year.
potential ideas generated from above sources
- Affinity Diagram VOE
Take feedback from employees in further identifying the scope.
- Interrelationship Diagram
Example A sudden increase in the number of people are falling ill.
- Goal-Means (GM) Diagram / Tree Diagram
- QFD
Sources of a Potential Project Components of Quality (Q) Cost
Voice of the Process (VOP)

Quality (Q) Cost
Identify the following areas for improvement:
Hidden factors, Wastes, and Defects
High resource consumption Cost of Poor Quality Prevention Cost
Ex- Machine Maintenenace
Product unreliability 30%
Example Though we have increased the machine efficiency, 25%
the cycle time for the product still remains the same Appraisal Cost Failure Cost 20%
Ex.Review of invoices 15%

Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ) 10%
Projects based on high COPQ can be retrieved from data on 5%
COPQ from QA, Internal Audits and Management Engineering. Internal Failure External Failure 0% Average
US
Ex. Correcting Ex. Handling Customer Complaints company
Example The field failures have risen suddenly in last few World
erroneous invoices Class
months.
company
6 5 4 3 2
Sigma Level
10
COPQ: Quality Paradigm
Sigma V/s COPQ
30%
Does Improving Quality Increase Cost?
2
COPQ as a Percent of SALES

Old Belief New Belief 25%
Internal Increased Quality Appraisal
Internal Increased Quality Appraisal 3
& Higher Cost
& Higher Cost & Prevention
External 20%
External
Failure
Failure 4
15%
4
4 5 5
6 10%
Quality Quality
5% 6
Paradigm Shift 69% 93.3% 99.4% 99.98% 99.9997%
COPQ REDUCES WITH THE IMPROVEMENT OF QUALITY RTY (% DEFECT-FREE)
Goal Means Diagram Goal Means Diagram

Also called Tree Diagram, Dril Down Tree (DDT), or Flow Down
Diagram.
Customer
Relates CTS, CTQ, and CTP Goal CTS
Language Processing Tools

Critical to Satisfaction (CTS) Big Y
-Main attributes needed to Critical to satisfaction CTS
satisfy the customer (Big Y).
Critical to Quality CTQ
-Ex. Serve a delicious pizza.
Critical to Quality (CTQ) Critical to Process CTP Goal Goal Goal Goal CTQs
-Quality parameter that needs to be controlled. The measurable
characteristics of product or service used to gauge if customer is
satisfied.
-Ex. A hot cheese pizza to be served on time. Means (y) Means (y) Means (y) Means (y)
Critical to Process (CTP)
CTPs
-The measurable output variables related to the process (Little
y(s)) which provide controlled output measure to indicate Means Means Means Means Means Means Means Means
satisfaction of CTQs and CTSs. (y) (y) (y) (y) (y) (y) (y) (y)
-Ex The quantity of cheese in 8 inch pizza should be at least
150 grams.
Exercise Solution
In a recent survey, a popular soft drinks Increase Sales of

Kepsi Soft Drink

company Kepsi discovered that even though
the market of soft drinks had increased, their
sales had remained the same. Build a Goal- Increase Promotion Increase Production Reduce Pron Price Reduce Selling Price
Means diagram to increase the sales of soft
drinks for this company. Identify the Big Y
and little y(s). Newspapers Increase Negotiate
Overtime for RM
Discuss different project ideas in the class Price
and create a Goal Means diagram on the
Magazines / TV / Reduce Extra Localize Cut Process
selected idea. Build a bottom up and top Banners Radio others recruit the Conversion
product ment source Costs
down review. ion
11
QFD (Quality Function Deployment) Use of QFD with other tools
A tool to convert voice of customers (needs or wants) into

technical requirements through use of series of matrix
(tables).
Six Sigma
(DMAIC /
For example: DMADV) DOE
QFD SPC CSI
Customer need of Easy opening of cold drink bottles can Survey
be translated in to Torque required to open the bottle
Customer need of Quick reply to call can be translated
into response within 30 sec. The
voice of
customer
Select Study Sustain Feedback
QFD House of Quality QFD - Parts
Customer portion of QFD VOC is basic input

required to begin a QFD Project
The level of importance that customer Any Complaints (letters, phone calls) from
attach to their wants and needs the customers
Importance
Complaint
The voice Customer
rating
of the competitive
customer evaluations
What that customer said? - How the customer rate your companys
Customer
Technical portions their wants and needs product or services against those of
portions your competitors?
Screening
Project ideas
generated
Developing a new
strategy /
structure/design? YES Check how Six Sigma can support the
new strategy / structure / design?
NO
Is the problem
chronic? Check how Six Sigma can support the
NO
new strategy / structure / design?
YES
Is the best solution

known? The problem should be immediately
YES
corrected and frozen for future?
NO
Are the causes

known? Six Sigma methods may be used to
YES
identify solution?
NO
Passes screen, the project can be defined
12
Exercise Prioritization Matrix
Used for prioritizing the available project ideas

Which of the following can be chosen as Six Sigma Also known as Selection Matrix or L-Matrix
Projects. Is an aid to project selection not the absolutely correct answer.
1. Installing a new machine Can be customized based on the organizational preferences
2. Expanding the product line Criteria Time Contribution Net Tangible Critical to On-going Innovation Total rank
3. Control workmanship defects in an assembly line

required to Business benefits- customer benefits Activity CT
goal Annual reduction
4. Reduce effect of temperature on PCBs while soldering Weight 1- 5 to 6 1- less than 1- less than 1- No link 1- One time 1- 0 to 50%
5. Increase customer satisfaction index months
3- 3 to 4
50%
3- 50 to 80%
50k USD
3- 50 to 100
3- Directly
linked
3- Short
term
3- 50 to 80%
5- 80-100%
6. Increase business profits months

5- less than
5- 80 to
100%
KUSD
5- More than
5- High
impact
5- On-going
3 months 100 KUSD

7. Make paperless office
8. Reduce component defects
9. Reduce insurance cost Y1-Reduce 3 5 5 1 1 1 3*5*5*1*1*1
inventory = 75
Exercise Project Charter: Definition
Classify the following costs as Six Sigma tangible (SST), in-tangible savings (SSIT), or
non-Six Sigma benefits (NSS).
Project Charter
1. Promotion activities increased sales by 20% of advertising cost.
2.
3.
Reduced soldering defects thereby reducing the cost on rework.
5S activities helped gain ISO 9001:2000 for the organisation
Is a Document that Lists
4. Increase product prices by 7% as the raw material price is increased by 5%.
5. The time required to approve the use of new low-cost materials is reduced from an Purposes and Goals
average of 10 days to 5 days.
6. Process simplification reduces the cycle time of a cycle of a cycle by 4.5 minutes
per product. On average, 50 more cycles are produced every day. There is no
for the Project
change in overtime or staffing levels.
7. Carbon is cheaper than rubber and added as 2% of the total compound weight. I
reduce the recipe consumption of carbon by 1% and (had to) increase the rubber
consumption by same amount.
Project Charter: Elements Project Charter: Elements
Develop Business Case

A project charter should contain the following: Why is the project worth doing?
Why is it important to do it now?
Project Information What are the consequences of NOT doing the project?
What activities have higher or equal priority?
Business Case / Importance
How does it fit with the business initiatives and target?
Goals and Measures The purpose of the Problem Statement is to describe what is wrong:
What is wrong or not meeting our customers needs?
Project Scope When and where do the problems occur?
How big is the problem?
Team Composition What is the impact of the problem?
Roles and Responsibilities The Goal Statement then defines the improvement of objective of the team
Defines the improvement the team is seeking to accomplish
Project Schedule
Starts with a verb (Ex. Reduce, eliminate, control, increase)
Expected Benefits Tends to start broadly-eventually should include a measurable target and completion date
13
Project Charter: Problem & Goal Project Charter: Problem & Goal
Statement Statement
The project statement and objective should (together) be - SMART Example:
S: Specific: Stretchable Problem Statement - Our Customers Are Not Paying Credit
Card Dues on Time
M: Measurable
Goal - We intend to reduce the no. of delayed
A: Attainable / Aggressive credit card statements.
R: Relevant / Realistic Improved Example:
T: Time Bound Problem Statement In the last 10 months (when) in the Asia Oceania region
(where), 20% of our credit card users are more than a month late (what) in
Should include NO BLAME, NO SOLUTION, NO CAUSE paying the dues. The percentage of late payments is up from 10% in 2004-
05 to 30% of outstanding receivables (Magnitude) in 2005-06. This is
negatively affecting our recoverable cash flow (impact) by 1000K USD /
year.
Goal: To reduce the percentage of late payments to 15% in next 3 months, and
give tangible savings of 500 KUSD / year
Project Charter: Problem & Goal Statement Project Charter: Scope
Example:
Answer the following questions to determine the scope of your
Problem Statement - Our Customers Are Not Paying Credit Card project
Dues on Time
Why is the project worth doing?
Goal - We intend to reduce the no. of delayed credit
card statements. What process will the team focus on?
Improved Example: What are the boundaries of the process to be improved? Start point? Stop
point?
Problem Statement In the last 10 months (when) in the Asia Oceania
region (where), 20% of our credit card users are more than a month Who are the stakeholders?
late (what) in paying the dues. The percentage of late payments is What resources are available to the team?
up from 10% in 2004-05 to 30% of outstanding receivables
(Magnitude) in 2005-06. This is negatively affecting our recoverable What (if anything) is out-of-bounds for the team?
cash flow (impact) by 1000K USD / year. Under what (if any) constraints must the team work?
Goal: To reduce the percentage of late payments to 15% in next 3 What is the time commitment expected of team members?
months, and give tangible savings of 500 KUSD / year
What are the returns to each team member for the time commitment?
Team Formation Team Selection
Team
Identify the departments closely associated with the problem
Together
Purpose Procedures Choose a representative from each departments
Each one Check authority, responsibility, and knowledge of each member
Roles Relationships
Achieves Any change triggers resistance. Sometimes the resistance is so
strong that it becomes the cause of failure of project.
More
There are active and passive resistors. Passive are difficult to
Characteristics of an Effective handle.
Team Informality
Resistance is a part of the scope of the project and should be
Clear purpose (goal) Contribution
handled at the earliest.
Leadership Constructive disagreement
Committed Consensus decision There is nothing more difficult to take in hand more perilous to
Interaction Open communication
Regular Reviews
conduct, or more uncertain in its success, than to take the
Synergy
Share responsibility lead in the introduction of a new order of things. Nicolo
Clear roles Machiavelli
14
Calculating Financial Benefits
Interpretation of cost savings expected from a Six Sigma Project varies The reported benefits must be directly linked to Six Sigma project, that
from organisation to organisation is, those which would not have been realized otherwise.
Primarily, two types of benefits can be achieved tangible and intangible Expenses on the project must be subtracted to get the net benefit from
Tangible the project
Tangible benefits typically have clear, measurable, positive impacts A financial analyst must be a member of the project so that all the
on income statement or balance sheet. financial calculations are verified and approved by him. The project
sponsor must be made a part of the analysis.
General categories
Following are the various categories of tangible benefits:
Growth (incremental earnings)
Cost takeout Earnings
Cash flow 1. Earnings due to Increased capacity.
Intangible 2. Earnings due to Improved Product Quality / Service Levels.
May be difficult to quantify but could be substantial. Example: 3. Price Adjustment / Concession Expenditure Reduction due to Improved
Cost avoidance: NVA to VA Product Quantity / Service Levels
Customer satisfaction or employee satisfaction 4. Increased Net Sales by reduction in discounts and credits
Cost Takeout
Scrap / Rework Reduction
Staffing or Overtime Reduction

Direct Labour Utilization (Increased Efficiency)
Reduced Operating Expenses
Measure
Material Cost Reduction
Operating Cash Flow
Reduced Accounts Receivable
Increased Accounts Payable
Reduced Inventory
Reduced Plant and Equipment from Increased Capacity or Efficiency
Data Types Sampling

There are basically three categories of data indicators Using a sample of data you draw conclusions about the entire population of data. This is known
- Continuous data as statistical inference. Sampling saves costs and time. Sampling provides a good alternative to
- Defect data collecting all the data. Identifying a specific confidence level allows us to make reasonable
- Defective data business decisions.
Data type can be changed Sampling From a Population
Example- A soft drink factory fills the drink in bottles with 3 0.2 cm as space for air, and sugar Parameters:
content of 1 0.2% , Entire
- In case of defective data, if either of the two parameters fail, the bottle would be determined Population
as defective. The number of defectives can then be counted. of Data Sample
- In case of defect data, the number of flaws (either of two parameters failing from specification)
can be counted to get number of defects.
- In case if continuous data, the air space and sugar content can be measured against the Analysis
respective target values.
Continuous data is the best as it gives maximum information
Statistical Statistics:
Inference X, S, etc.
15
DPU/DPMO RTY/FTY
Defect is anything that results in customer dissatisfaction or non Rolled throughput yield (RTY) is the final cumulative yield when there are
conformance. several processes connected in series.
Unit is the number of parts (or assemblies) inspected. RTY is the amount of non-defective products produced in the final process
compared with the total input in the first process.
Opportunity is a characteristics that s inspected
DPU : Defect per unit

DPO : Defect per opportunity
DPMO : Defect per million opportunity y1 y2 y3 y4
Exercise: A service representative troubleshoots 10 TVs in a day, each having 100

possibilities of defects. He discovers that out of 10 TVs reported, 8 of them had 20 For example, as shown in Figure, there are four processes (A, B, C and D)
defects whereas 2 of them had none. What are the number of units, and
connected in consecutive series with yields y1,y2,y3 and y4 respectively
opportunities. Find DPU and DPMO also
Then RTY of these processes is RTY = y1 * y2 * y3 * y4.
RTY/FTY Sigma Level

Sigma is a Greek letter which is used globally for
Calculating the variation of variables ( called standard
deviation)
Determining the performance of processes ( called
sigma level)
Sigma level determines how capable a process is, in terms
of producing a product/ service with consistent quality
For a process shown in the figure, find out the RTY.
Sigma level performance measuring parameter, can be pf
two types Short term and Long term depending on
the variation type , again short term and long term
variation.
Sigma Level Sigma Level

Sigma level is a metric which can be measured for a process by finding out the LSL USL LSL USL
number of standard deviations between centre and the nearest specification
limit when the process follows normal distribution
LSL USL

3 4
Smaller is the Variation, Higher is the value of Sigma Level and better is the process/ product LSL USL LSL USL
performance
NICHE QUALITY SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD., INDORE NICHE

5 QUALITY SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD., INDORE 6
16
Variation Variation
Variation due to Expected causes/ Random causes/ Common

causes
Variation that is inherent or a natural part of the
process.
Variation due to Un expected causes/ Assignable causes/
Special causes
Unusual pattern of variability that demonstrates
occurrences that are not normally part of a process.
Short and Long Term Performance Process Dynamics
Short Term Performance Long Term Performance

Involves all population data
A process can be affected by common causes and
Involves sample data Includes only common cause and special causes
special cause variation Special cause
Includes only common cause of variaton is an unusual pattern of Variation may occur due to change in operator or
variation Common cause variability that demonstrates occurrences
shift, change in raw material type, change in
that are not normally part of a process
variation is variation that is Assignable & non random variations are
machine of same utility, mould change etc.
inherent or a natural part of other terms used to describe special
the process. It is also called

cause variation.
Determines the performance of process
All the mentioned causes do not let the process
random variation. for long - period mean to fall exactly at the target (centre of spec.).
Calculated using the best Based on number of experiments done and
subgroup from rational sub historical data, statisticians say that there is a shift in
grouping process mean by 1.5
Determines how capable the
from the centre of the specification
process is.
Process Dynamics Process Dynamics

LSL USL Static Process
Mean of a short- Short term 6 6 Process mean can move to the left
term process drifts Performance or right by 1.5 sigma from centre of

by 1.5 sigma over a specification
0.001 0.001
long period of time
PPM PPM
Time A
Time B
Time C 1.5
Time D 12
LSL USL
7.5 4.5
Time E
Long term (sustained)
Performance
Dynamic Process 3.4
Shortest distance from mean and
closest specification limit is 4.5 sigma PPM
The probability of process going out-of-

specification is 3.4 ppm
12
17
Data Collection
Calculating Sigma Level
The next step is to collect data and perform
Sigma Level Measurement system and Process capability
- Long term (Zlt) analysis. Based on metric chosen for y, historical data is
Collect enough data. Find % defectives. Find Z values
taken. In case , the data is not already available, it may
- Short term ( Zst) be collected for a justifiable period. During data
Zst= Zlt+1.5
collection, following things have to be taken care of
Involve team
Take sufficient data for reliable results
Sometimes high amount of data us required. This
may be difficult, involve high cost, labor, boredom,
redundancy, and may result in erroneous data. In
such for
Criterion cases, Data may be Should
good sample
Represent population
collected
not beon sampling
biased
basis. Should be random
Measurement System Analysis Measurement System Analysis

MSA implies assessing the existing measurement system for the metric chosen for the
project y.
Measurement value
= True Value + Measurement Error Observed Variation
Statistically, True Variation
Actual (Part) + Meas. System = Observed (Total)

Measurement System
2Actual (Part) + 2Meas. System = 2Observed (Total) Variation
No parameter can be measured accurately!!!

Exercise Each team should give at least two examples of measurement errors which Reproducibility
are observed in routine
Gage variation (
includes repeatability)
Measurement System Analysis Assessment of Mean: Continuous Data

When data is collected, following the variation involved apart from the actual Actual (Part) + Meas. System = Observed (Total)
process variation
Observed Process Variation In- accuracy:

Difference in
Actual Process Variation Measurement Variation true value and
observed value
Long Short Variation Variation
Term Term due to due to
Process Process gauge operator
Variation Variation In stability:
Inaccuracy over
Accuracy Reproducibility
(Bias) time Time
Precision
(Pure Error)
Repeatability Non- Linearity:

Stability Inaccuracy over
(time dependent) value
Linearity
(value dependent)
NICHE QUALITY SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD., INDORE LSLNICHE QUALITY SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD., INDORE USL
18
Assessment of Variation: Continuous Data Assessment of Variation: Continuous Data
2Actual (Part) + 2 Meas. System = 2Observed (Total) 2Actual (Part) + 2 Meas. System = 2Observed (Total)
Repeatability Reproducibility Repeatability Reproducibility
GOOD GOOD
Operator 1 Operator 2 Operator 3 Operator 1 Operator 2 Operator 3
POOR POOR
Operator 1 Operator 2 Operator 3 Operator 1 Operator 2 Operator 3
Process Capability Process Capability
Process Capability is the capability of a process to meet customer requirement Process Variation:
(Specification limits).
Process capability Index is a metric used to quantify capability of a process.
-3 +3
Total Process Variation = 6
Process Capability Process Capability

LSL USL Cp= 1.33 ProcessShift Cp= 1.33
LSL LSL
USL USL
-3 +3 Rejection
Process Variation
Tolerance/ Customer requirement
Process Dispersion Process Dispersion
Cp= Tolerance/ Process Variation
Cp= USL LSL/ 6
19
Process Capability Process Capability & Process Performance
Cpk: Cp is potential process capability index when process mean is equal to
This is a capability index which takes process location specification center
as well as the capability in to account. Cpk is potential process capability index when process mean is not equal to
specification center
Pp ( Process performance) is actual process capability index when process
Cpk is calculated as minimum of CPU & CPL where: mean is equal to specification center
Ppk is actual process capability index when process mean is not equal to
CPU=USL- X /3 specification center
Cp= USL LSL
CPL= X - LSL/ 3 6
Cpk = Min. (Cpl, Cpu)
Pp= USL LSL

6lt
NICHE QUALITY SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD., INDORE Ppk = Min.NICHE
(Ppl, PQUALITY
pu) SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD., INDORE
Process Capability Process Capability Cp and Pp
Cp,Cpk The capability index for a stable process. The estimate Cp uses and estimate of standard deviation based on within
sigma is based on within subgroup variation. subgroup variation
Pp,Ppk The process performance index. The estimate of sigma is
Cp = USL LSL
based on total variation.
Think of Ppk as being the actual performance of the process since
its estimate of variation includes ALL observed variation. 6 subgroups
Think of Cpk as the potential performance, or the potential capability. R / d2

when subgroup ranges are specified
This is, it is what wed get for the Ppk IF we removed all instability
S / C4
between subgroups. Where subgroups = when subgroup std deviations are specified
Think of Cp as the best potential performance. Not only does it
assume the process is completely stable, but it also assumes it is
MR / d 2
when subgroup std deviations are specified
perfectly centered.
Process Capability Cp and Pp
Pp uses and estimate of standard deviation based on within subgroup variation

Pp = USL LSL
6 Overall
Analyze
Where overall
20
Process mapping
Objective
The objective of doing project y is to solve the unknown transfer function y =
f(x). After the current performance is available and validated for
Process Mapping:
measurements, the next step is to identify causes x(s) and prioritize.
There are a number of tools to do this. A few discussed here are- Is a graphical representation of activities, steps, information, resources and their
interactions.
Detailed Process Mapping / Process Flow Diagram (PFD).
Process Map is also called a flowchart.
Deployment Flow Chart (DFC)
Process Mapping is a first step in understanding how and why a process
Cause & Effect (C&E) Diagram behaves the way it does.
Pareto diagram
Function Deployment Matrix (FDM)
Affinity Diagram (AD) and Interrelationship Diagram (ID)
Understanding a process Why map a process?
A process is a series of logical steps that transform inputs (raw materials) Mapping a process has many uses:
in to customer defined outputs.
Compare actual vs. assumed (designed) flow
Identify redundant, duplicate or non value add steps
Identify data collection points in the process
Study interaction and interdependencies between different departments
Identify VA and NVAs and potential Xs
A process may be largely affected by one or more of the following factors:

Personnel who operate the processes;
Materials which are used as inputs (including information);
Machines or equipment being used in the process (in process execution or
monitoring/ measurement;
Methods (including criteria and various documentations used along the
process);
Work environment
Types of Process Maps Process Map- Example

Pickup cheques from Carry cheques to Prepare drop box Check specified parameters
START drop boxes central office MIS on cheques
Process for No Is the cheque

invalid cheque
valid?
Yes
Detach cheque Enter in indigenous Provide unique serial
& slip tailor-made software number to cheque
Re-entry of cheque for Print statement & Transfer data file to Submit cheque for
reverification prepare voucher main location clearing to bank
Rectify error
Entry END
Matching?
Yes
No
Go to validation screen
for error finding
21
VA and NVA Activities
VA and NVA Activities - Exercise
Real Value-added Classify the following activities as VA or NVA:
Is this step needed to meet a customers demand? 1. Every material bought from vendor is inspected for feasibility in
Does this step add value to the final product or service that is assembly line.
delivered to the customer?
Does this step contribute directly to the customers satisfaction? 2. The semiconductor transistor (a component) is first fixed on a jig
Is the customer willing to pay for this activity? before silica compound is applied on it for heat convection.
Business Value Added 3. Every time there is a service call from the customer, each
Is this step performed to control or manage the business? representative wishes him / her before the issue is discussed.
Is this step a review, an inspection, or approval? 4. The organisation is so quality conscious that it leaves no product
Non Value-Added unchecked before it is dispatched.
Is this step one of storage or waiting time? 5. Whenever I have to call for a meeting, I send a mail to all and also
Does this step include unnecessary transportation or movement remind them an hour before the scheduled time.
of raw materials or products?
VA: Value Added and NVA: Non-Value Added Activity
Is this step performed to overcome an organizational problem?
Is this step necessary to correct errors caused earlier?
Cause and Effect Diagram

Show the relationships between a problem and its possible causes. Cause Effect
Developed by Kaoru Ishikawa (1953)
Also known as
Machine Method Material
Fishbone diagrams
Ishikawa diagrams
Problem
Statement
Measurement Personnel Environment

Pareto Diagram
MAN MACHINE
Alignment of Ram n/ok
Gear ratio improper

Pareto chart is named after an Italian economist
Die setting by unskilled man power Vilfredo Pareto whose theory states that 80%
Play in guide
of wealth is owned by 20% of the population.
Based on this theory, the chart is used to visually
Ovality in depict the significance level of categories plotted.
Coin
Bush/Punch clearance n/ok
Ovality in Bush/Punch
Blanking The theory that 80% of the problems come from
Conc. Of Bush/Punch n/ok
Sheet hardness variation 20% of the causes is called Paretos principle.
CD of holes (in die) Not OK
While the percentages may not be always exactly
Bush wear
Bush Hardness
Sheet thickness variation
80/20, there usually are the vital few and the
Less mtl on sheet edge
trivial many.
Coolant composition Sheet flatness n/ok Vilfredo Pareto
1848 - 1923
METHOD MATERIAL
22
Pareto Diagram Pareto Diagram
Pareto Chart depicts (visually) the total expenses for six months for each
of the five departments.
The Pareto principle is to concentrate on vital few Pareto Chart of Deptt
rather than trivial many . The Pareto diagram is a tool 120000
100
for identifying few actually important causes which have
100000
large contribution for a problem, instead of concentrating Maximum 80
on large number of causes which contributes to a small
Travel Expenses
80000 Contributors
proportion
Percent
60
60000
Paretos Law A relatively small number of causes 40
40000
will typically produce a large majority of the problems
or defects (80/20 rule) 20000 20
0 0
Department D A E B Other
Count 42300 30300 23100 14800 3100
Percent 37.2 26.7 20.3 13.0 2.7
Cum % 37.2 63.9 84.2 97.3 100.0
Run Chart Run Chart

To track process over a period of time for stability. Tests for if Run chart can be plotted for:
there are any trends, clusters, oscillations in the process. Individual values
Indicates any special cause variation in the process.
Means or Medians of subgroups (if subgroups are
present)
Important thing to remember is that data should be in a time
order before a run chart is plotted. If the data is sorted or it does
not follow the time order in any other way, run chart loses its Apart from looking for process stability over a period of
significance. time, run chart can also give graphical representation of
pre and post process changes comparison as it is plotted
Run chart studies the stability of process over a period of time on time scale.
by studying any abnormality is data like trends, clusters and so
on.
The only difference between run chart and control chart
comes from the control limits.
Run Chart Histogram

Run Chart of vehicle waiting time
300
If the data are generated from a process in statistical
250 control, the data as a group tend to form a stable
pattern called a distribution
200
Time (min)
150
Distributions are characterized by :
100 a) location (average or typical value)
50 b) spread (amount of variation)
0
c) shape (the pattern of variation - bell-shaped,
1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 symmetrical, etc.)
Observation
Number of runs about median: 40 Number of runs up or down: 72
Expected number of runs: 50.09091 Expected number of runs: 65.66667
Longest run about median: 10 Longest run up or down: 4
Approx P-Value for Clustering: 0.01989 Approx P-Value for Trends: 0.93620
Approx P-Value for Mixtures: 0.98011 Approx P-Value for Oscillation: 0.06380
23
Histogram Histogram
Histogram of Casting Hardness
20
15
Frequency
10
0
183 186 189 192 195 198 201 204
Hardness
Histogram Stem and Leaf Plots

Another way to organize raw data into groups
Histogram of Shaft Dia
18
Looks similar to histogram, displays all original values
16 It is prepared by separating the digits of each number of the data
14 into two groups, a stem and a leaf
12
Frequency
10
0
19.931 19.933 19.935 19.937 19.939 19.941 19.943
Dia
Stem and Leaf Plots Stem and Leaf Plots

Data on marks in the examination are given below. Construct a 4 8
Stem and Leaf display and comment.
5 7 1 0
79 78 78 67 76 87 85 73 66 6 7 6 6 3 1
99 84 72 66 57 94 84 72 63 7 9 8 8 6 3 2 2 1
51 48 50 61 71 82 93 100 89 8 7 5 4 4 2 9
9 9 4 3
10 0
24
Scatter plot, Correlation & Regression Correlation Analysis
Scatter plot shows the relationship between input and output variables
whereas correlation analysis quantifies the relationship using
Scatter plot suggests relationship between two variables but correlation coefficient r.
does not quantify it. Value of r can vary between 1 and 1 depending on whether the
Correlation Analysis: A technique to quantify the strength of relationship is positive or negative. It will hold 0 value if there is no
relationship between output and input variable in terms of relationship.
correlation coefficient r.
Regression Analysis: Statistical analysis technique to identify
functional relationship between an input variable x and an output y y
variable y and to predict the output variable using regression
equation which can give the value of output for given input value Decision points
(s).
Strong Negative Strong Positive

x x
No
relationship
Negative Positive
r = -1 relationship r=0 relationship r = +1
Regression Analysis
Scatter Plot
A survey is conducted in a city whereby samples of water
are taken and the salt content is measured. \conduct
regression analysis to find if there is any relationship
between amount of water and salt content. Determine the
regression equation.
Water (lt) 13 100 33 13 15 17 33 29 14 15 20 26 66 9 32 16 9

Salt content (gm) 7 45 23 9 10 12 22 20 10 12 15 20 36 2 22 10 5
Regression Analysis Hypothesis Testing

Scatterplot of Salt content (gm) vs Water (lt)
50
Used to prove which are the factors that are actually impacting the
40
mean or standard deviation of the project.
Salt content (gm)
30 To see the impact of improvements after they are implemented

20
Identification and validation of factors which impact process
performance.
10
Validate improvement in process
0 Statistically validate our statement about the characteristics of
0 20 40 60 80 100
Water (lt) population
Helps in decision making process. Enabler for data driven approach.
Correlations: Water (lt), Salt content (gm)
Pearson correlation of Water (lt) and Salt content (gm) = 0.962
Regression Analysis: Water (lt) versus Salt content (gm)
The regression equation is
Water (lt) = - 5.28 + 1.98 Salt content (gm)
25
Hypothesis Testing
Improve
Objective Tools for Improve

At the end of the Analyze phase, we have vital few Xs for our project y available with us.
Design of Experiments (DOE)
The objective of the Improve phase is to find the optimum settings of Xs, which
can give the required outcome for y. Other Methods
Brainstorming
Creative Thinking
At the end of this phase, you will be able to:
Benchmarking
Propose a solution for project y through mathematical model or otherwise
Alternate Selection Matrix
Optimize the process Basic Tools
Confirm that the solution proposed meets the improvement goal Mistake Proofing
Identify resources required for full scale implementation Visual Standards
Execute and Standardize the process, provide training and documentation to the Cause and Effect
involved personnel Process Map
Regression
Any of the tool, which can be applied to the project for improvement
Brainstorming Creative Thinking

Creativity
Brainstorming is a Proven Group Technique for Is an Ability to imagine or invent something new, to generate new ideas by
combining, changing, or reapplying existing ideas. Everyone has substantial
Generating New Ideas on a Particular Topic creative ability. All that is needed to be creative is to make a commitment to
It creates creativity and innovation creativity and to take the time for it.
Must not be used as a substitute for data Is an Attitude to accept change and newness, a willingness to play with ideas
and possibilities, a flexibility of outlook, the habit of enjoying the good, while
looking for ways to improve it.
Barriers to the flow of ideas Is a Process. Creative people work hard and continually to improve ideas and
Dominance of few individuals solutions, by making gradual alterations and refinements to their works.
The creative person knows that there is always room for improvement.
Inability of the group to suspend judgment and analysis
26
Benchmarking Design of Experiments (DOE)
Identifying, Understanding, and Adapting A system is a set of input, process and output where
Outstanding Practices process is the sequence of activities which are
Benchmark performed to give the desired output.
Z Short term
An experiment is a test or a series of tests which are
Baseline
P(x)
intentionally performed on input variables in a system

to see the effect in response variable.
A SYSTEM
Baseline is the current level of performance
INPUT
Z short term is the achievable level of performance with the already existing
resources.
Benchmark is the ultimate goal. It is generally the best existing performance or PROCESS
same or different organisation.
OUTPUT
Design of Experiments
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA)
DOE Helps in FMEA is a tool that was first used to design aircrafts in 1950s. It forms a
part of Six Sigma learning since it incorporates structured team
Reduce variation and closure conformance to nominal approach to:
Identify the ways in which a process can fail to meet critical customer
Improve yield requirements.
Estimate the risk of occurrence of causes with regard to these failures
Reduced development time
Evaluate the current control measures for preventing these failures from
occurring
Reduced overall costs
Prioritize the causes and develop actions that should be taken to improve
the process.
Types of FMEA When to Use FMEA

When designing new Systems, products and processes.
Types of FMEA When changing the existing designs or processes or their environment
System FMEA: Used to analyze systems and subsystems in the early To prevent recurrence of problem
concept and design stages. Focuses on potential failure modes associated
FMEA is useful for selecting hardware for new System functions.
with the functions of a system caused by design.
For a Design FMEA, releasing the design to FMEA after product functions
Design FMEA: Used to analyze products before they are released to
are defined.
production.
For a Process FMEA, when preliminary drawings of the product are available.
Process FMEA: Used to analyze manufacturing, assembly and transactional
processes We will only discuss Process FMEA for the benefit of all.
27
FMEA FMEA Continued
Defines Rates the Lists the causes Now how How Rates how RPN is: Documents Actual action Actual Rates how Document Rates how RPN
process step Severity of for each failure often a new well the Sev*Occ actions taken against completion date often a s how the well the number
and failure the Effect to mode; Each particular controls cause or the * Det recommended recommended particular cause is cause or the is
modes. Uses the customer cause is cause or are Failure based on RPN actions cause or currently Failure recalcula
the x-y map on a 1 to 10 associated with a Failure Mode working Mode can pareto Failure Mode being Mode can ted when
process PFD / scale process input occurs: 1= in the now be occurs: 1= controlled now be action is
Process map out-of-spec Not often, 10 process detected 1 = Not often, 10 in the detected 1 = complete
= Very often Detect every = Very often process Detect every d
Lists the Recomm
Risk Priority No. (RPN)

time 10 = time 10 =
effect of ended
Cannot Cannot
Potential failure mode
each Target
Detect Detect
Failure Date
Mode
Risk Priority Number

Current controls
Effect of failure
Cause of failure
Actual completion
Recommended action
Process/Functional
Action Taken
Responsibility and
Detectability
Detectability
Target Date
Occurrence
Occurrence
requirement
Severity
Severity
RPN
date
FMEA Continued
POTENTIAL FAILURE MODE AND EFFECT ANALYSIS
(PROCESS FMEA)
Item : Process Responsibility : FMEA No.

Model : Key Date : Prepared By :
Core Team : Original Date : Rev.No. & Date:
D
C O Action Results
Process/ Potential Potential Current Current e Resp. & O D
Potential S l c R Recomme- S R
Function Effect(s) Cause(s) Process Process t Target Action c e
Control
Failure e a c P nded e P
Require- of Mech.of Control Control e Completio Taken c t
Mode v s u N Action(s) v N
ments Failure Failure Pre. Det. c n Date u e
s r
t
Control Phase: Definition Mistake-Proofing
Mistake-proofing is:
The control Phase of Six Sigma is used to develop and implement Process A technique to make the happening of errors impossible, making the
Control Plan to ensure sustenance of the improved process system / process fool-proof
Also called Pokayoke (In Japanese)
Objective is to create zero defects
For mistake-proofing, identify repetitive, non-value adding tasks performed
for detection of errors.
28
Control Charts Control Charts
Variations occur in all processes Control charts consist of
Random Variation: Center line CL = sample mean m
Natural for the process Upper Control Limit UCL = m+3 standard deviation
Predictable Lower Control Limit LCL = m-3 standard deviation
Occurs randomly over time Control limits are at a distance of 3 standard deviations on
Also called common cause variation either side of the center line.
Generally process remains in control Control chart may be created
Non-random Variation For analysis of the process: for specifications
setting or correction
Not part of the normal operation of the process
For process control: detecting assignable causes
Unexpected, sporadic variation in process and improvement
Result of some specific assignable cause To judge if the product / process under study is
Also called special cause variation acceptable or not
Process goes out of control
Control Charts display the total variation in a process so that it can be
monitored and kept in control (within its operating capability)
Control Charts Control Charts - Types
Steps in creation and analysis of Control Charts Based on the data type, control charts are classified as below:
Select the variable to be analyzed Data Type
Determine rational subgroup / frequency

Determine appropriate sample size
Choose the control chart based on the data type Continuous Defect Continuous
Measurable variable data Number attribute data Measurable variable data
Plot the data
Check the result for the points out of control
Investigate for assignable cause variation and make
improvements Subgroup size? Subgroup size? Subgroup size?
n=1 n=2 to 9 n>9* Fixed Variable Fixed Variable
I-MR X bar R X bar S C U NP P
Control Plan Control Plan

After the control chart is made and the assignable causes are eliminated, the data The control plan must include the information shown in the format.
is random and the process is in control. The format may be changed as per the process requirement.
Control measures need to be taken to maintain the process as desired in long run. The responsibilities must be delegated to the persons concerned with proper auditing
A control plan is formulated to maintain all the improvements except those where procedures and a reaction plan.
mistake-proofing is applied. Finally the plan must be handed over to the process owner for him to ensure that it is
None of the vital Xs should be ignored for improvement. regularly followed.
The existing control systems and procedures of the process must incorporate the
control of Xs.
The responsibility of ensuring that the control plan is followed must be transited from
the project leader to the process owner.
Machine, Methods
Part / Process Name Characteristics Special
Device, Jig, Evaluation Sample
Process /Operation Char. Product / process Reaction Plan
Tools for Measurement Control Method
Number Description No. Product Process Class spec. /Tolerance Size Freq.
Mfg. Techniques
29
Final Steps Final Steps
Process Instructions: Training must be imparted based on the changes suggested by
DMAIC methodology
Must be clearly defined Clear objective
Easy to understand
Documented
Demonstration of skill
Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) Involvement of Process experts and actual workers
Work Manuals Preventive Maintenance
Rules and Specifications Proactive (root caused-based), Predictive (condition-
Approved by authorities based) and Preventive (interval-based) maintenance must
Should include purpose, scope, parameters to control, methods, measurement be done to avoid any Reactive (breakdown) maintenance
techniques, decision criteria, control method, EHS considerations, assumptions (if
any) May address any of the 5M, 1E * inputs to focus on
Reliability and not Repair
* Man, Method, Material, Measurement and Environment
Final Steps Final Steps

Documentation of the project is important to keep it as a permanent Translation: the project is
record and share it amongst the members or other areas with similar Handed over with documentation and control plan to the
process. process owner
It includes:
Any changes recommended are incorporated, monitoring
Finalizing project financial results methods are discussed
Completing the documentation of all steps of DMAIC The project is then translated for similar processed
methodology running in the organization directly or after customization
Getting approval of the customer, authorities concerned on
Project Closure.
Summarized DMAIC Sequence
Choose the right CTQ related to customer

Flow it down to a measurable internal y
Find the potential factors affecting y Good Luck
Identify the vital few factors from the potential Xs
Form a relationship between y and the vital Xs For Your
Define prediction equation
Define optimum settings for Xs Six Sigma
Modify the process to maintain the settings
Ensure that the process remains controlled
Journey
Customer will be delighted!
30

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Evolution of Quality

Six sigma We are in Business to Earn Profit

NICHE QUALITY SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD.,

Evolution of Quality Evolution of Quality

In Todays Competitive Scenario Organizational Challenges

Evolution of Quality Segments in Quality

Methodologies Standards Capability Models

A metric that demonstrates quality

Benchmark A benchmark for product and

Commitment A commitment to customers to offer

. . . to optimize the processes to perform efficiently

Meaning of Sigma Meaning of Sigma

Meaning of Sigma Meaning of Sigma

Average= 194.2, Sigma= 4.4

Measure of Quality Measure of Quality

Measure of Quality Measure of Quality

4 Sigma 6,210 Defects Target

3 Sigma 66,807 Defects

NICHE QUALITY SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD., INDORE Reducing Variability is the

Measure of Quality Origin of Six Sigma

Drinking Unsafe drinking water Unsafe drinking water

Hospital 5000 incorrect 2 incorrect

The Growth of Six Sigma The Growth of Six Sigma

2002/03 - Green Belt certification became the criteria for promotion to

Convert the practical problem to a statistical one, define

I Confirm and test the statistical solution I

C Convert the statistical solution to a practical solution C

A Prepare data collection plan A

Define statistical improvement goal

DFSS or DMADV DFSS or DMADV

DMAIC versus DMADV DFSS or DMADV

DMAIC DMADV When To Use DMAIC

Define Measure Analyze Improve Control

The Quality Team The Quality Team

Six Sigma Career Option! Six Sigma Application

Chemical/ Process Pharma Industries

Six Sigma Application Six Sigma Application

Software Health Care

Suggested Readings and Websites

Business Statistics for contemporary decision

Statistics for Management by

3 Problem definition and goals to bridge the gap Project Charter

11 Analysis of variance drivers and process ANOVA

15 Develop Process/Product control plans SPC

13 Understand/asses Risk FMEA

16 Document and closure Business Procedure

Identifying a Project Sources of a Potential Project

Sources of a Potential Project Components of Quality (Q) Cost

Voice of the Process (VOP)

Example Though we have increased the machine efficiency, 25%

Ex.Review of invoices 15%

Projects based on high COPQ can be retrieved from data on 5%

COPQ as a Percent of SALES

Goal Means Diagram Goal Means Diagram

Language Processing Tools

In a recent survey, a popular soft drinks Increase Sales of

Language Processing Tools

Kepsi Soft Drink

A tool to convert voice of customers (needs or wants) into

QFD House of Quality QFD - Parts

Customer portion of QFD VOC is basic input

Is the best solution

Are the causes

Used for prioritizing the available project ideas