Beruflich Dokumente
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Part D-3
training manual
Part D-3
FLIGHT OPERATIONS OFFICERS/FLIGHT
DISPATCHERS
Part D-3
FLIGHT OPERATIONS OFFICERS/FLIGHT
DISPATCHERS
The issue of amendments is announced regularly in the ICAO Journal and in the
monthly Supplement to the Catalogue of ICAO Publications and Audio-visual
Training Aids, which holders of this publication should consult. The space below
is provided to keep a record of such amendments.
AMENDMENTS CORRIGENDA
(ii)
FOREWORD
In 1955, the Air Navigation Commission of ICAO noted the need for their appropriate training and qualification has
that, from time to time, requests had been received from air been accepted throughout the world and has been provided
operators for clarification in the exercise of operational for in international Standards and Recommended Practices.
control. There was at that time a lack of universally This Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers Training
established principles to govern the exercise of such control Manual, Part D-3 of Doc 7192, contains acceptable methods
by operators although, in certain parts of the world, such for approved courses of training, based on the requirements
principles and practices had long been in existence. For this of Annexes 1 and 6 and on the generally accepted scope and
reason, a circular was published which explained the nature of the requirements and duties of such officers.
concept of shared advice and responsibilities between the
pilot-in-command and ground personnel, the extent of co- The first edition, published by ICAO in 1975, was
operation depending on many factors such as the size of the designed to provide guidance on course content, but the
operation, the facilities available and the system of oper- development of detailed syllabi and lesson plans was left to
ation set up by the operator. This concept varied from the discretion of instructors or other training centre
simple dispatching, where the ground personnels primary specialist personnel. However, standardization in training
function was to assist the pilot-in-command in pre-flight courses was recognized as essential for the safe conduct of
planning, to en-route and post-flight assistance to the pilot- international air navigation. ICAO, through its technical co-
in-command, where many of the duties for the operation operation programme, developed a model of a detailed
were shared by the ground personnel. Emphasis was placed training syllabus which was published as Course 201
on the responsibility for obtaining and providing infor- Flight Operations Officers in 1982, with the specific
mation of interest to aircraft in flight. This first circular, objective of preparing the trainee for the licensing
therefore, formed the basis for consideration of this subject examinations required in Annex 11 under 4.5.
by the Third Air Navigation Conference of ICAO held in
Montreal in 1956. The discussions were mostly related to This second edition has been developed on the basis of
the provision of meteorological information, and little the first edition of Doc 7192, Part D-3, and Course 201. It
clarification of the general concept and purpose of contains training syllabi for flight operations officers/flight
operational control resulted. Over the intervening years, dispatchers covering knowledge requirements and applied
however, many States came to the conclusion that, for the practical training. Subject matter that must be addressed
efficient and safe flow of air traffic, it was necessary to during phase one and phase two training is indicated in
have supervision of flight operations. Flight Operations 1.2.5 Training reference guide which also includes the
Officers, also known as Flight Dispatchers or Aircraft approximate duration of the course (both for basic training
Dispatchers, were, therefore, introduced to provide such and re-qualification training) and the degree of expertise
supervision and act as a close link between aircraft in flight required in each subject. Details of training included in this
and the ground services, and also between the crew manual are not all-inclusive and are provided as a guideline
members and the operators ground staff. to the minimum requirement for the training of flight
operations officers/flight dispatchers. The training syllabus
In time, as the nature of the requirement for flight of FOO/FDs assigned to duties on the basis of the require-
operations officers/flight dispatchers (FOO/FDs) stabilized ments of Annexes 1 and 6 must include syllabi suggested
and the scope of their duties and responsibilities became in this manual but should not be limited by it.
more defined, it was deemed necessary to establish
knowledge and experience requirements and licensing pro-
visions and these are contained in Annex 1 to the Conven-
tion on International Civil Aviation. Although these officers 1. Throughout this document, references to Annex 1 take into account
are not issued with licences or certificates in some States, all amendments up to and including Amendment 161.
(iii)
(iv) Training Manual
This manual has been prepared by the Personnel Comments on this manual, particularly with respect to
Licensing and Training Section of ICAO and replaces its application, usefulness and scope of coverage, would be
ICAO Doc 7192 Training Manual, Part D-3 Flight appreciated from States and ICAO Technical Co-operation
Operations Officers (First Edition, 1975) and ICAO Field Missions. These will be taken into consideration in
Course 201 Flight Operations Officers (August 1982). the preparation of subsequent editions. Comments
ICAO would like to acknowledge the contribution received concerning this manual should be addressed to:
from the International Federation of Airline Dispatchers
Federation (IFALDA) and individual experts who have The Secretary General
provided support, advice and input. International Civil Aviation Organization
999 University Street
Throughout this manual, the use of the male gender Montreal, Quebec, Canada
should be understood to include male and female persons. H3C 5H7
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Page
(v)
(vi) Training Manual
Page Page
(vii)
CHAPTER 1. TRAINING PRINCIPLES
D3-1
D3-2 Training Manual
1.2.1.5 The FOO/FD not only contributes to the safety weather, explain how other flights have been planned
and regularity of flight operations but also makes a positive or what they have encountered en route, indicating
contribution to the economy and efficiency of aircraft their altitude, procedure, ground speed, etc., and offer
operation by improving the payload, reducing excessive suggestions that may be of help to the pilot-in-
fuel reserve, positioning or repositioning the aircraft more command in his flight planning;
efficiently, and saving flying hours by reducing the number
of abortive flights. The FOO/FD must constantly know the h) advise the pilot-in-command on the routes, altitudes,
position and monitor the progress of all flights in his area, tracks and technical stops that will be necessary and
and this involves a constant process of analysis, evaluation, what alternate aerodromes are considered suitable for
consultation and decision. The FOO/FD must at all times the various terminals, and why;
have the courage of his convictions and let nothing
influence him contrary to his better judgement. i) determine fuel requirements, aircraft gross weight
and balance (the pilot-in-command makes an
1.2.1.6 In applying these basic philosophies and, in independent calculation);
particular, bearing in mind the need to keep the aircraft
j) bring to the pilot-in-commands attention any irregular
operating safely and efficiently, the FOO/FD must always:
operation of airport, airway, navigation or communi-
cation facilities, with particular regard to noise
a) plan conservatively;
curfews affecting the availability of airports; and
b) failing normal operation, plan so as to give the best k) outline what may be expected in the way of delays to
alternative service; and or irregularities in the flight while en route or what is
expected of other flights operating over the route at
c) keep flights operating on schedule in so far as possible. the same time.
1.2.1.7 Planning must be based upon realistic 1.2.1.9 During the in-flight stage, the FOO/FD must be
assumptions since the inevitable results of overoptimism ready to assist the pilot-in-command, for example:
are delays, inconvenience to passengers and uneconomical
utilization of the aircraft, all of which can impact the safety a) by issuing such instructions concerning revised plans
of the operation. for aircraft and crew utilization as are necessary to
the appropriate departments of the operators
1.2.1.8 In preparing the necessary basic material and organization, if a diversion, flight return, en-route
criteria that will help the pilot-in-command decide on some delay, or cancellation occurs;
of the essential features of each flight, the FOO/FD must:
b) by recommending revised routes, altitudes and
a) consult with the meteorological office and refer to alternates;
meteorological information, as necessary;
c) by advising the pilot-in-command of commercial and
b) issue information concerning operations plans to the technical considerations of which he could not be
appropriate departments of the operators organ- aware and which could influence operational de-
ization; cisions, such as enforced diversion to an alternate
destination;
c) issue such instructions concerning aircraft and crew
utilization as are necessary to the appropriate depart- d) by monitoring adequacy of remaining fuel; and
ments of the operators organization;
e) by supplying or arranging for the supply of sup-
d) consider with the pilot-in-command the existence of,
plementary information (including significant weather
and method of ensuring compliance with, noise
information, irregularities in operation of navigation
abatement procedures;
and communication facilities, etc.) to the pilot.
e) ascertain load requirements;
1.2.1.10 When such irregularities in flight operations
f) determine load availability; occur, the FOO/FD must look far ahead and consider the
many factors involved in order to determine the most
g) outline to the pilot-in-command what may be practical plan or solution. Some of the main factors are as
expected in the way of en-route and terminal follows:
Part D-3. Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers
Chapter 1. Training Principles D3-3
a) How long will the flight be delayed, or when is it complex level where the FOO/FD is almost considered the
expected to operate? counterpart of the pilot-in-command, to a position of
limited importance. In the former case he is normally
b) How long can the flight be delayed? required to be licensed, enabling him to sign and approve
operational flight plans, while in the latter case his duties
Note. The exigencies of crew flight time may be limited to clerical assistance only. There is a
limitation legislation render this consideration one of marked tendency, however, for States and operators to
the critical factors in flight departure delays or flight make increased use of FOO/FDs, giving them extensive
time extension. The possible need to warn a fresh duties and responsibilities.
crew or to revise the flight schedule must be foreseen
and planned for. 1.2.1.14 To undertake the duties and responsibilities
described above, an FOO/FD must be appropriately trained
c) In the event that the flight is delayed beyond the in all the subjects required for adequate control and
maximum limit established or is cancelled, what is supervision of aircraft operation. As a specialist, an FOO/FD
the best alternative for passengers and cargo? needs to demonstrate a high sense of responsibility,
dependability and the ability to think clearly and to make
d) How will the delay affect other sections of the airline
appropriate decisions as required. The training of FOO/FDs
and can they keep operating on schedule?
should, invariably, include several stages of selection in
e) Is there an aircraft available to originate the flight at order to eliminate trainees lacking the necessary qualities.
the next terminal ahead and what is the most
practical time to so originate? 1.2.2 Minimum qualifications
f) What is the second best point to originate the flight? Annex 1, section 4.5, specifies the minimum requirements
for the issuance of the FOO/FD licence. Although Annex 1
g) What is the latest time the flight can originate and
does not provide direct guidance on the qualifications
still allow necessary placement of aircraft?
required (e.g. educational level) for admittance to training
h) Is there revenue available at the time origination is school for FOO/FDs, experience has shown that successful
most desired? completion of training generally requires:
i) If necessary to cancel, what is the best time in order a minimum age of 20 years;
to fit in with alternative transportation?
a functional knowledge of the English language;
j) How can the plans of an FOO/FD be integrated by
a medical fitness for duty; and
the FOO/FD who will next handle the flight?
a minimum educational level of successful completion
1.2.1.11 In the event of a security incident on an aircraft,
of high school (10 years of schooling or more).
the FOO/FD assumes significant responsibilities for the
operational aspects of any actions initiated from the
ground. He must also be prepared to render the pilot-in- 1.2.3 Types of training
command and crew every possible assistance during the
emergency. 1.2.3.1 Annex 1 mentions various forms of past aviation
experience that are adequate for the FOO/FD, and many
1.2.1.12 Delays in and irregularities of operation often States select their FOO/FD trainees from personnel who
upset crew members and passengers and may significantly have had such aviation experience. However, other States
affect aircraft cycles. Therefore, it is necessary for the have found it necessary to train persons who do not have
FOO/FD to check closely with the operators departments such previous experience and who must, therefore, be
responsible for crew and aircraft routing in order to trained from the very beginning and allowed to obtain the
maintain a well-balanced positioning of crew and aircraft necessary experience either during their training or immedi-
for the smooth operation of all flights. ately after it. It is obvious that the training requirements of
these two groups of trainees will vary.
1.2.1.13 These are some of the factors that normally
govern the day-to-day practical work of the FOO/FD. The 1.2.3.2 To cover the various backgrounds of trainees, it is
degree of responsibility given to him varies from State to recommended that training be divided into two phases as
State and from operator to operator; it varies from the follows:
D3-4 Training Manual
Phase one consists of basic knowledge; its completion 1.2.4 Standard of accomplishment
ensures that a trainee has the necessary background to
proceed with phase two of the training. The training 1.2.4.1 Each training objective in this manual is described
syllabus covered in Chapters 3 to 15 needs to be with reference to the establishment of conditions, perform-
covered during this phase. ance and a standard of accomplishment. The conditions
describe the scenario where trainee performance will be
Phase two consists of applied practical training and route developed and tested while indicating whether actual
experience. A training syllabus for this phase is detailed equipment, mock-ups, or simulators, etc., are to be used. The
in Chapter 16 and guidance on training duration is standard of accomplishment establishes the level of trainee
provided in Table 1-1. performance that must be attained and may differ from school
to school depending on the training equipment available.
1.2.3.3 Trainees who do not have previous aviation
experience will have to undergo the complete training 1.2.4.2 In measuring the standard of accomplishment, the
programme as recommended in phase one. Trainees who use of only two grades, pass and fail, is recommended. It
have had suitable aviation experience, however, may not must, however, be noted that many training establishments
need to undertake this complete programme; for example, prefer to use a numerical grading system as trainees strive
a professional pilot, a flight navigator, an air traffic harder and learn more when rewards increase. If the same
controller, or a flight radio operator can be assumed to grade, pass, is given for a 99 per cent score as for a 75 per
have, at least, partially completed phase one if they have cent score, trainees may not strive for perfection.
been actively employed in these occupations within the past
few years. In such cases, training institutes, with the 1.2.5 Training reference guide
approval of the State authorities, are encouraged to apply
the necessary flexibility in arranging appropriate training 1.2.5.1 Table 1-1 presents the recommended duration (in
courses, emphasizing subjects of particular concern to hours) of the various subjects that need to be covered
FOO/FDs. The same flexibility can also be applied during during phase one training (basic knowledge) for trainees
requalification or recurrent classroom training. Table 1-1 with and without previous aviation experience, and Phase
provides an approximate duration for the training of the two (applied practical training). In appreciation of the fact
FOO/FD (phase one). It also contains a shortened training that differences in requirements may necessitate changes in
duration to serve as a guideline for the training of experi- the suggested syllabus to allow completion of the course
enced personnel and for the requalification of FOO/FDs. within the period allotted for training, the total hours
required for the completion of a subject are given.
1.2.3.4 In using the curriculum recommended in the Instructors should, however, ensure that all sections of the
following chapters, local considerations may dictate the syllabus are adequately covered to the necessary degree in
advisability of changing the sequence of the subjects. order to meet the desired level of accomplishment before
However, the relative importance accorded to each subject the trainees are assigned to phase two training.
should, as much as possible, remain unchanged. The multi-
plicity of types of aircraft, navigation aids and operational 1.2.5.2 In addition, the various parts of the course have
practices throughout the world makes it undesirable to been marked with a coding from 1 to 4 indicating an increas-
define too rigidly many of the headings of the syllabus, and ing degree of expertise to clarify understanding of the
it is necessary to leave some flexibility to those in charge desired level of accomplishment.
of the training course. Instructors must, however, ensure
that all items in the training manual syllabus are adequately 1 denotes a basic knowledge of a subject. Trainees
covered and any requirements relevant to individual should have a basic understanding of the subject
authorities should be treated as additional subjects and not but are not expected to apply that knowledge.
as substitutions for the syllabus recommended in this
2 denotes knowledge of the subject and the ability,
manual. Instructors must also ensure that all items required
where applicable, to apply it in practice with the
in their States licensing examination are adequately
help of reference materials and instructions.
covered. Any choices in the examination itself should be
confined to the additional subjects dealing with those 3 denotes a thorough knowledge of the subject and
practices and procedures which the trainee is most likely to the ability to apply it with speed and accuracy.
use in the first period of his duties as an FOO/FD. This
choice of additional subjects will very often be made easy 4 denotes extensive knowledge of the subject and
by specific requests by operators, and by the type of aircraft the ability to apply procedures derived from it
used operationally. with judgement appropriate to the circumstances.
Part D-3. Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers
Chapter 1. Training Principles D3-5
Table 1-1. Recommended duration and degree of expertise for phase one and phase two training
Recommended
Subject matter duration
2.1.2 Classrooms and equipment 2.1.2.5 Trainee workstation space includes the trainees
work surface, any additional equipment (terminal, audio/
2.1.2.1 Opinions differ on the amount of classroom space visual, etc.), a chair, and the space for chair pushback and
required for each trainee. The range of ideal space for manoeuvrability. The concept of workstation space is
each adult in a classroom varies from a low of 1.4 m2 to a important when sizing rooms for classes containing
high of 6.7 m2. The reason for the wide range in ideal different numbers of trainees. The total area allowed in a
figures is that classroom designers either envision different classroom for each trainee varies with the size of the class.
classroom environments or account for certain spaces An adequate work surface within the work space is very
within the classroom, such as aisles and front setback, important. The large amount of reference material used in
differently. the training of FOO/FDs requires considerably larger work
surfaces than would be provided by the attached writing
2.1.2.2 The sizes of classrooms are affected by: surface of an auditorium chair.
D3-9
D3-10 Training Manual
computers with keyboard and monitor. They can communi- poor environment. One of the most widely recognized
cate verbal and graphic information and can accept verbal as factors listed is that of the comfort of workstations which
well as manual or tactile responses. Computers may be used includes the comfort of the chair.
for drills, computer-managed instruction, testing and simu-
lations. For detailed information about the use of computers
as a training tool, training managers are advised to refer to
the ICAO TRAINAIR document Computer Application 2.2 Performance evaluation (tests)
in Training.
2.2.1 Performance evaluation (tests) is an integral part of
the training process. Tests should always be prepared with
2.1.3 The learning environment the sole purpose of measuring whether or not the trainee
has achieved the training objective. Trainees must always
2.1.3.1 The key to a good learning environment is the be informed on how they are going to be evaluated, so they
elimination of discomforts and other undesirable character- can orient their efforts. The information must include the
istics. Ten primary factors have been identified: conditions that will exist during the test, the performance
that is expected from the trainees, the standards of
the climate must be comfortable; accomplishment that have to be met and the consequences
of an inadequate performance. It is recommended that
lighting must be of adequate level for work or errors on knowledge exams and skill tests be reviewed with
viewing; trainees to reflect corrections to achieve 100 per cent.
Trainees must be informed of the result of their evaluation
distracting sound must be kept to a minimum; and instructors must offer correction of improper responses.
work areas must be aesthetically pleasing; 2.2.2 Time and resource constraints may limit the amount
of testing that can be given to each objective. However, the
workstations must be comfortable; criticality of the subject and the performance difficulties
which can be encountered should give some indication as
work space must be adequate; to when, how and what performance evaluation should be
required. Generally speaking, performance measurement is
work area must be reasonably clean; undertaken to evaluate whether or not courses taught have
been understood by the trainees at the desired level:
training equipment must be adequate;
Skills are best tested by performance tests (the
visual media must be visible; and trainee performs the task described in the objective
under real or simulated conditions).
audio media must be listenable.
Knowledge is best tested by oral or written tests.
2.1.3.2 If any of these factors are unsatisfactory, the result
can be distraction from the task at hand, and fatigue can Attitudes are tested by observations of performance
result from the effort required of the trainee to adapt to a or by means of questionnaires.
PHASE ONE
CHAPTER 3. CIVIL AIR LAW AND REGULATIONS
D3-13
D3-14 Training Manual
Rights of commercial flight over the territories Problems addressed by the existence
of Contracting States of an international agreement
conditions for overflying a Contracting States airspace issues concerning the travelling public:
without special permission or agreement for aircraft availability of regular services
NOT engaged in scheduled service, not carrying any
payload (passengers, cargo, mail, etc): fares and baggage allowances
rights to make stops for non-traffic purposes safety in flight and on the ground
aircraft excluded (State aircraft such as military issues concerning the State:
aircraft) protection of the publics interest
agreements and special permissions required by aircraft effects on national economy
engaged in scheduled services: effects on the environment
the freedoms of the air effects on national security
the Two Freedoms Agreement (common) services to be provided to operators
the Five Freedoms Agreement (rare) efficient and economic interface with other States
bilateral and multilateral treaties (most common) on services such as air traffic control and search
and rescue, and on facilities such as those required
privileges granted by the Two Freedoms Agreement:
for communication, navigation and air traffic
overfly without landing control
land for non-traffic purposes charges for services and facilities made available to
privileges granted by the Five Freedoms Agreement: operators
different standards of performance for operational practical application of the provisions of the
personnel, creating misunderstandings and con- Annexes to FOO/FD duties and responsibilities,
fusion normally by referring to the aircraft manual and the
differences in the requirements of States regarding operations manual
the documents to be carried on board an aircraft publications related to the Procedures for Air Navi-
issues to be discussed in the following paragraph gation Services (PANS) and technical publications
(all FOO/FD concerns) related to FOO/FD duties and responsibilities:
3.3.4 The International Civil Aviation for general familiarization and possible on-
Organization (ICAO) the-job reference
to outline problems of implementation and
Goal: To familiarize the trainee with the functions of the maintenance of facilities
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and to for use of plan data for planning and
identify documents and publications produced by ICAO conducting current operations
that are related to the FOO/FDs responsibilities.
any required modifications to the aircraft limi- means of controlling mass (normally exercised by
tations, operating procedures and the associated maintenance or engineering personnel)
aircraft flight and maintenance manuals
the issuance of orders and regulations including Note. Basic data for each aircraft are provided to
those required to implement the provisions of the personnel engaged in the day-to-day calculations of mass
Annexes and CG and the application of this data is covered in
Chapter 9 Mass (Weight) and Balance Control. The
the establishment of an Aeronautical Inspection FOO/FDs responsibility in this regard is to ensure that
Directorate (AID) each flight operates within its mass and CG limitations.
responsibilities of the AID including:
inspection of records
aircraft and equipment tests
3.3.6 Regulatory provisions of
personnel qualifications the flight manual
surveillance of the aircraft maintenance process
Goal: To outline the content of a typical flight manual
and to identify aircraft limitations that are of significance
Operators responsibility for the to the FOO/FD.
maintenance of aircraft airworthiness
Note. Operators may have their own State-approved Flight manual authority
maintenance organization or may enter into an agreement
production and initial approval of a flight manual as an
with an external approved maintenance organization.
integral part of the aircraft certification process by the
Detailed information for the approval of maintenance
State of aircraft manufacture
organizations is provided in Annex 1 Personnel
Licensing and Annex 6 Operation of Aircraft, Part I. possible format, provisions and title modification by
the State of registry
responsibility for providing a maintenance release requirement to adhere to the provisions of the flight
before an aircraft can engage in commercial operations, manual, approved by the State of registry, before an
signed as per Annex 1 and Annex 6 requirements, and aircraft is allowed to be dispatched or operated
for ensuring that all maintenance work has been
completed to the required standards in accordance with
the provisions specified in the approved maintenance Contents of a typical flight manual
manuals
limitations
performance data
Operators responsibility for normal operating procedures
loading data (loadsheet)
emergency and abnormal operating procedures
the requirements for all aircraft to be operated within
aircraft description
the certified mass and centre of gravity (CG) limitations
given in the approved flight manual aircraft systems:
operator requirement for a mass control organization to: description
maintain a record of the mass and its distribution normal operation
for each aircraft abnormal operation
incorporate changes due to aircraft and equipment general operating limitations that must be completed:
modifications
certification status
prepare loading schedules suitable for the
operators mathematical, tabular, mechanical, or kinds of aircraft operation
computer methods of load control flight manoeuvring load acceleration limits
periodically sample the mass and CG of its aircraft flight crew
D3-18 Training Manual
4.1.1 Flight Operations Officer/Flight Dispatcher Conditions: Given pertinent information on relevant
(FOO/FD) training should, in addition to those subjects which aviation regulatory and other bodies and a
directly concern FOO/FD responsibilities, include knowledge description of a situation related to FOO/FDs,
of other aspects of aviation operations. This consideration will
provide the trainees with a more complete comprehension of Performance: The trainee will be able to identify other
their working environment. aviation organizations and their role in the
over-all operation of aircraft in international
4.1.2 Under this general subject, FOO/FDs are expected air navigation.
to learn commonly used aviation terminologies and be able
Standard of accomplishment:
to apply them in the appropriate context as required. They
The legislation applicable to the described
will also be introduced to the theory and physiology of
case will be thoroughly identified and its
flight which should enable them to acquire knowledge of
provisions and practical applications
the principles of flight.
understood.
4.1.3 Knowledge gained by FOO/FDs in these subjects
constitutes an important part of aircraft operation; it will 4.2.2 Required knowledge, skill and attitude
permit a more comprehensive operational understanding,
develop general awareness of air transport operation and objectives of and roles played by the International Air
improve communication with crew members and mainten- Transport Association (IATA) and other relevant inter-
ance personnel, thus improving the over-all safety of national, regional and national aviation organizations;
aircraft operation. Nevertheless, it must be realized that the
knowledge imparted in most of the items presented is basic objectives of and roles played by national civil aviation
and not meant to produce FOO/FD experts on the subjects. regulatory bodies (e.g. civil aviation authorities and
However, their value as an introduction to the aircraft airport authorities) and other aviation regulatory bodies
operation environment and their capacity to promote better (e.g. customs, immigration, health, and security) that
understanding with flight crew members and other FOO/FDs may come into contact with;
personnel in the industry cannot be overstated.
the airlines organizational structure, administrative
requirements relating to FOO/FDs, organizational links
between FOO/FDs and crew members;
D3-20
Part D-3. Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers
Chapter 4. Aviation Indoctrination D3-21
members, it is recommended that the following subjects be Performance: The trainee will be able to identify and
delivered by personnel from the flight operations describe the basic components of an
department. aircraft, their use and operation, and the
effect of those components on flight and
cabin conditions. He will have a clear
4.3.1 Training objectives understanding of the theory of flight and the
basic environment relating to aircraft
Conditions: Given short descriptions of aircraft/air operations.
transport operation,
Standard of accomplishment:
Performance: The trainee will be able to define aviation Basic components must be correctly associ-
terminologies common to air transport ated with basic use and operation. Safety-
operation and identify relevant terms of related items such as critical surfaces, ice
reference common to aircraft operation, formation, and surface contamination must
applying them in the appropriate context. be 100 per cent correct.
Standard of accomplishment:
For safety-related items and for items of 4.4.2 Required knowledge, skill and attitude
daily routine use, a 100 per cent correct
response is required. For other items, a identification of the main components of an aircraft and
different standard may be established. their basic function both on the ground and in flight;
flight deck equipment including weather radar, cockpit
voice recorder; basic flight instruments: airspeed
4.3.2 Required knowledge, skill and attitude
indicator, altimeter, magnetic compass, etc.;
identify terminologies common to air transport oper-
hazards associated with volcanic ash/dust, ice forma-
ation and apply them in the appropriate context;
tion on wings and control surfaces, the recognition and
reporting of such phenomena;
importance to flight safety of using correct
terminologies;
flight control surfaces and flight controls and their
function; the four forces (thrust, lift, drag and gravity)
measurement units used in aircraft operation;
acting on an aircraft; the three axes (yaw, pitch and
role) and the movement around each axis;
the correct application of the phonetic alphabet in
aviation-related communication; examples of misunder-
recognition of aircraft critical surfaces and hazards to
standings that may arise from improper use and their
flight associated with the contamination of those
effect on flight safety (use factual accident/incident
surfaces; awareness of conditions most likely to produce
examples, if available).
surface contamination; role of the FOO/FD if surface
contamination is suspected before aircraft departure;
Conditions: Using realistic models, photographs or Conditions: Provided with appropriate reference
drawings of aircraft, or during a tour of an material and, if practicable, participating in
actual aircraft, an actual inspection of an aircraft engine,
D3-22 Training Manual
Performance: The trainee will be able to identify the Note 1. It is recommended that items such as general
principal differences in the different types description, operating principles, normal functions, system
of aircraft propulsion systems and their redundancy and provisions for alternative operations for
significance to aircraft operation. typical systems in a modern jet aircraft be briefly covered
during this session.
Standard of accomplishment:
Principles of aircraft propulsion systems Note 2. It is also recommended that emphasis be put
must be thoroughly understood and the on the possible sequences of systems deficiencies or
trainee must be able to describe the signifi- failures that are not self-evident to the trainee. Those listed
cance to flight operation of the various types under planning are relevant to the FOO/FD while the
of aircraft propulsion systems. aircraft is on the ground. Those listed under in-flight are
of significance to the FOO/FD when the aircraft is
4.5.2 Required knowledge, skill and attitude airborne.
Fuel in-flight:
planning: deviation from planned route (time and fuel
consumption)
fuel load and distribution
increased landing minima
mass limitations
in-flight:
Communications systems
fuel dumping system
planning:
route restrictions
Hydraulic power in-flight:
in-flight: deviation from planned route (time and fuel
requirement for the use of alternative power consumption)
sources for various systems possible need to initiate distress procedures, alert
possible increased runway length requirement search and rescue facilities
5.1.2 The commercial value of improved aircraft 5.2.2 Required knowledge, skill and attitude
performance mainly depends on the efficiency with which
the aircraft is operated. The wide range of fleet available to Aircraft certification considerations
the operator may lead to the misuse or mismatch of
equipment to the operation. One of the main responsi- aircraft structural strength
bilities of the flight operations officer/flight dispatcher loads to which an aircraft will be subjected
(FOO/FD) is to ensure that this mismatch does not occur
and that aircraft are operated within their mass and speed limitations
performance limitations. operating environment
D3-24
Part D-3. Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers
Chapter 5. Aircraft Mass (Weight) and Performance D3-25
FOO/FDs responsibility to ensure that every flight bending moments and mass distribution
plan complies with all the mass and performance
zero-fuel mass
limitations in the flight manual
take-off mass
ramp mass
Aircraft operating environment envelope
landing mass etc.
consideration of extreme situations under which the
aircraft is certified for operation
consideration of factors in addition to aircraft structural Speed limitations
and performance limitations: requirement to express in terms of:
pressurization capability indicated airspeed (IAS)
aircraft systems limitations Mach number
use of aircraft operating environment envelope designed dive speed
chart in a typical flight manual
maximum operating speed
normal operating speed
Performance: The trainee will be able to identify all effect of runway limitation on take-off mass to meet the
factors considered necessary for establish- above criteria for actual conditions of:
ing take-off runway length requirements usable runway length
and for calculating those requirements
accurately and within a reasonable time pressure altitude
frame. temperature
headwind or tailwind component
Standard of accomplishment:
All factors involved in establishing take-off runway slope
runway length must be thoroughly understood runway contamination
and the trainee must be able to determine flap position
required take-off runway length using aircraft
operations and flight manual data.
Note 2. Different States have developed different consideration of available stopways and clearways to
standards and regulations but the principles are similar. calculate critical engine failure speeds which maximize
the permissible take-off mass from available runways
Piston engine aircraft take-off requirements the application of the same basic principles as for
piston engine aircraft and the requirement for the mass
basis for take-off runway length requirement on the of the aircraft not to exceed that which will enable it to:
assumption that:
be well above the end of the runway during a
the most critical engine fails at the most critical normal take-off
time
brake to a stop if an engine fails at any time up to
the aircraft is loaded to the most adverse centre of V1
gravity
reach at least 35 feet over the clearway if engine
the effect of loss of power of the most critical engine failure occurs at V1 or above
(outboard engine), adverse aircraft handling problems
Note. For turbo-jets, V2 must be 120 per cent of
critical engine failure speed V1 characteristics: stalling speed and 110 per cent of the minimum speed for
theoretically it depends on: straight flight without excessive bank.
mass flap position for take-off
runway slope
runway braking coefficient reduced thrust take-off
pressure altitude
temperature
wind component Take-off speeds and runway length calculations
flap position
practical exercises requiring trainees to obtain data
it is actually established: from representative flight manuals for both piston
primarily on mass and flap position engine and turbo-jet aircraft and from tables and
making small corrections for altitude, graphs:
temperature and wind
to determine runway limitations due to:
using methods found in the aircraft flight
crosswinds
manual
tailwind component
the meaning and calculation of take-off safety speed V2 rain, slush, and snow
Part D-3. Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers
Chapter 5. Aircraft Mass (Weight) and Performance D3-27
to calculate V1, VR, and V2V2 for different aircraft the four segments in which the aircraft configuration
types and climb gradients are specified
to calculate required runway lengths for a very the need to ensure terrain clearance by at least 35 feet
wide range of conditions without obstacles in the take-off flight path
the normal source of information for: consideration of obstacles in an area where the
runway length dimensions increase with distance from the end of the
runway
stopways and clearways
runway slope
airport pressure altitude The climb sequence
requirement for FOO/FDs to: identify the need for MAT limits and mass
be aware of the requirements for en-route corrections thereto from tables designed for specific
performance airport altitudes (for non-standard pressure)
ensure that no flight is planned to take off at a identify flight manual provisions for compliance
greater mass than will permit those requirements to with en-route climb requirements
be met anywhere along the route
Note. The instructor should remind trainees of the
be particularly cautious when planning new routes limitations other than MAT that may determine maximum
over high terrain, bearing in mind that they may not permissible take-off and landing mass.
have been subject to detailed performance analysis
Take-off and landing MAT calculations 5.6.2 Required knowledge, skill and attitude
practical exercises requiring trainees to obtain MAT
limit data from representative flight manuals for both Note. In addition to meeting structural and climb
piston engine and turbo-jet aircraft and from tables and performance requirements, the landing mass must never be
graphs to: planned to exceed that for which there is adequate landing
distance. The runway length requirements are similar for
determine the maximum permissible take-off and
piston engine aircraft and turbo-jets.
landing mass from a MAT performance viewpoint
for a wide range of pressure altitudes, temperature
and flap positions
Landing distance requirements
determine airport temperatures that will restrict
take-off and landing mass from a MAT perform- the assumption that an aircraft is expected to cross the
ance viewpoint end of the runway at 130 per cent of the stall speed for
landing configuration
identify the sensitivity of aircraft with respect to
airport temperature and pressure when MAT is measurement of the distance required to stop on a hard
limited for take-off or landing mass dry runway using full braking
Part D-3. Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers
Chapter 5. Aircraft Mass (Weight) and Performance D3-29
length of the required distance 167 per cent of that Note. The instructor should remind trainees of why
needed to stop on a hard runway the runway lengths used in practical operations may differ
from their calculated distances and should explain why the
margin required (15 per cent) when landing weather
pilot-in-command may be reluctant to use a runway that is
conditions are poor or the runway is wet or slippery
slippery or likely to cause hydroplaning, particularly if it
relaxation of margins for alternate airports used to meet also has a strong crosswind.
the en-route climb performance requirements
determine the maximum permissible landing mass the reduction of the range of possible speeds at a given
using a wide range of runway limiting factors mass as altitude is increased
determine flight manual limitations on landing due the possibility for some flights to be planned at mass
to runway contaminants and crosswinds and altitudes for which there is little safe speed margin
D3-30 Training Manual
decrease or disappearance of the margin between low- consideration of lower than maximum possible cruising
and high-speed buffet as normal acceleration is altitudes to avoid possibility of buffet under known
increased due to turbulence or bank angle turbulent conditions
6.1.2 Air navigation courses are taught to FOO/FDs so 6.2 Training objectives
that they will acquire knowledge of the basic navigation
principles and practices required for flight planning and Conditions: Provided with appropriate and pertinent
monitoring. They will also be provided with a general training materials, references, documen-
outline of the systems, equipment and procedures used by tation, charts including realistic represen-
flight crew from take-off to landing. It is, therefore, very tation of the earth, and instruments (such as
important that this training enable the FOO/FD to provide airspeed indicators and altimeters), as
maximum assistance to the pilot-in-command in order to required,
achieve safe and efficient aircraft operation.
6.1.3 For the trainees to properly follow the course and Performance: The trainee will be able to identify
fully participate in class exercises, it is recommended that, knowledge, skill and attitude requirements
in addition to standard equipment such as pencils and indicated in the topic objectives of each
erasers, they be provided with scientific calculators, navi- subject and to demonstrate an ability to
gation computers, protractors, dividers, compasses and perform the required action identified by
scaled rulers. It is also suggested that the air navigation the subject in the most efficient and
course be preceded by a refresher course on basic trigon- effective manner.
ometry, quadratic equations and the use of scientific
calculators and navigation computers, as required. Actual Standard of accomplishment:
examples of the different projection charts for all regions Concepts (position, distance, time, etc.),
(equatorial, mid-latitude and polar) should be used for properties such as those of the different
trainee classroom practice including measuring distances, navigation charts, ICAO Standards and
measuring great circle and rhumb-line tracks, plotting great Recommended Practices (SARPs) relating
circle lines and fixes, plotting great circle paths as deter- to air navigation, the provision of charts,
mined on gnomonic charts and comparing them with the etc., as defined in the training subjects must
straight lines of charts derived from other methods of be thoroughly understood, and the trainee
projecting (Mercator, Lambert conformal, etc.), measuring must demonstrate an ability both to convert,
grid tracks, and converting grid to true and magnetic measure, and determine (time, distance,
directions. Classroom exercises should be completed at the headings, altitude, airspeed, etc.) as is
end of each lesson on chart projection, as appropriate. required by the specific subjects and to use
charts, calculators, navigation computers, as
6.1.4 Courses in air navigation comprise several subjects, appropriate and required to perform the
each of which may, when delivered separately, require a duties of the FOO/FD.
D3-31
D3-32 Training Manual
6.3 Required knowledge, skill and attitude Change in time zones around the earth
need for time zone
6.3.1 Position and distance
normal extent of time zone
Goal: To enable the trainee to describe the form of the local variations in time zones
earth and identify units used in navigation for determining
seasonal variations in daylight saving time
bearings, position and distance.
international date-line
equator
Need for accurate time
parallels of latitude
aircraft separation standards
latitude
astronomical navigation
meridians and anti-meridians
convergency of meridians
Time signals
prime meridian
availability
longitude
signal format (date/time group)
Measurement of distance
6.3.3 True, magnetic and compass directions
nautical mile
practice in calculating distances between places Goal: To enable the trainee to identify the difference
between true, magnetic and compass directions and
distances between places on the same parallel of
describe how they are measured or determined.
latitude other than the equator
general methods of determining distance:
Definition
spherical geometry
angle in horizontal plane measured clockwise through
distance tables
360 degrees relative to:
measurement on chart or globe
true north
navigation computers
magnetic north
compass north
Use of model globe of the reduced earth
grid north
great circle tracks
great circle distances True direction
measured relative to meridian on charts and globes
6.3.2 Time
direct measurement difficulties in flight unless special
Goal: To enable the trainee to identify the need for an equipment, such as inertial navigation system (INS) or
accurate time standard and convert local time to co- global navigation satellite system (GNSS), is available
ordinated universal time (UTC). on board the aircraft
Part D-3. Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers
Chapter 6. Navigation D3-33
changes in true direction of a great circle track due to Aircraft magnetic compass systems
meridian convergency
direct-reading magnetic compass
difficulty in determining direction in the vicinity of
remote-indicating gyro-magnetic compass
geographic poles due to limitations on the use of a
magnetic compass
6.3.4 Gyro heading reference
Rhumb-line and grid direction
definition mid-latitude sailing
Goal: To enable the trainee to describe the method for
appearance on a globe overcoming navigation problems near the magnetic and
geographic poles by the use of gyros and grid headings.
Charts
6.3.5.5 Other cylindrical projections
definition
problems associated with and the impossibility of Goal: To enable the trainee to identify other cylindrical
correctly representing a sphere on a plane surface chart projections that are commonly used in air navigation.
Chart projections
6.3.5.7 The polar stereographic projection
definition
chart development on a plane Goal: To enable the trainee to describe a chart projection
widely used for high-latitude and polar navigation.
chart development on a cylinder
chart development on a cone
6.3.6 ICAO chart requirements
the correct portrayal of earths graticule with departure
from point of tangency and standard parallels on all Goal: To enable the trainee to identify charts to be used
charts in the planning and conduct of flights as recommended by
the progressive distortion of earths graticule with ICAO.
departure from point of tangency or standard parallels
on all charts Note. A full appreciation of the purpose of some
charts may not be evident until after the lessons on air
conformalism (orthomorphism) traffic control and radio navigation facilities and pro-
the effect of chart graticules on mathematical develop- cedures. The instructor should only emphasize those which
ment (not a true geometric projection from the centre of are of particular significance to the FOO/FD. However,
the earth) typical examples of each type of chart should be available
to the trainees.
General specifications
graticules
culture and topography Visual approach chart
use elements
scale
Terminal area chart culture and topography
purpose aeronautical information
elements use by pilots
D3-36 Training Manual
use
aircraft calibration
True airspeed indicator
correction:
calibration charts and tables in the flight general principles
manual errors
CADC system accuracy
calibrated airspeed (CAS) application
compressibility effects (error):
definition Central air-data computer
varies with CAS and pressure altitude inputs
correction: correction and computations
tables
outputs
factor
application
airspeed computers
CADC
Machmeter
density error:
definition of Mach number
calibration of airspeed indicator assumes an air
density equivalent to that of mean sea level in the principle of construction
international standard atmosphere (ISA) errors
required corrections for any combination of corrections
ambient air temperature and pressure that gives
non-standard density application
D3-38 Training Manual
use and limitations for general application local QNH and altitudes used below transition level
plotting simultaneous range and bearing from requirement for antenna sizes proportional to wave-
single site length for efficient transmission
D3-42 Training Manual
Goal: To enable the trainee to identify the characteristics categories IIIa and IIIb
and uses of those radio navigation systems which provide
flight crews with direct indications of range and bearing.
Aircraft equipment
localizer receiver
Principles of VHF omnidirectional
radio range (VOR) glide path receiver frequency paired to localizer
status of VOR marker receiver
range and accuracy cross-pointer indications
airborne VOR equipment coupling to autopilot
a) the propagation limitations of current line-of-sight and economical frequency spectrum utilization. Except
systems and/or accuracy and reliability limitations for high-density areas within coverage of terrestrial-
imposed by the variability of propagation character- based communications systems, aeronautical mobile
istics of other systems; communications services (data and voice) will use
satellite relay, operating in the frequency bands allo-
b) the difficulty in large parts of the world, for a cated to the aeronautical mobile satellite service
variety of reasons, in implementing present CNS (AMSS). Terrestrial-based air-ground communication
systems and operating them in a consistent manner; will continue to serve in terminal areas and in other
and high-density airspace.
c) the limitations of voice communications and the VHF will remain in use for voice and certain data
lack of digital air-ground data interchange systems communication in many continental and terminal areas.
to support modern automated systems in the air and However, steps should be taken to preclude future
on the ground. saturation.
6.4.2 Although the effects of these limitations are not the The SSR Mode S will provide an air-ground data link
same for every part of the world, it is evident that one or which will be used for ATS purposes in high-density
more of these factors inhibit the further development of air airspace. Interoperability with other data links will be
navigation almost everywhere. It was obvious that new facilitated through the application of the open systems
CNS systems which would permit the proper development interconnection (OSI) model.
of an improved air traffic control system should be
developed. The aeronautical communication network (ATN)
concept, through the use of an agreed communication
6.4.3 At the end of 1983, the ICAO Council established protocol structure, will provide for the interchange
the Future Air Navigation Systems (FANS) Committee to of digital data packets between end-users of dissimilar
study, identify and assess new concepts and new air-ground and ground-ground communication sub-
technology in the field of air navigation, including satellite networks.
technology, and to make recommendations thereon for the
development of air navigation on a global basis.
Navigation
6.4.4 The FANS Committee completed its task and
presented its findings and recommendations to ICAOs Area navigation (RNAV) capability will be progress-
Tenth Air Navigation Conference, held in Montreal from ively introduced in compliance with the required
5 to 20 September 1991. It concluded that the exploitation navigation performance criteria. Studying the modern
of satellite technology appeared to be the only viable developments in aircraft navigation systems, the
solution to overcome the shortcomings of the existing CNS committee identified that the method most commonly
system and also fulfil the global needs and requirements of used at present, i.e. requiring mandatory carriage of
the foreseeable future. The committee developed an over- certain equipment, constrained the optimum application
all long-term projection for the co-ordinated evolutionary of modern airborne equipment. Now that new
development of air navigation for international civil navigation aids (notably satellites) are available, it will
aviation over a period of the order of 25 years, in which, be possible for aircraft operators to select, from among
complementary to certain terrestrial systems, satellite-based competing systems, the one that is most adaptable to
CNS systems will be the key to world-wide improvements. their needs. To enable that flexibility and to support the
development of more flexible route systems and RNAV
6.4.5 The main features of the global concept of the new environment, the concept of required navigation
CNS/ATM system are: performance (RNP) has been developed. This concept
is very similar, in principle, to the minimum navigation
performance specification (MNPS) concept now in use
Communications in North Atlantic and northern Canadian airspace. Both
concepts enable a required navigational performance to
In the future, aeronautical mobile communication will be achieved by a variety of navigation equipment;
make extensive use of digital modulation techniques to however, as distinct from MNPS, RNP is primarily
permit high-efficiency information flow, optimum use intended for application in airspace where adequate
of automation both in the aircraft and on the ground, surveillance is available to air traffic control (ATC).
D3-46 Training Manual
Global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) will density areas, where it may serve as an adjunct to or
provide world-wide coverage and will be used for backup for secondary surveillance radar and thereby
aircraft navigation and for non-precision type reduce the need for primary radar.
approaches. Systems providing independent navigation,
where the user performs on-board position determi-
nation from information received from broadcast Air traffic management (ATM)
transmissions by a number of satellites, will potentially
provide highly reliable and accurate and high-integrity The term air traffic management (ATM) is used to
global coverage and could meet the navigation system describe the airspace and traffic management activities
requirements for sole means of navigation for civil carried out in a co-operative manner by the aeronautical
aviation. authorities concerned with planning and organizing the
effective use of the airspace and air traffic flows within
The present radio navigation systems serving en-route
their area of responsibility. ATM consists of a ground
navigation and non-precision approaches will be able to
part and an air part, where both parts are integrated
meet the RNP conditions and coexist with satellite
through well defined procedures and interfaces. The
navigation systems. However, it is foreseen that satel-
ground part of ATM comprises air traffic services
lite systems will eventually become the sole means of
(ATS), air traffic flow management (ATFM) and
radio navigation. The timing of withdrawal of the
airspace management (ASM). The general objectives of
present terrestrial systems will depend on many factors,
ATM are to enable aircraft operators to meet their
among which the implementation and quality of the
planned times of departure and arrival and adhere to
new systems will be prominent.
their preferred flight profiles with minimum constraints
and without compromising the agreed level of safety.
The goals of the ATM system are to maintain or
Surveillance
increase the existing level of safety, to accommodate
different types of equipped aircraft, to increase system
Secondary surveillance radar (SSR) will remain in wide
capacity and to minimize delays through the realization
use in many parts of the world. By enhancing SSR with
of an efficient use of the airspace.
Mode S, the selective address and data link capabilities
will further enhance the beneficial role of SSR for
surveillance purposes. 6.4.6 The ICAO CNS/ATM systems concept is widely
seen as advantageous because it permits the enhancement
Automatic dependent surveillance (ADS) will be used of safety. Improved reliability of the aeronautical mobile
mainly in non-radar coverage areas. ADS is a function satellite communications system, for example, will mean
in which aircraft automatically transmit, via a data link, more complete and less interrupted ATS communications
data derived from on-board navigation systems. As a in some parts of the world. In addition, ADS and data
minimum, the data include aircraft identification and communications systems facilitate improved conflict
three-dimensional position. Additional data may be detection and resolution and assist the controller by
provided as appropriate. The introduction of air-ground providing advice on conflict resolution. More rapid and
data links, together with sufficiently accurate and detailed information on weather warnings such as storm
reliable aircraft navigation systems, presents the alerts will also contribute to the safety and effectiveness of
opportunity to provide surveillance services in areas flight operations. Further, the concept introduces air traffic
which lack such services in the present infrastructure, management improvements which will permit more
in particular oceanic areas and other areas where the flexible and efficient use of airspace. A global introduction
current systems prove difficult, uneconomical or even of the ICAO CNS/ATM concept can, within a short period,
impossible to implement. In addition to areas which are achieve a system which is capable of balancing the
at present devoid of traffic position information other advantages of both strategical planning and short-term
than the pilot-provided position reports, ADS will find tactical control, thereby enhancing flight safety and
beneficial application in other areas, including high- efficient airspace utilization world-wide.
CHAPTER 7. AIR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
Conditions: Provided with pertinent information and Divisions of air traffic management
reference material on air traffic control,
including a series of visits to different types air traffic control (ATC):
of air traffic control centres, area control
D3-47
D3-48 Training Manual
control zones
controlled aerodromes Visual flight rules (VFR)
definition
Trainee examination of charts definition of visual meteorological conditions (VMC)
typical FIRs special VFR flight
control areas VFR flight restrictions
control zones requirement to comply with ATC instructions in
controlled aerodromes controlled airspace
low-level control areas requirement to file a flight plan and make position
reports
high-level control areas
restricted airspace
Table of cruising levels
minimum navigation performance specifications (MNPS)
airspace standard
air traffic control unit requirements 7.3.7 Flight information service (FIS)
ATC clearances
Goal: To enable the trainee to identify the type of
ATC information display information available to pilots in flight from the flight
information service.
separation methods
definition of flight information service
separation minima
responsibility for providing service
outline of clearances for a typical oceanic flight:
ATC clearance services provided
departure instructions
reclearances en route 7.3.8 Alerting service and
oceanic clearance search and rescue
domestic clearance
Goal: To enable the trainee to identify the organization,
descent clearance procedures and facilities used to assist aircraft in distress.
approach instructions
definition of alerting service
clearance to land
responsibility for providing service
ground control clearances
air traffic services that provide alerting service
ramp control clearances
flights for which alerting service is provided
7.3.5 ATC requirements for rescue co-ordination centres
flight plans
procedures for notifying rescue co-ordination centres:
Goal: To enable the trainee to identify flight planning by air traffic services
requirements to be met prior to ATC issuing IFR clearance.
by the operator
purpose of the flight plan
action taken during emergency phases:
responsibility for filing the flight plan by rescue co-ordination centres
contents and format by air traffic services
description of ICAO flight plan form by the operator
practice in completing ATC flight plans by the pilot-in-command of the aircraft in distress
during:
filing of revised flight plans in flight
uncertainty phase
responsibility for closing flight plan
alert phase
distress phase
7.3.6 Aircraft reports
emergency signals:
Goal: To enable the trainee to identify the value and the radiotelephony procedures:
content of aircraft reports.
distress signal (MAYDAY)
types of aircraft reports
urgency signal (PAN, PAN)
value of aircraft reports Morse code (SOS ... --- ...)
position reports SSR transponder codes:
air reports (AIREPs) code 7700
D3-50 Training Manual
correct message format parts of the AIP designated for flight operational
use
use of phonetic alphabet
other government and commercial publications:
correct pronunciation of numbers
publications produced by private companies, e.g.
acknowledgement and sign-off
Jepppesen
Note. The class should be divided into groups to publications produced by operators
simulate the role of the flight crew and communicator at NOTAM
various ground facilities.
aeronautical information regulation and control
(AIRAC) NOTAM
7.3.10 Communications services fixed aeronautical information circulars
Goal: To introduce the fixed telecommunications net- aeronautical information units (flight service station)
works used by air traffic services and operators. classroom exercises:
definition of aeronautical fixed service (AFS) inspection of typical AIP and air pilot publications
responsibility for providing services decoding NOTAM
Part D-3. Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers
Chapter 7. Air Traffic Management D3-51
7.3.12 Aerodrome and airport services taxiway exit and holding markings
guidance signs
Goal: To enable the trainee to identify airport features
and facilities of significance to the FOO/FD. wind direction indicator
obstruction markings
Aerodrome administration airport beacon
aerodrome operators visual approach slope indicator systems
aerodrome certification
D3-52
Part D-3. Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers
Chapter 8. Meteorology D3-53
severe precipitation
D3-56 Training Manual
snow (including blowing snow) wind shear (including gust fronts and dry and wet
microbursts)
snow grains
heavy precipitation (rain and/or hail)
ice pellets
changes in temperature and pressure
ice crystals
lightning
hail
small hail and snow pellets
Effects on aircraft operations
aircraft operations in thunderstorms to be avoided:
often impossible to get above or around the storm
8.3.10 Thunderstorms due to its great extent
Goal: To identify the characteristics of thunderstorms severe turbulence (also above the storm)
and their effects on surface weather and flight conditions. severe icing
Part D-3. Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers
Chapter 8. Meteorology D3-57
Fog types
Automated weather observing system (AWOS)
radiation fog
current limitations and related issues
advection fog
upslope fog Synoptic stations
frontal fog
ground-based radar observations
types of satellite images and their interpretation air masses source regions
parameters measured
Classification of air masses
main air masses (arctic, polar, tropical)
Warm front
structure
8.3.20 Other types of pressure systems
factors determining weather at warm fronts
surface weather changes Goal: To identify the weather characteristics of
depressions not associated with polar/arctic fronts or
flight problems associated with warm fronts
anticyclones.
Cold front
Non-frontal depressions
structure
thermal depressions
factors determining weather at cold fronts
orographic depressions
surface weather changes
secondary depressions
flight problems associated with cold fronts
tropical cyclones1
troughs of low pressure (without fronts)
Occluded front
structure
Anticyclones
factors determining weather at occluded fronts
description
surface weather changes
general properties
flight problems associated with occluded fronts
types
structure col
easterly waves
ASHTAM and SNOWTAM
Tropical cyclones
Use of aviation weather reports in air traffic services
classification
automatic terminal information service (ATIS)
structure
meteorological information for aircraft in flight
occurrence of tropical cyclones: (VOLMET)
regions exposed
Classroom exercise
seasons
decoding aviation weather reports (coded and in
impact on flight operations abbreviated plain language)
analysing a series of reports from the same station to:
8.3.23 Aeronautical meteorological reports observe trend in weather
estimate frontal passage
Goal: To identify aeronautical meteorological reports
and describe their decoding and interpretation. analysing a sequence of simultaneous reports for
adjacent stations to identify the air masses involved and
Types of reports the location of fronts
aviation routine weather report (METAR) analysing a series of sequences of simultaneous reports
to forecast conditions at specific stations
aviation selected special weather report (SPECI)
air-report (AIREP): Note. This course is designed to enable the trainee to
understand weather and make intelligent deductions from
routine air-report available information. The FOO/FD is not responsible for
special air-report making any weather forecasts or observations.
Part D-3. Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers
Chapter 8. Meteorology D3-63
upper wind and upper-air temperature charts Forecasts for landing at destination/alternate
significant weather (SIGWX) charts: en-route alternates:
depiction of SIGWX phenomena oceanic equal time point (critical point) alternates
drift down alternates
examination of synoptic and aeronautical prognostic METAR or SPECI + a two-hour trend forecast
charts change indicators in the trend forecast
preparation of a subjective forecast related to a aerodrome forecast:
pressure system and its fronts: TAF format
movement
time evolution (development) Warnings
SIGMET information:
8.3.26 Aeronautical forecasts en route
role of SIGMET information related to tropical
Goal: To identify and interpret all types of aeronautical cyclones and volcanic ash
weather forecasts.
aerodrome warnings:
terminal area
Take-off forecasts
wind shear warnings:
required to plan maximum permissible take-off mass
terminal area
parameters included
wake turbulence
formats established by local arrangement
required to ensure compliance with operating minima Classroom exercise
examination of typical charts and forecasts for flight
planning:
En-route forecasts for flight planning
practice in decoding aerodrome and trend-type
required for flight planning at least two hours before landing forecasts
ETD
basic requirements: Note. The models given in the Appendix to Annex 3
and the Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice
upper winds and upper-air temperatures
(Doc 8896) are well suited for this purpose.
significant en-route weather
valid for time and route of flight
8.3.27 Meteorological service for
methods of meeting the requirements: international air navigation
fixed time WAFS prognostic charts
Goal: To outline the international organization of aero-
upper wind and upper-air temperature charts:
nautical meteorological services and to list the responsibilities
WAFS grid point forecasts in digital format (GRIB of the centres.
code)
SIGWX charts Role of international organizations
SIGMET information: role of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO):
in particular those related to tropical cyclones and international Standards related to basic meteoro-
volcanic ash logical data:
specific issues related to ETOPS observations
Part D-3. Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers
Chapter 8. Meteorology D3-65
Operators responsibilities to
the Meteorological Authority Classroom exercise
consultation on additional criteria for issuance of practical experience in using meteorological data when
special reports preparing flight plans:
routine and special aircraft observations (AIREPs and assessing whether conditions are within aircraft
special AIREPs): limits
frequency required calculating maximum payloads
parameters to be reported
Examples
means of reporting
provide adequate notification of requirements of 1. Given all the necessary weather and operational
individual flights: data and in conjunction with the flight planning and
scheduled operations on new routes may require the air navigation sections of the course, complete
about two months advance notice a minimum time track flight plan from Schiphol,
Amsterdam (Kingdom of the Netherlands) to
notice required for ad hoc non-scheduled flights Washington Dulles International (U.S.A.).
Note. It should be noted that the term weight is others with tie-down equipment, and loads must be planned
used in place of mass in some States. Mass as used in accordingly. Dimensional statistics of cargo pieces must be
this manual is interchangeable with weight and the compared to compartment door (the door through which the
abbreviation W for weight is also used to indicate mass load has to enter the aircraft) limits during load planning.
in several places. Compatibility of substances with dangerous goods must
also be considered. There are obvious examples of this such
as not positioning live animals near food, sensitive films
near radioactive material, or videotape near magnetic
9.1 Introduction material. There are many other less obvious examples of
incompatibility. Potential damage to or interference with
9.1.1 Mass and balance control affects aircraft handling aircraft equipment by substances or materials must be
and safety as well as optimization of payload and economy considered; for example, magnetic material may interfere
of fuel. An overloaded aircraft is extremely dangerous, and with aircraft compasses if loaded in the wrong area or if its
many accidents and incidents have been attributed to strength exceeds limits. Radioactive material must be
overloading. A badly loaded aircraft, though perhaps not correctly located and must not exceed limits either by
actually overloaded, can be equally dangerous and can actual amounts or accumulative effects. Incorrectly handled
adversely affect aircraft handling and safety. Accidents or loaded, it can constitute a hazard to passengers, crew and
have been caused by unclear loading instructions and ground personnel. Load planning must also consider
careless loading. loading and unloading sequences. An aircraft with en-route
stops must be loaded to minimize unloading and reloading
9.1.2 An aircraft with its centre of gravity (CG) located at the intermediate stops. It should not be necessary to
outside aircraft limits will be difficult, if not impossible, to completely unload and then reload an aircraft at an inter-
control. Centre of gravity location can be changed mediate airport in order to access air freight or baggage
dramatically by movement of an insufficiently secured destined for that airport.
load. Incorrect fuel management can also adversely affect
the CG. Although fuel management is not a prime
responsibility of the FOO/FD, nonetheless an understand-
ing of the effects of fuel mismanagement is necessary to 9.2 Training objectives
underline the importance of correct use of fuel index sheets
and fuel graphs when completing loadsheets/trimsheets. Conditions: The trainee will be provided with all the
The aircraft load must be planned and completed in such a necessary documentation, blank loadsheets
manner as to ensure that the CG stays within aircraft limits as well as moment and arms data from
at all stages of flight, that all zone and compartment limits more than one aircraft. The use of a
are respected and that none of the structural aircraft mass calculator is mandatory for basic exercises.
are exceeded at any time, i.e. maximum zero-fuel mass,
maximum ramp mass or taxi mass, maximum take-off mass Performance: The principles of moments and arms must
(either structural or conditionally restricted) or maximum be clearly understood before the trainee is
landing mass. shown how to complete an index- or graph-
based loadsheet. It is recommended that a
9.1.3 Mass and balance and load planning are not just loading exercise be completed, initially by
about the correct load distribution of mass in order to using moment and arms data and finally by
achieve the optimum CG location. Structural limits such as using the appropriate loadsheet as utilized
floor strengths, as well as zone load and compartment load by a typical carrier. This will serve to
maxima, must also be considered. Secure tie-down must be clearly demonstrate the mathematical logic
ensured. Some compartments are better equipped than of mass and balance. It must be demon-
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Supervised classroom discussions are to be to carry extra fuel when desired without affecting
encouraged regarding the possible multiple payload
solutions to loading problems, and the class to carry maximum amount of available payload
should be guided to the optimum solution
with explanations regarding practical load- to ensure that the aircraft centre of gravity is within
ing considerations as well as fuel savings. aircraft limits and that its position is established for
A guided visit to the load planning and take-off, for flight and for economic fuel usage
cargo departments of a carrier would be to minimize ground handling of baggage, cargo and
beneficial. mail by efficient planning of load distribution
Standard of accomplishment:
The trainee is expected to demonstrate
adequate knowledge of load planning, calcu- Organization of mass and balance
lation of payload, including the optimum use control responsibilities
of available payload space, loadsheet for some small aircraft, data and instruction in the
preparation, aircraft balance and longitudinal approved flight manual permit an individual to assume
stability, calculation of centre of gravity, complete responsibility.
structural aspects of aircraft loading, and the
issuing of loading instructions within laid- in the operators organization, technical departments
down restrictions and limitations, including are normally required to:
those imposed by dangerous goods maintain a current record of the basic operating
considerations. mass and centre of gravity for each aircraft;
periodically revise the basic operating mass and
centre of gravity on the basis of actual measure-
9.3 Required knowledge, skill and attitude ments carried out; and
produce the basic data methods from which the
9.3.1 Introduction to mass and balance mass and CG for each flight are determined.
Goal: To identify the reasons for mass and balance the responsibility for load planning, controlling mass
control and methods for its accomplishment and to outline and balance, and calculating take-off mass and CG
typical organizations. varies between operators.
no commercial flight can be legally dispatched without
Mass and balance control a load clearance from the authorized department or
individual.
definitions:
procedures must be developed to guard against the
basic operating mass (BOW) possibility of communications error, particularly when
dry operating mass (DOW) radio is used.
zero-fuel mass (ZFW)
ramp mass or taxi mass: Mass and balance calculation methods
take-off mass (TOW) computer systems which may be completely integrated
landing mass with flight planning and load control systems
mass control graphical
balance control arithmetical
terminology mass arm = moment
Part D-3. Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers
Chapter 9. Mass (Weight) and Balance Control D3-69
tables normally provide breakdown by payload operating plans in order to obtain a consensus on the
categories such as: best operating plan
number of passengers
cargo 9.3.3 Payload calculation
mail. and loadsheet preparation
tables assume standard passenger and baggage mass
Goal: To enable the trainee to accurately compute the
which may be established by:
maximum permissible payload and gain proficiency in
State regulations completing loadsheets.
statistical analysis.
under some conditions, the FOO/FD may be able to Review of aircraft design mass
release additional payload details prior to completing
flight plan details. maximum design taxi mass
under unusual conditions, the payload sold in accord- maximum design take-off mass
ance with the advance allotment may exceed that which maximum design landing mass
can be carried. The FOO/FDs options then include:
maximum design zero-fuel mass
assigning larger capacity aircraft to the flight
originating a section flight
planning an en-route landing Review of operational factors
that may restrict mass
flight delay until conditions allow all committed
payload to be carried take-off and landing runway limitations
leaving payload behind. take-off and landing performance (mass/altitude/tem-
the FOO/FD should fully appreciate the potential perature) limitations
problems associated with: en-route climb performance requirements
denied boarding of confirmed passengers take-off mass limited to maximum permissible landing
failure to meet contractual commitments for mail mass for that flight + mass of fuel consumed en route
and cargo.
abnormal fuel loading or fuel management schedule
failure to load shipments of live animals or may reduce maximum zero-fuel mass
perishable cargo.
aircraft powerplant or equipment deviation from
the operator normally establishes a list of priorities for standard
FOO/FD guidance in the situations outlined above.
approved statistical analyses record the actual location and amount of each type
of payload
seasonal variations
calculate operational mass including last-minute
variation by destination (based on analyses) changes (LMCs)
provide a basis for calculating take-off and landing
centre of gravity.
Review of mass of minimum fuel
minimum fuel normally calculated during flight Classroom exercises
planning before payload is known
further practice in calculating maximum permissible
minimum fuel usually based upon an operating mass payload when limited by each of the many factors
assumption such as ZFW
practice in completing typical loadsheets
if the assumed mass is too low, the minimum fuel must
be increased
minimum fuel is normally calculated in kilograms 9.3.4 Aircraft balance and
longitudinal stability
generally assumed that heat content per mass unit
(kilogram) of fuel is constant for the fuel types Goal: To provide the trainee with an understanding of the
approved for that aircraft type principles of aircraft balance and longitudinal stability.
fuel may be boarded in terms of litres or gallons (US or
Imperial) provided the conversion from mass to volume Introduction
is made using the specific gravity appropriate for the
fuel type and its temperature definition of balance
definition of centre of gravity
aircraft balance on the ground
Determining available payload
the FOO/FD determines the following for the specific
Longitudinal stability in flight
conditions affecting each flight:
maximum permissible take-off operating mass aircraft supported principally by lift produced by the
(MPTOW) and regulated take-off weight (RTOW) wings
9.3.5 Moments and balance since total moment and mass are known, the distance of
the balancing point CG from the nose may be
Goal: To familiarize the trainee with the principles of calculated
calculating the point of balance using basic data provided
by the aircraft manufacturer.
Simplifying assumptions
with a single cargo compartment, for example, its load the bays nearer the wing can normally carry heavier
limits may ensure an acceptable CG loads.
with multiple cargo holds, it may be possible to devise the combined load in each cargo bay and the area
cargo tables showing, for example, the range of accept- directly above it must not exceed the mass limitation
able mass in the rear compartment for a given traffic for that fuselage section.
load
load planners have tables for controlling the load in
tables and procedures are developed by most operators each zone or area and these must be rigidly followed.
to decide how to distribute the load even if a specific
CG value must subsequently be calculated
trainee inspection of operator load planning and Permissible loading illustrations
distribution tables the instructor should use a diagram that divides the
fuselage into upper and lower and fore and aft compart-
Classroom exercises ments.
for a given load, calculate CG using datum and arm the maximum permissible load in each compartment
data, as provided by an operators technical department, and vertical column should be shown.
for a given aircraft with multiple compartments and examples of actual loads in each compartment should
sections. illustrate situations for which:
calculate CG for the same load on the same aircraft loading is possible but outside stress limits
using the operators graphical method. stress on fuselage is minimal
problems are unlikely to be experienced in ensuring
9.3.6 The structural aspects the CG will be within limits.
of aircraft loading
Goal: To identify the structural limitations that must be Local floor strength
observed when loading an aircraft and to explain the need
the floor of each cargo hold is designed for a maximum
to keep the load from moving.
load per unit area to prevent damage to the floor.
the floor is also limited to load per unit length to ensure
Fuselage strength support by a sufficient number of floor beams.
the achievement of a satisfactory balance does not spreaders are used to further distribute the mass of
ensure that the aircraft is safely loaded. heavy items and meet the limitations of unit area and
the load must also be distributed so that neither the unit length.
over-all fuselage strength nor the local strengths of the
floors are exceeded. Note. Provided that spreaders of standard
dimensions are used, tables can be prepared for quick
loads must always be properly restrained to prevent calculation of the minimum number of spreaders
harm to passengers, crew, load or aircraft structure. required for specific mass at specific dimensions.
Particular note should be taken of sharp-edged objects
Fuselage structure and their potential for damage to aircraft floors,
bulkheads, etc.
cabin and cargo hold floors rely on a network of
supporting beams attached to the fuselage frame.
the fuselage structure transmits loads to the wings and Maximum package tables
undercarriage.
aircraft manufacturers provide tables that give the
fuselage loads furthest from the wings create greatest maximum width, height and length combinations for
bending moment and strain on the structure. acceptable pieces of cargo.
the cargo section is normally divided into loading bays tables take into consideration both hold dimensions and
or compartments forward and aft of the wing. compartment door size.
D3-74 Training Manual
Loading instructions
Cargo pallets
issued to those responsible for the actual loading when
description and advantages over bulk loading all of the foregoing considerations have been taken into
account by the load planner
limitations and requirement for specialized ground-
handling equipment a special form is normally used, containing:
methods of securing cargo to pallets and pallets to the very explicit instructions from the load planner
aircraft an area for deviations to be entered by the loading
supervisor
lations, labelling, quantity, UN number, classification, requirements for ground handling and treatment
location on aircraft and (if applicable) details of (including during any intermediate stops) must be
accessibility in flight. considered and followed.
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D3-78 Training Manual
10.3.4 Emergency procedures Note. In the event of the FOO/FD being responsible for
the actual acceptance, handling, storage and loading of
Goal: To outline the FOO/FDs responsibilities in the dangerous goods, a far more comprehensive and detailed
event of an emergency involving dangerous goods. dangerous goods training course shall apply.
CHAPTER 11. FLIGHT PLANNING
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Chapter 11. Flight Planning D3-81
it is seldom possible to plan a flight to simultaneously: situations for which point of no return or critical
point estimates would be valuable
carry all available payload
drift down after engine failure
operate on schedule
operate at minimum cost The value of the flight plan
provide the smoothest possible flight to air traffic services
conform with crew time limitations. co-ordination and integration of flight plans and traffic
flows by ATC
Operating costs co-ordination with other ATS units
Direct operating costs (DOC) which vary with flight assistance in the prompt issue of a clearance that most
duration and over which the FOO/FD has some closely meets the operators request
measure of control such as:
fuel Role of the FOO/FD in
direct maintenance labour and material costs that the flight planning process
are time-dependent
determine that the appropriate State and operator depart-
flight and cabin staff salaries based on time- mental authorizations have been obtained to operate
dependent formulae special flights such as:
alternate selection landing and handling fees extra sections of scheduled flights
charters
Flight planning for different objectives publicity flights
maximum speed requires use of maximum thrust or ferry flights
power within airframe limits at altitude that produces ferry flights with inoperative engine or system test
maximum ground speed. flight
minimum fuel consumption requires use of most fuel- training flights
efficient cruise control procedure, route and altitude. choice of call signs
minimum cost requires analysis of both fuel and other analyse weather to determine if flight can operate
time-dependent direct operating costs.
establish aircraft availability
since fuel costs dominate other time-dependent direct
operating costs, minimum cost cruise control pro- establish availability of flight crew and cabin staff
cedures, routes and altitudes are generally close to determine available payload
those for minimum fuel consumption.
make operational decisions:
departure time:
The value of the flight plan
to the flight crew on schedule
delayed
establishes the optimum route, altitudes, and cruise
control procedure based on careful analysis of the best early
available information aircraft type:
predetermines or estimates: normal type as scheduled
tracks and distances smaller
speeds and headings larger
flight times between reporting points cancel scheduled flight
fuel consumption and reserve fuel originate new flight
D3-82 Training Manual
11.3.8 The final phases exceptions include domestic flight plan formats accept-
able to that State
Goal: To identify the final phases of the flight planning
the importance of filing a flight plan strictly in accord-
process and the FOO/FDs role in their completion.
ance with the prescribed format should be emphasized
Customs and immigration clearance forms all available payload can only be carried by use of
a feasible reclearance technique operation
general declaration (GD) form required by some
States normal operation is possible
declaration of health form (may be combined with GD) for each flight actually operated, the trainee should
prepare a flight clearance and a flight plan in standard
passenger manifest format
crew manifest
11.3.11 Threats and hijacking
Note. Requirements for many of these documents (see also Chapter 15 on a related subject)
vary from State to State.
Goal: To ensure that the FOO/FD is aware of his
responsibilities, knows what to do and how to do it quickly
11.3.10 Flight planning exercises and efficiently, knows how and where to get assistance
without delay and can assist company and State
Goal: To enable the trainee to practice making operational authorities, where appropriate.
decisions and preparing flight plans, thereby developing
proficiency and confidence. The FOO/FD must:
11.3.12 ETOPS
Availability of information
the exercises should be based on aircraft types for Goal: The FOO/FD must, sooner or later, expect to be
which the appropriate sections of a flight operating involved in flight planning, crew briefing and operational
manual are available. control concerning extended range operations by
aeroplanes with two turbine power-units (ETOPS).
the airports and routes selected should be those for
which appropriate aeronautical information is available. Terminology and application
Meteorological information should be varied for each
exercise and provided in standard format. adequate airport:
the available payload and aircraft are to be specified by An airport sufficiently equipped to support the
the instructor. aircraft operation. This includes runway length,
lighting, approach facilities, fire fighting, and a
at least one exercise should include an aircraft equip- sufficient number of hotel rooms for accommo-
ment deviation that constrains the flight plan. dating passengers from diverted, delayed or
cancelled flights. This concept of adequate airport
is included in the definition of the area of operation.
Exercise objectives
suitable airport:
to decide on the best operational plan which should
include situations in which: An adequate airport with weather reports or
forecasts, indicating that the weather conditions are
a flight can be cancelled, delayed, consolidated at or above operating minima, and the field
all available payload cannot be carried conditions at that airport indicate that a safe landing
D3-86 Training Manual
D3-88
Part D-3. Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers
Chapter 12. Flight Monitoring D3-89
ETOPS considerations
D3-91
D3-92 Training Manual
Figure 8 priorities:
cardioid distress
modulation: urgency
AM traffic
FM practical operations
sidebands: SSB, DSB
elementary radio TX/RX Radio navigation service
standard navigation aids
Aeronautical fixed service operational objectives:
message format CAT I
national practical fixed network: CAT II
AFTN CAT III
SITA (Socit Internationale de Tlcommuni- ILS
cations Aronautiques) Ground controlled approach (GCA)
VOR/DME
Aeronautical mobile service NDB, D/F
VHF band frequency utilization
phonetic alphabet Automated aeronautical service
standard words telecommunications service
call signs VOLMET
abbreviations VHF/HF
communications ATIS
CHAPTER 14. HUMAN FACTORS
Note. For more detailed information on the and in groups. It involves the over-all performance of
importance of Human Factors in civil aviation operations, human beings within the aviation system. Human Factors
instructors and trainees can refer to ICAO Human Factors seeks to optimize the performance of people by the system-
Digests 1 through 12. Human Factors Digest No. 1, atic application of the human sciences, often integrated
Fundamental Human Factors Concepts, is essential reading within the framework of system engineering. Its twin
for those who would like to acquire an understanding of objectives can be seen as safety and efficiency.
aviation Human Factors.
14.2.3 Human Factors has come to be concerned with
diverse elements in the aviation system. These include
human behaviour; decision-making and other cognitive
14.1 Introduction processes; the design of controls and displays; flight deck
and cabin layouts; air traffic control display systems;
Lapses in human performance are cited as causal factors in communication and software aspects of computers; maps,
the majority of accidents. If the accident rate is to be charts and documentation; as well as training.
decreased, Human Factors must be better understood and
Human Factors knowledge more broadly applied. Increas- 14.2.4 Cultural differences have been recognized as
ing awareness of the importance of aviation Human Factors issues of concern to Human Factors. The subject has been
presents the international aviation community with a studied by many Human Factors specialists, and as is the
significant opportunity to make aviation both safer and case with many Human Factors issues, the jury is still out
more efficient. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce and universal definition and explanation have yet to be
flight operations officers/flight dispatchers (FOO/FDs) to determined. In the context of the FOO/FDs training,
fundamental Human Factors concepts in aviation and to cultural differences should be addressed in the light of the
provide guidelines for introducing crew resource manage- misunderstanding that may be created among FOO/FDs
ment (CRM) concepts in the emergency training and and crew members of differing cultural backgrounds and
exercise phases of FOO/FD training. the resulting possible break in communication and co-
ordination. When addressing this issue, instructors must
exercise caution as discussion on cultural differences is
subject to misunderstanding and can result in unnecessary
14.2 The meaning of friction. During this phase of the training, emphasis should
Human Factors be placed on the development of an organizational culture
that encourages a team work approach to the FOO/FDs
14.2.1 Human Factors as a term has to be clearly defined and crew members responsibilities.
because these words, when used in the vernacular, are often
applied to any factor related to humans. The human 14.2.5 In spite of the reliance on the academic sources of
element is the most flexible, adaptable and valuable part of information, aviation Human Factors is primarily oriented
the aviation system, but it is also the most vulnerable to toward solving practical problems in the real world. There
influences that can adversely affect its performance. are a growing number of integrated Human Factors
Throughout the years, some three out of four accidents techniques or methods; these varied and developing
have resulted from less than optimum human performance. techniques can be applied to problems as diverse as
accident investigation and the optimization of personnel
14.2.2 Human Factors is a technology that deals with training.
people: it is about people in their working and living
environments, and it is about their relationship with 14.2.6 It is most important that everyone concerned with
machines, equipment and procedures. Just as important, it the operation and administration of the aviation system
is about their relationship with each other as individuals recognize the inevitability of human error. No person,
D3-93
D3-94 Training Manual
whether designer, engineer, manager, controller, flight mation transfer, problem solving, decision making, main-
dispatcher or crew member, can perform perfectly all the taining situational awareness and dealing with automated
time. Also, what could be considered perfect performance systems. Thus, to be effective, DRM training must be
in one set of circumstances might well be unacceptable in accomplished in several phases and over several years.
another. Thus, people need to be seen as they really are; to
wish that they be intrinsically better or different is 14.3.3 Accordingly, DRM training should include at least
futile, unless such a wish is backed by a recommendation three distinct phases:
for remedial action. Such a recommendation can be further
supplemented by provision of the means to achieve better a) an awareness phase where DRM issues are defined
design, training, education, experience, motivation, etc., and discussed;
with the objective of positively influencing relevant aspects
of human performance.
b) a practice and feedback phase where trainees gain
experience with DRM techniques; and
14.2.7 An understanding of the predictable human capa-
bilities and limitations and the applications of this under-
standing are the primary concerns of Human Factors. c) a continual reinforcement phase where DRM
Human Factors has been progressively developed, refined principles are addressed on a long-term basis.
and institutionalized since the end of the last century and is
now backed by a vast store of knowledge which can be
used by those involved in enhancing the safety of todays
complex civil air transport system. 14.4 Awareness
14.3.2 Research studies from the behavioural sciences 14.5 Practice and feedback
strongly suggest that behaviour change in any environment
cannot be accomplished in a short period of time, even if 14.5.1 The second phase of DRM training is practice and
the training is very well designed. Trainees need time, feedback. Some programmes use role-playing techniques to
awareness, practice and feedback, and continual reinforce- provide group skills practice, as well as attitude-measuring
ment to learn lessons that will long endure. DRM addresses questionnaires, as a means of providing feedback to
the challenge of optimizing the person/machine interface individuals on their own interpersonal styles, some aspects
and related interpersonal issues. These issues include of which they probably have not previously evaluated.
effective team building and maintenance of teams, infor- Attitude insights allow individuals to recognize some of
Part D-3. Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers
Chapter 14. Human Factors D3-95
their strengths and weaknesses. Alone, however, they may respect to training in resource management
not provide guidance on how those attitudes will positively and role-playing simulating conditions that
or negatively affect each situation. Role-playing or group require the application of DRM concepts,
exercises can provide useful practice in areas of dispatcher
decision-making and other skills discussed in the awareness Performance: The trainee will be able to apply concepts
phase of the DRM curriculum. They can also demonstrate learned in DRM training in the performance
the critical responsibility of FOO/FDs and the effect of of their duties and responsibilities. They will
stress on their ability to perform their tasks under actual be able to develop awareness of good
emergency situations. The interrelationship between the versus poor performance, to accept the
actions of FOO/FDs and flight crew members must be need for supportive and co-operative inter-
examined. relationships between FOO/FDs and crew
members, and to cope with difficult
14.5.2 Videotape feedback is particularly effective situations.
because the third-person perspective creates a level of
awareness not possible with other techniques. This Standard of accomplishment:
perspective provides insight and provokes self-critique During training, the recorded performance
which appears to be a strong stimulus for attitude and of the trainee can be compared with models
behaviour change. It is easy to identify less-than-optimum provided as references.
managerial or interpersonal styles if one sees it for oneself.
Moreover, these video feedback exercises will provide
opportunities for peer critiques. There is ample evidence of
the effectiveness of the video feedback technique, which
14.8 Required knowledge, skill and attitude
should be used whenever possible. If video feedback is not
possible, each exercise must be followed by a carefully
guided debriefing session. Participants should be able to
14.8.1 Basic concepts of DRM
identify the objectives of each exercise and be encouraged
to provide constructive feedback on performance (peer
review should be highly encouraged), identify areas of
Operating environment
concern, propose alternatives and relate all exercises to
practical experience. pilots
air traffic controllers
other dispatchers
14.6 Reinforcement
managers
The third phase is reinforcement. No matter how effective
station personnel
the DRM classroom curriculum, interpersonal drills and
feedback techniques are, a single exposure will be insuf- meteorology information
ficient. Undesirable attitudes and norms which contribute to
aircraft maintenance staff
ineffective FOO/FD performance are ubiquitous and may
have developed over a lifetime. It is unrealistic to expect a load planners
short training programme to counteract a lifetime of devel-
crew rostering staff
opment. For maximum effect, DRM must be embedded in
the total training programme, be continually reinforced, and aircraft routers (fleet assignment staff)
become an inseparable part of the organiz-ations culture.
communication systems and related personnel
This last factor is often overlooked; it is clear, however, that
effective DRM training requires the support of the highest flight planning systems and related personnel
levels of management.
Effective feedback refers to the co-ordination concepts 14.8.5 Effectiveness of the developer
identified in indoctrination/awareness training and
relates to specific behaviours. Practice and feedback are The effectiveness of any training programme is directly
best accomplished through the use of some form of related to the expertise of the developers and facili-tators.
simulation and audio or videotape. Ideally they should be qualified FOO/FDs, with valid
licences or the requisite qualifications, with skills and
training in the following:
Continuing reinforcement
a) listening and communicating;
Technical training (e.g. initial and recurrent training).
Interdepartmental training. b) role-playing, simulations and group discussions; and
Effective resource management skills are not acquired
c) debriefing and feedback.
by passively listening in a classroom but by active
participation and practice.
D3-98
Part D-3. Flight Operations Officers/Flight Dispatchers
Chapter 15. Security (Emergencies and Abnormal Situations) D3-99
controls for the handling of baggage, cargo, mail etc. in an aircraft on the ground
security of flight catering supplies and deliveries aircraft search by trained personnel, by crew
device recognition by crew and handling
Security measures taken by airlines company policy and procedures regarding release of
airline crew and personnel training, vigilance and information to public media
alertness
familiarity with security procedures Emergency due to dangerous goods
careful walk around to check the aircraft for the handling advice to crew
unusual or abnormal
advice to emergency services
wearing of uniforms and personal identification cards
compliance with security checks and co-operation with
security staff Hijacking
challenging any unknown or unidentified person(s) crew procedures, transponder code, etc.
diplomatic passengers and their baggage international convention regarding power of aircraft
commander including power of delivery into custody:
prisoners as passengers escorted by officers
Tokyo Convention on offences and certain other
deportee/inadmissible person: acceptance for carriage, acts committed on board aircraft
escorted/unescorted Hague Convention for the suppression of unlawful
seizure of aircraft
Procedures for handling Montreal Convention for the suppression of unlaw-
threats, bomb scares, etc. ful acts against the safety of civil aviation
different procedures for handling red or green alerts:
Red (specific: e.g. flight number, scheduled time of Emergency procedures
departure (STD), company name)
emergency co-ordination centre
Green (vague: e.g. of a general nature, non-
specific) the role of the FOO/FD when dealing with an
emergency
sequence to follow when alerting authorities: who to
contact first, etc. emergency procedures manual
security alert signals and format procedures for contacting and dealing with relevant
emergency authorities and services
procedures in the event of a threat affecting aircraft:
on ground
in flight Personal security for the FOO/FD
on airways threats to personnel
on MNPS or oceanic tracks pressure on FOO/FD through threats to family of
airborne search FOO/FD
PHASE TWO
CHAPTER 16. APPLIED PRACTICAL TRAINING
16.1.1 Phase two of the course takes the form of a series c) flight manual, including cruise control charts and
of supervised exercises in which trainees are given the performance limitation tables (may be included in
opportunity to develop decision-making abilities by apply- the operations manual);
ing knowledge gained in earlier parts of the course. The
exercises consist of operational flight planning based on d) route guide and operations manual; and
weather analysis, fuel and load calculations, selection of
navaids, and compliance with regulations, procedures and e) flight operation forms including flight plan and
amendments thereto. If on-the-job training can be arranged, message forms.
then this part of the curriculum should be omitted at the
training school and given in a convenient dispatch office 16.2.2 In defining the operating conditions for the
where the trainee can receive the required practical training exercise, the instructor should include the following, as
under the guidance and supervision of an FOO/FD applicable for each case:
instructor. In the latter case, however, it will expedite the
trainees training if, in addition to real flights, hypo-
a) the flight programme showing scheduled departure
thetical situations are set up as exercises when time allows.
and arrival times at terminals including type of
aircraft to be used;
16.1.2 The simulated or assumed operating conditions for
each exercise must be clearly specified by the instructor. b) load available at each terminal; destination of such
The exercises should be made as realistic as possible. Past loads;
flight records, meteorological forecasts, charts, weather
observations, etc., can be used to advantage, and answers
c) commercial considerations having any possible
arrived at by the trainees compared to what actually took
effect upon operational decisions, e.g. availability
place. A group discussion after each exercise will prove
of passenger accommodation in the event of an
beneficial in eliminating possible misconceptions.
enforced diversion;
Note. Exercises provided in this phase of the training d) aircraft and flight crew routing if more than one
are additional to the class exercises carried out as part of flight is involved;
the training covered in phase one.
e) meteorological charts and forecasts;
a) specimen meteorological surface and upper-air j) passenger and cargo-handling facilities at terminals
charts; forecasts and meteorological folders; and at alternates.
D3-103
D3-104 Training Manual
16.2.3 Exercises should be designed to give the trainees o) any of the above using a hand-held digital computer
practice in the following: and/or digital computer terminal if computerized
flight planning is available in the operational
a) making decisions as to scheduled operation, control system used in the State.
delayed operation, re-routing or cancellation of
flights;
Note. In this group of exercises, it will be 16.3 Simulator LOFT observation and
necessary to give instruction on the application of synthetic flight training
the operators procedures relevant to the
FOO/FDs actions in cases of delayed, cancelled or Goal: To provide trainees with a better understanding and
diverted flights, handling of passengers and freight, awareness of the working environment in the cockpit of a
and repositioning of aircraft. commercial air transport aircraft and the practical duties
of the flight crew under normal, abnormal and emergency
b) flight crew briefing, including the preparation of operational situations.
briefs for the use of pilots-in-command, on changes
16.3.1 When FOO/FDs have been recruited from one of
in Regional Procedures, on States Regulations or
the operational disciplines such as pilots, their background of
on subjects referred to in NOTAM and which may
active experience has proven invaluable in equipping them
affect the planned flight;
with an appreciation of the operational effect of their work as
FOO/FDs. A large number of FOO/FD trainees, however,
c) flight planning including selection of routes, tracks,
are recruited from other sources and may lack a factual
altitudes, cruise procedures, and alternates and cal-
appreciation of the duties and responsibilities of flight crew
culation of fuel requirements;
members in a commercial air transport aircraft under normal,
abnormal and emergency operational situations.
d) compilation of ICAO and operators operation
messages; 16.3.2 To enable FOO/FDs to gain an understanding and
practical knowledge of the operational environment in the
e) provision of flight plan information to ATC; cockpit of a commercial air transport aircraft, it is essential
that they spend some time observing a representative
f) provision of flight progress information to company training session of flight crew members undertaken in an
offices; appropriate synthetic trainer. It is recommended that this
training include participation in pre-simulator CRM
briefing and observation of at least one full line-oriented
g) calculation of maximum permissible take-off and
flight training (LOFT) which includes simulated exercises
landing weights;
under normal, abnormal and emergency flight conditions.
16.4.1 After the completion of the classroom training and d) The trainee should prepare a complete dummy
the training on applied practical flight operations including dispatch for the flight. This dummy dispatch
LOFT training observation and synthetic (link) flight should be compared at some convenient time with
exercise, it is essential that the trainee be assigned to actual the actual dispatch sequence adopted for the flight.
operational control duties under supervision. The provision
of on-the-job training will enable the trainee to develop the e) At the end of the flight, the trainee must again
necessary confidence to perform the duties and responsi- accompany the crew in its ground activities until
bilities of a full-fledged FOO/FD. In addition, on-the-job the flight is closed and the aircraft handed over,
training will enable him to have first-hand experience on including all company procedures.
the exigencies of the profession as it is performed by
experienced dispatchers under an actual operational 16.5.2 The contents of the trainees plan for the flight will
environment. necessarily vary depending on the character of the flight.
The following are points of primary interest and should be
16.4.2 On-the-job training must be provided for at least included if possible:
90 days (thirteen weeks) to allow the trainee a reasonable
opportunity to acquire adequate experience and to comply a) pre-flight check-compliance with safety standards;
with the requirements of 4.5.1.3 of Annex 1 Personnel loading, load distribution, carriage of dangerous
Licensing. goods, amount of fuel, aircraft instrumentation,
operational equipment and rescue equipment,
go/no go check-off system;
16.5 Route familiarization
b) pre-flight check-crew; composition, flight and duty
Goal: To allow the trainee to appreciate the route time limitation, licences and other documents,
characteristics in the selected area of operation and summary of NOTAM;
familiarize himself with the different procedures and
services available over different route sectors. c) pre-flight meteorological briefing; MET folder;
16.5.1 Route familiarization is considered an essential d) flight briefing; flight plan, flight documents, flight
and integral part of the training of FOO/FDs since it kit, company orders;
supplements that part of the appreciation of pilot work
which cannot be learned in a flight simulator. It also allows e) derivation of take-off data in the environmental
a realistic appreciation by the trainee of route character- runway conditions;
istics in the selected area of operation, such as the
differences in procedure and services available over f) ATC clearances;
different route sectors and at different aerodromes, of the
effects of prevailing meteorological conditions and topo- g) in-flight procedures, position reporting, weather
graphical features, and of the handling of in-flight reporting, altimeter setting changes, etc.;
difficulties occasioned by environmental conditions. Such
practical experience will assist the FOO/FD in the perform- h) comparison of forecast to actual flight and weather
ance of his duties to the highest possible standards. For the conditions;
trainee to derive the maximum benefit from each flight, the
following should be observed: i) communications with ATS along route and reason
for such communication;
a) The co-operation of the pilot-in-command must be
secured. j) performance of navigation aids and facilities;
b) Arrangements must be made with the pilot-in- k) derivation of landing data in the environmental
command for the position(s) that the trainee is to conditions;
occupy during the various stages of the flight to
enable him to observe and monitor proceedings as l) landing sequence, holding time, taxiing time;
far as is practicable. The planned workload of the
trainee must be realistic and not overly demanding. m) test flight arrival report, including snag reports; and
c) The trainee must participate with the crew through n) intermediate stop, refuelling, handling of pass-
all the operational phases of pre-flight preparations. engers, reclearing the flight, meteorological briefing.
D3-106 Training Manual
Annex 11 Air Traffic Services Circ 234 Human Factors Digest No. 5 Operational
Implications of Automation in Advanced
Annex 12 Search and Rescue Technology Flight Decks
Annex 13 Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation Circ 238 Human Factors Digest No. 6 Ergonomics
D3-107
D3-108 Training Manual
Circ 240 Human Factors Digest No. 7 Investigation Doc 9284SU Supplement to the Technical Instructions
of Human Factors in Accidents and Incidents for the Safe Transport of Dangerous
Goods by Air
Circ 241 Human Factors Digest No. 8 Human
Factors in Air Traffic Control Doc 9328 Manual of Runway Visual Range Observing
and Reporting Practices
Circ 247 Human Factors Digest No. 10 Human
Factors, Management and Organization Doc 9332 Manual on the ICAO Bird Strike Information
System (IBIS)
Circ 249 Human Factors Digest No. 11 Human
Factors in CNS/ATM Systems Doc 9365 Manual of All-Weather Operations
Doc 8643 Aircraft Type Designators Doc 9554 Manual Concerning Safety Measures
Relating to Military Activities Potentially
Doc 8896 Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Hazardous to Civil Aircraft Operations
Pracice
Doc 9625 Manual of Criteria for the Qualification of
Doc 9137 Airport Services Manual Flight Simulators
Doc 9156 Accident/Incident Reporting Manual (ADREP Doc 9640 Manual of Aircraft Ground De/Anti-icing
Manual) Operations
Doc 9284 Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport Doc 9654 Manual on Prevention of Problematic Use of
of Dangerous Goods by Air Substances in the Aviation Workplace
END