Chapter Two

Data Communications

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 2.1 What is communication
Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another.
Although this is a simple definition, when we think about how we may communicate the
subject becomes a lot more complex.
There are various categories of communication and more than one may occur at any time.
The different categories of communication are:
Spoken or verbal communication:
face-to-face, telephone, radio or television or other media.
Non-verbal communication:
body language, gestures, how we dress or act even our scent.
Written communication
letters, e-mails, books, magazines, the Internet or via other media.
Visualizations:
graphs, charts, maps, logos and other visualizations can communicate messages.

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Communication theory states that communication involves a sender and a
receiver (or receivers) conveying information through a communication channel.
The desired outcome or goal of any communication process is
understanding.
The process of interpersonal communication cannot be regarded as a
phenomena which simply 'happens', but should be seen as a process which
involves participants negotiating their role in this process, whether consciously
or unconsciously.
In face-to-face communication the roles of the sender and receiver are not
distinct as both parties communicate with each other, even if in very subtle ways
such as through eye-contact (or lack of) and general body language.
There are many other obvious ways that we communicate (perhaps even
unintentionally) with others, for example the tone of our voice can give clues to
our mood or emotional state, whilst hand signals or gestures can add to a
spoken message.
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Data Communication
Communication is the act of conveying meaningful
information
Requires a Sender, a Message, and an intended Recipient
Establishing the Rules
Communication is successful when the intended
message has been received & confirmed

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The platform for communication
Elements of communication
3 common elements of communication
Message source
The channel
Message destination

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The platform for communication
Communicating the message
Data is sent across a network in small chunks called
segments, it advantages are:
Multiplexing
Reliability

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Data Transmission
Data Transmission
is the physical transfer of data (a digital bit stream) over a
point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication
channel.
is a method by which computer networks send electrical
signals.
Transmission is characterized by:
Direction of data exchange
Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex connections
Transmission Mode: the number of bits sent simultaneously
Serial and parallel transmission
Synchronization between the transmitter and receiver
Synchronous and asynchronous transmission
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 Data Transmission
Transmission modes according to direction of exchange
Simplex

data flows in only in one direction

from the transmitter to the receiver

E.g. from the computer to the printer

half-duplex(semi-duplex)

data flows in one direction or the other,

but not both at the same time

full-duplex

data flow in both directions simultaneously

bandwidth is divided in two for each direction

if the same transmission medium is used for both directions

Figure 2.1 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
Data Transmission
Transmission modes based on number of bits sent simultaneously

Parallel connection
simultaneous transmission of N bits

These bits are sent simultaneously over N different channels

The type of transmission mode most computers use is parallel

connection
Serial connection
the data are sent one bit at a time
 Data Transmission
Transmission modes based synchronization
are ways of tackling problem in synchronization

what problem

problems that arise with a parallel-type connection, serial connections are

normally used
receiver can not necessarily distinguish the character or bit sequences

because the bits are sent one after the other in serial connection
Asynchronous connection
works in spurts and must insert a start bit before each data character and a stop bit

at its termination to inform the receiver where it begins and ends.

Most network protocols (such as Ethernet, SONET, Token Ring) use synchronous

transmission whereas asynchronous transmission is used commonly for

communications over telephone lines.
Synchronous connection
Data transfer method in which a continuous stream of data signals is accompanied

by timing signals (generated by an electronic clock) to ensure that the transmitter

and the receiver are in step (synchronized) with one another.
The data is sent in blocks (called frames or packets) spaced by fixed time intervals.
 Data Transmission
Analog and Digital Transmission
Data can be analog or digital
digital..
The term analog data refers to information that is continuouscontinuous;;
digital data refers to information that has discrete states
states..
Analog data take on continuous values
values..
Digital data take on discrete values
values..
Signals can be analog or digital.
Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range;
digital signals can have only a limited number of values.
Comparison of analog and digital signals
 Data Transmission
Analog transmission
Analogue data transmission consists of sending information over a physical
transmission medium in the form of a wave.
Its a wave to transport data by modification of one of its characteristics
(amplitude, frequency or phase)
Three types of analogue transmission are defined depending on which parameter

of the carrier wave is being varied:

Transmission by amplitude modulation of the carrier wave
Transmission by frequency modulation of the carrier wave
Transmission by phase modulation of the carrier wave

The process of impressing low-frequency information to be transmitted on to a

high-frequency wave, called the carrier wave, by changing the characteristics of

either its amplitude, frequency, or phase angle is called modulation.
Transmission by amplitude modulation of the carrier wave
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to
create signal elements.
Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes.
Transmission by frequency modulation of the carrier wave
In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to
represent data .
The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the duration of one
signal element, but changes for the next signal element if the data element
changes.
Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal elements.
Transmission by phase modulation of the carrier wave
In phase modulation, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more
different signal elements.
Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the phase changes.
Today, phase modulation is more common than frequency and amplitude
modulation.
 Data Transmission
Digital Transmission
Sending of information over a physical communications media in the form of
digital signals
As digital information cannot be sent directly in the form of 0s and 1s, it must

be encoded in the form of a signal with two states

Example:

two voltage levels with respect to earth

the difference in voltage between two wires

the presence/absence of current in a wire

the presence/absence of light etc

Data Transmission
Signal Encoding
Signal must be encoded to facilitate its transmission on the physical

medium.
Encoding systems for this purpose divided into two:

Two-level encoding: the signal can only take on a strictly negative

or strictly positive value (-X or +X, where X represents a value of

the physical quantity being used to transport the signal)
Three-level encoding: the signal can take on a strictly negative, null

or strictly positive value (-X, 0 or +X)

Encoding System examples

NRZ Encoding

NRZI Encoding

Manchester Encoding
NRZ Encoding
Non return to zero encoding is the simplest digital signal representing a
bit sequence by using just two voltage levels and represent a 1 by higher
voltage level and 0 by lower voltage level.
NRZI Encoding
Non return to zero inverted is another simple encoding method, which
change level for 1 bit and stays at the same for zero bit.
Manchester Encoding
In Manchester encoding 0 and 1 bit are represented in a clock cycle by the
figure shown below

Example use of Manchester encoding

Components of the network
Network Components
Hardware
Software
 Components of the network
Network infrastructure is the platform that supports the human network.
Provides the stable and reliable channel over which communications
can occur
As a component Data Network consists Devices, Media & Services
Devices and media are the physical elements or hardware of the
network
Services and processes are the communication programs, called
software, that run on the networked devices
Service provides information in response to a request
network applications like e-mail hosting services and web hosting
services
Processes provide the functionality that directs and moves the messages
through the network
Components of the network
End Devices and their Role in the Network
End devices form interface with human network & communications
network
Example of end devices
Role of end devices:
end devices are referred to as hosts, and can act as:
Client
Server
Both client and server
Components of the network
End Devices and their Role in the Network
Example of end devices
Computers (work stations, laptops, file servers, web servers)
Network printers
VoIP phones
Security cameras
Mobile handheld devices (wireless barcode scanners, PDAs)
Software installed on the host determines which role it plays
Servers are hosts that have software installed that enables them to provide
information and services, like e-mail or web pages, to other hosts on the
network.
Clients are hosts that have software installed that enables them to request
and display the information obtained from the server.
Components of the network
Intermediary device & their role
Provides connectivity and ensures data flows across network
Networks rely on intermediary devices to provide connectivity
 Components of the network
Intermediary device & their role
Example of intermediary devices:
Network Access Devices (Hubs, switches, and wireless access points)
Internetworking Devices (Routers)
Communication Servers and Modems
Security Devices (firewalls, IDS(Intrusion Detection System),
IPS(Intrusion Prevention Systems))
Functions
Regenerate and retransmit data signals

Maintain information about what pathways exist

Notify other devices of errors and communication failures

Direct data along alternate pathways when there is a link failure

Classify and direct messages according to QoS priorities

Permit or deny the flow of data, based on security settings

Transmission media
Transmission media is a medium through which data can be transmitted
over long distance .
The speed or rate at which data is transmitted over a communication
channel is denoted by a parameter called bandwidth.
Transmission media having higher bandwidth are used now-a-days for
better performance.
Classes of Transmission Media
Conducted or guided media
use a conductor such as a wire or a fiber optic cable to move the
signal from sender to receiver
Wireless or unguided media
use radio waves of different frequencies and do not need a wire or
cable conductor to transmit signals

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 Guided Transmission Media

Data transmission is through solid medium (wired system). Different

types of cables are used to connect devices
Commonly used cable types are:
Twisted pair
Coaxial cable
Optical fiber

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 Twisted pair
Twisted-pair cable is a type of cabling that is used for telephone
communications and most modern Ethernet networks.
A pair of wires forms a circuit that can transmit data.
The pairs are twisted to provide protection against crosstalk, the noise
generated by adjacent pairs

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Twisted pair cable UTP

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 Contd
Two basic types of twisted-pair cable exist:
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
shielded twisted-pair (STP)

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 Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable
Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable is a
common networking media. It consists of four
pairs of thin, copper wires covered in color-
coded plastic insulation that are twisted
together
The connector used on a UTP cable is called a
registered jack 45 (RJ-45) connector.

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UTP cable

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Advantage of UTP
It has a small diameter and does not require
grounding
the easiest type of cable to install
least expensive type of networking media
the connector is the easiest to build
Disadvantage of UTP
more susceptible to electrical noise its
maximum run length is less than that allowed
for coaxial and ber-optic cables.

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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

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 Crimping UTP Cable
Common Ethernet network cable are straight
and crossover cable.
This Ethernet network cable is made of 4 pair
high performance cable that consists twisted
pair conductors that used for data
transmission.
Both end of cable is called RJ45 connector.

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 The cable can be categorized as Cat 5, Cat 5e, Cat 6
UTP cable.
Cat 5 UTP cable can support 10/100 Mbps Ethernet
network, whereas Cat 5e and Cat 6 UTP cable can
support Ethernet network running at 10/100/1000
Mbps.
Straight and crossover cable can be Cat 5, Cat 5e or
Cat 6 UTP cable, the only difference is each type will
have different wire arrangement in the cable for
serving different purposes.

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 Straight Cable
You usually use straight cable to connect different type of
devices. This type of cable will be used most of the time and
can be used to:
1. Connect a computer to a switch/hub's normal port.
2. Connect a computer to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.
3. Connect a router's WAN port to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.
4. Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's uplink port. (normally
used for expanding network)
5. Connect 2 switches/hubs with one of the switch/hub using an uplink
port and the other one using normal port.
Straight cable crimping : Both side (side A
and side B) of cable have wire arrangement
with same color.

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Straight Cabling standard

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 Crossover Cable
Sometimes you will use crossover cable, it's usually used to
connect same type of devices. A crossover cable can be used
to:
1) Connect 2 computers directly.
2) Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's normal port.
(normally used for expanding network)
3) Connect 2 switches/hubs by using normal port in both
switches/hubs.
In you need to check how crossover cable looks like, both side
(side A and side B) of cable have wire arrangement with
following different color .

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 Crossover cabling
Pin ID Side A Side B
1 White Orange White Green

2 Orange Green

3 White Green White Orange

4 Blue Blue

5 White blue White Blue

6 Green Orange

7 White Brown White Brown

8 Brown Brown

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 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable contains four pairs of thin,
copper wires covered in color-coded plastic insulation that
are twisted together.
A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio
and electrical frequency interference which will create noise .
Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with
electrical interference; however, the extra shielding can make
the cables quite bulky.
Shielded twisted pair is often used on networks using Token
Ring topology.
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Shielded twisted pair cable

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 Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable consists of four main parts:
Copper conductor
Plastic insulation
Braided copper shielding
Outer jacket
At the center of the cable is a solid copper
conductor. Surrounding that conductor is a
layer of exible plastic insulation.

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 Contd
A plastic layer provides insulation between the
center conductor and a braided metal shield
The metal shield helps to block any outside
interference from fluorescent lights, motors,
and other computers.
The connector used on coaxial cable is called a
BNC, short for British Naval Connector or
Bayonet Neill Concelman, connector.
more expensive than UTP but less expensive
than ber-optic cable.

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Coaxial Cable

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 Coaxial Cable(contd)
Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is
highly resistant to signal interference. In addition, it
can support greater cable lengths between network
devices than twisted pair cable.
The two types of coaxial cables
1.Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet.
10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals.
The 2 refers to the approximate maximum
segment length being 200 meters.
In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185
meters. Thin coaxial cable is popular in school
networks, especially linear bus networks.
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 Coaxial Cable(contd)
2.Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet.
10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals.
The 5 refers to the maximum segment length
being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has an
extra protective plastic cover that helps keep
moisture away from the center conductor.
This makes thick coaxial a great choice when
running longer lengths in a linear bus network.
One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it
does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

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 Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core
surrounded by several layers of protective materials .

Individual fiber
jacket Cladding

Optical fiber

Shelath
Reinforcing material
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 Fiber Optic Cable(contd)
It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the
problem of electrical interference.
It has also made it the standard for connecting networks
between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of
moisture and lighting.
Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much
longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair.
It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater
speeds.
This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include
services such as video conferencing and interactive services.
The cost of fiber optic cabling is a little bit higher; and, it is
more difficult to install and modify.

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Facts about fiber optic cables:
Outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or
PVC.
Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and
prevent breakage.
A plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber
center.
Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.

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 Fiber Optic Connector

The most common connector used with fiber

optic cable is an ST connector. It is barrel
shaped, similar to a BNC connector. A newer
connector, the SC, is becoming more popular.
It has a squared face and is easier to connect
in a confined space.

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 Installing Cable - Some Guidelines

Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty

of cable.
Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it
is brand new, it may have problems that will be
difficult to isolate later.
Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes
and other sources of electrical interference.
If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover
the cable with cable protectors.
Label both ends of each cable.
Use cable ties to keep cables in the same location
together.

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 Wireless (Unguided Media) Transmission

Transmission and reception are achieved by means of

an antenna
directional
transmitting antenna puts out focused beam
transmitter and receiver must be aligned
omnidirectional
signal spreads out in all directions
can be received by many antennas

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 Wireless transmission media types

We can divide wireless transmission into

three broad groups:
radio waves
microwaves
infrared waves

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 Radio Waves
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies
between 3 kHz and 1 GHz
Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send
out signals in all directions.
Radio waves can travel long distances. This makes
radio waves a good candidate for long-distance
broadcasting such as AM radio.
One sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio,
television, maritime and radios are examples of
multicasting

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 Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between
1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
Microwaves are unidirectional
Two types of antennas are used for microwave
communications: the parabolic dish and the horn
Microwaves are very useful when unicast (one-to-
one) communication is needed between the sender
and the receiver. They are used in cellular phones,
satellite networks, and wireless LANs

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 Infrared
Can be used for short-range communication
Remote controls for TVs, VCRs, and stereos
Indoor wireless LANs
Do not pass through solid walls
Better security and no interference (with
a similar system in adjacent rooms)
Cannot be used outdoors (due to the
sunshine)

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Components of the network
Types of Wireless Networks (as stated by IEEE standards) are:
Standard IEEE 802.11
Wi-Fi, is a Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology that uses a
contention or non-deterministic system with a (CSMA/CA) media
access process
Standard IEEE 802.15
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) standard, commonly
known as "Bluetooth", uses a device pairing process to
communicate over distances from 1 to 100 meters.
Standard IEEE 802.16
Commonly known as WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access), uses a point-to-multipoint topology to
provide wireless broadband access.
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
Commonly known as WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access), uses a point-to-multipoint topology to
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provide wireless broadband access.
 Criteria for choosing a network media:
The distance the media can successfully carry a signal
The environment in which the media is to be installed
The amount of data and the speed at which it must be
transmitted
The cost of the media and installation

The signal encoding for each media type:

Metallic wires
electrical impulses
Fiber optic
pulses of light, either infrared or visible light ranges.
Wireless transmission
electromagnetic waves

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