Bab I Konsep-konsep Dasar dan

Satuan Pengukuran

Brady & Senese 5th Ed

1
Index
1.1. Chemistry is important for anyone studying the sciences
1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature
1.3 Matter is composed of elements, compounds, and
mixtures
1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties
1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty
1.7. Units can be converted using the factor-label method
1.8. Density is a useful intensive property

2
Chemistry and the Sciences

Chemistry- the study of the composition of matter

and its transformations
Matter- anything that takes up space and has mass
Chemical reaction- change that results from the
interaction of matter.

1.1. Chemistry is important for anyone studying the sciences 3

Scientific Method : Getting Started

Observe a Phenomenon-accurately
describe something we see, taste, feel,
smell or hear

Pose A Question
To Explain The Phenomenon

Form a Hypothesis-a
tentative explanation of the
phenomenon
1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 4
Scientific Method: Testing the Hypothesis

Experiment to Prove or Disprove

Hypothesis

If experiment disproves
If experiment proves
hypothesis,
hypothesis,
Pose new question or
form theory (theoretical model)
hypothesis

Continue experimentation.
If results form pattern,
considered a law
1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 5
Scientific Method Case Study:
The Process of Growth
A child sees that a seed, when planted in soil,
watered, and exposed to sunlight, grows to form a
flower. He concludes that all living things require
sunlight, water, and burial in soil to grow.
Build a case for rebuttal using the scientific
method.

1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 6

Your Turn!

Which of the following is not a hypothesis

for the observed plant growth?
A. soil is necessary to all growth
B. light is essential to growth of the seed
C. water is required to allow growth
D. plants grow to a greater height if they
receive fertilizer
E. none of the above

1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 7

Your Turn!

A chicken egg is buried, left in the sun, and watered.

A second egg is left above the soil, watered and
left in the sun. Would this prove that soil is
necessary to growth?
A. Yes
B. No

1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 8

The Scientific Method- Evaluating The Data
A theory is an explanation (based on well-tested,
internally consistent experimental results)
about why the phenomenon may occur

it should explain currently available data

It should be as simple as possible

It should clearly show underlying connections

It should accurately predict future behaviors

1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 9

The Scientific Method is Cyclical

1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 10

Atomic Theory Helps Us Visualize Matter

Air inflates a balloon

air must be composed of matter

the matter is colliding with the walls
of the container.
A leaf floats on waters surface

water is composed of particles that
occupy space
A leaf falls through air, but rests
on waters surface

particles are closer in liquid than in
gases

1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 11

Models Helps Us Visualize Matter

1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 12

Changes in Matter

Chemical change- a process that results in the

formation of a new substance
Evidence? Formation of a new solid, new liquid,
new gas, temperature change, or an unexpected
color change
Physical change- a process that results in no new
substance, but that may change the state of those
present, or the proportions

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 13

Learning Check: Chemical Or Physical Change?

Chemical Physical
Magnesium burns when heated
in a flame
Magnesium metal tarnishes in
air
Magnesium metal melts at
922K
Grape Kool-aid lightens when
water is added

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 14

Your Turn!

Which of the following is not a chemical change?

A. a match burns in air
B. ice melts in air
C. an aluminum door whitens in air
D. all of these
E. none of these

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 15

Matter Can Be Classified By Its Properties:
Matter is either a pure substance or a mixture
Mixtures may be separated using physical methods
such as chromatography, filtration, sieving

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 16

What Is An Element?

Elements - substances that cannot be

decomposed into simpler substances
shown on the periodic table as symbols: K for
potassium and Na for sodium
made of identical atoms, either singly or in
groups

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 17

Weird Science
Eleven symbols bear no resemblance to their English
names - their names are derived from other languages
Some of these are used in naming, and these are
highlighted
Sb antimony stibium K potassium kalium
Cu copper cuprum Sn tin stannum
Au Gold aurum Na sodium natrium
Ag silver argentum W tungsten wolfram

Fe iron ferrum Hg mercury hydragyrum

Pb lead plumbum
1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 18
What Is A Compound?

Compounds - formed from two or more atoms of

different elements combined in a fixed
proportion
Have different characteristics than the elements
that compose them
Can be broken down into elements by some
chemical changes

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 19

 Mixtures
mixtures consist of varying
amounts of two or more
elements or compounds
Homogeneous mixtures or
solutions- have the same
properties throughout the
sample

Brass, tap water
Heterogeneous mixtures-
consist of two or more phases

Salad dressing, Coca-Cola

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 20

 Learning Check: Classification

Sand Ice Flour Table Salt

(H2O) (NaCl)
Pure

Element

Compound

Molecule

Heterogeneous Mix

Homogeneous Mix

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 21

Your Turn!

brass is pure True

False
natural peanut butter made only by
crushing peanuts is pure True
False
because blood cells can be distinguished
from plasma under a microscope, blood True
is a heterogeneous mixture: False

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 22

Classification Of Matter By State

Classification by state is based on packing, motion,

and shape

Solids have fixed shape and volume

Liquids have fixed volume, but take the container shape

Gases have to expand to fill the shape and volume of
the container

1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways 23

Properties Of Matter

Chemical properties describe the behavior of the

matter that leads to the formation of a new
substance: the "reactivity" of the substance
Physical properties can be observed about the
matter alone, without changing the composition

1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways 24

 Learning Check: Chemical or Physical
Property?
Chemical Physical

Magnesium metal is grey

Magnesium metal tarnishes in air

Magnesium metal melts at 922K

Magnesium reacts violently with

hydrochloric acid

1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways 25

Your Turn!
Which of the following is a chemical property?
A. water is colorless
B. water reacts violently with solid Na metal
C. water dissolves table salt
D. all of these
E. none of these

1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways 26

Intensive And Extensive Properties

Intensive properties are independent of sample

size

Examples: color, texture and temperature
Extensive properties depend on sample size

Examples: volume and mass
Properties used to identify substances are always
intensive

Density, color, and texture are often helpful in
identification, but temperature is not

1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways 27

 Measurements are Observations

Qualitative observations are non-numerical-- ask

what or how or why
Quantitative observations are numerical--ask
how much and are also called measurements
This course is general chemistry with quantitative
analysis

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 28

Your turn!

Which of the following is a quantitative

observation?
A. the height of the plant
B. the mass of water added
C. the temperature of the day
D. all of the above
E. none of the above

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 29

 Measurements:
Always involve a comparison
Require units
Involve numbers that are inexact (estimated). This
uncertainty is due to the limitations of the observer
and the instruments used
In science, all digits in a measurement up to and
including the first estimated digit are recorded

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 30

Measurements and units
In the U.S., we use the Imperial (USCS) System
The scientific community (and most of the world)
uses the metric system
Variations in the metric system exist, thus a
standard system is used: International System of
Units (SI)
SI units we will use now:

Length (m) Mass (kg) Time (s) Temperature (K)

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 31

 Derived units
involve a combination of base units, including:

Measurement Formula SI Units

Area length width m2
Volume length width height m3
Velocity distance/time m/s
Acceleration velocity/time m/s2
Density mass/volume kg/m3

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 32

Decimal multipliers
Prefix (Symbol) = Numerical Equivalent
Giga ( G ) = 109
Mega- ( M ) = 106
kilo- ( k ) = 103
centi- ( c ) = 10-2
milli- ( m ) = 10-3
micro- ( ) = 10-6
nano- ( n ) = 10-9
pico ( p ) = 10-12

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 33

Learning Check: Complete The Missing
Information

103 g kg
10-12 g pg

10-9 m nm

106 g Mg
10-2 L cL

109 Hz GHz

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 34

Your Turn!

Identify the correct conversion:

A. Gm=109 m
B. 109 Gm = m
C. Gm = 10-9 m
D. none are correct

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 35

 You May Encounter Non-SI Metric Units:

measurement name symbol Value

length angstrom 10-10m

mass amu u 1.6605410-27 kg

metric ton t 103 kg
time minute min 60 s
hour h 3600 s
volume liter L 1000 cm3

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 36

Mass- Matter Content

USCS: oz (avdp.), lb, T

Metric: g
SI: kg
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 37
Length

USCS: in, ft, yd, mi

Metric: L, cm3
SI: m
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 38
 Volume-bulk
measured directly, using
equipment for
volumetric measure
calculated using
dimensional (length)
information and
appropriate formulas.
1 cm3= 1mL
USCS: fl. oz., pt., qt.,
gal
Metric: L, cm3
SI: m3
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 39
Your Turn!

Which of the following is not a USCS unit?

A. ft.
B. m
C. gal.
D. T.

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 40

Your Turn!

Which of the following is not a volume unit?

A. mL
B. qt
C. in3
D. cm

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 41

Temperature

USCS: F
Metric: C
SI: K
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 42
Temperature Conversions

o
9 F o
tF = o tC + 32 F
5 C

1K o
TK = (tC + 273.15 C ) o
1 C

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 43

 Complete The Following:
9 oF
13.5C=? F t = o 13.5 oC + 32 oF
F 5 C
= 24.3 + 32 = 56.3 oF
27.50 F =? C
oF
9 oF
t =
oC C to + 32
F 5
-34.5 F =?K
9 oF
o
t 32 F = o to
F 5 C C
Ft 32 oF 5 oC
o = to
1 9 F C
F o
t 32 F 5 C o
o = to 27.50 32 oF 5 oC o
1 9 F C o = to = 2.50 C
1 9 F C
o o
34.5 32 F 5 C o
o = to = 36.944 C
1 9 F C
T = to + 273.15 = 236.2 K
K C
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 44
Your Turn!

Which of the following is the lowest temperature?

A. 300. K
B. 16 C
C. 55 F
D. they are the same

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 45

Measurement Error
Because each measurement involves an estimate,
measurements always have error.
Record all measured numbers, including the first
estimated digit
These digits are called significant digits or
significant figures
Exact numbers have infinite significant digits

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 46

Significant Digits In A Measurement Are
Limited By Instrument Precision
Using the first thermometer, the
temperature is 21.3 C (3
significant digits)

Using the more precise (second)

thermometer, the temperature is
21.32 C (4 significant digits)

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 47

Errors Arise From A Number Of Sources
Including:
Errors-inherent error due to the equipment or
procedure

Changing volume due to thermal expansion or contraction
(temperature changes)

Improperly calibrated equipment

procedural design allows variable measurements
Mistakes-blunders that you know that you have made.
Do not use these data

Spillage

Incomplete procedures

Reading scales incorrectly

Using the measuring device incorrectly
1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 48
Reducing Error:
Errors can often be detected by making repeated
measurements
Error can be reduced by calibrating equipment
The average or mean reduces data variations: it
helps find a central value

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 49

 Accuracy vs. Precision
An accurate measurement is close to the true or
correct value, a hole-in-one
A precise measurement is close to the average of a
series of repeated measurements
When calibrated instruments are used properly, the
greater the number of significant figures, the greater
is the degree of precision for a given measurement

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 50

Rules For Significant Figures (Sig Figs)
Non-zero digits are significant
Zeros between significant digits are significant
Zeros to the right of non-zero digits in a number
that contains a decimal point are significant
(Trailing with a decimal point)
Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are never
counted as significant (Leading)
Zeros at the end of a number without a decimal
point are assumed not to be significant (Trailing
without a decimal place)

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 51

Learning Check: How Many Significant
Figures Are There In The Following?

2.33 3

500.0 4

1000 1

.0500 3

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 52

Your Turn!

How many sig. figs. are there in the number 010.010?

A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
E. none of these

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 53

Measurements Limit The Precision Of
Calculated Results
Rules for combining measurements depend on the
type of operation performed:
Multiplication and division

The number of sig. figs in the answer should not be
greater than the number of sig. figs in the factor with
the fewest sig. figs

3.14 2.751
0.64 = 13
(3 sig. figs.) (4 sig. figs.)
(2 sig. figs.) = (2 sig. figs.)

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 54

Your Turn!

How many sig. figs. result from the following:

12.33 x 0.00002?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4 Only 1!
D. 5
E. none of these

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 55

Addition and Subtraction
The answer should have the same number of decimal places as
the quantity with the fewest number of decimal places (least
precise)

3.247 3 decimal places

41.36 2 decimal places
+125.2 1 decimal place
169.8 answer rounded to 1 decimal place

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 56

Your Turn!

How many sig. figs. result from the following:

10.33-0.0344?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
E. none of these

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 57

Exact Numbers

Numbers that come from definitions are exact and have

no uncertainty
They can be assumed to contain an infinite number of
significant figures

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 58

Your Turn!

How many sig. figs. result from the following?

A. 2 (10.0 x 10.88) - 12.2
2.2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
E. none of these

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 59

Unit Conversions

Suppose we wish to convert 25 miles to km.

Further, we know that there are .6215 miles in a
km.
We can assemble a ratio and solve this problem.
25 miles 0.6215 miles
=
? km 1km

easy enough because we have a direct conversion
between the units

Often, we must piece together multiple steps and this
approach is impractical

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 60

Definitions of One
Remember that 3 teaspoons (tsp) = 1 tablespoon
(Tbsp)
Using the logic that a number divided by its
equivalent = 1, then it follows that:
Clearly 3/1 is not 1, but the units make the
statement true.
Thus we could multiply any number by either of
these fractions (1) and the number has the same
value.
3tsp 1Tbsp
= 1 and =1
1Tbsp 3tsp
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 61
Learning Check
Write two fractions from the following conversion factors

4 qt = 1 gal 4 qt/ 1gal 1 gal/4 qt

8 fl oz=1 c 8 fl oz / 1c and 1c/ 8 fl oz

16 oz. = 1 lb 16 oz./1 lb and 1 lb/16 oz.

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 62

Using Conversion Fractions

Since we can multiply by 1 and the value remains

unchanged, we can multiply by these conversion
fractions to change the units of a measurement.
For example, 12 in = 1 ft so the conversion of 3.5 ft
to in. can be done using one of these two conversion
fractions 12in 1ft
= 1 and =1
1ft 12in

3 .5 ft 12 in
1 ft = 42 in
1
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 63
Your Turn!
Given that 2.205 lb=1 kg, which of the following is an
appropriate conversion factor?

A. B. C. D. E.

1 lb None of
2.205lb 1 lb 2.205 lb these
2.205 kg 1 kg 1 kg 2.205 kg

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 64

 USCS Unit Conversions

Mass Volume Distance

16 oz. (avdp.) = 1 lb. 3 tsp. = 1 Tbsp. 12 in. = 1 ft.
2000 lb. = 1 T. 16 Tbsp. = 1 c. 3 ft. = 1 yd.
2 c. = 1 pt. 1760 yd. = 1 mi.
2 pt. = 1 qt.
4 qt. = 1 gal.
8 fl. oz. = 1 c.

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 65

USCS And Metric Units Are Related Using Critical
Links

USCS to Metric Metric to USCS

Length 1 in. = 2.54 cm 1 m = 39.37 in
1 yd = 0.9144 m 1 km = 0.6215 mi
1 mi = 1.609 km
Mass 1 lb = 453.6 g 1 kg = 2.205 lb
1 oz = 28.35 g
Volume 1 gal = 3.785 L 1 L = 1.0567 qt
1 qt = 946.4 mL
1 oz (fluid) = 29.6 mL
It is also useful to know that 1 mL = 1 cm3=1 cc
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 66
 Building Conversion Factors in Unit
Conversions
1. Write the number to be converted as a fraction
(with units)
2. Identify the target units
3. Are the starting units in the same system as the
target?

If not, you will need a critical link.

USCSUSCS Conversions: Write down the
conversion factors from smallest to largest .

metric metric conversions: Write down the
definitions of all prefixed units.

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 67

Learning Check:

Write all conversion factors needed to convert

the following: 12 in.=1 ft
33 in to yd 3 ft =1 yd
2 c.=1 pt.
2 pt.=1 qt.
450 c to gal 4 qt.=1 gal.
60 s=1 min

56 y to s

60 min=1 h
24 h=1 da
365.25 da=1 y
25 mph to ft/s

Distance: 3 ft=1 yd; 1760 yd=1 mi
Time: 60 s=1 min; 60 min=1 h
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 68
Learning Check:
Write all conversion factors needed to convert
the following:
33 mm to km mm=10-3 m
km=103 m
450 cg to ng cg=10-2 g
ng =10-9 g
s=10-6 s
56 s to Ms Ms=109 s
mL=10-3 m
25 mL to nL nL=10-9 L

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 69

Learning Check:
Write Down All Conversion Factors Needed To Convert
The Following:
Crit. Link: 453.6 g=1 lb
3.03 g to T USUS: 2000 lb = 1 T
CL: 2.54 cm=1 in
0.545 ft to km
USUS: 12 in=1 ft

25 mph to km/s mm: cm=10-2 m; km=103 m

Distance: CL: 2.54 cm =1 in Time:

USUS 12 in = 1 ft; 3 ft= 1 yd; 1760 yd = 1 mi; 60 s=1 min

m m: cm = 10-2 m; km= 103 m 60 min= 1 h

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 70
Building Conversion factors (cont).
4. Use the form of the conversion factor that allows
the units to cancel--they must be on opposite
levels of the fraction to cancel.
5. Continue adding conversion factors until the
units match the target units.
2nd Check- are all units written on the page two
times? If so, you have enough info to start the
problem.

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 71

 Learning Check:
Convert the following:
3.03 g to tons 3.34(10-6) T
0.545 ft. to km 1.66(10-4) km
5.22 y to s 1.65(108) s
25 mph to km/s
1.1(10-2) km/s

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 72

Your Turn!

Given that 2.205 lb = 1 kg, what is the mass of 23.3

lb expressed in kg?
A. 51.4 kg
B. 0.0946 kg
C. 10.6 kg
D. none of these

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 73

Your Turn!

Given that 2.54 cm = 1 in, how many km are there in

25 ft?
A. 7.6 km
B. 0.10 km
C. 762 km
D. none of these 7.6(10-3) km!

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 74

 Density (d)

intensive property defined as the ratio of an

objects mass (m) to volume (v), d = m/v
characteristic of pure substances at a specified
temperature
Since most substances expand when heated,
densities decrease when heated.
units : g/L for gases and g/mL for solids and
liquids.

1.8. Density is a useful intensive property 75

Density relates a sample mass and volume

Blood has a density of 1.05 g/cm3

We can say that 1.05 g of blood is equivalent to
1.00cm3
Conversion factors can be constructed from this
equivalence, which could be used in the factor-label
method
1.05g blood 1.00cm3 blood
or
1.00cm3 blood 1.05g blood

1.8. Density is a useful intensive property 76

Learning Check:

A crash sounds from the lab- a large vial of mercury

has fallen from a broken shelf. We call the
hazardous materials team to report the spill, about
2.0 quarts of mercury. They ask for the mass- what
is it? (hint: d=13.69g/mL)
2.0qt 1L mL 13.69 g 4
3 = 2.6(10 ) g
1 1.0567qt 10 L mL

1.8. Density is a useful intensive property 77

Your Turn!

A glass bead with a mass of 5.96 g is dropped into a

beaker of water containing 10.2 mL. If the
resulting volume is 12.3 mL, what is the density
of the bead?
A. 2.1 mL
B. 5.96 g
C. 2.8 g/mL
D. 0.35 g/mL

78