White Women as Postmodern Vehicle of Black Oppression: The Pedagogy of Discrimination in

Western Academe
Author(s): Ronald E. Hall
Source: Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 37, No. 1 (Sep., 2006), pp. 69-82
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.
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 WHITE WOMEN AS
POSTMODERN VEHICLE
OF BLACK OPPRESSION
The Pedagogy of Discrimination
in Western Academe
RONALDE. HALL
MichiganState University

At the behest of White Americansis a postmodernform of Black oppres-

sion via Whitewomenas vehicle. Inthepreferentialhiringof Whitewomen
facultyextendedfromthe women'srightsmovementin academeis the rac-
ist discriminationagainstBlack and otherpeople of color. The historyof
women'srightsevolved in the contextof racismapparentin the popularity
of the Women'sKu Klux Klan(WKKK).Suffice it to say,thatmodernistic
traditionin the preferentialhireof Whitewomen is a prerequisiteto White
supremacy.Thus, in this postmodernera the gap between White women
and Black folk hired at prestigious institutionsof higher education has
introduceda more covert but no less formidablestrategyfor sustaining
Black oppression.Academemust confrontthis issue to sustainits prestige
and credibility.

Black;oppression;WhiteWomen;
Keywords: discrimination; postmodern

According to Western tradition discriminationrefersto an ability

to differentiatebasedon discretecriteria(Agier, 1995). In this con-
text, discriminationmay be harmlessand, indeed, a compulsory
elementof the assessmentprocess.Academicinstitutionsdiscrimi-
nate in admissions to enable selection of the brighteststudents.
Employersdiscriminateat the workplaceto enable selectionof the
most qualifiedandable applicant.Suchmanifestationsof discrimi-
nation are ethically sound and germaneto objective assessment.
Discriminationas pertainsto the spiritof law,however,is unethical

JOURNALOF BLACKSTUDIES,Vol. 37 No. 1, September2006 69-82

DOI: 10.1177/0021934705277286
© 2006 Sage Publications

69
70 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES/ SEPTEMBER2006

andrefersto unfairpracticesattributedto the dominationof West-

ern academe by White power structures(Hall, 1996). Conse-
quentlyat the behest of WhiteAmericansis an analogousdomina-
tion in thehiringof Whitewomenwho seek employmentas faculty.
Said domination is apparent in the disproportionatestatistics
reportedon White women and people of color who are full-time
faculty at prestigiousinstitutionsof higher education(Integrated
PostsecondaryEducationData System [IPEDS], 1995). In juxta-
position to the rhetoricof equal opportunitythe disproportionate
hiringof Whitewomen by prestigiousinstitutionsis characterized
as urgentdespitea criticalabsenceof people of color, thatis, Afri-
can Americans.As intimate associates of the White male power
structure,White women are less inclined to actively abhorracial
disparitiesin facultyhires.While theirapathyis not illegal, it is no
less facilitativeof discriminationas pertainsto the spirit of law.
Genderactivismprioritizedon the partof Whitewomen subjugates
theiractiveobjectionto racialdiscrimination.Subsequentlyraceis
subjugated by gender manifested via a preference for White
women as a vehicle of oppressionvis-a-vis Black andotherpeople
of color.
As existentialfact, race in lieu of genderis crux of discrimina-
tion in White Westernacademe.White women by virtue of their
race category have remained personally aloof from the conse-
quencesof discriminationby race as a matterof practicality(Hall,
2000). Theirpotentialas accompliceor beneficiaryin the outcome
of racialdiscriminationhasnot gone undetected.Cognizantof their
role racialdiscriminationfor all but few amongWhite women has
become an intellectualabstractionand political schism. Notwith-
standingis the perpetuationof discriminationby race. Said dis-
criminationprecipitatesthe inability of Black scholars to gain
access to facultypositionsat prestigiousinstitutionsof higheredu-
cation commensurate with their intellectual talent and skills
(Newman,1999). Extendedfromthatfactis no less a matterof self-
preservationon the partof Whitewomen.Withoutnecessarilycon-
scious effortto do so, White women have become willing partici-
pants as a postmodernvehicle of discriminationin the oppression
of Black people. This latest version is a contrivedeffortto further
 Hall / DISCRIMINATIONIN WESTERNACADEME 7 1

institutionalizeWhitedominationof academe.Thateffortis rooted

in theracisthistoryof thewomen's,thatis, White,rightsmovement.
Racism is the foundationof discriminationthat, accordingto
Banton (1997), refers to the efforts of a dominantrace group to
exclude a dominatedrace group from sharingin the materialand
symbolic rewardsof status and power.It differs from the various
other forms of oppression in that qualificationis contingent on
observableand assumedphysiological traits(Banton, 1996). Said
traitsimply the inherentsuperiorityof dominantrace groupsthat
are then rationalizedas a naturalorderof the biological universe
(Streicker,1997).
The most zealous proponents of racism would profess that
White facultyregardlessof genderare superiorto Black andother
people of color as a matterof fact (Kolawole, 1997). They would
postulatethat White women- as an extension of White suprem-
acy- havebeen endowedwith capacitiesnecessaryto successfully
contributeto the advanceof Westernacademe.As orchestrated,the
women's rights movementbegan as a thinly veiled form of racist
dogmadedicatedto the urgencyof equalrightsforWhitewomenas
more deserving among oppressed populations (Daly, Jennings,
Beckett,& Leashore,1995). Afterdecadesof struggle,the effortto
eliminatesexism has been preemptedby a universal,almostmystic
belief in the power of race to elevate or taint(Hyde, 1995).
The historyof women's rightsevolved in the context of racism
apparentin the popularityof the KuKlux Klan(KKK;Blee, 1991).
Extendedfromthe Klan'sracistobjectives,Whitewomen- in par-
ticular the middle-class- discriminatedagainst people of color:
Black, Asian, Latino, and Native Americans.Academe has been
reluctantto acknowledge White women's association with dis-
criminationvia Klan ideals;however,its documentationis no less
availablein the history of the Women's (White) Ku Klux Klan
(WKKK).
The WKKKwas a precursorto the women'srightsmovementin
thatit was madeup entirelyof ProtestantWhiteAmericanwomen
who recognizedno relevancyin the strugglesof Black folk. Their
objectiveswere equalityfor Whitewomen at the expenseof people
of color.ThusWhite women of the WKKKespousedracialsegre-
72 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES/ SEPTEMBER2006

gation, quotas for immigrants,and the "eternalsupremacyof the

White race"(Blee, 1991). They differedlittle politically from the
KKKexcept for one conspicuousdetail:The WKKKincorporated
the racistagendaof the KKK for the eventualrealizationof equal
rightsbetween men and "WhiteProtestantwomen"(Blee, 1991).
Furthermore,they objected to miscegenation not for the White
male rapingof Black andNative women butbecause such liaisons
diminishedthe appealof White women to same.
The eventualwaxingandwaningof the WKKKwas commensu-
ratewith thatof the KKK.However,the strugglesof Whitewomen
for rightsequalto those of Whitemen have remainedconsistentas
an historicalobjective of women's rights. Accordingto Newman
(1999), Whitewomen in the Progressiveera soughtgreaterpartici-
pationin the politicaldomainrelativeto Whitemen based on their
ProtestantWhiteidentity.Hence, Newmancontended"byempha-
sizing a racialandculturalsuperioritysharedwith ProtestantWhite
men and by claiming special roles as women civilizers of racially
inferiorpeoples" (they could accomplishthis feat) (p. 21). Racist
rhetoricwas utilized in their objectivesincluding discoursesbor-
rowed from eugenics biology that substantiatedthe evolution of
White as the assumedsuperiorrace.
One of the luminariesof the women's rights movementduring
the Progressiveera was Alice Fletcher.By occupation,Fletcher
was an anthropologist.She attemptedto apply racist notions of
Whitesuperiorityto NativeAmericans.In doing so (perNewman),
Fletcherinsisted that Native Americanwomen forfeitedthe free-
dom andstatusaccordedthemby Nativecultureandaccepted"sub-
ordination"to NativeAmericanmen as a meansto theirbeing civi-
lized (p. 125). In this way, they mighteventuallyaspireto the same
biological evolutionas the White race.
Perhapsmostinfluentialof all Whitewomenduringthe Progres-
sive erawas CharlottePerkinsGilman.Gilmanwas regardedas the
principalscholarof hertime amongWhitewomen,withinthe envi-
ronmentof thinkerswho influencedherandwith whom she sought
discourse (Newman, 1999). Gilman believed that the restricted
roles of White women impeded the evolution of the White race.
White women invested entirely too much time, she thought, on
 Hall / DISCRIMINATIONIN WESTERNACADEME 73

domestic activities when their advancedbiological development

would allow them to contributein a more specializedfashion and
help further develop the race. What's more, Gilman criticized
White men for sexual exploitationof Black women not for their
participationin institutionalizedrape but its disruptionof White
propagation.For this reason and others, according to Gilman,
White women should be allowed equal rights with men that they
might"takecharge"of mateselectionin benefitto futureoffspring.
No doubtthe articulationof the historicalrole of the women's
rightsmovementin the racistoppressionof Black people will stir
controversy(Hall, 2003). Some in the academywill arguethat to
investigatethe unspeakableissue of discriminationby race versus
genderwill do more harmthangood because the issue today is so
provocative.However,what they fail to realize is thatconfronting
such a provocativetopic is a civil and socially appropriateway to
rescueacademe- via Black oppression- fromthe historicalperils
of modernracial discrimination.The dictates of emergingracial
diversityin this the postmodernera necessitatediscoursevis-a-vis
White women as preferredfacultyhires to sustainthe prestigeand
validityof the Westernacademy.

MODERN FACULTYHIRES

A recent investigationof women (White) and people of color

(Black) employed as faculty at Ivy League institutionswas con-
ductedandreportedto the public. Althoughwomen andpeople of
colorhavemademinimalprogress,statisticaldataconfirmsa much
greaterability on the partof White women to gain employmentat
such prestigious institutions.According to The New YorkTimes
(2005) 433 professors were hired on Ivy League campuses into
full-timepositions.Of thatnumber,14 were listed AfricanAmeri-
can anda mere8 as Latino.The samedatafor womenaccountedfor
150 positions. Data for the investigationwas extrapolatedfrom a
federalsourcecompliedby a Yalegraduatestudent.Despite recent
controversialstatementsby Harvard'spresidentaboutthe inferior
74 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES/ SEPTEMBER2006

abilitiesof women in mathandscience, being Whitewould appear

less disparagingthanbeing Black and/orLatino (Luecek,2005).
Institutionssimilar in prestige to the Ivy League suggest the
existence of a pattern. Among the largest public institutions,
women andpeople of color face analogousobstaclesin becoming
members of the faculty. According to data provided by IPEDS
(1995), at a select numberof institutionswomen,thatis, White,are
at no less of an advantageas prospectivefaculty than their Ivy
League counterparts.Hence, Westernmodernismas norm in the
hire of academicpersonnelis arguablya reactionto the historical
rigidityof variousdoctrinesfromwhich an equallyrigid set of rac-
ist intellectualtraditionshadbeen derived.The motive is to enable
a facade of fairness and equal opportunity.In fact, by definition,
modernismin faculty hires is the recapitulationof a narcissistic
exaggerationof what is modern,that is, White (Riley, 1996). In
general,it may be said thatmodernismwas initiallyconstructedto
facilitatethe radicaltransformationof conventionalthinkingrele-
vantto the Whitedominationof academe.Liberatingthe academy
fromthe dogmasof Whitedominationdid little morethanmodern-
ize racialdiscriminationpertainingto Black folk. Underthe cloak
of equality,modernismreplacedovertracialdiscriminationin fac-
ulty hiring as a more temperatebut ultimately no less effective
means of sustaining White control via Black oppression. Said
oppressionis manifestedin the availablestatisticaldatacontained
in Tables1 through3. The contentdramaticallyillustratesdifferen-
tiationsbetweenWhitewomenhiredas facultyatprestigiousinsti-
tutions of higher educationversus their Black and/ornon-White
counterparts.Such disparitiesexist despite publicized rhetoricto
recruit, tenure, and/or maintain Black scholars as a means to
diversify a traditionallyWhite institutionin a White-dominated
Westernsociety.
Accordingto the dataillustratedin Table 1, among prestigious
publicinstitutionsof highereducationin the UnitedStatesthe aver-
age of percentilesfor women was 27.5% of all full-timefacultyin
the fall of 1995. The samedataillustratedin Table2 for non-Whites
including African Americanswere 12.4% in the fall of 1995. In
Table3 is the most recentdatathatillustratesby averageof percen-
 Hall / DISCRIMINATIONIN WESTERNACADEME 75

TABLE 1
Full-Time Female Faculty: Fall 1995
Public Institutions %Female

Universityof Oregon 36.3

MichiganStateUniversity 31.6
Rutgers 31.4
Universityof Pittsburgh 30.8
Universityof California-Los Angeles 30.3
Universityof Colorado 30.0
Universityof NorthCarolina 29.9
Ohio State University 29.9
Universityof Washington 29.4
IndianaUniversity 29.3
Universityof Missouri 28.9
Universityof California-Berkeley 28.8
Universityof Texas 28.6
Universityof Arizona 28.0
Universityof Maryland 27.1
State Universityof New York-Buffalo 26.7
Universityof Michigan 26.2
Universityof California-SantaBarbara 26. 1
Universityof Nebraska 26. 1
Universityof Florida 25.7
Universityof Illinois 25.5
PennsylvaniaState University 25.3
Iowa StateUniversity 25.0
Universityof Iowa 24.8
Universityof Virginia 24.2
Universityof California-SanDiego 24. 1
Universityof Minnesota 23.8
Universityof Wisconsin 23.7
PurdueUniversity 20.4
Averageof Percentiles 27.5

SOURCE:IntegratedPostsecondaryEducationData System (1995)

tiles being 31% for women and 15%for non-Whites among full-
time faculty at prestigiouspublic institutionsin 2003.

POSTMODERN DISCRIMINATION

The dogma of modernismimposes itself on every facet of dis-

criminationin Westernacademe(Riley, 1996). Sufficeit to say,that
76 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES/ SEPTEMBER2006

TABLE 2
Full-Time Non-White Faculty: Fall 1995
Public Institutions %Non-White

Universityof California-LosAngeles 23.4

Universityof California-Berkeley 19.4
Universityof California-SanDiego 19.3
Universityof California-SantaBarbara 18.3
StateUniversityof New York-Buffalo 17.0
Universityof Maryland 14.5
Universityof Pittsburgh 13.6
Rutgers 13.5
MichiganStateUniversity 13.5
Universityof Michigan 13.5
Universityof Florida 13.0
Universityof Illinois 12.3
Universityof Colorado 12. 1
Universityof Missouri 11.9
Universityof Texas 11.4
Universityof Arizona 11.2
PurdueUniversity 11.2
Universityof Iowa 10.9
Ohio StateUniversity 10.9
Universityof Washington 10.2
PennsylvaniaState University 10. 1
Universityof NorthCarolina 9.9
IndianaUniversity 9.5
Universityof Virginia 9. 1
Universityof Wisconsin 9.1
Iowa State University 9.0
Universityof Oregon 8.4
Universityof Nebraska 8.0
Universityof Minnesota 7.5
Averageof Percentiles 12.4%

SOURCE:IntegratedPostsecondaryEducationData System (1995)

modernistictraditionin the preferentialhire of White women is a

prerequisiteto Whitesupremacy.However,Westernacademebeing
modernisticin its hiringpracticesdoes not acknowledgethis. In a
White-dominatedsociety,it has incurredno need to negotiateitself
in harmony with an increasingly Black and otherwise racially
diverseenvironment,whichis universallyapparent(Hacker,1992).
Furthermore,as regardsto the preferencefor Whitewomenatpres-
tigious institutionsof higher education,it is necessary to distin-
 Hall / DISCRIMINATIONIN WESTERNACADEME 77

TABLE 3
Full-Time Faculty 2003
Public Institutions % Women %Non-White

MichiganState University 32 15
Universityof Michigan-Ann Arbor 33 18
Universityof Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 31 18
Ohio StateUniversity-MainCampus 29 14
Universityof Wisconsin-Madison 28 13
PurdueUniversity-MainCampus 26 13
PennsylvaniaState University-MainCampus 32 13
IndianaUniversity-Bloomington 34 13
Universityof Minnesota-TwinCities 28 12
Universityof Iowa 31 11
Universityof California-Irvine 31 28
Universityof California-LosAngeles 28 25
Universityof California-SanDiego 27 19
SUNY at Buffalo 29 19
Universityof California-Davis 29 19
Universityof Florida 31 18
SUNY at Stony Brook 31 18
Universityof California-Berkeley 29 17
Universityof California-SantaBarbara 30 17
Universityof Maryland-CollegePark 35 16
Universityof Pittsburgh-MainCampus 38 16
Rutgers 34 16
Universityof Texas at Austin 34 14
TexasA & M University 24 14
Universityof Arizona 34 14
Universityof NorthCarolinaat ChapelHill 37 13
Universityof Washington-SeattleCampus 35 13
Iowa State University 29 13
Universityof Missouri-Columbia 33 13
Universityof Kansas-MainCampus 32 13
Universityof Nebraskaat Lincoln 30 10
Universityof Coloradoat Boulder 33 10
Universityof Virginia-MainCampus 29 10
Universityof Oregon 42 9
Averageof Percentiles 3 1% 15%

SOURCE:IntegratedPostsecondaryEducationData System (2003)

guish between whatis essentialto intellectualdiscourse,andwhat

is ornament,capricious,and for all intentsand purposesdiscrimi-
natory.If modernismseeks to introducethe preferentialhiring of
White women underthe guise of equal opportunity,that is to say
78 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES/ SEPTEMBER2006

discriminationby race, then docility in responseto such discrimi-

nationwould not seem to matter.
Modernismin academeis universalandpervasivegiven the sta-
tus of the Westin a postmodernworld (Henry,1999). It extendsto
philosophy,politics, andthe entireintellectualcultureof the insti-
tution.In the semanticsense, modernismis then technicallypost-
modernto the extentthatit is applicableto a diversityof disciplines.
Thus,cautionmusttemperunreasonableattacks.Thecriticalthinker
should not condemn wholeheartedlyany thought or perspective
merely because it is arcane,dogmatic, or discriminatorywithout
ample investigation.Similarlyput, the attemptto investigatethe
proportionof White women faculty in Westernacademeis neces-
sary so as to challenge discrimination,and to discover points of
convergencewith Black oppression(Kitano,1985). Sucha method
is the mosteffectivemeansof challengingthe raciststatusquo. Iso-
lation and subsequentilluminationof thatfact serves the termina-
tion of discrimination.The racial structure,which discrimination
sustains,having lost its foundation,will then apparentlycollapse.
The modernistpreferencefor hiringWhitewomen will be reduced
to little more than an opposing alternativein the advocacy of its
elimination.
The genesis of postmodernismextendsfromesotericlimitations
of Whitemodernism.In essence, postmodernismis not a radically
new paradigmbutmore accuratelythe next stage of strategyin the
oppression of Black folk via White women as vehicle (Laird,
1994). The tolerancefor overtracialdiscriminationhas all butdis-
appearedfrom polite conversations.However,efforts to diversify
academehaveaccommodatedthe increasedhiringof Whitewomen
at the expenseof non-Whitesas postmodernpedagogyof discrimi-
nation.While such hiring representsprogress,the outcomes sus-
tain White domination.By virtue of "divideand conquer,"White
women as members of the dominantgroup power structureare
vehicle to theirown oppressionandthatof similarlysituatedpopu-
lations.Theirloyalty to women'srightsissues accommodatestheir
social, political, and economic instructionin the inferiority of
Black and other people of color: pedagogy (Newman, 1999).
Unlike theirpredecessorsof the WKKK,they do not professWhite
 Hall / DISCRIMINATIONIN WESTERNACADEME 79

superioritybut areno less inclinedin theirtolerancefor racialdis-

crimination.Thus, in this postmodernera the gap between White
women and Black folk hired at prestigiousinstitutionsof higher
education has introduceda more covert but no less formidable
strategyfor sustainingracialdiscrimination.

CONCLUSION

The thesis thatWhitewomen havebecome postmodernstrategy

for the oppressionof Blackpeople is deemedby stealthprogressive
andacceptable.Equalopportunityis accordinglymanifestedas the
traditionalWhite bias in facultyhires thatlimits the pool of Black
and other non-White applicants.This revelationis contrastedby
the coexistence of postmodernrhetoricand statisticaldifferentia-
tions. Simultaneously,there has emerged a profoundly obvious
advantageforWhitewomenenteringthe academyatthe expenseof
Black scholars.Such disparityin the postmodernera is counterto
democraticprinciplesand the eliminationof Black oppression.
The oppression of Black scholars in academe is historically
rooted in the ethos of Westerncivilization (Andrews, 1991). The
most dramaticaccounts include investigationsof the antebellum
South and the personal tragediesof Black folk there in general.
However, academe has been less amenable to investigationsof
Black oppression via White women within its own ranks. In a
postmoderncivil rightsera, a decline in overtracialdiscrimination
has createdthe illusion thatthe effortto ascertainequalityis all but
universal.Unfortunately,the oppressionof Black people is no less
dramaticin the disparitiesbetweenwomen- thatis, Whitehiredas
full-time faculty at prestigiousinstitutionsand people of color-
thatis, Black- hiredat same.Particularlyamongthe nation'selite
universitiesthat commandthe highest rates of compensationand
academicprestigeare White women recruitedto join the ranksof
theirWhitemale counterpartswho prefertheiremploymentto sus-
tainWhitedominance(Feagin, 1992). By hiringWhitewomeninto
the elite academicranks,power remainsthe domainof the White
power structure.In the aftermath,without necessarily intending,
80 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES/ SEPTEMBER2006

White women become vehicle for the postmodernoppressionof

Black and othernon-White Americansin theirwillingness to sub-
jugate racial discriminationto discriminationby gender. Subse-
quentlyis the perpetuationof Black oppressionsimultaneousto the
rhetoricof equal opportunity.
As a result of investigatingthe differentialstatisticsfor faculty
hires academewill become more cognizantof its misconceptions
pertainingto discrimination.What'smore, objectivediscussionof
oppressedpopulationsis also germaneto education (Potocky &
Rodgers-Farmer,1998). Conversely,institutionsthatremaincom-
mittedto the illusions of equalopportunityrhetoricsustainthe illu-
sion of Whitesupremacy.In the absenceof an objectiveanalysisof
the problem,knowledgeis disservedcastingfurtherdispersionson
a heretofore-ubiquitous social ill. Illuminationof an otherwiseaca-
demic failure will facilitate the developmentof intellectual dis-
courserelevantto oppressedpopulations.The culturalapparatusof
academewill move forwardfrom the gains broughtby investiga-
tion. Thus,it is imperativeto displaywillingness to applythe same
investigativetechniques to academe when analyzing the role of
White women in Black oppression. Only then can the Western
academyrescue its ethos from the pedagogy of discrimination.
In conclusion,the problemfor anyonewho attemptsto charac-
terizea groupof which he or she is not a memberis errorsof inter-
pretationthataninsiderwouldnot normallymake.Whenthatinter-
pretationreaches widespreadpublication,it increases the risk of
doing a disserviceto all. The solutionlies in maintainingopenness
and a willingness to confrontnew ideas. Academe is much better
servedhavingconsideredWhitewomenas vehicle of Blackoppres-
sion thannot simply because the perceptionof race as crux of dis-
criminationmay be divisive or subjectto misinterpretation.Thus,
enlightenmentwouldnecessitatethatthose who ponderthe thought
move past stereotypesandmisinterpretations. They areaptlycharg-
ed, on the inaugurationof a new millennium,with using this infor-
mationinsteadas startingpointsfor dialoguein a questto eliminate
Black oppressionand elevate humankindto its next level of civil
evolution.
 Hall / DISCRIMINATIONIN WESTERNACADEME 8 1

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82 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES/ SEPTEMBER2006

RonaldE. Hall is a scholar at the ResearchInstitutein the School of UrbanAffairs,

associate professor in the School of Social Work,and an affiliatedscholar with the
JulianSomoraResearchInstituteand theAsian Instituteat MichiganState Univer-
sity. He testifiedas expertwitness to America'sfirst skin color discriminationcase
betweenAfricanAmericans:Morrowvs. IRS(1990). He later devisedthe bleaching
syndrometo explain discriminationamongpeople of color and identityacross the
lifespanas an alternativebiracial identitymodel.He has to his creditmorethan150
(co)authoredpublications, interviews,and presentationson these topics. His most
recentbookis titled:An EmpiricalAnalysis of the Impactof Skin Coloron African-
AmericanEducation,Income, and Occupation(2005).