See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303685309

Pontoon Bridges

Conference Paper May 2016

CITATIONS READS

0 1,729

1 author:

Sergio Tattoni
Politecnico di Milano
33 PUBLICATIONS 21 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Industrial Floors View project

Fire Design View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Sergio Tattoni on 31 May 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Centro Internazionale di
Aggiornamento Sperimentale Scientifico

Evoluzione nella sperimentazione per le costruzioni

Prof. Sergio Tattoni - Politecnico di Milano

I ponti di barche
 Pontoon Bridges
S. Tattoni
Politecnico di Milano Dept. ABC
piazza Leonardo da Vinci, 32 20133 Milano, Italy

Abstract

Pontoon bridges are not just a folkloristic curiosity or a military device, but they
represent an effective and economical solution for crossing large stretches of deep
water. The length of these bridges is not limited by structural or technological
problems and some of them extend over more than 3000 m.
In this paper, after a brief excursus on floating and pontoon bridge in Italy and
abroad, the main components of this structure are described and guidance for
structural modeling and design is provided.
Hints are also given to possible future developments that could allow this technology
to be a valid alternative to traditional bridges, even with heavy and intense traffic.

Keywords
Bridges, pontoon bridges, conceptual design, structural design,
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Why talk about pontoon bridges?

It is widely acknowledged that pontoon bridges are limited to the field of Military
Engineering and otherwise considered folkloristic and obsolete works for crossing
rivers and swamps. The theory and technique of the pontoon bridges are not taught in
our universities, and most of the structural designers do not think they have occasion to
deal with one of them, much less to project a new one.
However, the pontoon bridges are source of inspiration for new structural
applications and researches while, in certain cases, represent a simple, rapid and
economic solution for crossing sheets of water.
In this paper the Author intends to illustrate some of the most significant works in
Italy and abroad and to tackle the issues that could be of major interest for structural
engineers.

1.2 Pontoon Bridges in Italy

Contrary to what happens in other countries, pontoon bridges in Italy are becoming
obsolete and there remain only few specimens for secondary roads utility (Figures
from 1 to 4). These bridges can be crossed only by bikes, cars or little trucks at
moderate speed, nevertheless they represent an important pole of attraction for tourists
wandering in the surrounding nature. It is no coincidence that these works are located
within natural reserves such as Parco del Ticino, Parco dellOglio, or in significant
wetlands in the Po river delta near Rovigo (RO).
Some of them have been recently restored: most of the interventions involved the
replacement of barges, originally in "ferro-cemento"1, with new steel boats. Wooden
barges are no longer employed. In other cases the interventions were more radical and
also involved the deck and the ramps.

Figure 1. The bridges in Berguardo (PV) on Ticino river and in Torre dOglio (MN)
on Oglio river.

1
Ferro-cemento is a composite material, consisting of cement mortar of high quality that covers a
reinforcement made from a few bars and several layers of steel mesh. It was invented and patented,
around the forties, by Pier Luigi Nervi
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

Figure 2. The bridges in Goro and in Gorino (RO) at the mouth of the Po River.

Figure 3. The della Donzella (RO) and della Gnocca bridges (RO).

Figure 4. Pontoon bridge at Cortellazzo di Piave (VE) on Piave river.

Only in one case (Figure 5) a whole new bridge was built in 2009 in order to allow
the repair of the existing steel bridge damaged by the flood of Po river. This bridge has
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

now been dismantled.

To the Authors knowledge, there are no plans for the construction in Itlay of
pontoon or floating bridges at the present time.

Figure 5. The provisional pontoon bridge on Po river (PC) 2009.

1.3 Pontoon Bridges in the World

Unlike to what happens in Italy, in other countries the pontoon bridge sees an
increase in its development and importance in the context of the infrastructures. United
States, Canada, Norway, China and other Eastern countries have used this technology
to create works of great importance and have brought a strong innovation in the sector.
The four longest pontoon bridges in the world are located in North America and
support a large amount of heavy traffic also in extreme climatic conditions (Figures 6 -
8).
In Norway we highlight the original combination of a floating bridge with a
submerged tunnel (Figure 9). Designed by Snhetta Rovdefjordbrua it is an amazing
floating bridge with a 230 meter long submerged tunnel that allows the crossing of the
fjord south of lesund without interrupting vessel traffic. The project aims to
investigate new bridge technology. The project in Rovdefjorden could be the worlds
first submerged floating tunnel with water on all sides, and it is therefore an important
pilot project for fjord crossings [13].
In the Maldives an original floating bridge brilliantly reconciles the need for
connection between two islands with landscape and environmental requirements
(Figure 10). A conventional design would implicate several big foundations at the sea
bed which are not only costly and complex to build but also have a very negative
impact on any life at the bottom of the ocean [14].
Finally, the enlargement hypothesis of a pontoon bridge in China (Figure 11) proves
the vitality of this type of structure in a rapidly growing country.
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

Figure 6. Highway floating bridge on Lake Washington (US) and in Vancouver

(CAN).

Figure 7. Double highway floating bridge in Seattle (US) in the calm and in the
storm.

Figure 8. Floating Bridge in Pearl Harbour and in Illinois (US).

Figure 9. Pontoon Bridge in lesund Fjord (Norway)

 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

Figure 10. Floating Bridge in Maldives.

Figure 11. Section of existing floating bridge in China and hypothesis of

enlargement to cope with the increase in traffic.

1.4 Pontoon Bridges in the Future

Many new ideas boil in the pot of the most imaginative designers; among them we
may find new inspiration to realize the pontoon bridges of the future. Here are some
examples certainly not intended as folkloristic works.
In Figure 12 it is shown an idea for self-floating reinforced concrete precast bridge
segments to be realized in shipyard and then tugged by sea and assembled in the
selected location.
The astounding idea to cross the Bering Strait by a railway line supported by a
pontoon bridge is showed in Figure 13.
The need to obtain increasingly greater quantities of energy from clean and
renewable sources, suggests to combine a pontoon bridge to electric generators (Figure
14): propellers are actuated by motion of water (stream or tides).
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

Figure 12. Self floating precast segment for a floating bridge.

Figure 13. Railway crossing of Bering Strait.

Figure 14. Combination of a pontoon bridge with electric generators.

 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

2. HISTORIA MAGISTRA VITAE2

It is reasonable to assume that the first attempts of humans to cross the waterways
holding on to floating bodies date back to prehistoric times, but the first detailed
description of an organized system of crossing a wide stretch of sea dates back to the
5th century BC. Herodotus in his Histories (Hdt. 7.34 7.37) reports the
construction of a bridge of boats across the Hellespont by the Persian king Xerxes.
But lets let Herodotus speak [3].

It is my intent to bridge the Hellespont and lead my army through Europe to Hellas, so I may
punish the Athenians for what they have done to the Persians and to my father.
.
Thus Xerxes did this. He assigned the Phoenicians and Egyptians to make ropes of papyrus
and white flax for the bridges, and to store provisions for his army, so that neither the army
nor the beasts of burden would starve on the march to Hellas.
.
The men who had been given this assignment made bridges starting from Abydos across to
that headland; the Phoenicians one of flaxen cables, and the Egyptians a papyrus one. From
Abydos to the opposite shore it is a distance of seven stadia. But no sooner had the strait
been bridged than a great storm swept down, breaking and scattering everything.
When Xerxes heard of this, he was very angry and commanded that the Hellespont be
whipped with three hundred lashes, and a pair of fetters be thrown into the sea. I have even
heard that he sent branders with them to brand the Hellespont.
He commanded them while they whipped to utter words outlandish and presumptuous,
Bitter water, our master thus punishes you, because you did him wrong though he had done
you none. Xerxes the king will pass over you, whether you want it or not; in accordance with
justice no one offers you sacrifice, for you are a turbid and briny river.
He commanded that the sea receive these punishments and that the overseers of the bridge
over the Hellespont be beheaded.
So this was done by those who were appointed to the thankless honor, and new engineers set
about making the bridges. They made the bridges as follows: in order to lighten the strain of
the cables, they placed fifty-oared ships and triremes alongside each other, three hundred
and sixty to bear the bridge nearest the Euxine sea, and three hundred and fourteen to bear
the other; all lay obliquely to the line of the Pontus and parallel with the current of the
Hellespont.
After putting the ships together they let down very great anchors, both from the end of the
ships on the Pontus side to hold fast against the winds blowing from within that sea, and
from the other end, towards the west and the Aegean, to hold against the west and south
winds. They left a narrow opening to sail through in the line of fifty-oared ships and triremes,
that so whoever wanted to could sail by small craft to the Pontus or out of it.
After doing this, they stretched the cables from the land, twisting them taut with wooden
windlasses; they did not as before keep the two kinds apart, but assigned for each bridge two
cables of flax and four of papyrus.
All these had the same thickness and fine appearance, but the flaxen were heavier in
proportion, for a cubit of them weighed a talent.

2
History is teacher of life (Cicerone, De Oratore II, 9)
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

When the strait was thus bridged, they sawed logs of wood to a length equal to the breadth
of the floating supports, and laid them in order on the taut cables; after placing them
together they then made them fast. After doing this, they carried brushwood onto the bridge;
when this was all laid in order they heaped earth on it and stamped it down; then they made
a fence on either side, so that the beasts of burden and horses not be frightened by the sight
of the sea below them.
When the bridges and the work at Athos were ready, and both the dikes at the canal's
entrances, built to prevent the surf from silting up the entrances of the dug passage, and the
canal itself were reported to be now completely finished, the army then wintered. At the
beginning of spring the army made ready and set forth from Sardis to march to Abydos.

The brilliant prose of Herodotus contains detailed technical information about the
construction of the pontoon bridge over the Hellespont, so that it seems to read tender
specifications. The highlights are:
the floating elements (ships, barges, boats),
the anchorages,
the navigable passages (i.e. the possibility for a ship to pass throughout the
bridge),
the possibility to operate on the bridge from the mainland in function of
current or wind force,
the deck and the bulwarks,
the access ramps (approaches).
In what follows the Author will talk about these basic elements (Figure 15) and in
particular about their typology and their structural modeling.

Figure 15. Typical elements of a wooden pontoon swing bridge (image hosted at
ChicagoArchitecture.org).

3. THE FLOATING ELEMENTS

3.1 Barges and Pontoons
The most important elements of a pontoon bridge are of course the boats and they
can be made of wood, steel, ferro-cemento and even pneumatic, though the use of
the latter is mainly for military purposes (Figures 16 19). In construction practice the
boats are rarely isolated, but are generally combined two by two to form the pontoon.
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

Since the speed of the current investing boats is generally modest (a few meters per
second) the hydrodynamic shape is of minor importance, with respect to the
displacement.

Figure 16. Wooden barges.

Figure 17. Steel barges.

Figure 18. Ferro-cemento barge.

Figure 19. Pneumatic barges and artistic representation of a pontoon (Dino Grandi).
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

3.2 Forces on Pontoons

As regards structural analysis, the forces acting on a boat are:
the weight of the deck on the boats and pontoons,
the mobile loads due to traffic,
the Archimedes thrust due to heave and roll,
the drag force given by the current and (if present) by the waves,
the anchors reactions.
Since the variable loads involve a variation in the sinking of the pontoon, this
behaves towards the overlying deck as a yielding support. It is therefore necessary to
assess the equivalent stiffness due to heave and roll (Figure 20).
The equivalent stiffness for heave can be determined, known the dimensions of a
single boat, by calculating the volume of water displaced for a given heave value h.
If the barge has a regular shape, the equivalent stiffness is linear with good
approximation (Figure 21) considerably simplifying subsequent calculations.

Figure 20. Equivalent heave stiffness of a pontoon.

Figure 21. Example of calculation of the equivalent stiffness of a single boat.

With regard to the roll the equivalent stiffness is given by the moment composed
by the weight of the boat P and the Archimedes thrust S as a function of the roll angle
(Figure 22); it is calculated using the classic naval engineering methods. For small
angle values the moment is stabilizing and the roll stiffness is small.
Equivalent constraints of a pontoon are then schematized as in Figure 24.
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

Because the boat is fixed, the particles of fluid in contact with the surface of the
body exert on it normal and tangential forces (Figure 25). To prevent the body to move
in accordance with the current, it is to be applied to it a force of equal magnitude and
opposite direction to the resultant of the forces exerted by the fluid particles. This
force, which will keep the body in static equilibrium, is called drag force.

Figure 22. G center of gravity, M metacenter, C center of thrust.

Figure 23. Floating plans A-B and A B for a single rolling barge.

Figure 24. Scheme of equivalent stiffness of constrains for a pontoon.

 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

Figure 25. Hydrodynamic forces on a constrained body.

The drag force R depends on:

body geometry (represented by the characteristic dimension D),
surface roughness (usually included in D),
density , viscosity and velocity of the fluid V.
The above mentioned variables are related by the formula:

(Eq. 1)
Three of the four unknown exponents n, x, y and z can be determined in function of
one of them (usually y) by means of a dimensional equations system. So Equation 1
becomes:

(Eq. 2)
where A is the characteristic area of the body (generally the main section).
Equation 2 may be rewritten as follows

(Eq. 3)
where C is the drag coefficient and the ratio in round brackets is the Reynolds
Number.

(Eq. 4)
Figure 26 shows the drag coefficient C for plane slabs in function of the Reynolds
Number and of the ratio Length vs Depth.
For a barge the drag coefficient may be assumed C = 0,37; so it is easy to calculate
by means of Equation 3 the force transmitted by the barge to the anchorages.
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

Figure 26. Drag coefficient C for plane slabs.

4. ANCHORAGES
The function of the anchorages is that to keep in position the pontoon bridge
counteracting the waves, current and wind forces. Operating on mooring cables it is
also possible to correct the deflection in the horizontal plane of the bridge in case the
forces acting on it (e.g. current or wind) would generate a too accentuated catenary.
The tension control, which generally is done from the boats, can change the
configuration of the bridge as a function of the driving forces or translate it for
maintenance needs.
The classic mooring system with anchor and chain normally used by ships (Figure
26) is to be avoided because of the great mobility offered by the catenary. Anchoring
to a fixed point with tension cables is thus preferable (Figure 27).

Figure 26. Classic mooring system (not recommended).

 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

Figure 27. Mooring system for Lake Washington pontoon bridge.

Given that the pre-tension of the cable acts permanently on the anchor, the latter
must not slip on the bottom: this is the reason why special types of anchor are used.
With reference to Figure 28 we recognize three types of anchors:
Fluke anchors Suitable for deep water, for soft soils of the lakebed and flat
areas (up to 100 tons).
Gravity anchors Suitable for solid soils with sloped topography, typically
near shore. Underwater grading and installation of gravel creates a level footing
for anchor placement (up to 500 600 tons or more).
Drilled shaft anchors Suitable for solid soils near shore where gravity
anchors may cause navigation hazard.
When water isnt too deep and if there are no problems for navigation, it is also
possible to drill the poles in the river bed and to connect the barges directly to them
(Figure 29).
It is also possible to fix the boats to an aerial cable system (Figure 30): in this case
no work is carried out in water.

Figure 28. Anchors for pontoon and floating bridges.

 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

Figure 29. Poles drilled in the river bed.

Figure 30. Aerial cable system.

5. THE NAVIGABLE PASSAGES

The arrangement of the floating bridges, with pontoons away from a few decimeters
from the water level, interferes with the navigation in the water way. It is therefore
essential to provide for the possibility of opening the bridge to allow the passage of
vessels.
Opening the bridge can also be necessary in the case of flood, in order to reduce the
drag force on pontoons or to allow discharging the floating debris carried by the
current.
Depending on the importance of the bridge and the traffic density, one can go from
simple manual removal of a single pontoon (Figure 31), to opening a specially crafted
mechanized bridge section.
In Figure 32 two types of openings are shown. On the left, the movable boat slips
within a bifurcation of the road, thus forming a kind of chicane in the roadway when
the bridge is closed. On the right, the deck corresponding to the movable pontoon is
lifted allowing horizontal slippage so that when the bridge is closed the roadway
remains continuous and straight.
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

Figure 31. Closure wedges for the opening of passage in wooden pontoon bridge on
Lake Stssen (left) and the release device between two pontoons on Torre
dOglio bridge (right).

Figure 32. Crafted mechanized opening devices for passage of large vessels [11].

6. THE DECK
In pontoon bridges the distance between two successive barges is generally small
and the deck can be supported by short beams placed side by side (Figure 33). In
traditional constructions the upper part of the deck is constituted by wooden planks, in
the modern ones by steel grill or by steel folded sheet (Figure 34). However, the
construction methods are usually intended to reduce as much the dead weight of the
superstructure as possible.
For floating bridges made of reinforced concrete caissons joined head to head, the
deck function is obviously carried out by the upper slab of the caisson itself (Figure
35).
For structural analysis purpose it is necessary to know what is the type of constraint
between the various elements of the deck, i.e. if the deck is continuous over the entire
length of the bridge or whether it is articulated between a pontoon and the other.
Considered the difficulty of achieving a full clamped joint and the need to open and
disassemble the bridge for navigation and maintenance reasons, the decks beams are
usually pinned between them (Figure 36). It follows that the deck may be considered
to be articulated for the displacements in the vertical plane and continuous for those in
the horizontal plane.
Recalling what has been said in chapter 3 about modeling the boats as equivalent
elastic constraints, it is possible to perform the structural analysis as shown in Figure
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

37. Assessment of the performances of the deck takes place according to the usual
methods of the theory and technique of constructions for bridge design, to which will
be added specific requirements for pontoon bridges (Table 1).

Figure 33. Steel girders for pontoon decks.

Figure 34. Typical deck covers: wooden planks (left) and steel grid (right).

Figure 35. Transverse section of a reinforced concrete precast caisson for a floating
bridge [11].
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

Figure 36. Constraints between two pontoons.

Figure 37. Structural model for a pontoon bridge deck:

a) bending moment for self-weight
b) bending moment for a moving load on the first pontoon
c) deflections for the above mentioned load condition.
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

Table 1. Specific requirements for pontoon bridges.

Type of deflection Maximum
Loading condition Maximum motion
or motion deflection
Vehicular load Vertical L/800
Winds - static Lateral (drift) 0,3 m
Rotation (heel) 0,5
Waves - dynamic Vertical (heave) 0,3 m 0,5 m/s2
Lateral (sway) 0,3 m 0,5 m/s2
Rotation (roll) 0,5 0,05 rad/s2

7. THE ACCESS RAMPS

The extrados of a pontoon bridge deck, by its very nature, will never be aligned
with that of the road on mainland. Indeed several relative movements will occur due to
the sinking of the first pontoon under moving loads, to the variation of the tidal level
(sea or fjord), to the diurnal and seasonal changes in the level of the stretch of water
crossed by the bridge3. Mobile ramps are thus necessary for joining up with continuity
the two road surfaces. In Figures 38 and 39 the most common mobile ramps for little
bridges are showed.

Figure 38. Schemes of the most common approach ramps.

Figure 39. Approach ramps are regulated by means of hydraulic jackets (left) or by
means of chains and winches.

In the case of wide variable unevenness it is necessary to have long ramps whose
actuation can become very complex (Figure 40). In other cases the need to ensure
continuity in the flow of road traffic requires to realize very important and complex
access structures (Figure 41).
3
Mobilis in mobili, Jules Vernes, Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, 1870.
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

Figure 40. Drawing for a long approach ramp in a wooden pontoon bridge [2]. The
slope of the ramps was adjusted manually by means of screw jacks and
wedges.

Figure 41. Nordhordland Bridge towards north between Bergen and Meland
(Norway). Access through a cable stayed bridge.

Finally an example is reported of an access ramp to a small bridge over the river
Oglio [9, 12]. The complexity of the problem required an original and smart technical
solution.
The difficulties to be overcome were as follows.
The maximum height difference between low water and in flood of Oglio
river between road level and bridge deck is 5.85 m.
The maximum flood (in case of reflux Po river) the above mentioned
difference can reach an extent of about 10 m.
The access to the bridge is provided by an approach ramp that moves
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

following the level of the water.

Every movement must take place without mechanical drives and without the
intervention of operators.
To satisfy these requirements and in order that the ramp does not overburden the
first pontoon, a particular system of levers and counterweights has been designed. The
movements of the ponticella (i.e. access ramp) solidly with the pontoons are shown
in Figure 42. It should be remarked that, when the water level grows, the
counterweights are partially or totally submerged: therefore the effect of the dead load
diminishes because of Archimedes thrust. Some floats, disposed in the underside of
the ponticella, correct the lack of counterweight by means of their buoyancy. In
Figure 41 it is shown the variation of the reaction of the ramp on the first pontoon in
function of the river level. The change in slopes is due to the buoyancy of the floats.

Figure 42. Movements of approach ramp on the bridge on Oglio river, as proposed
in the final design. The graph shows the action of the ramp on the first
pontoon.

8. CONCLUSIONS
According to the above, it should be evident that the pontoon bridges are not just a
folkloristic curiosity or a military device, but they represent an effective and
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

economical solution for crossing large stretches of even deep water (lakes, rivers,
fjord). The length of these bridges is not limited by structural or technological
problems (such as e.g. for suspension or cable-stayed bridges) and some of them
lengthen over than 3000 m (Hobart Bridge).
Although pontoon and floating bridges are particularly suitable for use in deep
water, where it would be difficult to build traditional foundations, nevertheless their
use generally requires low tidal ranges, small wave motion and moderate currents.
But also these limits can be overcome thanks to the knowledge gained in coastal
and marine engineering. Consider, for example, the semi-submersible pillars, currently
used for offshore platforms in deep water, or the buoyant foundations tied to sea
bottom by means of high strength tendons, used as support for wind power generation
towers. These devices would reduce the impact of waves and current on the pontoons
and would avoid the lowering (however small) of floating supports for moving loads.
The challenge is open!

9. AUTHORS FULFILLMENTS
A part of the iconographic material that appears in this paper is property of the
Author (Figures 1, 18, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 29, 31, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39 and 42).
Some images are taken from the texts cited in the references (Figures 9, 10, 15, 16,
22, 26, 32, 35, 40 and Table 1).
The remaining iconographic material has been taken from public sites freely
available on internet (Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 19, 27, 28, 30 and
41) for which the Author has been unable to identify the right holders in order to
request permission to publish.
It is emphasized that this paper has no commercial purposes, but only educational.

10. REFERENCES
[1] Loria L. (a cura di), Enciclopedia dellIngegnere Vol. 2, Societ Editrice
Libraria, Milano, 1897.
[2] Arrivabene C., Progetto del nuovo ponte di Torre dOglio, Archives of Amm.ne
Prov. di Mantova 1913.
[3] Erodoto (484 425 bC), Le storie Vol. 7, Ed. A. D. Godley, Cambridge.
Harvard University Press, 1920.
[4] Andrew C. E., The Lake Washington Pontoon Bridge, Civil Engineering, 9(12),
1936.
[5] Gray D. L., Hutchinson B. L., A Resolution Study for Computer Modelling of
Floating Bridges, Proc. Of Ocean Structural Dynamics Symposium, Pregon
university, 1986.
[6] Matosin B., Pontoon Bridge Maslenica 1993-1997, Brodospas & SeaSys, Split,
1999.
[7] Myint Lwin M., Floating bridges, in bridge Engineering Handbook, CRC Press,
1999.
[.8.] Stockstill R. L., Mooring Model for Barge Tows in Lock Chamber, US Army
 S. Tattoni Pontoon Bridges

Corps of Engineers, ERDC/CHL CHETN-IX-9 June 2002

[9] Tattoni S., Rubini P., Ponte di barche sul fiume Oglio in localit Torre dOglio,
Progetto delle opere di manutenzione straordinaria per la sistemazione degli
accessi e della struttura, Prov. Di Mantova, novembre 2003.
[10] ACTT Workshop, SR 520 Project, Seattle, Washington, March 16-18, 2004.
[11] Chakrabarti S. K., Handbook of Offshore Engineering, Elsevier 2005.
[12] Tattoni S., Functional Refurbishment of a Pontoon Bridge, Proc. 4th Int.
Conference The Conceptual Approach to Structural Design, Venezia, 27-29
giugno 2007.
[13] -------------- , Rovdefjordbrua: A floating bridge in lesund, Norway,
88DesignBox, 3/25/2015
[14] Moura J., Floating Bridge Maldives, Infrastructure International, 2016.

View publication stats