All Solutions Tutorials1

Thermal Turbo Machines I, WS12/13 Solution Tutorial 1
1. Exercise
1.1
r r u
r r Fblade, x
Power of the blade: Pblade = Fblade u
with u = und Fblade =
0 Fblade, y
Control volume (CV) in the relative frame of reference:
y w2
n2

x
CV A2
F ret,y
n1
F ret,x
w1 A1 u
r F r
Fret = ret , x = Fblade retention force, blade force
Fret , y
r
n normal vector of area increment dA
Conservation laws of fluid mechanics in integral form

(see J. Zierep Theoretische Gasdynamik)
dm r r
Conservation of mass: = dV + (w n )dA = 0
dt V
t A
1 4243 1 44244 3
Change of the Mass flows through
mass in the CV the surface of the
with time CV
r r
dI ( w ) r r r r
Conservation of momentum: = dV + w (w n )dA= Fa
dt V
t A
1 44244 3 1 442443 123
Change of the Momentum flows Sum of all forces
momentum in through the acting on the CV
the CV with surface of the CV
time
1
r r r r
F a = FM + FS + Fret with
r
FM : Mass forces (e.g. weight, centrifugal force)
r r r
FS : Surface forces (e.g. pressure force ( FP ), friction forces ( FF ))
r
Fret : Retention force acting on the blade
Apply conservation of momentum of the CV:

Assumtion:
r
( w)
Steady state bzw. =0
t t
r
Process without friction, that means friction force is negligible FF = 0
constant jet area A1 = A2 = A jet
r
constant pressure around the CV, that means no resulting pressure force FP = 0
r
Mass forces are negligible FM = 0
With these assumptions we can write:
r r
(w n )dA = 0
A
(Conservation of mass)
r r r r
w (w n )dA = Fret
A
(Conservation of momentum).
r
Only the x-component of Fret has an impact on the power.
r r r r r r r
w1 (w1 n1 ) A1 + w2 (w2 n2 ) A2 = Fret (1)
r w r 1 r w2 cos r cos
using w1 = 1 ; n1 = ; w2 = ; n 2 = sin
0 0 w2 sin
Equation (1) in horizontal direction:
(
Fret , x = w12 A jet + w22 A jet cos = A jet w22 cos w12 )
Apply conservation of mass

( w1 ) A jet + w2 A jet = 0 w1 = w2 and
w1 = c jet u (relative frame of reference)
Fret , x = A jet (c jet u ) (cos 1) = Fblade , x

2

Fblade , x = A jet (c jet u ) (1 cos )

2

Pblade = u Fblade , x = A jet u (c jet u ) (1 cos )

2
(2)
2
Pblade
u
[
= A jet (1 cos ) (c jet u ) 2 u (c jet u )
2
]
[
= A jet (1 cos ) c 2jet 2 c jet u + u 2 2 c jet u + 2 u 2 ]
Pblade
u
[
= A jet (1 cos ) c 2jet 4 c jet u + 3 u 2 ]
Pblade
Maximum power =0
u
2
4 2
c jet
u c jet u + = 0 (= quadratic equation)
3 3
2 4 2 3 2 1
u1, 2 = c jet c jet c 2jet = c jet c jet
3 9 9 3 3
c jet
u 2 = c jet , for = 1 -> Pblade = 0 (see Equation (2))
u
1 c jet
u 2 = c jet , for = 3 -> Pblade maximum.
3 u
Fblade, x = A jet (c jet u ) (1 cos )

2
1.2
Fblade, x,max = Fblade, x (u = 0) = A jet c 2jet (1 cos )
Fblade , x ,min = Fblade , x (u = c jet ) = 0

1.3 Because , ~
Fblade , x ,max (u = 0 ) c 2jet 9

= =
c jet 1
2
4
Fblade , x u = c jet c jet
3 3
1.4
Control volume around the nozzle:
CV
Conservation of momentum:
r r r r r p 0 ,A0 p a ,A 3
c (c n )dA = Fnozzle + FP (3)
A
c0
r F
With nozzle retention force Fnozzle = nozzle ,x
0 c jet
n0
Equation (3) in x-direction: njet
y
c02 A0 + c 2jet A jet = Fnozzle, x + p 0 A0 p a A3 (4)
x
with A0 = A3 Fnozzle,x
3
Conservation of mass:
A jet
c0 A0 = c jet A jet c0 = c jet (5)
A0
Bernoulli Equation: incompressible, stationary and inviscid flow:
2
p0 p a = (c jet c02 ) (6)
2
Using (6) and (5) in (4):

2 2
A jet A jet
c 2
A0 + c 2jet A jet = Fnozzle , x + c 2jet c 2jet A
2 0
jet
A0 A0
A jet
2
A 1 A
2
1 A jet
2
A
Fnozzle , x = c 2
jet A0 + A jet 0 + jet A0 = c 2jet A0 + A jet 0
A0 2 2 A0 2 A0 2

1 A jet A jet
2
Fnozzle , x = c jet A0 1 2
2
+
2 A0 A0

2
1 A jet
Fnozzle, x = c 2jet A0 1 <0
2 A0
4
2. Exercise
2.1
Calculation of V1:
Gas law:

0,43
First law of thermodynamics:
!" !# $ !%&
Without heat transfer (= adiabatic) !# 0
Change of the inner energy du equals the work for the volume change dwv
! !+&
& ! !, (1)
Gas law (with specific state variables):
,
,

-&.&-
Derivation ! /
(2)
(2) in (1):
&
!, $ ,! !,

12
with: 0
13
- &
!, !
& $ $ & 0
,
!, !
- $ & 0
,
5
0 ln, $ ln 6789:79
, ; 6789:79(= isentropic process)
Resulting temperature increase due to the adiabatic compression:
, ; , ;
, ;
< =
,
25,12@:A
Using the ideal gas law:

,
C D

with: , 0,1 0,43 0,5EF
452,69K
2.2
First law of thermodynamics:
! LM $ L+&
No work L+& 0
! LM
with:
! & !
!" & ! !#
" & #

& -
01
# 162,69EN
6
Mass of the surrounding air:
- $ &
-
&
0
0
-
01
|R|
OP 1
2 STUVWXYZ[
OP 32,4EF
2.3
Pressure change due to the dissipation of heat :

300K
752,69K
25,11@:A
10@:A
Pressure change due to the expansion: , ; 6789:79 (= isentropic process)
, ;
] < =
,]
] 0,398@:A
Change in temperature:
] ,] , ;
] ] ,] ,] C ,] D , ;_
, , < =
, C, D ,]
,] ]
, ;_
] < =
,]
] 119,43K
7
Dissipated heat after compression from Exercise 2.2:
#` 162,69 EN
Reintroduced heat after expansion:
#a &
#a 64,8 EN
Characteristics of the T-s diagram
1. Law of thermodynamics: !" L# $ L%
Definition of entropy: L# !b
Work of compression: L% !
!" !b ! (absolute)
! !8 !, (mass specific)
Ideal gas: ! & !
!8 & ! $ !,
!
!8 & $ !,

Ideal gas:

,
! !,
!8 & $
,
For !, 0 (isochoric process)
!
!8 &

!
< =
!8 &defgh. &
Gradient of the isochoric line increases with

increasing temperature
8
T
Integration of !8 & , with the assumption & 6789:79 j k:
T

8 8 & l7

h_ hn
m 13

h_ hn
m 13
Equation for isochoric lines in the T-s diagram (for ideal gas).
The isochoric lines form a family of curves. The curves can be transformed into each other
by a horizontal parallel translation. The gradient of the isochoric line increases with
increasing temperature.
The isentropic compression process in exercise 2 is at a higher temperature level than the
expansion process. This explains the lower amount of reintroduced heat after the
expansion process.
An analogous derivation for the isobaric lines gives the following equation:

h_ hn
12
m
Equation for isobaric lines in the T-s diagram (for ideal gas).
Note, that the isobaric lines in the T-s diagram have a lower gradient than the isochoric
lines, which results from the relationship between cp and cv (cp R $ cv).
The divergence of the isobaric lines is essential for the Joule-Brayton-Cycle.
Additional hint:
The assumption of a constant heat capacity has only limited validity. Generally, cv and cp
depend on the temperature and have an additional influence on the gradient of the
isobaric/isochoric lines.
9
10
1. Exercise
1.1
Pressure difference:
Bernoullis principle (along a streamline,
inviscid):

p2 p1 =
2
(
c12 c22 )
Conservation of mass:
r r
(c n )dA = 0
A
c1 sin 1 + c 2 sin 2 = 0
sin 1
c 2 = c1 (1)
sin 2
1 sin 2
2
p = p 2 p1 = c1 1 1
(2)
2 sin 2

with 0 1,2 90 :
p > 0 for sin 1 < sin 2 i.e. c1 > c2 Deceleration (Diffusor, compressor)
p < 0 for sin 1 > sin 2 i.e. c1 < c2 Acceleration (Nozzle, turbine)
1.2
Axial and tangential forces:
Conservation of momentum for the CV:
r r r r r
A
c (c n )dA = FP + Fret (3)
r r r 1 r 1
with FP = ( p n )dA , n1 = , n2 =
A 0 0
Axial component of Eq. (3):
c1 sin 1 ( c1 sin 1 ) A1 + c 2 sin 2 c 2 sin 2 A2 = p1 A1 p 2 A2 + Fret , ax
Fret ,ax = c12 sin 2 1 A1 + c 22 sin 2 2 A2 + p 2 A2 p1 A1
with A2 = A1 and Eq. (2):
1 sin
2

Fret ,ax = c sin 1 A1 + c sin 2 A1 + c12 A1 1
2 2 2 2 1

1 2
2 sin 2

1
with c1 sin 1 = c 2 sin 2 = c ax = const (see Eq. (1))
1 sin
2

Fret ,ax = c12 A1 1 1
(only pressure forces)
2 sin 2

Tangential components of Eq. (3):

(c1 cos 1 ) ( c1 sin 1 ) A1 + ( c 2 cos 2 ) (c 2 sin 2 ) A2 = Fret ,u
Fret ,u = c12 sin 1 cos 1 A1 c 22 sin 2 cos 2 A2
sin 2 1
= c12 A1 sin 1 cos 1 + 2
sin 2 cos 2
sin 2
(
Fret ,u = c12 A1 cos 2 1 tan 1 + tan 2 1 / tan 2 )
2. Exercise
Annual costs per installed power capacity:
K * = K *A + K B* = K A* + K b* t
with: K * : total costs in /(kWa)
K A* : Fixed costs in /(kWa)
K B* : Variable costs in /(kWa)

t: annual operating time in h/a
K A* = P K I
with: P : annual contribution of net interests and depreciation (annuity)
b
K B* = K b t = t

2
2.1 Specific over all costs
s
7,0 10 6 3600
* 1 kJ h t
K CC = 550 0,117 +
kW a 0,57
s
4,3 10 6 3600
* 1 kJ h t
K Steam = 800 0,117 +
kW a 0,45
s
7,0 10 6 3600
* 1 kJ h t
K Gas = 300 0,117 +
kW a 0,37
2.2 Optimal operating time (read from the diagram above)

0 t < 1250 : Gas turbine power plant
h
1250 t < 3000 : Combined Cycle
a
h
t > 3000 : Steam power plant
a
3
2.3 Annual electricity consumption
It follows from the diagram:

PSteam 800MW Base load
PCC 450MW - Intermediate load
PGas 150MW - Peak load
2.4
1. Increase of interest rate => increase of P, i.e. increase of fixed costs
K K2
K2
K1
K1
t t
parallel upward shift of the line

4
t>t: The construction of expensive power plants is only worthwhile at high utilization.
2. Increase of fuel costs
K2
K
K2
K1
K1
t t
Increase in the slope of the line

t<t: The construction of expensive power plants is even worthwhile for lower utilization.
5
1. Exercise
1.1
Block diagram with standardized symbols:
Given:
kJ
a P 0 h1 h2 = 130
kg
Read from the T-s diagram for water:

kJ kJ
h3a = 3610 , h6 s = 2200
kg kg
Thermal efficiency:
Ideal cycle:
aT a P
th ,ideal = with a P 0
qin
aT h3a h6 s
th ,ideal = = = 0.405
qin h3a h2
th ,ideal = 40.5%
Pel kg
Pel = m& St aT m& St = = 326.2
aT s
1
1.2
Thermal efficiency:
Rankine Cycle with real turbine and boiler efficiencies:
aT ,real
th ,real =
q in ,real
kJ kJ
aT , real = T aT , s = T (h3a h6 s ) = 0.95 (3610 2200 ) = 1339.5
kg kg
(3610 130) kJ
q in ,ideal (h3a h2 ) kg kJ
q in ,real = = = = 3551
B B 0.98 kg
1339,5
th , real = = 37.72%
3551
kJ kJ
h6 = h3a aT ,real = (3610 1339.5) = 2270.5
kg kg
Pel kg t
Pel = m& St , real aT ,real m& St ,real = = 343.4 = 1236
aT ,real s h
m& St ,real qin ,real kg t

m& fuel LHV coal = m& St ,real qin , real m& fuel = = 39.0 = 140.5
LHVcoal s h
2
According to Exercise 1.1, 1.2 and 1.5
real
5
3a
ideal
6s
4
3a
1=2
T,s- diagram for water: simple Rankine Cycle
3
1.3
The increase in temperature of about 10K changes the condenser pressure from 0.05 bar
(=33C) to approx. 0.1 bar (exactly 0.085 bar). Read from the T,s- diagram:
kJ kJ
h2* = 200 , h6* = 2280
kg kg
The other conditions remain unchanged (see exercise 1.1).
Thermal efficiency:
h3a h6*
th* = = 0.390
h3a h2*
th* = 39.0% < th ,ideal = 40.5%
Electrical power output:

Pel* = m& St (h3a h6* ) = 433.9MW
Pel* = 433,9MW < Pel = 460MW
1.4 Block diagram of the Rankine Cycle with reheating:
4
1.5
Given:
kJ
a P 0 h1 h2 = 130
kg
Read from the T,s- diagram:
kJ kJ kJ kJ
h3a = 3480 , h4 = 3070 , h5 = 3610 , h6 s = 2200
kg kg kg kg
Thermal efficiency with reheating:

a HPT + a LPT (h3a h4 ) + (h5 h6 s )
th, reheat = = = 0.468
qin (h3a h2 ) + (h5 h4 )
th ,reheat = 46.8%
Electrical power output with reheating:

Pel ,reheat = m& St (a HPT + a LPT ) = m& St [(h3a h4 ) + (h5 h6 s )] = 593.7MW
2. Exercise
2.1 Block diagram of the plant with regenerative feedwater preheating and reheating:
5
Steam for preheating (bleed steam) in open (O) and closed (C) preheaters has to be
extracted from the low pressure turbine at a pressure of pO = 1 bar and pC =10 bar.
2.2
Mass flow of bleed steam m& O :
Only the open preheater in operation ( m& St = m& FW + m& O )
m& St , hO T Bleed steam
Tboiling,1bar TO
m& O , h5O
Feedwater
& h
m
m& FW , h2
Energy balance for open preheater:
m& FW h2 + m& O h5O = m& St hO
hO h2
Mass balance: m& FW = m& St m& O m& O = m& St
h5O h2
The feedwater preheater has best efficiency at TFW ,downstream Pr eheater TBleedSteam ,cond because
,
TBleedSteam ,cond is the highest possible temperature for liquid water at 1 bar
TO = Tboiling ,1bar
Read from the T,s- diagram:

kJ kJ kJ
hO = 420 , h5O = 2600 , h2 h1 = 130 (da a P 0 )
kg kg kg
hO h2 kg
m& O = m& St = 38.3
h5O h2 s
Thermal efficiency (with h3a , h4 , h5 and h6 s from Exercise 1.5):
Pel m& [(h3a h4 ) + (h5 h5O )] + (m& St m& O ) (h5O h6 s )

th ,O = = St or
Q& in m& St [(h3a hO ) + (h5 h4 )]
m& O
(h3a h4 ) + (h5 h5O ) + 1 (h5O h6 s )
P m& St
th,O = &el =
Q in (h3a hO ) + (h5 h4 )
th ,O = 49.25% > th ,reheat = 46.8%
6
Pel ,O = m& St [(h3a h4 ) + (h5 h5O )] + (m& St m& O ) (h5O h6 s )
Pel ,O = 578.4 MW < Pel ,reheat = 593.7 MW
(The power output decreased, due to a lower steam mass flow in the low pressure turbine)
2.3 Open and closed preheater in operation: ( m& St = m& FW + m& O + m& C )
Energy balance for the closed preheater
m
,
,hO 5O
, O
m ,
10
hC hO
(m& St m& C ) hO + m& C h5C = m& St hC m& C = m& St
h5 M hO
Read from the T,s diagram:
kJ kJ
h5C = 3100 , hC = 800 (because TFW ,downstream _ preheater TbleedStrea m ,cond )
kg kg
kJ
hO 10 bar
hO 1bar
= 420 (no temperature increase due to pressure increase)
kg
kg
m& C = 46.25
s
7
Energy balance for the open preheater:
m& St m& C , hO (1bar )
m& O , h5O
m& St m& C m& O , h2
(m& St m& C m& O ) h2 + m& O h5O = (m& St m& C ) hO
hO h2
m& O = (m& St m& C )
h5O h2
Read from the T,s - diagram:
kJ kJ kJ
h5O = 2600 , h2 h1 = 130 , hO = 420
kg kg kg
kg
m& O = 32.7
s
Thermal efficiency:
m& St [(h3a h4 ) + (h5 h5C )] + (m& St m& C ) (h5C h5O ) + (m& St m& C m& O ) (h5O h6 s )
th,O +C =
m& St [(h3a hC ) + (h5 h4 )]
th ,O + C = 51.2%
th ,O +C > th ,C > th ,reheat
Pel ,O +C = m& St [(h3 a h4 ) + (h5 h5C )] + (m& St m& C ) (h5C h5O ) + (m& St m& C m& O ) (h5O h6 s )
Pel ,O +C = 537.9 MW
Pel ,O + C < Pel ,O < Pel ,reheat
8
2.4
Efficiency of the Carnot Cycle:
Tmin T
th ,Carnot = 1 = 1 cond
Tmax TLS
Tcond 300K
TLS = 853K
300
th ,Carnot 1 = 64.8%
853
The efficiency of the Carnot Cycle can be increased, by increasing the temperature of heat
input Tmax or lowering the temperature of heat release Tmin.
The efficiency of the Rankine Cycle can be increased by increasing the pressure or the
temperature of the live steam. Both leads to an increase of the mean temperature of heat
input.
A feedwater preheating increases the mean temperature of heat input from the external
sources. The feedwater preheating decreases the power output, because the steam mass
flow through the turbine is decreased.
9
6s
5O
5C
5
4
3a
1=2
T,s- diagram for the Rankine Cycle with feedwater preheating and reheating
10
1.1
Definition of the polytropic efficiency:
dh
p ,T (differential approach)
dhS
With the assumption, that steam may be regarded as ideal gas:
dh c p dT
c p dT
p ,T (1)
c p dTs
Polytropic expansion: p n const. (2)

R T
Ideal gas law: p R T (3)
p
n
R T
Using (2) and (3): p const.
p
p 1n T n const. (4)
Form the total differential of (4):

d p 1 n
T n

p 1 n T n
p
dp

p 1 n T n
T

dT 0
1 n p n T n dp p1n n T n1 dT 0
1 n dp p n 1 dT 0
T
dT n 1 dp n 1 dp
dT T (5)
T n p n p
Using p const. for an isentropic expansion

dTs 1 dp 1 dp
dTs T (6)
T p p
(5) and (6) in (1) leads to the polytropic efficiency of the turbine:
n 1 dp
T
n p n 1
p ,T ( p , T f ( n, ) )
1 dp n 1 (7)
T
p
The polytropic efficiency is a function of only the ratio of specific heat and the polytropic
exponent and independent of the pressure ratio. The polytropic efficiency characterizes
the thermodynamical quality of the machine.
1
1.2
Definition of the isentropic efficiency: h p1
h
is ,T 1
hS
(Macroscopic approach)
h
From the T,s - Diagram follows:
T2 hS p2
1
h c p T1 T2 T1 2
is ,T (8)
hs c p T1 T2 s T2 s
1
T1 2S s
Polytropic expansion (see (4)): p n const. p 1n T n const.

1 n
T p n
p 12n T2n p11n T1n 2 1 (9)
T1 p 2
Isentropic expansion : p const. p 1 T const.

1
T p
p 12 T2s p11 T1 2 s 1 (10)
T1 p 2
(9) and (10) in (8) leads to:
1 n
p n
1 1
p
is ,T 2 1
f (n, , p1 , p2 ) (11)
p
1 1
p2
Using (7) in (11) leads to the equation for the isentropic efficiency:
n 1 1 n 1
p ,T p , T
n 1 n
1
p ,T
p
1 1
is ,T p2 (12)
1
p
1 1
p2
The isentropic efficiency depends additionally on the pressure ratio!
2
1.3
Isentropic efficiency (using equation (12)):
1
p ,T
p
1 1
is ,T p2
1
p
1 1
p2
Polytropic efficiency (using equation (12)):
1 1
p ,T
p1 p1
1 is ,T 1
p
2 p2

1

1 p1 p1
p ,T ln ln 1 is ,T 1
p2 p2

1

p
ln 1 is ,T 1 1
p2

p ,T
1 p
ln 1
p2
cP cP
with: und R c p c v = 1.209
cv cP R
In the following table the results are given:
Manufacturer is ,T p ,T
A 91.04 % 90 %
B 92 % 91.06 %
The machine of manufacturer B should be installed, because of its higher efficiency.
3
1.4
Polytropic efficiency of the turbine B calculated in exercise 1.3:
p ,T 91, 06%
Isentropic efficiency calculated by equation (12)
isentropic efficiency
Pressure ratio is ,T
1.1 91.13 %
1.5 91.34 %
2 91.54 %
2.5 91.69 %
3 91.81 %
3.5 91.92 %
4 92.00 %
4.5 92.08 %
92,2
92,0
Efficiency (%)
91,8
isentropic
91,6 efficiency
91,4 polytropic
efficiency
91,2
91,0
1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5
Pressure ratio
1.5
For example, the following additional parameters are decisive for the choice of the
manufacturer:
- Acquisition costs
- Maintenance costs (including periodicity of maintenance, lifetime, cost of repair)
- Terms of guarantee, terms of service
- Reliability
4
Thermal Turbo Machines I, WS12/13 Solution of Tutorial 5
1. Exercise
1.1
Block diagram of the open gas turbine cycle:
1
4
Ideal Brayton Cycle

1 2: isentropic compression
2 3: isobaric heat input
3 4: isentropic expansion
4 1: isobaric heat rejection
For isentropic processes the following relations can be used:

p = const. and p = R T p 1 T = const .
1
p1 T2
=
p2 T1
Specific turbine work:
wT = h3 h4 = c p (T3 T4 ) (1.1)
1
p3 T4 1
= T4 = T3
= 652.8K (1.2)
p4 T3
kJ
(1.2) in (1.1) leads to: wT = 1220.2
kg
Specific compressor work:

wC = h2 h1 = c p (T2 T1 ) (1.3)
1
1
p1 T2
1
= T2 = T1
= 840.6K (1.4)
p2 T1
kJ
(1.4) in (1.3) leads to: wC = 547.6
kg
Net work output:
kJ
w N = wT wC wN = 672.5
kg
Thermal efficiency:
wN 1

th = = 1 (1.5)
qin

kJ
q in = h3 h2 = c p (T3 T2 ) = 1032.4
kg
672.5
th = = 65.1%
1032.4
1.2
Brayton Cycle with reheating
Specific turbine work:
wT ' = c p [(T3 T4 ' ) + (T5' T6 ' )] (2.1)
1
p
T4' = T3 3 = 1536.5K (2.2)
p 4'
T5 = T3 (2.3)
1
p
T6 ' = T5' 5 = 795.8K (2.4)
p6'
kJ
(2.2), (2.3), (2.4) in (2.1) leads to: wT ' = 1413.7
kg
Specific compressor work: wC ' = wC (from exercise 1.1)
kJ
Net work output: wN ' = 866.1
kg
aW '
Thermal efficiency: th ' = = 63.3%
c p [(T3 T2 ) + (T5' T4' )]
The reheating adds additional heat at a high pressure level. That leads to an increase of
turbine power. However, the efficiency of the part cycle [(4) - (4) - (5) - (6)] is lower, due
to the lower pressure ratio p4' / p4 (see equation (1.5)). That decreases the efficiency of
the total process.
2
In combination with a steam turbine (Combined Cycle Power Plant) a reheating can be a
benefit for the efficiency of the total process, because the efficiency of the steam cycle
increases with an increase of the exit gas temperature of the gas turbine.
1.3 Brayton Cycle with intercooling (without reheating)

kJ
Specific turbine work: wT '' = wT = 1220.2 (from exercise 1.1) (3.1)
kg
Specific compressor work: wC '' = c p [(T1a '' T1 ) + (T2 '' T1b '' )] (3.2)
1
p
T1a '' = T1 1'' = 464.1K (3.3)
p1
T1b = T1 (3.4)
1
p
T2'' = T1 2 = 530.8K (3.5)
p1''
kJ
=> wV '' = 408.8
kg
kJ
Net work output: w N '' = 811.3
kg
w N ''
Thermal efficiency: th '' = =0.604
c p (T3 T2'' )
th '' = 60.4%
Intercooling leads to a lower compressor work. The part cycle [(1b) - (2) - (2) - (1a)]
again has a lower pressure ratio. That leads to a lower efficiency of the whole process, like
in exercise 1.2.
1.4 Brayton Cycle with intercooling and regeneration:

kJ
wN '' = const . = 811.3 (Exercise 1.3)
kg
T2"* = T4 (ideal regenerator)
kJ
q in = c p (T3 T2''* ) = 1220.2
kg
w N ''
th ''* = = 66.4%
qin
The combination of intercooling and regeneration leads to an increase of the thermal
efficiency of the cycle.
A regenerator combined with the simple process in Exercise 1.1 or with the reheating
process in Exercise 1.2 would decrease the efficiency, because the compressor exit
temperature is higher than the turbine exit temperature ( ) or ( .
3
1.5 Brayton Cycle with regenerator, intercooling and reheating

Block diagram:
kJ
Specific turbine work: wT ''' = wT ' = 1413.7 (see 1.2)
kg
kJ
Specific compressor work: wC ''' = wC '' = 408.8 (see 1.3)
kg
kJ
Specific net work output: wN ''' = 1004.9
kg
w N '''
Thermal efficiency: th ''' = = 71.1%
c p [(T3 T6' ) + (T5' T4 ' )]
T1
Carnot efficiency: Carnot = 1 0.844 Carnot 84.4%
T3
With regeneration, intercooling and reheating the improvements of all processes are
combined:
Reheating: Increases the turbine work
Intercooling: Decreases the compression work
Regeneration: Transferring heat of the exhaust gases back to the cycle
Adding more stages of intercooling and reheating would further increase the efficiency.
The isentropic compression and expansion of a multi stage Brayton Cycle gets more and
more an isothermal compression/expansion. Such a cycle is called Ericsson Cycle.
Combined with regeneration the efficiency of the Ericsson Cycle is equal to the efficiency
of the Carnot Cycle.
4
Reheating Intercooling Regeneration Efficiency (%) wN (kJ/kg)
A 1.1 65.1 672.5

A 1.2 X 63.3 866.1
A 1.3 X 60.4 811.3
A 1.4 X X 66.4 811.4
A 1.5 X X X 71.1 1004.9
T,s- Diagram for air (perfect gas)
5
2. Exercise
2.1
Net work output:
wN = wT wC = ( h3 h4 ) (h2 h1 ) (1)
Equation from lecture notes, Chapter 3:

1
1
wN = c p T3 1 c p T1 1
(2)

Thermal efficiency:
wN wT wC
th = = (3)
qin qin
Equation from the script:
1
th = 1 (4)
Calculation of the maximum net work:

wN
Necessary condition: =0

1 1 2 1 1
Using equation (2): c p T3 c p T1 = 0 (5)

1 1 1 1
2 +2 T3
T3 = T1
=
T1

T 2( 1)
opt = 3 (6)
T1
2 wN
Sufficient condition: <0
2 opt
1 1
2 wN 1 1 2 3 1 1 1
= c p T3
c p T1
2
1 3 1+

( 1) (1 2 ) T 2( 1) 1 T 2(1 )

(using Equation (6)) = c p T3
3
+ T1 2
3
2
T1 T1

6
( 1) 1
2 ( 1)
3 1
2( 1) 1 2(1 ) 2(1 )
1+ 1 3
= cp 2
(1 2 ) T3 T1 + 2 T3 T1

3 1 1+
1 2( 1) 2( 1)
= 2 cP T1 T3 (1 ) < 0 (7)

T 2( 1)
wN is maximized for opt = 3
T1
Numeric values:
Pressure ratio for maximum net work output: opt = 18.9
kJ
Maximum net work out (Eq. (2)): wN ,max = 508.2
kg
Thermal efficiency at opt = 18.9 (Eq. (4)): th,max = 56.8%
2.2
Using the isentropic relations:
1

T2 = T1 opt = T3 T1 = 678,9K
Temperature T2 at compressor outlet :
1
Exhaust gas temperature T4: T4 = T3 opt = T3 T1 = 678,9K
Exhaust gas temperature read from the h,s - Diagram: T4,real = 783K
For a real gas the ratio of specific heats and the specific heat capacity cp is a function of
the temperature (see below). Thats why the assumption = 1.4 = const. leads to an
inaccurate determination of the temperature T4.
Heat capacity and ratio of specific heats for air
7
2.3
Calculation of the mean ratio of specific heats:
1
T4, real
=
T3
T4,real 1 *
ln = ln
T3 *
ln
* =
T
ln 4, real + ln
T3
1
T4, real
ln
T
= 3
* + 1 (8)
ln

The mean ratio of specific heats with T4,real = 783K and opt = 18.9 calculates to:
* = 1.31
2.4
Power output of the gas turbine
PGT = ( m& air + m& fuel ) wT m& air wC
The fuel mass flow m& fuel is negligible compared with the air mass flow m& air !
PGT = m& air (wT wC ) = m& air w N = 228.7 MW
2.5
Otto Cycle:
1 2o: isentropic compression

2o 3: isochoric heat input
3 4o: isentropic expansion
4o 1: isochoric heat rejection
8
Assumption: High and low temperatures are identical for both cycles, that means
T1O = T1T = T1 and T3O = T3T = T3
h
v2
p2 Hint: The isobaric lines have a
T3 higher slope than the isobaric
lines in the h,s-Diagram!
T
T2
v1
O Index O: Otto Engine
T 2
O
Index T: Turbine
T4 p1
T
T4
T1 s
Thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto Engine with constant-volume combustion:

wN (h3 h4O ) (h2O h1 )
O h1 h4O T1 T4O
= th = = 1+ = 1+
qin h3 h2O h3 h2O T3 T2O
Substitute the unknown temperatures and using the isentropic relations:

1
v 1
T2
O
= T1 1 = T1 1 with = (9)
v2 2
1
v 1 4
T4
O
= T3 3 = T3 1 with = = (10)
v4 2 3
T1 T4O T1 T3 1 T3 1 T1 1
thO = 1 + = 1 + = 1
T3 T2O T3 T1 1 T3 T1 1 1
T3 1 T1 1
thO = 1 1
= 1 1 (11)
T3 T1 1
1
Calculation of the compression ratio = :
2
Isentropic compression: 1 to 2o
p = const.

pO
= 1 = 2

(12)
2 p1
9
Isochoric heat input 2o to 3:

p TO
= const. and p = R T = const. i.e. p 2O = p 3 2 (13)
T T3
(13) in (12)
p 3 T2O
= (14)
p1 T3
(9) in (14)
p3 T1 1
=
p1 T3
T1 293
= = 18.93 = 3.53
T3 1573
Thermal efficiency of the Otto Engine using Equation (11)
thO = 1 1 = 1 3.52 (11, 4) = 39.62%
Thermal efficiency of the ideal gas turbine (Brayton Cycle):

T1
thT = 1 = 0.568
T2T
thT = 56.8%
The efficiency of the Otto Engine is lower compared with the gas turbine. Thats due to the
low compression ratio. Normally, Otto Engines operate with much higher compression
ratios. For = 10 the ideal thermal efficiency is:
thO, =10 = 60.2%
The gas turbine needs a higher pressure ratio of = 25.1to come up to the same
efficiency.
The above mentioned calculation of the ideal efficiency of the Otto Engine doesnt care for
losses during gas exchange. The intake of air and the forcing out of exhaust gases are
not part of the thermodynamic model. Thats one reason for the unusual high value of the
calculated efficiencies.
10
Exercise 2.1
T,s (h,s)- diagram
11
Thermische Turbomaschiinen I, WS
S12/13 Lssung bun
ngsblatt 6
1. Exerrcise
1.1 Sch
hematic of Turbofan
n engine
m Bypaass
Fan
F Combustion Cham
mber LPT
T
HPT
Thrrust nozzle
m aair
m Core
Comp
pressor
0 1
2 3 4 5 6 7
Bypas
a snozzle 2
agram:
h,s-Dia
Starting n cF 0
g condition
1.2
For the
e polytropicc compress
sion processs:
nc 1 1 1
(1.1)
nc c, p
1
Thermische Turbomaschinen I, WS12/13 Lsung bungsblatt 6
For the polytropic expansion process:

nt 1 1
t, p (1.2)
nt
Fan:
1 2 polytropic compression
p v n const.
p 1 n T n const.
p v R T
The stagnation value of pressure and temperature up- and downstream of the fan are:
p1t pU
T1t TU
1.65
Using air 1.4 and c , p 0.9 in Eq. (1.1) we get the polytropic exponent and:
nc 1
p nc
T2t T1t 2t T2t 337.6K
p1t
Pfan m air c P ,air T2t T1t Pfan 10.72MW
Compressor:
2 3 polytropic compression
15.15
p3t 25bar
T3t 800.2K
m air m bypass m core kg

m core 35.83 (1.3)
m bypass 5 m core s
5 kg
m bypass m air m bypass 179.2 (1.4)
6 s
Pc m core c P ,air T3t T2t Pc 16,66MW
Combustion chamber:
3 4 Heat input with pressure loss
p4t p3t pCC p4t 23.5bar
2
High pressure turbine:

4 5 polytropic expansion
The high pressure turbine drives the compressor, that means:
mech PHPT Pc Pc
T5t T4t
PHPT m core c P , flue T4t T5t mech m core c P , flue
T5t 1140.1K
PHPT 16.82MW
Using flue 1.333 und t , p 0.9 in Eq. (1.2) we get:
nt , Rg 1 nt , Rg
T4t p4t nt , Rg T 1nt , Rg

p5t p4t 4t
T5t p5t T5t
p5t 6.016bar
Low pressure turbine:
5 6 polytropic expansion
The low pressure turbine drives the fan, that means:
mech PLPT Pfan Pfan
T6t T5t
PLPT m core c P , flue T5t T6t mech m core c P , flue
T6t 877.7K
Using the polytropic exponent (Eq. (1.2)), we get:
nt
T 1nt
p6t p5t 5t p6t 1.873bar
T6t
PLPT 10.83MW
1.3
Thrust of the bypass nozzle at starting conditions:
FT ,bypass m bypass cbypass c flight with c flight 0
2
cbypass
h2t h2' cbypass 2 h2t h2 ' 2 c P ,air T2t T2 '
2
With:
, ,
1 T2t T2 ' 42.8K
m
c Bypass 293.2
s
3
Check if the nozzle is chocking by calculating the mach number

cbypass cbypass
M
a air Rair T2 '
J
Using T2 ' T2t 42.8K 294.9K and R RL 287 M 0.85
kg K
The bypass nozzle works in subsonic condition, i.e. we can calculate the thrust using the
mass flow from Eq. (1.4):
FT ,bypass m bypass cbypass FT ,bypass 52532N
Thrust of the core engine nozzle at starting conditions:

FT ,core m core ccore c flight with c flight 0
2
ccore 2 h6t h7 2 c P , Rg T6t T7
ccore
h6t h7
2
1 T6t T7 121.0K
m
ccore 527.0
s
Calculation of the Mach number:
ccore ccore
M
a flue R T7
Using T7 T6t 121.0K 756.7 K , we get M 0.98

The flow is subsonic, i.e. we can calculate the thrust using the mass flow from Eq. (1.3):
FT ,core m core ccore FT ,core 18917N
Thrust force of the bypass nozzle at take-off:

FT , Bypass ,t o m bypass cbypass c flight FT ,bypass ,t o 35604N
Thrust force of the core engine nozzle at take-off:

FT ,core,t o m core ccore c flight FT ,core,t o 15500N
1.4
Propulsive efficiency at c flight 0 :
Bypass nozzle: ,
, 0 (1.5)
4
Thermische Turbomaschiinen I, WS
S12/13 Lssung bun
ngsblatt 6
Core engine:
e , , 0 (1.6)
ake-off ( c fflight 340km

Propullsive efficiiency at ta m / h ):
Bypas
ss nozzle: Eq. (1.5) , 0.4485
Core engine
e nozzle: Eq. ((1.6) , 0.3044
Overall propulsiive efficien

ncy at tak
ke-off:
0.410
0
B
Bypass nozz
zle
Coree engine noz

zzle
5
1. Exercise
1.1
Read from the T,s-Diagram:
kJ kJ kJ
h3 = 3500 , h5 = 3640 , h4 S = 3100
kg kg kg
kJ kJ
h6 S = 2200 , h1 = h2 = 130
kg kg
h3 h4
HPT = (High pressure turbine)
h3 h4 S
kJ
h4' = h3' HPT (h3' h4's ) h4 ' = 3140
kg
h5 h6
LPT = (Low pressure turbine)
h5 h6 S
kJ
h6' = h5' LPT (h5' h6 's ) h6 ' = 2344
kg
Thermal efficiency of the real Rankine Cycle:

wHPT + wLPT w feed water pump wHPT + wLPT
th , Rankine =
qin , Rankine qin , Rankine
kJ
wHPT = h3' h4' wHPT = 360
kg
kJ
wLPT = h5' h6' wLPT = 1296
kg
kJ
q in , Rankine = (h3' h2 ' ) + (h5 ' h4 ' ) qin , Rankine = 3870
kg
th , Rankine = 42.8%
1.2
Thermal efficiency of the Combined Cycle:
P PN ,GT + PN , Rankine
th ,CC = &N =
Q in Q& in ,GT
The complete waste heat of the gas turbine is added to the Rankine Cycle, therefore it is:
Q& in , Rankine = Q& out ,GT
1
(Q& in ,GT Q& out ,GT ) + (Q& in , Rankine Q& out , Rankine ) Q& in , Rankine Q& out , Rankine
th ,CC = = th ,GT +
Q& in ,GT Q& in ,GT
Q& in , Rankine Q& out , Rankine Q& in , Rankine Q& in , Rankine

th ,CC = th ,GT + = th ,GT + th , Rankine
Q& in ,GT Q& in , Rankine Q& in ,GT
Q&
th ,CC = th ,GT + th , Rankine &out ,GT
Q in ,GT
Q&
with th ,GT = 1 &out ,GT follows:
Q in ,GT
th ,CC = th ,GT + th , Rankine (1 th ,GT ) th ,CC = 66.8%
Block diagram:
2
1.3
Energy balance of the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) with m& fluegas = m& air :
m& air ( hEG hEG ,out ) = m& Steam h3 m& Feedwater h2 + m& Steam ( h5 h4 )
with m& Steam = m& Feedwater

m& air (1 th ,GT ) q in ,GT = m& Steam [(h3' h2 ' ) + (h5 ' h4 ' )]
(1 th ,GT ) q in ,GT kg
m& Steam = m& air m& Steam = 100.7
(h3' h2' ) + (h5' h4' ) s
Electrical power output of the steam turbine:

(
Pel , Rankine = m& Steam wN , Rankine = m& Steam wHPT + wLPT ) Pel , Rankine = 166.76MW
1.4
Electrical power output of the gas turbine:
Pel ,GT
th ,GT = Pel ,GT = 282.2MW
m& air q in ,GT
Electrical power output of the Combined Cycle Power Plant:

Pel ,CC = Pel ,GT + Pel , Rankine Pel ,CC = 449.0MW
Total thermal efficiency:

Pel ,CC
th ,CC = th ,CC = 66.8%
m& air q in ,GT
3
4
2.1
Transferred heat for evaporating the steam mass flow (Thermal power of the
evaporater):
Q& evaporate = m& Steam (h' 'h') = 100.7kg / s (2400 1800)kJ / kg = 60.4MW
h=hvapor=2400 kJ/kg and h=hwater=1800 kJ/kg (read from the T,s-Diagram)
Transferred heat for superheating the steam (Thermal power of the superheater):
Q& sup erheat = m& Steam (h3 'h' ') = 100.7kg / s (3500 2400)kJ / kg = 110.8MW
Temperature of the flue gas downstream superheater and evaporater TEG:

Calculate the heat transferred from the exhaust gas:
Q& EG
'
( '
= c p , EG m& EG TEG TEG )
= Q& evaporate + Q& sup erheat
' (60,4 + 110,8) MW 171200kJ / s
TEG = TEG = 863K = 603K
c p , EG m& EG 1,1kJ /(kgK ) 600kg / s
The temperature of the flue gas is 603 K. This is below the boiling temperature of water
at 200 bar (TB,200bar = 640 K).
The Rankine Cycle considered in Exercise 1 will not work, with the waste heat from
the gas turbine. The amount of energy is sufficient, but the temperature level is too low.
T-Q diagram:
a) Temperature profile of the flue gas:
The temperature of the exhaust gas is a straight line in the diagram, because the
m& fluegas c p , flue = const.
product of mass flow and specific heat stays constant:
Therefore, we need only two points for the flue gas profile:
Q& = 0 Q& = Q& out ,GT = m& fluegas (1 th ,GT ) qin ,GT = 390MW
1. Point: T = TEG = 863K 2. Point: T = T Q& /(m& c
EG EG p , EG ) = 273K
b) Temperature profile of the steam:

1st Point: Begin with the highest temperature TMS = TEG and Q=0
2nd Pont: Calculate the amount of heat used in superheater and reheater:
Q& (T = 640K ) = Q& 1 = m& Steam ((h3 'h' ') + (h5 'h4 '))
= 100.7kg / s (3500 2400 + 3640 3140)kJ / kg = 161MW
3rd Point: Amount of heat for evaporation of water (Boiling temperature TB,200bar=640K)
Q& (T = 640K ) = Q& 2 = Q& 1 + Pevaporate = 161MW + 60MW = 220MW
4th Point: Amount of heat for heating the water from condenser temperature T2 to the
boiling temperature TB,200bar=640K
5
Q& (T = T2 ) = Q& 2 + m& Steam (h' h2 ' )

= 220kJ / kg + 100.7kg / s (1800 130)kJ / kg = 220MW + 168MW = 388MW
The diagram shows, that the temperature of the flue gas is at any point lower than the
temperature of the water. The required heat transfer from the exhaust gas to
water/steam of the Rankine Cycle is not possible.
2.2
Read from the T,s - Diagram (The values changed, because of the lower steam
pressure pMS,1):
h3' = 3550kJ / kg h5' = 3650kJ / kg
h4' s = 2950kJ / kg h6' s = 2350kJ / kg

Specific work of the turbine:
wLPT = LPT (h5' h6' s ) = 0.9 (3650 2350)kJ / kg = 1170kJ / kg
wHPT = HPT (h3' h4' s ) = 0.9 (3550 2950)kJ / kg = 540kJ / kg
h4' = h3' wHPT = (3550 540)kJ / kg = 3010kJ / kg

Turbine power output:
PLPT = (m& 1 + m& 2 ) wLPT = 80kg / s 1170kJ / kg = 93.6MW
( )
PHPT = m& 1 wHPT = 45kg / s 540kJ / kg = 24.3MW
Thermal efficiency:
PN P + PHPT 117.9MW
th, Rankine = = LPT = = 0.385
Qin, Rankine Qin, Rankine 305.9MW
[( ) ( )] ( )
Qin, Rankine = m& 1 h3' h2' + h5' h4' + m& 2 h5' h2' = 45kg / s 4060kJ / kg + 35kg / s 3520kJ / kg
= 305.9MW
P P + PGT 117.9MW + 282.2MW
th,CC = N = Rankine = = 0.595
Qin m& air qin,GT 672.0MW
T-Q Diagram:
1st point: Begin with the highest temperature TMS = TEG and Q=0
2nd point: Combining the amount of heat with a temperature level above the boiling
temperature at pMS,1=150 bar. (Superheater and reheater of m1 and superheater of m2)
TB,150bar=342C=615K (The enthalpy at p=20 bar and T=615 K has to be read from the
T,s-diagram.)
Q& (T = 342C ) = Q&1 = m& 1 (h3 'h' ' (150bar ) ) + ( m& 1 + m& 2 )(h5 'h(20bar,615K ) )
= 45kg / s (3550 2600) + 80kg / s (3650 3100)kJ / kg = 87MW
3rd point: Add the amount of heat for evaporating m1 at pMS,1=150 bar.
Q& (T = 342C ) = Q& 2 = Q&1 + m& 1 (h' ' (150bar ) h' (150bar ) )
= 87MW + 45kg / s (2600 1600)kJ / kg = 132MW
6
4th point: Combining the heat transferred between TB,150bar =342C (615K) and
TB,20bar =215C.
644 Water heating, MS1
4474444 8 64 4474448
1st part of reheating MS1
Q& (T = 215C ) = Q& 3 = Q& 2 + m& 1 h' (150bar ) h' (20bar ) + h(20bar,615K ) h4 '

644 1st part of sup erheating MS 2
44 4744444 8
+ m2 h(20bar,615K ) h' ' (20bar )
&

= 132MW + 45kg / s (1600 950 + 3100 3010)kJ / kg
+ 35kg / s (3100 2800)kJ / kg
= 176MW
5th point: Add the heat used for evaporating m2 at p2=20 bar.
Q& (T = 215C ) = Q& 4 = Q& 3 + m& 2 (h' ' (20bar ) h' (20bar ) )
= 176MW + 35kg / s (2800 950)kJ / kg = 241MW
6th point: Amount of heat for heating the water (m1+m2) from condenser temperature T2
to the boiling temperature TB,20bar=215C (=488K).
Q& (T = T2 ) = Q& 5 = Q& 4 + m& ges (h' (20bar) h2 ) = 241MW + 80kg / s(950 130)kJ / kg
= 241MW + 66MW = 307MW
The diagram shows, that the temperature of the flue gas is at any point higher than the
temperature of the water. So, heat is transferred from the exhaust gas to the
water/steam. But it is not possible to transfer the complete waste heat of 390 MW. The
flue gas exits the HRSG with a temperature of about 125C.
Hint: The straight lines between the calculated points dont show the real process. In
reality the lines have to be curved, because the specific heat of steam is a function of
the temperature, especially near the saturated vapor line.
7
8
Thermal Turbo Machines I, WS 12/13 Solution Tutorial 8
1. Exercise
1.1
h,s - diagram for the ideal and real Brayton-Cycles of turbine A:
T1 = 293 K p1 = p6 = 1 bar
T3 = 1500 K p2 = 25 bar
T5 = 1500 K p4 = 13 bar
Ideal Brayton-Cycle:
Isentropic compression 1 2*
Isobaric heat input 2* 3*
Isentropic expansion 3* 4*
Isobaric heat input 4* 5*
Isentropic expansion 5* 6*
Real Brayton-Cycle:
Compression with losses 1 2
Combustion chamber flow 2 3
p cc = p 2 p3 (Pressure loss in the combustion chamber)
Expansion with losses 3 4
1
Reheating 4 5
p cc = p 4 p5 (Pressure loss in the combustion chamber)
Expansion with losses 5 6
Specific work of the compressor:

wC = h2 h1 = c p (T2 T1 ) (1.1)
cp cp T*
wC =
is ,c
(
T2* T1 =) is ,t
T1 2 1 (1.2)
T1
1
T2* p2 1
Isentropic compression 1 2*: = = ( A ) (1.3)
T1 p1
cp 1

Using (1.2) and (1.3) wC = T1 ( A ) 1 (1.4)
is ,c
kJ
wC = 502.3
kg
Specific work of the turbines:
(1st expansion): wT 1 = h3 h4 = c p (T3 T4 ) (1.5)
T
wT 1 = is ,t c p (T3 T4 s ) = is ,t c p T3 1 4 s (1.6)
T3
1
T4 s p4
Isentropic expansion 3 4s: = (1.7)
T3 p3
Pressure loss in the combustion chamber:
p3 = p 2 p cc = p 2 cc p 2 = p 2 (1 cc ) (1.8)
1

p4
Using (1.6), (1.7) and (1.8): wT 1 = is ,t c p T3 1 (1.9)
(1 cc ) p 2

kJ
wT 1 = 225.2
kg
(2nd expansion): wT 2 = h5 h6 = c p (T5 T6 ) (1.10)
1

p1
wT 2 = is ,t c p T3 1 (1.11)
(1 cc ) p 4

kJ
wT 2 = 711.1
kg
2
Net work of gas turbine A:

wN = wT 1 + wT 2 wC (1.12)
kJ
wN = 434.0
kg
Real thermal efficiency of gas turbine A:
wN wT 1 + wT 2 wV
th ,real = = (1.13)
qin (h3 h2 ) + (h5 h4 )
Hint: (h3 h2 ) + (h5 h4 ) = (h3 h2 ) + (h5 h4 ) + h1 h1 = (h3 h1 ) + (h5 h4 ) (h2 h1 )
h5 = h3 (perfect gas)
h3 h4 = wT 1
h2 h1 = wC
wT 1 + wT 2 wV
th,real = (1.14)
c p (T3 T1 ) + wT 1 wV
th ,real = 46.7%
Additional note:
The calculated value of the real thermal efficiency is very high. For a real machine some
further effects have to be considered:
Perfect gas is assumed for the fluid.
About 20% of the compressed air is used for the cooling of turbine blades and walls.
This mass flow has to be compressed, but is not a part of the thermodynamic cycle.
The cooling has a serious influence on the efficiency.
1.2
h,s-diagram for the ideal and real thermodynamic cycle of gas turbine B
h p2 p3
3* 3
p1
4
2 4s
2* 4*
1 s
3
T1 = 293K p1 = p4 = 1 bar
p2 = 20 bar
Net work of the compressor:
cp 1

wC = h2 h1 = T1 ( B ) 1 (2.1)
is ,c
kJ
wC = 450.7
kg
1

p4
Specific turbine work: wT = is ,t c p T3 1 (2.2)
(1 cc ) p 2

1

wT = is ,t c p T3 1 ((1 cc ) B ) (2.3)

Real thermal efficiency of gas turbine B:
wN wT wC
th ,real = = (2.4)
qin (h3 h2 )
wT wC wT wC
th, real = = (2.5)
(h3 h1 ) (h2 h1 ) (h3 h1 ) wC
is ,t c p T3 1 ((1 cc ) B ) wC
1
th, real = (2.6)

c p (T3 T1 ) wC
Calculation of the turbine inlet temperature T3 of gas turbine B:
is ,t c p T3 1 ((1 cc ) B ) wC
1
th ,GT A = th ,GT B = (2.7)

c p (T3 T1 ) wC
th ,GTA (c p (T3 T1 ) wC ) = is ,t c p T3 1 ((1 cc ) B ) wC

1
(2.8)

th ,GTA c p T1 + ( th ,GTA 1) wC
T3 = (2.9)
1

th ,GTA c p is ,t c p 1 ((1 cc ) B )

T3 = 1756.1K
1.3
Gas turbines A and B have the same efficiency. But gas turbine B runs with a higher outlet
temperature which has advantages for the HRSG (Heat Recovery Steam Generator) and
the Rankine Cycle of the combined cycle power plant.
The higher turbine inlet temperature of gas turbine B may have some disadvantages related
to design and production efforts, the life time of the blades and increased cooling require-
ments.
4
5
2. Exercise
2.1
Specific net work of the real Brayton Cycle:
w N = wT wC = ( h3 h4 ) ( h2 h1 ) = c p [(T3 T4 ) (T2 T1 )] (1)
Polytropic process
p n = const. (2)
Ideal gas law

R T
p = R T = (3)
p
With equation (2) in (3) follows:

p 1 n T n = const . (4)
Polytropic efficiency of the compressor with polytropic exponent nc:

nc 1
p ,c = (5)
nc 1
Polytropic efficiency of the turbine with polytropic exponent nt:

nt 1
p ,t = (6)
nt 1
Calculation of the temperature T2 from equation (4) and (5):

1 1
1 1
p p ,c p ,c

T2 = T1 2 = T1 (7)
p1
Calculation of the temperature T4 from equation (4) and (6):

1
p ,t
p
1
p ,t
T4 = T3 4

= T3 (8)
p3
From (1), (7), and (8) the normalized specific work can be calculated:
p ,c
1 1
wN T p ,t
1

= 3 1
1 (9)
c p T1 T1

6
Thermal efficiency of the real Brayton Cycle:

wN wN wN
th = = = (10)
qin h3 h2 c p (T3 T2 )
With equation (7), (9), and (10) follows:
p , c
1 1
T3 p ,t
1

1
1
T1

th = 1 1
(11)

T3
p ,c
T1
2.2
The equations (9) and (11) are shown in the diagrams as a function of for different tem-
perature ratios T3/T1. The maximum values can be read out from the diagrams:
wN
opt , wN = 18 with = 1.83 and th = 0.516
c p T1
opt , wN
wN
opt ,th = 100 with = 1.20 and th = 0.620
c p T1
opt ,th
2.3
Mechanical power:
PMech = m& wN (12)
Specific net work at opt ,th :
w kJ
w N ,opt ,th = c p T1 N wN ,opt ,th = 360
c T kg
p 1 opt ,th
Calculation of the mass flow:

m& = in c ax Ain (13)
Calculation of the inlet density:
p amb
in = (14)
R T1
1 kg
with T1 = T3 in = 1.161
6 m3
Calculation of the inlet area Ain:
d
2

1 i
2
Ain = d o ,max Ain = 0.152m 2 (15)
4 do

7
With (14) and (15) the mass flow is:

kg
m& = 21.19
s
PMech ,opt ,th = 7.63MW < 10.5MW
With the given maximum outer diameter the power output of the engine is too low!
Alternative approach:
d
2

1 i
2
m& = in c ax d o ,max
4 do

PMech 4 1
d o ,opt ,th = = 0.645m > 0.55m
wN ,opt ,th in c ax d
2

1 i
d o

For the given power output of 10.5 MW the required outer diameter is higher than the max-
imum allowed diameter of 0.55m. The given specification of power and available space
cant be maintained with the optimal pressure ratio opt ,th , due to the low specific work.
To attain the required power we need to run the engine at a lower pressure ratio with in-
creased normalized specific work.
2.4
Calculation of the required specific net work from equation (12):
PMech kJ
wN = w N = 495.47
m& kg
wN
= 1.65
c p T1
Read from the diagrams: opt = 6 or 44
th ,opt = 0.39 or 0.595
The highest thermal efficiency is reached at a pressure ratio of 44 with th ,opt = 0.595 .
8
3. Exercise (Optional)
3.1
The following diagram shows the thermal efficiency of the real Brayton Cycle as a function
of the pressure ratio and the turbine inlet temperature.
Increase of the efficiency with increasing turbine inlet temperature

Distinct maximum of the efficiency, especially at low turbine inlet temperatures
3.2
The thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton Cycle as a function of the pressure ratio.
Gasturb uses air with real gas properties, thus the isentropic exponent depends on the
temperature ( decreases with increasing temperature). Thats why the efficiency of the
ideal Brayton Cycle is decreasing with increasing temperature. Overall, the change of the
thermal efficiency with the temperature is rather low. Remember, that the thermal efficiency
of the ideal cycle depends only on the pressure ratio and the ratio of specific heats .
9
3.3
The figure shows the thermal efficiency of the Brayton Cycle depending on the pressure ra-
tio and the compressor efficiency (with ideal turbine):
The next figure shows the thermal efficiency of the Brayton Cycle as a function of the pres-
sure ratio and the turbine efficiency (with ideal compressor):
The polytropic efficiency of the turbine has a lower effect on the overall efficiency of the cy-
cle as the polytropic compressor efficiency. Losses in the turbine lead to an increase in en-
thalpy. The additional enthalpy can be reused in the turbine, which is not the case in the
compressor. (See Enthalpy Recovery Factor in lecture TT1 Chapter 2.4).
10
1. Aufgabe
1.1
The superposition of the uniform parallel flow and the doublet flow leads to the
following stream function:

sin

sin
2

cos "
!

cos
!
#
(1)
$ sin '

!%&
#
(2)
Calculation of the vortex strength M at the cylinder surface:

cos

(" cos 0
2 (
2 ( (3)
(3) in (1) and (2):

(
*1 , cos

(
*1 , sin

At the stagnation point, both velocity components need to be zero:
-1 # / cos 0
.#
-1 # / sin 0
.#
We solve these equations with:

(
0 012.
and
1
Sketch:
0
U R
M

SP SP
Uniform flow Doublet Cylinder flow
1.2
For r = R it is:
0
2 sin
With the velocity u, the pressure coefficient is:

45 1 6 7

2 sin
45 1 6 7

45 1 4 sin
Calculation of the drag coefficient:

1
49 : 45 cos <
2 ;
1
49 : 1 4 sin " cos <
2 ;
49 0
Calculation of the lift coefficient:

1
4= : 45 sin <
2 ;
1
4= : 1 4 sin " sin <
2 ;
4= 0
2
1.3
The superposition of the stream functions of the parallel flow, the doublet flow and the
free vortex leads to the following stream function:

sin ln
!%& >

cos " -1 /
.#
#
With equation (3)
-1 # / cos
.#
$ sin '

!%& >
#
-1 # / sin
.# >
With equation (3)
For the calculation of the stagnation points we set 0 und 0:
-1 # / cos 0
.#
-1 # / sin 0
.# >
Solving these equations leads to:

(
and
arc sin - /
>
B.CD
As is a positive number between 0 and 4( , is between -180 and 0 degree.

Hence, there are two stagnation points on the lower half of the cylinder!
Sketch:
3
r
R
r
0
R
=

SP
SP SP SP
Cylinder flow Potential vortex Cylinder flow

with lift
1.4
For r = R it is:
0

2 sin
2(
With the velocity u, the pressure coefficient on the cylinder surface is:

45 1 6 7

2 sin 2(
45 1 F G

2 sin
45 1 H4 sin 6 7 I
( 2(
Drag coefficient
1
49 : 45 cos <
2 ;
1 2 sin
49 : *1 H4 sin

6 7 I, cos <
2 ; ( 2(
49 0
Lift coefficient
1
4= : 45 sin <
2 ;
4
1 2 sin
4= : J1 H4 sin

6 7 IK sin <
2 ; ( 2(

4=
(
1.5
(LMN , PMN " 1,0"

The position of the stagnation point is on the trailing edge of the blade at the point
Transform that point from the L-P-plane to the x-y-plane.

LMN QMN -1 /1
;.R
# VW #
STU TU
PMN XMN -1 S # /0 => XMN 0

;.R
#
TU VWTU
QMN 1 S # " 1 => QMN 0.5

;.R
TU
R
y0
y=0
X0
(xTE,yTE)=(0.5,0)
x=0
Calculation of the angle in the x-y-plane or in polar coordinates around the middle
point of the cylinder:
Z arctan - / arcsin - \ / arcsin - / 9.46
W\ W ;.
STU ]S\ . ;._`
According to exercise 1.3, we can calculate the rotation of the free vortex to:

Z arc sin 6 7
4(

sinZ" 4 (
4 ( mit 1
W\
.
X; 4 =1.2566
With the rotation the stream function in polar coordinates is known:

sin ( 2X; ln
!%&
The stream function on the cylinder surface is:

; 2X; ln (
5
lines can be transformed to the L-P-plane by the given transformation rules.

The stream function can be used to plot the stream lines in the x-y-plane. These stream
Therefore, the superposition of parallel flow, doublet flow and free vortex is a description
of the flow around a Joukowski Blade.
In the figure, there are the stream lines with: ; ; 0; e ef ; 2; ; 3;
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
0.5 0.5
1 1
2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
x
6
1. Exercise
1.1
Static pressure at nozzle exit:
p
Pressure ratio depends on the Mach Number
pt
(see Zierep: Grundzge der Strmungslehre):

p 1 1
1 M2
pt 2
Considering there are no losses in the flow, the total pressure is pt const. :

p0 1 2 1
1 M0 pt =155.57 bar
pt 2
Pressure at exit:

p1 1 2 1
1 M1 p1 = 61.76 bar
pt 2
1.2
Evolution of the Mach Number and area ratio along the nozzle:
Relation between the nozzle section area and the Mach Number:
(Demonstration in Zierep: Grundzge der Strmungslehre)
1
1 1

A
1
Amin M 1
M 2 1
2 1

Chosen locations:
Row inlet:
x/s = 0 M0 = 0.25 A/Amin = 2.46
Throat: (see exercise statement)

x/s = 0.6 M=1 A/Amin = 1.00
Row outlet:
x/s = 1 M1 = 1.3 A/Amin = 1.08
1
3 1.5
A/Amin M
2.5 M
2 1
1.5
1 0.5
0.5 A/Amin
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 x/s 1
1.3
Pressure at row outlet:
From shock wave calculations:

2
p
p
1
1

M 2 1
2
p p 1
M 2 1
1
With M = 1.3 and p = 61.76 bar (see exercise 1.1)
p = 107.71 bar
1.4
h,s Diagram:
h 0 1 Isentropic expansion in the Laval Nozzle

pt1 1 1 Normal shock with entropy increase and
total pressure loss
2
c0 The stagnation conditions are changed after a
2 2 shock. From the energy conservation equation
p1 for a steady, adiabatic and perfect gas condi-
0 tions:
1 ht ht and Tt Tt .
J R
With 1,17 ; R 287 and c p :
2 kg K 1
p1
1

2 M 12 1
2 1 M 12
T1 1

T1 1 M 12
1 s
p1 2 M 12 1
1
p1 1
2
T2 p
s c p ln R ln 2
T1 p1
For stagnation conditions
T p T2t
st c p ln 2t R ln 2t with 1,
T1t p1t T1t
s
p2 t
e R
p1t
At constant total enthalpy, the total pressure is modified through a shock.
2. Exercise
2.1
Boundary layer thickness (laminar and turbulent):
U x
Reynolds Number: Re x

x x
x 5
5
with (laminar boundary layer)
x Re x U
1
( x) 5 54
x 0.376
0.376
with x (turbulent boundary layer)
x U
1/ 5
Re x
3,5
[mm]
3
2,5
2
turb
1,5
1
lam
0,5
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 x [m] 0,2
The turbulent boundary layer thickness increases quicker than the laminar one.
2.2
Momentum thickness for a laminar boundary layer (accelerated and non-
accelerated)
Equation for a flat plate without pressure gradient:
x 0,664 Re x0,5 x
3
Equation for an accelerated boundary layer:
0.45
x
x U 4.35 dx (see M. Deich: Technische Gasdynamik)
U5.35
0
with U m xn
0.45
x
x m x n
4.35
dx
m x n 5.35
0
0.45 x n4.351
x
0.45
m 4.35
m x n 5.35 n 4.35 1 m x n 1
n 4.35 1
The accelerated boundary layer flow reaches the velocity of the non-accelerated free-
stream after 0.1m (left picture).
A favourable pressure gradient will decrease the growth of the boundary layer (right pic-
ture).
400
U [m/s]
350
300 Non-
accelerated
unbeschleunigt non-accelerated
250
200
accelerated
150
100 beschleunigt
accelerated
50
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 x [m] 0,2
2.3
Laminar-turbulent transition prediction (depending on the turbulence level):
Definition of the turbulence intensity
1 ,2

u x u ,y2 u z, 2
Tu 3 (see H. Schlichting: Grenzschichttheorie).
| u |2

For low turbulence intensity level Tu < 0.5%, the transition position can be estimated with
the stability theory. The critical Reynolds Number will then be found between:
5 105 < Rex,crit < 3 106 (see H. Schlichting: Grenzschichttheorie).
U x
From Re x

Re x ,crit
xcrit
U
0.0126 m < xcrit < 0.0756 m
4
For turbulence intensities between 0.5 and 1%, the location of the transition depends on
several mechanisms. In this range, the exact transition location is very difficult to predict.
Higher turbulence levels (Tu > ca. 1%) are considered using the Bypass-Transition theory.
The transition location is moving upstream with increasing turbulence intensity. In this
range, several correlations are available to predict the position of the transition.
e.g.:
Recrit 190 1 e 1.6Tu[%]
(Dyban: Wrme-Stoffbertragung & Hydrodynamik von turbulenten Strmungen)
Recrit 400 Tu[%]
0.625
or
(Mayle: The Role of Laminar-Turbulent Transition in Gas Turbine Engines)
U U x
with Re and x 0.664 Re x0.5 x , where Re x .

2
0.5 Re
xcrit crit
U 0.664
xcrit

190 1 e 1.6Tu[%] 0.5

2
(Dyban)
0.664 U 0.5
400 Tu[%]0.625 0.5

2
xcrit
(Mayle)
0.664 U 0.5

xcrit [m]
krit0,1
0,09 geringe Dyban
Low turbulence region
Auenturbulenz
0,08 Mayle
0,07
0,06
0,05
0,04
Bypass-Transition
0,03
0,02
0,01
0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 Tu [%]
4
In gas turbines, the turbulence intensities in the first rotor lie above 20%. Then the transi-
tion is easy to predict using the Bypass-Transition model and the correlations of Mayle or
Dyban.
Turbulence intensities below 1% are usually not occurring in turbines and are used for in-
stance for flows over a wing.
5
2.4
Displacement thickness and momentum thickness for turbulent boundary layers:
Definition (Script S. 70):

u ( y) u( y)
* 1 dy 1 dy
0
U 0
U
For a 1/7th power law velocity profile:

1
u( y) y 7

U
8

1

y 7 7 y7
1 dy y 1
*

0 8 7 8
0
Boundary layer thickness for a turbulent flow (see exercise 2.1):

1
4
x 0.376
5
x 5
U
1
5 45
* x 0.047 x
U

Momentum thickness:
Definition (Script S. 70):

u( y) u( y) u( y) u( y)
1 dy 1 dy
0
U U 0
U U
1
u( y) y 7
with
U
x 0.664 Re x 0.5 x

1 1
8 9

y y 7
7 7 y7 7 y7 7
1 dy 1 2
0
8 7 9 7 72
0
With the boundary layer thickness for a turbulent flow:

1
5 45
x 0.0366 x
U
6
Thermal Turbo Machines I, WS12/13 Solution tutorial 11
Exercise 1
Buckingham Theorem:
Given is a function F:
F(q1 , q2 , ..., qn ) 0
With n physical variables q1, q2, ..., qn which are expressed in terms of
m independent physical units (e.g. mass, length and time).
Then F can be restated as:
F * (1 , 2 ,....., nm ) 0
with r = n m dimensionless parameters 1 , 2 ,, r .
Every dimensionless parameter i is constructed by the physical units qj by:
i q1k q2k ... qnk , i 1...r

1 2 n
Two systems are similar when all i coincide.
1.1
Rotational speed and drive power ratio:
Variables:
Power P, density angular velocity , diameter D and
Speed of sound a:
F(P, , D, a) = 0 n=5
Physical units:
It is recommended to express the variables in SI-units:
kg m 2 kg 1
[P] = W = 3
[]=
[] =
s3 m s
m
[D] = m [a] =
s
From the above, the following physical units appear:
Mass (kg), length (m) and time (s) 1 m=3
Number of dimensionless parameters:

r=nm=2
F * (1 , 2 ) 0
1
Comment: (a) For a dimensional analysis, all variables should be expressed in a system of independent
basic units. Here, the SI-unit system is chosen, which has considerable advantages at handling variables and
units. (b) In most fluid mechanical systems, the temperature (K) is also a physical unit.
1
Dimensional analysis:
i P k k k Dk a k ,
1 2 3 4
[ i ] = 1, dimensionless parameter
5
Solve for ki (i = 1, .., 5), such that all are dimensionless:

k1
kg m 2 kg 2 1 3
k k k
k4 m
5
i P D a 3 3 m
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5
s m s s
kg k k s3k k k m2k 3k k k
1 2 1 3 5 1 2 4 5
This leads to a linear set of equations:
k1 + k2 = 0 Mass
- 3k1 - k3 - k5 = 0 Time
2k1 - 3k2 + k4 + k5 = 0 Length
The coefficients of the set of equations represent the exponent of the basic physical units
mass, length and time of the dimensionless parameter i . The set of equations is
underdetermined (3 equations, 5 unknowns), so two coefficients should be set freely to
obtain an unambiguous solution. This has to be performed two times to derive the
parameters 1 and 2 .
Since we are looking for dimensional parameters scaling P and , it is useful to set one of
the coefficients k1 or k3 equal to 1 and the other equal to zero. In this way two parameters
are created, which each hold one of the searched variables (without an exponent), without
depending on the other variable.
Parameter 1 for the angular velocity:

Assumption:
k1 = 0, k3 = 1 k 2 = 0, k 4 = 1 and k5 = -1
D
1 (Mach number similarity)
a
Parameter 2 for the Power:

Assumption:
k 1 = 1, k3 = 0 k 2 = -1, k 4 = -2 and k5 = -3
P
2
D2 a3
2
Ratio of model and original:
O DO M DM DO
Ratio of angular velocity: 1 with = 10
aO aM DM
M a D a D
M O He O = 30.38
O aO DM a air D M
PO PM DO
Power ratio: 2 with = 10
O DO aO M DM aM
2 3 2 3
DM
3 2 3 2
PM a DM a DM
M M He He = 0.04
PO O aO DO air a air O D
1.2
Reynolds number similarity:
Ratio of model and original:
Re M M DM lM O

ReO O DO lO M
here:
Re He He D He l He Luft
0.039
Re Luft Luft D Luft l Luft He
So no Reynolds similarity is given!
Remark:
It is generally not possible to keep similarity for all parameters. To obtain Reynolds
similarity the operation pressure (and thus the density and viscosity) can be increased for
the model. This, however, would also change the power ratio for a given angular velocity
and geometric ratio.
3
Exercise 2
2.1
Relative velocity of the inlet flow in the rotor
Velocity triangle:
+ -
1

c1 w1

u
For pure axial inlet flow, the relative inlet flow can be expressed as:
m
w1 c12 u 2 291.5 (1)
s
Relative inlet flow angle in the rotor

c1
1 arcsin 31.0 (2)
w1
2.2
Relative velocity of the exit flow in the rotor
Velocity triangle:
+ -
1
2

c1 w
w2 1
u
To prevent flow separation on the blade, the minimal exit flow velocity should be at least:
m
w2 0.7 w1 204.1 (3)
s
4
Relative exit flow angle in the rotor

Given: c ax const.
c ax c
2 arcsin arcsin 1 47.3 (4)
w2 w2
Exit flow velocity of the rotor in the absolute reference frame

Velocity triangle:
+ -
2 1
2

c1 w
w2 1
c2
u
u
c2 c2u 2 cax 2
c2 c2u 2 c12 (5)
with
c2u u w2u
with w2u w22 cax 2

m
c2u u w2 2 cax 2 = 111.6 (6)
s
Eq.(6) substituted in eq.(5)
m
c 2 187.0 (7)
s
Absolute exit flow angle of the rotor

cax
2 arcsin
c2
c1
2 arcsin 53.3 (8)
c2
5
2.3
Specific circumferential work of the stage
Velocity triangle:
+ -
2 1
2

c3 c1 w
w2 1
c2
u
u
cu wu
For the specific work of an axial compressor stage, the Eulers turbomachinery equation
can be used:
au u c2u c1u u w2u w1u (9)
For pure axial inlet flow:

c1u 0 (10)
Eq.(10) and eq.(6) substituted in eq.(9)

kJ
a u 27.9 (11)
kg
Temperature difference
The relation between specific work, total enthalpy- and temperature difference is:
c32 c12
a u h t c p T3t T1t c p T3 T1 c p T (since c3 c1 ) (12)
2 2
au
T (13)
cp
T 27.9K (14)
6
2.4
Pressure ratio expressed in static variables
au c p T3t T1t c p T3 T1 (since c3 c1 )
T
au c p T1 3 1 (15)
T1
1
au c p T1 1 (16)

a 1
u 1 (17)
c T
p 1
1.365 (18)
2.5
Velocity and pressure paths with blade diagram
Compressor stage:
1
p1 pt1 c1
w1 c1 w1

u
Rotor
w2 2 2
p2 pt 2 c2

c2 w2

u
Vane
p3 pt 3 pt 2 c3 c1

c3
7
Exercise 3
3.1
Exit flow velocity of the vane in the absolute reference frame
Velocity triangle:
1
c0
c1

c0 c0
c1 (19)
sin 1 cos
m
c1 354.9 (20)
s
Absolute exit flow angle of the vane

1 0 (21)
1 25 (22)
Circumferential velocity of the rotor

Velocity triangle:
1 1
c0
c1

w1

u
u c1u w1u (23)
With the circumferential component of the absolute exit flow velocity of the vane:
c1u c12 c02 (24)
m
c1u 321.7 (25)
s
8
and the circumferential component of the relative inlet flow velocity of the rotor:
c0
w1u (26)
tan 1
m
w1u 13.1 (27)
s
Eq.(25) and eq.(27) substituted in eq.(23)
m
u 308.6 (28)
s
3.2
Relative exit flow velocity of the rotor
Velocity triangle:
1
1 c0 2

c1 c2 w2

w1
u
u
given: c ax c0 c 2 const. (29)
w2 u 2 c22 (30)
with eq.(29) substituted in eq.(30)
w2 u 2 c02 (31)
m
w2 343.1
s
Relative exit flow angle

c2
2 arcsin (32)
w2
with eq.(29) substituted in eq.(32)
c0
2 arcsin (33)
w2
2 25.9 (34)
Deviation
180 1 2 69.1
9
3.3
Specific work of the stage
Velocity triangle:
1
1 c0 2

c1 c2 w2

w1
u
u
cu
wu
With the Eulers Turbomachinery equation:
au u c1u c2u u w1u w2u (35)
For pure axial exit flow:
c2u c0u 0 (36)
Eq.(25), eq.(28) and eq.(36) substituted in eq.(35)
kJ
a u 99.3 (37)
kg
Temperature difference
Eq.(37) substituted in eq.(13)
T T0 T2 99.3K (38)
3.4
Pressure ratio expressed in static variables
Analogue to exercise 2.4
au c p T0t T2t c p T0 T2 (since c0 c2 )
T
au c p T0 1 2 (39)
T0
1

au c p T0 1
(40)

au 1
1 (41)
c T
p 1
2.17 (42)
10
3.5
Velocity and pressure paths with blade diagram
Turbine stage

c0
p0 pt 0 c0
Vane
1 1
p1 pt1 pt 0 c1
c1
w1
w1

u
Rotor
p2 pt 2 c2 c0 w2 2

c2 w2

u
11
ThermaI Turbo Machines I, WS12/13 Solution Tutorial 12
1. Exercise
1.1
Velocity triangles:
Impulse turbine (degree of reaction r=0)
From h,s diagram (compare to Hilfsblatt 22.1 or lecture notes in German p. 79):
w12 w22
h w2 w12 2 h ''
2 2
Since r = 0: hs 0 h
With the assumption h 0 : w2 w1

Also: cax const w2 sin 2 w1 sin 1
1 2
Velocity triangle:
1 2 2
1
w2
c2
c1 w1

u u
cu
Reaction turbine (in general: 0 < r < 1)
From h,s diagram (compare to Hilfsblatt 22.1):
c02 c12 w2 w2
h and h 1 2
2 2 2 2
With r = 0,5: hs hs
Given: h h (divergence of lines of constant pressure)
With cax c0 c2 c12 c22 w22 w12 (1)
With cax const. cax c1 sin 1 w1 sin 1 c2 sin 2 w2 sin 2 (2)
Also: u c1u w1u and u c2u w2u , u const.
c2u c1u w2u w1u (3)
c2 cos 2 c1 cos 1 w2 cos 2 w1 cos 1 (4)
1
After the application of the theorem of Pythagoras in (2), it follows:

c12 1 cos 2 1 w12 1 cos 2 1 c22 1 cos 2 2 w22 1 cos 2 2
c12 c22 c12 cos 2 1 c22 cos 2 2 0 (5)
w22 w12 w22 cos 2 2 w12 cos 2 1 0 (6)
From (5)=(6) and (1):

c22 cos 2 2 c12 cos 2 1 w12 cos 2 1 w22 cos 2 2 (7)
Squaring of (4) yields:

c2 2 cos 2 2 2 c1 c2 cos 1 cos 2 c12 cos 2 1
(8)
w12 cos 2 1 2 w1 w2 cos 1 cos 2 w2 2 cos 2 2
Equation (7) in equation (8) yields:

c1 cos 1 c1 cos 1 c2 cos 2 w2 cos 2 w1 cos 1 w2 cos 2 (9)
Equation (4) with equation (9) results to:

c1 cos 1 w2 cos 2 (10)
With c1 cos 1 c1u and w2 cos 2 w2u follows: c1u w2u (11)
From equation (11) and equation (3) c2u w1u
With cax const. : c2 w1 and c1 w2
With equation (10): 1 2

With equation (10) in equation (4): 2 1
Velocity triangle:
1 2

w1

c1 1 2
c2

w2

u u
cu
2
1.2
Schematic of the stages
Impulse turbine (r=0)
Flow area: stator: A0> A1
rotor: A1 = A2
Reaction turbine (schematic for r = 0.5)

Flow areas: stator: A0> A1
rotor: A1> A2
3
Evolution of velocity and pressure:

p0> p1 c0< c1
p1 = p2 c1> c2 = c0
Reaction turbine (r = 0.5)

p0> p1 c0< c1
p1> p2 c1> c2 = c0
4
1.3
h,s - diagram
h 0 The complete pressure and enthalpy decrease is converted in the stator. Only
deflection of the flow at a constant pressure takes place in the rotor.
ht = const.
Reaction turbine (h-s-diagram for r = 0.5)

Pressure and enthalpy is decreased in both rotor and stator.
ht = const.
5
1.4
Circumferential efficiency
au c12 c22 w22 w12 u12 u22
utt
as c12s c22 w22s w12 u12 u22
For axial machines: u1 u2 u
c12 c22 w22 w12

utt 2
c1s c22 w22s w12
c12 w22
With the stator and rotor efficiency: ' and ''

c12s w22s
c12 c 22 w22 w12 c12 c ax2 w22 w12

utt 2 2
c1 w22 c1 w22
c 2
w 2
c 2
ax w12

' 2 '' 1 ' ''

w1 w2 and w1u w2u u (refer to exercise 1.1)
c12 4 u 2 cax
2
(refer to exercise 1.1)
4 u 2 c ax2 c ax2 4u2

utt
1

1

4 u 2 c ax2 c ax2

w22
w22
1

4 u 2 c ax2 w22 '' 1 c ax2
' ''
'

c2 c
w2 ax (refer to exercise 1.1)
sin 2 sin 2
c2 c
u ax (refer to exercise 1.1)
tan 2 tan 2
c ax2
4
tan 2 2
utt
1 c ax2 2 c ax2 1
4 c '' 1 c ax2
' tan 2 2
ax
sin 2
2

4
utt
1
1

4 tan 2 2
1

cos 2 2
'' 1 tan 2 2

'

1
With 1 tan 2 x :
cos x
2
4
utt
1
1

4 tan 2 2 1 tan 2 2 '' 1 tan 2 2

'

6
With :
4
utt

1
'

5 2 tan 2 2 2 tan 2 2 1
utt 86.4% with 0.9
Reaction turbine (calculation for r = 0.5)

w1 c2 cax (refer to exercise 1.1)
c1 w2 (refer to exercise 1.1)
utt
w22 cax2 w22 cax2

2 w22 cax2
1 2 2 w22 1 1
w2 cax '' cax2 w22 ' '' 2 cax2
'

c2 c
w2 ax (refer to exercise 1.1)
sin 2 sin 2
c2 1
2 2ax cax2 2 2 1
utt sin 2 sin 2
cax2 1 1 1 1 1
' '' 2 cax2 ' '' 2
sin 2
2
sin 2
2
With :
1
1
sin 2 2
utt
1
1
sin 2
2
1 sin 2 2
utt
1
sin 2 2

utt 87.1% with 0.9
1.5
Number of stages
~
Pturbine n stage Pstage n stage m w u
Euler`s turbo machinery equation for axial machines (refer to lecture notes in German
page 54):
w u u cu
7
Derivation of cu (refer to velocity triangles in exercise. 1.1):

Impulse turbine (r = 0)
c2u 0 , w1 w2 , 1 2 and cax = const.
w1u w2u u
c1u 2 u
cu 2 u
~
w u , Im pulseTurbine 2 u
2
Reaction turbine (derived for r = 0.5)

c2u 0 , c1 w2 , 1 2 and cax = const.
c1u u
cu c1u u
~
wu , Re actionTurbine u
2
Calculation of the circumferential velocity:

w1u u
cot 1 cot 2
cax cax
u cax cot 2
Reaction turbine (r = 0,5)
c1u u
cot 1 cot 2
cax cax
u cax cot 2
Therefore
Pturbine
nimpulseTurbine 2
2 m cax2 cot 2 2
Reaction turbine (derived for r = 0.5)
P
nreactionTurbine turbine
4
m c cot 2
2
ax
2
8
Thermal Turbo Machines I, WS12/13 Solution 13
1. Exercise
1.1
Enthalpy drop hs:
1
T2 s
hs h0 h2 s c p T0 T2 s c p T0 1 c p T0 1

T0
1
1
T2 s p0
Isentropic process:
T0 p2 s
cp cp
Specific heat ratio: and R c p cv 1.3
cv cp R
kJ
hs 237.5
kg
Circumferential velocity u:
hs m
u 344.6
1 2 s
u
2
1.2
Axial velocity cax:
cax m
c ax 155.1
u s
~ :
Specific circumferential work wu
~

w u
~ 207.8 kJ
wu
1 2 kg
u
2
1.3
Velocity triangle of an axial inflow impulse turbine:
1
m
cax c2 c 2 155.1
s
au ucu
au m
with c u c1u c2u c1u c1u = = 603
u s
m
c1 cax c1u
2 2
c1 622.6
s
m
w22 cax2 u 2 w2 377.9 .
s
m
w1u c1u u w1u 258.4
s
m
w1 cax w1u
2 2
w1 301.4
s
1.4
Circumferential efficiency:
~
w
utt ~u
w s
with:
2 2
~ h c 0 c 2 h
w ( c0 c 2 )
s s 2 2 s
~
w
utt u
0.875
hs
Machine efficiency:
~
w
uts u
2
~ c2
w s
2
~ u2 kJ
with: wu 207.8
2 kg
2
~ u 237.5 kJ
w s
2 kg
uts 0.833
2
1.5
Kinematic degree of reaction:
wu
rk rk 0.125
u
m
with wu w2u w1u
1
wu 43.1
2 s
w 2u u
c1 w1 c2 w w2
u u
wu
w1
2. Exercise
2.1 Stage sketch: Stat. pressure- and absolute
velocity:
Annular
Nozzle
3
h,s diagram (general case):
h
p0t p0
h1t=konst.
0t p1t
c 02 1t
2

0 p1t,rel
p2t,rel
h1t,rel=konst.

p2t p
c12 3t
h h2t=konst. h
2
p3t,rel p4t,rel
w 22
hS hS w 12 2 h3t,rel=konst.
2 2
c 32 w 3 w 24
p4t
2 2 4t 2
c 22 c 24 p1=p2=p3=p4
2 2
h 0
4
h 0
3 h 0
2
1
s
In our case, the following simplifications can be made:

c42 c02

2 2
p1 p2 p3 p4
hs '' hs ''' hs '''' 0 .
4
Velocity triangles:

c1 c w2
c3 4 w4
w1 w3 c2

u u u u
2.2
Machine efficiency:
Definition of the cascade efficiencies:
c12 w22
' 2 and ' ' 2 .
c1s w2 s
w22
if p12 0 then: ''
w12
c32
'''
c32s
c32
if p23 0 then: ''' 2
c2
w42
''''
w42s
w42
if p34 0 then: '''' 2
w3
~
w
utt u
2
~ c4
w s
2
2 2
~ h c 0 c 4
wu
2 2
~ c 02 c 42
ws hs
2 2
c12 c02 w12 w22 c22 c32 w32 w42
h
2 2 2 2
c c0 w2 w1 c3 c2 w4 w32
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
2 2 2 2
c12s c02 w22s w12 c32s c22 w42s w32
hs hs ' hs ' 'hs ' ' ' hs ' ' ' '
2 2 2 2
hs ' ' hs ' ' ' hs ' ' ' ' 0
5
as p12 0 , p23 0 and p34 0
c12s c02
hs hs '
2
c12 w22 w12 c32 c22 w42 w32 c42
uts (1)
c12s
The solution is: uts f c1 , u,1 , the velocities are replaced step by step
with the assumption: ' '' ''' ''''
a) c4, w4:
Scalar product: c42 w42 u 2 2 u w4 cos 4 (2)
w42 w42

w42s w32
w42 w32 (3)
3 4 (4)
with (3) and (4) in (2) then:
c42 w32 u 2 2 u w3 cos 3 (6)
For the circumferential components:
u c3u w3u
with c3u c3 cos 3 and w3u w3 cos 3
w3 cos 3 c3 cos 3 u (7)

with (7) in (6) then:
c42 w32 u 2 2 u c3 cos 3 u (8)
with (8) in (1) then:
c12 w22 w12 c32 c22 w32 u 2 2 u c3 cos 3 u
uts
c12s
b) c3, w3:
Scalar product: w32 c32 u 2 2 u c3 cos 3
c32 c32

c32s c22
c32 c22
3 2
6
c 2 cos 2 w2 cos 2 u
w32 c32 u 2 2 u c2 cos 2
c32 u 2 2 u w2 cos 2 u
uts

c12 w22 w12 c22 2 u 2 2 u w2 cos 2 1 2 u 2 2
c12s
c) c2, w2:
Scalar product: c22 w22 u 2 2 u w2 cos 2
w22 w22
2 2
w2 s w1
with u c1u w1u , c1u c1 cos1 and w1u w1 cos 1 then:
w1 cos 1 c1 cos 1 u .
uts

c12 w12 3 u 2 2 u c1 cos 1 1 2 u 2
c12s
d) c1s, w1:
Scalar product: w12 c12 u 2 2 u c1 cos1
c12

c12s
uts 2 1 cu 1 cos 1
u
u
1
1 c1 c1
2.3
Velocity ratio u/c1 (at maximal machine efficiency):
uts
0
u / c1
uts
u / c1

u u
2 1 1 cos 1 2 2 1
c1 c1
1 cos1 2 u 1 1 0
c1
u

1 cos 1
c1
uts ,opt
2 2
7
2.4
Circumferential velocity and machine efficiency:
u

1 cos 1
c1
uts ,opt
2 2
1
u

2 2 c cos
1 1
u 0,245 c1 cos 1
1
c12s c02 T
with hs' c p T0 T1s c p T0 1 1s c p T0 1

2 2 T0
kJ
hs' 313.8
kg
c1s 2 hs' c 02
m
c1s 806.2
s
c1 c1s
m
c1 743,3
s
c0 cax (see tutorial assumptions)
cax
1 arcsin
c1
1 11.6
m
u 178.4
s
uts 71.1%
Remark:
With 4 the pressure is above the critical pressure ratio for steam ( crit. 1.8 for
steam). That is the reason why the first stage must have a transonic design in order to
avoid the choking of the turbine.
8
Exercise 1
1.1
From the Momentum equation in radial direction, the following relation can be derived (see
page 99 in the script):
1 p cu2
(1)
r r
Energy conservation:
dht dh dc dc
c ax ax cu u . (2)
dr dr dr dr
Second law of thermodynamics for isentropic flow:
dp
dh T ds 0 (3)

From (1), (2), and (3) for constant total enthalpy along blade span:
cu2 r c r c r
c ax r ax cu r u 0
r r r
(For an extended derivation, see the script, page 99)
1. Design criterion: c ax r const.
cax r cu2 r c r
0 cu r u 0
r r r
cu r cu r r cu r
0
r r r cu r
Integrate: ln cu r ln r ln C
ln(cu (r ) r ) ln C cu (r ) r C const.

2. Design criterion: r const. 0
r
c ax r
tan const.
cu r
c ax r cu r tan
cu2 r c r c r
cu r tan 2 u cu r u 0
r r r
cu2 r c r
r

cu r u tan 2 1 0
r
cu2 r cu r cu r
0
r r cos 2
cu r r
cos 2
cu r r
1
Integrate: ln cu r cos 2 ln r ln C

ln cu r r cos
2

ln C cu r r cos
2

C konst.
cax r r cos
2
C ' konst.
For the manufacturing, the second design criterion is favourable, since for this design only
the rotor blades need to be twisted.
1.2
Velocity triangle:
1.) Mid span:
m
u1 u 2 u Dm n u 339.3
s
For the mid span u, 0 , 1 , 2 , 1 and 2 are given.
1 2

c1 1 2 c2
w2

w1

u u
Calculation of cax :
cax c c ax c ax
With: tan 1 , tan 1 ax w1u , tan 1
u w1u w1u tan 1 c
u ax
tan 1
tan 1 m
c ax u c ax 271.1
tan 1 s
1
tan 1
c ax m
c1 c1 517.4
sin 1 s
c ax m
w1 w1 289.4
sin 1 s
c ax m
c2 c 2 275.3
sin 2 s
c ax m
w2 w2 472.6
sin 2 s
2
2.) Hub (H):

Dm L1 m
u1, H 2 n u1, H 291.4
2 s
D m L 2 m
u 2, H 2 n u 2, H 278.8
2 s
Design criterion: r const.
c ax r r cos
const.
2
cos 2 1 cos 2 1
D L1 D
c ax ,1, H m c ax m
2 2
cos 2 1
Dm m
c ax ,1, H c ax c ax ,1, H 302.8
D m L1 s
cos 2 2 cos 2 2
D L2 D
c ax , 2, H m c ax m
2 2
cos 2 2
Dm m
c ax , 2, H c ax c ax , 2, H 272.7
Dm L2 s
c ax ,1, H m
c1, H c1, H 577.8
sin 1 s
m
w1, H c12, H u12, H 2 c1, H u1, H cos 1 w1, H 363.2
s
c ax , 2, H m
c 2, H c 2, H 276.9
sin 2 s
m
w2, H c 22, H u 22, H 2 c 2, H u 2, H cos 2 w2, H 425.7
s
c ax ,1, H
1, H arcsin 1, H 56.5
w1, H
c ax , 2, H
2, H arcsin 2, H 39.8
w2 , H
1 1 2
2 c2
w2
c1
w1

u2
u1 = Mid span
= Hub
3
3.) Tip (T):

Dm L1 m
u1,T 2 n u1,T 387.2
2 s
D m L 2 m
u 2,T 2 n u 2,T 399.8
2 s
Design criterion: r const.
c ax r r cos
const.
2
cos 2 1 cos 2 1
D L1 D
c ax ,1,T m c ax m
2 2
cos 2 1
Dm m
c ax ,1,T c ax c ax ,1,T 246.3
Dm L1 s
cos 2 2 cos 2 2
D L2 D
c ax , 2,T m c ax m
2 2
cos 2 2
Dm m
c ax , 2,T c ax c ax , 2,T 269.8
D m L2 s
c ax ,1,T m
c1,T c1,T 470.1
sin 1 s
m
w1,T c12,T u12,T 2 c1,T u1,T cos 1 w1,T 246.7
s
c ax , 2,T m
c 2,T c 2,T 273.9
sin 2 s
m
w2,T c 22,T u 22,T 2 c 2,T u 2,T cos 2 w2,T 522.4
s
c ax ,1,T
1,T arcsin 1,T 86.9
w1,T
c ax , 2,T
2,T arcsin 2,T 31.1
w2,T
2 2
1
c1 1 w1 w2

u1 c2
u2
= Mid span
= Tip
4
1.3
Blade profiles:
c0

c1 w1
Schaufelspitze
Tip (G)
Mid span
Mittelschnitt
Hub
Schaufelfu (N)
1.4
Degree of reaction:
hs''
r
hs' hs''
c12 c 22 w22 w12 u 21 u 22

hs' , hs''
2 2
w22 w12 u12 u 22

r
c12 c02 w22 w12 u12 u 22
With: c0 cax
w22, H w12, H u12, H u 22, H

Hub: rH rH 0.18
c12, H c ax
2
w22, H w12, H u12, H u 22, H
w22 w12 u12 u 22

Mid span: rm rm 0.42
c12 c ax
2
w22 w12 u12 u 22
w22,T w12,T u12,T u 22,T

Tip: rT rT 0.58
c12,T c ax
2
w22,T w12,T u12,T u 22,T
5
1.5
For design criterion 1 the following applies:
u
c ax const. and cu r cu const.

1 1
c1u , c 2u ~ ~
r u
This results in the following velocity triangles:
Mid span (unchanged):
1 2

c1 1 2 c2
w2

w1

u u
Hub:
1 1 2

c1 2 c w2
2
w1

u1 = Mid span
u2
Tip:
1 2 w 2
w2
1
1
c1
c2

u1
u2
= Mid span
Comparison of both design criteria:
Design 1 ( c ax const. ) Design 2 ( const. )
With increasing radius

Axial velocity cax constant (definition) decreases
Deviation in the stator decreases constant (definition)

Deviation in the rotor decreases strongly decreases
6
At very small hub-to-tip ratios the difference in circumferential velocity increases severely
between the hub and tip of the blade. Since the axial velocity decreases along the blade
for design criterion 2 ( const. ), the curvature of the rotor blades can vanish or even be
inversed (negative curvature).
For both design criteria supersonic velocities can occur at the hub and/or tip of the blade,
depending on the application. The resulting shockwaves lead to losses and should be in-
corporated during the blade design process.

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Thermal Turbo Machines I, WS12/13 Solution Tutorial 1

Conservation laws of fluid mechanics in integral form

Apply conservation of momentum of the CV:

Apply conservation of mass

Fret , x = A jet (c jet u ) (cos 1) = Fblade , x

Fblade , x = A jet (c jet u ) (1 cos )

Pblade = u Fblade , x = A jet u (c jet u ) (1 cos )

Fblade, x = A jet (c jet u ) (1 cos )

Fblade, x,max = Fblade, x (u = 0) = A jet c 2jet (1 cos )

Fblade , x ,min = Fblade , x (u = c jet ) = 0

Fblade , x ,max (u = 0 ) c 2jet 9

First law of thermodynamics:

Without heat transfer (= adiabatic) !#  0

& !  !, (1)

Gas law (with specific state variables):

, ;  6789:79(= isentropic process)

Resulting temperature increase due to the adiabatic compression:

Using the ideal gas law:

with: ,  0,1 0,43 0,5EF

First law of thermodynamics:

Mass of the surrounding air:

Pressure change due to the expansion: , ;  6789:79 (= isentropic process)

Dissipated heat after compression from Exercise 2.2:

Reintroduced heat after expansion:

Characteristics of the T-s diagram

1. Law of thermodynamics: !"  L# $ L%

Definition of entropy: L#  !b

Work of compression: L%  !

!"  !b  ! (absolute)

!  !8  !, (mass specific)

Ideal gas: !  & !

!8  & ! $ !,

For !,  0 (isochoric process)

Gradient of the isochoric line increases with

Fret ,ax = c12 sin 2 1 A1 + c 22 sin 2 2 A2 + p 2 A2 p1 A1

with A2 = A1 and Eq. (2):

with c1 sin 1 = c 2 sin 2 = c ax = const (see Eq. (1))

Tangential components of Eq. (3):

Fret ,u = c12 sin 1 cos 1 A1 c 22 sin 2 cos 2 A2

with: K * : total costs in /(kWa)

K A* : Fixed costs in /(kWa)

K B* : Variable costs in /(kWa)

2.1 Specific over all costs

2.2 Optimal operating time (read from the diagram above)

2.3 Annual electricity consumption

It follows from the diagram:

PCC 450MW - Intermediate load

PGas 150MW - Peak load

parallel upward shift of the line

2. Increase of fuel costs

Increase in the slope of the line

Read from the T-s diagram for water:

m& St ,real qin ,real kg t

According to Exercise 1.1, 1.2 and 1.5

T,s- diagram for water: simple Rankine Cycle

Electrical power output:

Pel* = 433,9MW < Pel = 460MW

1.4 Block diagram of the Rankine Cycle with reheating:

Thermal efficiency with reheating:

Electrical power output with reheating:

Read from the T,s- diagram:

Thermal efficiency (with h3a , h4 , h5 and h6 s from Exercise 1.5):

Pel m& [(h3a h4 ) + (h5 h5O )] + (m& St m& O ) (h5O h6 s )

th ,O = 49.25% > th ,reheat = 46.8%

Without heat transfer (= adiabatic) !# 0

& ! !, (1)

, ; 6789:79(= isentropic process)

with: , 0,1 0,43 0,5EF

Pressure change due to the expansion: , ; 6789:79 (= isentropic process)

1. Law of thermodynamics: !" L# $ L%

Definition of entropy: L# !b

Work of compression: L% !

!" !b ! (absolute)

! !8 !, (mass specific)

Ideal gas: ! & !

!8 & ! $ !,

For !, 0 (isochoric process)