Cost-effectiveness in Textile Processing

We have a huge potential to dominate the Global Textile Market. We have a strong tradition of
textiles & vastly talented persons in the trade. Textile industry has to strive & put in some real
work towards fulfilling such expectations. Hence wet processing in future should be cost
effective, environmentally friendly & gentle to textile material. Innovative efficient strategies to
achieve these goals are needed. Here, various such innovative techniques like Right first time
dyeing, super critical CO2 dyeing, foam finishing & various measures of energy & water
conservation that makes Textile Processing eco-friendly & cost effective in future.
Introduction:
Steps are to be taken at various stages of wet processing of textiles to ensure quality of products,
particularly in decentralized sector. A few important guidelines for various cost-saving measures
by process modifications & adopting new concepts based on modern technological changes are
also given. Special importance of using eco-friendly dyes & chemicals is also highlighted in view
of latest ban on export of textiles using such dyes.
Energy & Water Conservation:
Conservation is derived from the Latin words “con” (together) & “servare” (guard). In every
country, the growing needs of energy in various fields of activities have led to necessity of finding
out ways & means to avoid wastage & conserve energy. Water is expensive to buy, treat, &
dispose. Textile industries are consuming large quantity of water. Major portion of water is used
for wet processing of textile (60-70%). Keeping this in mind there is acute need of energy & water
conservation programmed to implement as earlier as possible.
Energy Conservation:
Energy is one of the most important ingredients in any industrial activity. However, its
availability is not infinite. Global energy crisis, as well as high cost of fuels resulted in more
activities to conserve energy to maximum extent. Textile industry retains a record of the lowest
efficiency in energy utilization & is one of the major energy consuming industries. About 34% of
energy is consumed in spinning, 23% in weaving, 38% in chemical wet processing & another 5%
for miscellaneous purposes. Power dominates consumption pattern in spinning & weaving, while
thermal energy is major for chemical wet processing.

Preventive energy conservation-finding-energy losses and solutions

of them
Following are the major sources from where energy is lost in various forms:
Energy loss through hot vapours and hot water discharge
A large amount of thermal energy, either in the form of hot exhaust gases or hot vapours is ejected
into the atmosphere or down the drain as waste from various processing machinery in the textile
mills. The recovery of such waste for reuse is estimated to affect 5-7% saving in the cost. For
example:
Flue gases in plain & thermic fluid boilers
Liquor, water & their vapours in the kiers, agers, jiggers, jet dyeing & beam dyeing
machines.
Exhaust gases from the stenters.

Major sources of hot wastewater discharge are desizing washes, scouring, mercerization, dying &
steam condensate wastage. Most of wastewater streams are discharged at temperature of 60-70oC.
Heat energy can be recovered from hot wastewater streams originating from different processes by
installing heat exchanger between wastewater & fresh water to be used for different process.
Capacity of heat exchanger will vary with the discharge of the machine. Temperature rose of cold
water would be in the range 40-50oC. This measure will reduce steam consumption for heating the
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 Cost-effectiveness in Textile Processing
baths. Different types of heat exchangers are available & its choice depends on number of factors.
Steam condensate discharges are hot & clean water streams. These streams can be used as boiler
feed water or for preparation of dye baths. These options not only reduce water consumption &
wastewater quantities, but also results into substantial energy savings
Energy loss through leakages & improper maintenance:
In most of textile industries it was found that there are number of pipelines & equipment from
where steam, steam condensate & hot water are lost through leakages. It is difficult to assess the
quality of leakages but obvious that leakage of hot water & steam results in substantial energy loss.
Generally, condition of piping & insulation is not up to standard due to fact that preventive
maintenance is not being given due consideration. One of the reasons for this negligence may be
due to production load in which machine shut down for repair is difficult. Steam usage is generally
not optimum, reasons for excess usage & wastage of steam are the unnecessary supply of steam to
the bath even after attaining required temperature. Steam traps are generally malfunctioning,
resulting into escape of steam along with steam condensate. At most of the places, out of order
steam traps are disconnected, rather being repaired or replaced. Corroded pipes & valves, as a
result of improper maintenance, also contribute in steam & hot water loss. Steam control valves are
generally not found in the machines & old machines are not equipped with energy controllers.
Preventive maintenance should be given due consideration. Routine maintenance schedule should
be maintained & followed properly. Workers should be aware of the fact that substantial money is
lost through leakages & improper maintenance practices.
Energy loss through lack of insulation on pipelines and machines:
Most of steam, steam condensate & hot water carrying pipelines are not equipped with proper
insulation. Insulation found to be eroded at various places because of improper maintenance &
upkeep. Machines conducting reactions, washing & drying at hot states especially desizing,
bleaching, jiggers & dryers are mostly not insulated, that cause heat dissipation to ambient air.
Quantity of heat dissipation is function of temperature difference between inside hot machine &
outside cold air & surface area of machine. However, proper insulation provides resistance to
convectional heat transfer with advantage of less steam & fuel consumption in heating contents up
to required temperature.
A saving of the order of 5-10% of energy consumed for steam production can result from this
measure. Further this measure will improve the occupational atmosphere, especially during hot
weather, & also increase the safety of workers, due to covering of the otherwise hot surfaces.
Energy loss through flue gases & hot air:
Boiler flue gases contain substantial heat energy. This energy can be utilized to preheat the
boiler feed water through economizer but at present in most of the industries it is not being
utilized. Some industries installed economizer but could not last, may be because of improper
material of construction or faulty design. Hot air, from different dryers, is also wasted.
Thermal energy, present in boiler off-gas stream, can be used to preheat the boiler feed water.
Savings in boiler fuel consumption can amount to about 5%. Economizer can be boiler stack in
which hot flue gases will preheat boiler feed water.
Energy loss through singeing machine:
Singeing operation is employed to destroy singes & tufts on surface of fabric, by its direct exposure
to the flame, for a very short time. Fabrics of varying widths are processed in textile industry.
Generally a single multiple port full-width burner is provided in singeing machine, which results
into unnecessary wastage of energy, when fabric of width shorter than that of singeing flame is
being processed.

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Arrangement required would be replacement of single full width burner with a series of burners
of shorter widths placed in one row, each with separate fuel gas supply. The number of burners
to be fired, during singeing operation, would be according to the width of fabric.
Use of non-conventional energy sources
Different alternative renewable resources of energy are biomass, geothermal energy, tidal
energy, wind energy & solar energy. Out of these energy sources, solar energy is abundant & is
inexhaustible, in fact, fossil fuel, viz. coal, oil, & natural gas owe to their origin to these energy
sources. Bangladesh’s geographical location favors unlimited & uninterrupted trapping of solar
energy & it is desirable energy available in environment.
The plants serve as the most abundant renewable raw material in nature for production of bio
gas, as they are rich in carbohydrates. Gas can be produced & consumed at production place &
hence cost of transportation of raw material & gaseous product is eliminated. Technology is
simple & easy to operate, with virtually very little maintenance cost. There will not be any
problem of air pollution. In short, nothing is wasted & there is no effluent.
Steam generation & its effective distribution:
Steam has become the first source of heat in dye house. The only way to absorb all heat from the
steam is to inject source of heat in dye bath. Heat exchangers of coil, tube or plate type, suitably
closed by a steam trap to permit drainage of condensed steam, are now a day installed in a
machine itself. Most of energy goes for generation of steam & production of power. The efficiency
of conversation of fuel into steam is of the order of 75% & that of electricity about 30%.
Steam generated from boiler has to be distributed through proper insulated pipelines wherever
required. The losses due to leakage have to be ventilated properly to avoid condensing of steam
on the roofs & the machines like jigger & winches may also be covered with covers.
Drying:
Drying is a thermal energy consuming process required at different stages in wet processing &
this operation is done by different techniques as below:
Cylinder drying can be made more effectively by use of steel cylinders & reducing water
contents by vacuum extraction.
Hot air stenter, if used by preventing fresh air leakage, running exhaust only when
necessary, keeping circulation of air effective & avoiding idle running can save energy.
Infrared & RF-drying are also effective due to their specific effects.
Microwaves are more energy efficient saving in both capital & operating cost. Microwaves
affect polar molecules (such as water) & in a textile material substrate is generally non
polar, hence water is evaporated without affecting substrate by IMS (Industrial
Microwave System).

Process Modification:
Bleaching & Finishing:
Combined preparatory processes save time as well as energy.
If fabric is pretreated by subjecting grey one to steam purging operation, wettability
improves, which can be followed by single step desizing, scouring & bleaching.
Explore scope for wet-on-wet mercerizing & wet-on-wet finishing by using vacuum
extractor.
Run two or more ends either side-by-side or superimposed on machine like shearing,
cropping, sizing, chainless merceriser, cylinder drying rages & calendars, etc.
Combined drying & heat setting or optical brightening and heat setting
Dyeing & Finishing
Dyeing of blends in single bath

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 Cost-effectiveness in Textile Processing
Combined dyeing and finishing process
Solvent assisted dyeing, supercritical carbon dioxide as a medium of dyeing.
Ultrasonic & UV energy for dyeing
Cold pad bath operations wherever possible.
Eliminating intermediate drying operation between beam dyeing of polyester & jigger
dyeing of cellulose in blends.
Resort to drying cum curing of pigment prints
Energy Audit:
UK’s energy efficiency best practice program (EEBPP) show that energy cost can be reduced by
10% without any investments, simply by improving energy management practices. The first
logical step towards reducing energy cost is to understand how energy is consumed & then
comparing energy of specific site or process against some established industry norms,
One of most common approaches is to calculate quality of energy used to produce a unit of
product. This is known as specific energy consumption (SEC).
Toray Textiles Ltd. initiated a major energy management program along with activities like staff
motivation, capital investment program, training, good housekeeping & modern management
technique. Results of this program found very impressive as their annual energy consumption
reduced by 27%. Nearly half the saving were made through no cost or low cost good housekeeping
practices.
Water usage in textile industry:
Water is used extensively throughout processing operations. Almost all dyes, specialty chemicals, &
finishing chemicals are applied to textile substrates from water baths. In addition, most fabric
preparation steps, including desizing, scouring, bleaching, & mercerizing, use aqueous systems.
Water is used extensively throughout processing operations. Almost all dyes, specialty chemicals,
and finishing chemicals are applied to textile substrates from water baths. In addition, most fabric
preparation steps, including desizing, scouring, bleaching, & mercerizing, use aqueous systems.
Water consumption pattern in textile mills
Requirement for different purposes in a textile mill can be generalized as below:
Purpose Water Consumption%
Steam production 5
Cooling water 6
Dematerialized water for specific purposes 8
Wet process 72
Sanitary use 8
Fire fighting, etc 1

Water Conservation & Recycle:

Water is expensive to buy, treat & dispose & as it is becoming a scarce commodity, sustainable
developments of textile industry needs recycling of waste water generated & conservation of
water to reduce water requirements & also dependency on other water sources. As cost of water
supplied to industry keeps increasing, recycling becomes more important. Many textile
industries in water scarce areas are installing water recycle plants.
Reduction in waste water volume:
Proper water management in mills can achieve this of water used for various operations;
a large portion is consumed in wet processing. Water required for wet processing varies
from mill to mill & depends on water sources
Availability of water

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Quality & quantity of fabric processed
Processing sequence adopted
Number of washings in processing sequence
Type of processing machinery used
Techniques of conservation
Numerous methods have been developed to conserve water at textile mills. The sections below
discuss some of the techniques applicable to a wide variety of firms:
Counter-current washing
For both water & energy savings, counter-current washing is employed frequently on continuous
preparation & dye ranges. Clean water enters at final wash box & flows counter to the
movement of fabric through wash boxes. Thus, when fabric enters actual wash process, the most
contaminated wash water contacts it first, &, later, the cleanest water contacts the cleanest
fabric.
This method of water reuse is contrary to the traditional method of providing clean water at
every stage of the wash cycle. Water and energy savings are related to the number of boxes
provided with counter flow. Counter-current washing can be applied at desize washers, scour
washers, mercerizing washers, bleach washers, dye ranges, and print house soaper ranges.
Use of standing bath
Use of standing bath technique in H2O2 bleaching of cotton is done by replenishing the bath with
equivalent peroxide concentration & maintains pH. Level of replenishment of stabilizer was
varied up to 70% of initial value. Standing bath technique can also be employed for polyester &
nylon dye bath reuse.
Use of low material to liquor ratio systems
At least equipments have control thought to reduce liquor ratio whether in
bleaching/scouring/dyeing finishing etc & development in area continues.
Reuse of final rinse water from dyeing for dye bath make-up
Rinse water from final rinse in a batch dyeing operation is fairly clean & can be used directly for
further rinsing or to make up subsequent dye baths. Several woven fabric & carpet mills use this
rinse water for dye bath make-up
Reuse of soaping wastewater:
Coloured wastewater from soaping operation can be reused at back-grey washer, which does not
require water of a very high quality. Alternatively, wastewater can be used for cleaning floors &
equipment in print & color shop.
Reuse of scouring rinses for desizing:
Rinse water from scouring operation is adequate for reuse in other processes such as desizing
that do not require water of an extremely high quality. This reuse is particularly true with
scouring wastes from synthetic or cotton/synthetic blend fabrics. Scouring rinses may, in certain
cases, also be reused to wash floors & equipment.
Reuse of mercerizing or bleach wash water for scouring or desizing:
Mercerizing or bleaching rinse water can be used in scouring & desizing operations as long as
size recovery is not practiced. Generally, caustic or bleach stream degrades many size
compounds to an extent that they cannot be recovered.
Recycle/Reuse of water jet weaving wastewater:
Jet weaving wastewater can be reused within jet looms. Alternatively, it can be reused in the
desizing or scouring process, provided that fabric impurities & oils are removed by in-line filters.

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Use of automatic shut-off valves:
An automatic shut-off valve set to time, level, or temperature controls flow of water into a
process unit. One plant estimated that a reduction in water use of up to 20% could be achieved
with thermally controlled shut-off valves.
Use of flow control valves
A flow- or pressure-reduction valve can significantly reduce the quantity of water used in a wash
or clean-up step. These valves are particularly useful in cleaning areas where operators are not
always aware of the need for water conservation.
Waterless processing or solvent processing
The solvent most commonly preferred was perchloroethylene. This medium was used instead of
water in closed equipments, like a dry cleaning machine where solvent was later recovered by
suction formed the fabric or by hydro extraction. The solvent was reused again & again.
Use single stage of processing:
Particularly, in knitting industries yarns without any sizes are used for making fabric. Mostly
they use, carded yarns. Lot of cleaning has already taken place in yarn manufacturing stage.
For fabrics knitted of this type of combined bleaching/scouring & dyeing process can be adopted
to give considerable saving in water. Scouring & bleaching process takes place for 10-20mins &
without draining bath dyeing is carried out without any loss of depth of colour value of day. In
some cases finishing process also can be carried out along with dying process.
Low add on or foam finishing during the finishing of fabric
Low adds on or foam finishing can be accurately applied by padding mangles, which effectively
reduces excess use of water in finishing process.
Good housekeeping
A program of maintenance, inspection, & evaluation of production practices should be
established. Significant reductions in water use can be made by implementing following:
Ö Minimizing leaks & spills
Ö Maintaining production equipment properly
Ö Identifying unnecessary washing of both fabric & equipment, and
Ö Training employees on importance of water conservation
Capital & Operating Costs:
Equipment used in a water conservation program is relatively inexpensive, consisting, in most
cases, of valves, piping, small pumps, & tanks only. Operating costs for these systems are
generally very low. Routine maintenance &, in some cases, electricity for the pumps, would be
major cost components. In addition to these direct cost savings, a water conservation program
can reduce capital costs of any required end-of-pipe wastewater treatment system, which can
cost several thousands of dollars per gallon of flow per minute. Thus, a substantial reduction
in water flow can produce corresponding savings in treatment water costs.
Solid-on-Solid Processing of Textiles
Many textile manufacturing operations, such as yarn slashing, dyeing, printing, & finishing of
fabrics use wet processing techniques. These techniques involve using an aqueous solution or
bath to apply chemicals to a textile substrate, fixing chemicals to fiber, scouring or washing to
remove loose chemicals & drying to produce a finished fabric or garment. Heating & later
evaporating water make these wet processes very energy intensive. Industry experts estimate
that wet processes use approximately 60% of energy consumed in textile industry.
In addition, shrinking water supplies & increased competition from residential & other
industrial users in many parts of the country have prompted textile manufacturers to develop
methods that reduce water & energy consumption.
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 Cost-effectiveness in Textile Processing
These conservation methods reduce number of washings & dryings between processes & shorten
duration of those retained, lower process temperatures, & use solvents that dry more quickly.
Several R&D efforts have produced novel energy-conserving processes such as foam processing,
beck dyeing modifications, dye bath reuse, Mach nozzle fabric drying, closed-cycle textile dyeing,
ink & film applications, & air/vacuum extraction. Although many of these new processes have
been extremely successful in reducing energy consumption either by reducing amount of water
used or by substituting solvents or air, all still require some liquids. Theoretically, the most
energy-efficient processing methods will use waterless SOS techniques, which completely
eliminate energy-intensive drying step. With SOS processing, chemicals are applied directly to
textile substrate without using water or other solvents, thus eliminating need for energy-
intensive drying. SOS technologies, which are already being used in other industries (e.g.,
metals), can be applied to many textile production processes.
SOS processes use no extraneous liquids to apply chemicals containing a thermoplastic
component are deposited on substrate through electrostatic attraction, & then fixed to substrate
by heat. Thus, SOS technology goes a step beyond so-called low-wet-pickup systems (such as
foam, film applications), which still require water or solvent. SOS approach is widely used in the
metals industry for electrostatic painting of electrified automobile body components, coating of
wires & cables, & printing of aluminum cans. In these processes, resins & colorants are bound
together & to the metals during thermal curing.
SOS processing offers several advantages to the textile industry. In addition to saving energy &
reducing water consumption, SOS processes can eliminate need for steam generation, eliminate
effluents, & decrease dwell times in curing oven, thus increasing process speeds. These changes,
which can increase productivity & reduce costs, can improve competitive position of textile
industry.

Right First Time Dyeing:

Need of RFT approach:
When one thinks about competitiveness in this millennium, wet processed goods must be
provided with consistent quality, in large quantity, adhering to delivery schedule & with right
first time performance. Textile wet processing sector is a major consumer of water & energy.
Ever increasing environmental issues & energy cost are forcing towards RFT approach. Textile
wet processing consumes 5-200lit of water per kg of fabric. When we achieve target at first time,
it reduces total consumption of water & energy. RFT% is directly proportional increase in extra
cost of process. RFT approach became the need of the day.

Factors for Right First Time Dyeing:

Dyestuff factors:
Dyestuffs play an important role in absolute reproducibility of dyeing & hence in cost-
competitiveness. Dyes are the most expensive raw materials of dyeing. Hence, it is important to
maintain following dyestuff factors:
Proper dyestuff selection:
Main criteria behind dyestuff selection should be:
High quality of dye standardization i.e. negligible lot-to-lot strength variation in dyestuff
supplies, which nullifies need for check routine for each lot as well as shade adjustments
& ensures high level of reproducibility.
Choice of medium affinity bi-functional reactive dyestuffs gives a high degree of fixation
(about 80%) as against mono-reactive dyes (approximately 60%) that is accompanied with
medium affinity of dyes, ensures easy wash off thus, fewer washing baths. This has an
impact on water, time & energy savings in cost effective production. Moreover, dyes

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 Cost-effectiveness in Textile Processing
should have a proper combination of reactive groups in bi-functional reactive system to
achieve ideal & homogeneous application properties.
Good compatibility of Dyestuffs, dyestuffs used in trichromy should be compatible i.e.
they should have homogeneous affinity & reactivity, which is essential for ensuring
reproducible results.

Besides, selection of dyestuffs, certain process checks are must to monitor desired performance.
Purity of dyestuffs:
There are several tests that can be routinely carried out in dye house to ensure dye quality & thus
reproducibility of dyeing, they are:
Ö Chemical methods
Ö Colorimetric estimation &
Ö Laboratory dyeing trials
Chemical methods:
Chemical method of estimating purity of a dyestuff involves either a volumetric or a gravimetric
procedure. Purity of azo dyes (direct & acid dyes) can be accurately determined by titration with
standard titanous chloride solution. A simple gravimetric method of estimating purity of
naphthol has been published by ISI.
Indigosol dyestuff can be gravimetrically estimated by using sodium nitrite & dilute sulphuric
acid. A simple volumetric method for estimating purity of reactive dyestuff has been published.
In this method, a known weight of dyestuff is completely hydrolyzed with caustic soda by
refluxing it for 6 hour. Alkali consumption is determined by Potentiometric titration method &
dyestuffs purity is estimated. Higher is the alkali consumption more is the purity of the product.
Colorimetric estimation:
In Colorimetric method, purity of dyestuff is determined by measuring optical density
absorbance) of a dye solution of known concentration, using a colorimeter or a
Spectrophotometer. A practical method of assessing concentration of dyestuff in a solution is to
compare its absorbance with that of a standard dyestuff. However, determination of calibration
curve of absorbance against concentration of standard dye enables direct reading of
concentration of dyestuff under test.
For such measurement proper solvent & additives must be used for dissolving dyes are as below:
Dye class Solution
Direct, basic & Acetic acid: 2ml/l
acid
Metal complex Ammonia (sp. gr. 0.88):
2ml/l
Reactive Pyridine: Water, 25:75
Disperse Acetone: Water, 75:25
Vat o-chlorophenol

Dye pasting
Paste-up of dye can have substantial effect in terms of shade repeats as well as specific defects
such as dye spots. So, dye paste-up should adhere carefully to manufacture recommendations.
Colour pasting in small water & then addition of water is a good practice. For large dyestuffs
amount, it can be dissolved in portion.
Chemicals & auxiliary testing
Various organic & inorganic chemicals of commercial grade are used in dyeing with different
classes of dyestuff. Apart from this, different auxiliaries’ products, viz., dispersing agents, wetting

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agent, defoamers, etc., are used for specific purpose in a particular dyeing operation. These
auxiliaries & chemicals should be tested for their purity &/or performance before use in bulk
dyeing. These may be broadly grouped as follows:
Ö Dye fixing agent
Ö Dispersing agent
Ö Leveling agent
Ö Antifoaming agent
Ö Carrier & accelerant
Ö Miscellaneous chemicals & auxiliaries.
Procedure for testing of these auxiliaries & chemicals are generally carried out by volumetric
methods or by comparing between the two samples, one dyed by using auxiliary & other, without
using auxiliary.
Water parameters:
Contaminants, especially metals, can have substantial effect on many textile wet processes.
Effects are not always adverse but make process & machinery optimization and control difficult.
The most common impurities, which are present almost all water supplies to some extent, are:
Ö Heavy metals such as Fe, Cu, Mn
Ö Calcium & magnesium (hardness)
Ö Aluminium & chlorine
Ö Miscellaneous anions (sulfide, fluoride)
Ö Sediment clay, suspended matter
Ö Acidity, alkalinity
Ö Oil & grease
Ö Dissolved solids.
Poor water quality can affect batch & continuous dyeing processes. Dyeing defects due to water
contamination includes inconsistent shade, streaky dyeing, filtering, resist, poor washing off &
rubbing fastness.
Component Effect Remedy
Chlorine Inconsistent shade, Colour loss of many Appropriate filtration, adding
classes of dyes antichlor agent (thiosulphate)
Calcium & Uneven dyeing, Incomplete washing off of Addition of water
Magnesium unfixed dyes mostly, reactive & direct dyes conditioners; eg: Hexa-meta
(hardness) phosphate etc
Copper & other Inconsistence shade affects many dyes, Addition of chelates eg:
metals especially disperse dyes EDTA, NTA, DTPA etc,
water purification
Acidity & Leads to patchy or streaky dyeing, affects Maintaining pH
alkalinity exhaustion, leveling, fixation of dyes.
Sediment, alum & Filtering in package &/or beam dyeing Usage of dispersants &/or
other residual resists & spots. chelates, dye selection, water
flocking agents purification prior to use
Main quality criteria for process water in order to achieve good dyeing/ textile processing
performance are:
Ö Neutral initial pH: Ideal range is 6-7
Ö Low hardness i.e. elimination of alkaline earth metal salts. Ideally, it should be less than
3 degrees German total hardness (approximately 50ppm).
Ö Bicarbonate content should be as low as possible. This needs to be checked & alkali
conditions need to correct in order to achieve a pH sufficient to dye fixation (more alkali

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to correct for bicarbonate buffering power which would otherwise keep pH too low &
insufficient speed of fixation).
Ö Chlorine content should be as low as possible. This can be an issue with municipal water
in some areas. Dyes particularly dioxane blue chromophores are sensitive to chlorine.
Ö Metal content e.g. Fe & Cu have impact on certain metal complex dyes. Red
chromophores often turn more bluish in presence of copper ions.
Ö Colour of process water is an indicator of presence of other impurities in water e.g. irons
salts.
Fabric parameters:
Many impurities can be introduced into dyeing system by cellulose fiber itself e.g. hardness
reducing agents, metal ions, etc. It is advisable to compare fiber used in preliminary lab trials
and the one used for bulk trials. Carry over & lack of neutralization of pretreatment chemicals-
these results due to inadequate neutralization of alkali (internal fiber pH) & peroxide on fiber.
Both have major impact on dye yield due to premature dye hydrolysis. Carryover of thiosulphate-
based peroxide quenchers can also have a serious negative impact on yield of reactive dyes.
Enzymes based products are better in this respect.
Liquor Ratio:
This is the most common cause of poor reproducibility. In most of dye houses chemical additions
are based on data provided by machinery manufacturer, on physical dimensions of dyeing vessel
or on liquor level indications on dyeing machine itself. Experience shows that these liquor
indications are erroneous (generally up to 25% as compared to actual liquor ratio) since liquor in
“dead volume” in circulation tubes, heat exchanger, expansion tanks, etc., is often not taken into
consideration. Also, wet pretreated fabric content vs. measurements with water alone lead to
wrong assumptions.
An error in liquor ratio (e.g. higher than anticipated), results in wrong salt concentration (less
than required resulting in lower fixation of a lower exhausted amount of dye). These cumulative
effects result in poor reproducibility leading to shade corrections.

Miscellaneous factors:
Certain other factors can affect the RFT performances are as:
Hygroscopicity of dye commercial form:
All powder commercial dye formulations, including reactive dyes, are hygroscopic, & therefore
when exposed to humid air (due to incorrect storage conditions), absorb up to 20% moisture per
weight of dye. This absorption will start on exposed top layers of container, leading to different,
unreliable color strength of dye samples. Sampling of bulk dyeing, soaping off, conditioning &
finishing (or not) of sample taken at the end of fixation phase can also impact RFT performance.
Conditioning:
Conditioning is critical, an over dried sample can appear to be lacking 20% yellow & 10-15% red
compared to fully conditioned sample. Many wrong shading additions are based on poorly
conditioned “sample bits”. It is important to compare “like with like” & therefore if compared to
a finished standard, the “sample bit” should also undergo similar finishing.
Residual pH:
Residual pH of dry dyed fabric can impact final shade. Most red chromophores for example give
a slightly more bluish shade if alkali has not been properly washed off & if cellulose pH remains
a trifle too alkaline. It is sometimes advisable to add minute quantities of a weak acid in final
rinsing bath of washing off process.
Photochromy:

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This is quite frequent in Khaki & earth tones, containing best selling golden yellow reactive
chromophores. Finishing, moisture & pH conditions affect photochromy.
Thermochromy:
Many dyed samples show a slightly different shade immediately after drying (or any other hot
treatment), recovering progressively their final permanent shade.

Super Critical Carbon Dioxide Dyeing

Supercritical CO2 has been tried in different areas of textile treatments & has very high
potential because this dyeing medium completely avoids water pollution & use of conventional
auxiliaries in dyeing as well as after treatments. Drying after dyeing is also not required. CO2
dyeing technology is now in its way to become an industrial application. Hence it is a new
technologically profitable process.
Supercritical Fluid
Supercritical fluids are advantages in textile processing as they combine valuable properties of
both gas & liquid. Solvating power of supercritical fluid is proportional to its density, whereas its
viscosity is comparable to that of a normal gas. Such a combination leads to highly remarkable
penetration properties. Increased power of solvation with increase in density is desirable in
dyeing process as it has a decisive effect on dissolution of disperse dye in supercritical CO2
medium.

Phase diagram for Carbon Dioxide

Further increases in pressure, for example, will greatly increase dielectric constant of such
system, thus imparting dissolving powers even to a system that under normal condition of p & T
has almost none (above).
Critical values of T & p for some selected compounds & typical properties of supercritical fluids
are compared to those of gases & liquids in Table 1

Reasons for Preference of Carbon Dioxide

CO2 is the best choice, as it is non-toxic, it is used in food & beverage industry, it is
nonflammable, it is supplied in large amounts either from combustion processes or volcanic
sources without need of producing new gas & it can be recycled in a closed system.

Compiled By: M. Rezaul Karim Tutul Page 11

 Cost-effectiveness in Textile Processing
CO2 is frequently used as a solvent because of its special & unique properties:
Ö Virtually inexhaustible resources (atmosphere, combustion processes, & natural geologic
deposits)
Ö Since CO2 is a constituent of natural metabolic processes occurring in biosphere it is
consumed by assimilation & is returned to natural circuit by dissimilation. It is not only
biodegradable as nutrient promoting growth of plants, but also is an essential element of
natural processes.
Ö CO2 does not affect edibility of foodstuffs & will only have toxic effects at extremely high
concentrations.
Ö It is produced on commercial scale & is readily available together with necessary logistics.
Concepts for Dyeing Equipment Using Supercritical Fluids:
A prospective dyeing apparatus for supercritical liquors, a plant which can be variated to meet
special criteria. The machine is an extraction plant modified for processing with supercritical
fluids. In contrasts to conventional extraction plants dyestuff are applied to substrate instead of
being removed, i.e. fluid is to be loaded with dyestuff prior to coming in contact with goods to be
dyed. This can be done in two manners: Dyestuff is filled into pressure vessel in defined
quantities; dyestuff is filled into an additional small autoclave in desired (surplus) quantity
regulating CO2 content via pressure, temperature &/or flow control instruments. Dye absorption
by fibre, i.e. diffusion into inner parts of fibre, has to meet high levelness standards.
Necessary convection of liquor can be achieved by an agitator within dyeing autoclave or by
moving substrate. Another option is to penetrate goods, either by circulation of liquor or by
utilizing current produced by continuous replenishment of CO2. In latter case, flow of
replenished CO2 has to be continuously loaded with dyestuff. Residues of dyestuff or fiber
admixtures to be extracted prior to dyeing will be collected in a conventional separator.
Separation of phase, in this case is initiated by expansion or by raising temperature.
Dyeing Apparatus:
An apparatus for dyeing in supercritical CO2 is consists of a temperature controller, a vessel
heater which surrounds the vessel, a stainless steel dyeing vessel of 50ml capacity (with a quick
release cap), a manometer, a Varex HPLC CO2 pump & a cooler for cooling head of CO2 pump.
Apparatus was pressure-tested for use up to 350bars & 100oC. A side arm connects the top &
bottom of cell outside the heater to allow supercritical CO2 to circulate by thermal convection.
Principle-Dyeing Procedure:
The sample to be dyed (usually 10-25cm) is wrapped around a perforated stainless steel tube &
mounted inside autoclave around stirrer. The autoclave is then closed, evacuated & cooled with
ice water. Liquid CO2 is filled into autoclave in condensed form, weighing the filled-in quantity.
As soon as autoclave has reached room temperature again, poly glycol, a heat carrier, is added to
tempering bath. Pressure rises to 250bars within about 7mins, an isochoric process achieved by
heating glycol bath to 130oC. Following a dye time of 10mins pressure within autoclave is
reduced to atmospheric temperature within about 2-3mins, CO2 being routed through a
separating vessel in order to recuperate precipitated residual dyestuff. Dyestuff order is placed
in the bottom of vessel; apparatus is sealed, purged with gaseous CO2, & preheated. When it
reaches working temperature, carbon dioxide is isothermally compressed to chosen working
pressure under constant stirring. Pressure is maintained for a dyeing period of 0-60mins & after
wards released.
Procedure for SC-CO2 Fabric Dyeing
Fabric sample to be dyed (size=10-25cm) is wrapped around a perforated stainless steel tube &
mounted inside auto clave around stirrer. Dyestuff without chemicals was placed on the bottom
of vessel & closed & purged with gaseous CO2 & preheated. On reaching working temperature
CO2 was compressed to working pressure under constant stirring. Pressure maintained during
Compiled By: M. Rezaul Karim Tutul Page 12
 Cost-efffectivene
ess in Te
extile Pr
rocessing
g
dyeing period
p of 0-6
60min & aftterwards fab bric is rinseed with acettone to rem
move residua
al dyestuff.
Technica
al paramete ers are given
n in Table 2.
2

Proced
dure for Yarn Packa
ages:
Process developed
d for
f yarn pacckage dyein ng as shown n in table 3.. Dyeing tem
mperaturess & volume
flow ratees are simila
ar with conv
ventional dy
yeing whilee actual time required is
i typically less.

Advanttages of Dyeing
D in Supercrit
S tical Carb
bon Dioxid
de:
Possible advantagess to be claim med of this process
p are
Ö Contaminate
C ed waste wa ater streamss are not prroduced
Ö Dispersants
D are not requ uired to solu
ubilise a dissperse dye ini water
Ö Soolubilities are
a controlla able by presssure, allowwing control of dyeing in ntensity and colour
Ö Diffusivities
D in fluid aree higher, ma aking mass transfer in the fluid fa aster.
Ö Take up of CO C 2 by poly ymer fibre causes it to swell slighttly giving faster
fa diffussion within
he polymer.
th
Ö Viscosities
V arre lower ma aking the cirrculation off the dye sollutions easiier.
Ö Penetration of voids between fibrres is fast because of absence of surface tension &
m
miscibility off air with CO2 under prressure.
Ö NoN preparatiion of processsing waterr (by desaltiing).
Ö NoN effluents
Ö Low energy consumption
c n for heatin
ng up the liqquor.
Ö Energy presservation because b dry
ying processses are noo longer reequired (conventional
dy
yeing processes consum me about 3,8 800kJ/Kg off water evap porated).
Ö NoN air polluttion due to recycling
r of CO2 (the gaas is not con ntaminated by processees)
Ö Su ubstantially y shorter dy yeing times
Ö Environmenttally accepttable formu ulations of dyestuff-noo dispersantts or adulterants are
neecessary
Ö NoN chemicalss such as lev veling agennts, pH reguulations etc. have to be added.
Ö Non-exhaust
N ted dyestufff is recupera m of a powdeer-no waste.
ated in form
Ö Reductive
R affter treatmeents can be dispensed with,w i.e. a whole
w proceessing step consuming
c
w
water and en nergy can bee eliminated d.
Ö NoN need for auxiliary
a aggents, disposing agentss, adulteran nts, etc.
Compiled By:
B M. Rezaul Kaarim Tutul Page 13
 Cost-effectiveness in Textile Processing
Ö For polyester, no reduction clearing is needed
Ö Very less dyeing time
Ö Higher diffusion coefficients lead to higher extraction or reaction rates.
Ö Manipulation of pressure & temperature parameters results in better selectivity
Ö Easy separation eliminates multiple processing or post clean-up steps.
Demerits Sc-CO2 for Commercialization
Ö Dyeing of multiple packages in same bath
Ö High pressures required for dye solubility
Ö Impact of dyeing machine weight is related to circulation
Ö During polyester dyeing, the trimer is produced .this is removed using aqueous cleaning,
waterless SC-CO2 as a problem to eliminate.
Ö There is little data about dyestuff solubility in SC-CO2. Thus research work is in progress
to eliminate these demerits. SC-CO2 dyeing process is also known as “rapid dyeing”.
Future Prospects of Super Critical Carbon Dioxide System:
Investigation to study possibilities of using supercritical system for textile finishing processes
have in first instance been performed with a view to finding an ecologically acceptable
alternative to conventional high-temperature polyester dyeing, as such media are particularly
suited for dyeing with disperse dyestuffs. Moreover, it known that, besides polyester, a number
of other synthetic fiber material can be dyed with disperse dyestuffs.
Since autoclaves required for "supercritical dyeing processes", i.e. equipment permitting operation
at required temperature & pressures with holding capacities up to one cubic metre, are considered
state of the art & employed for high pressure extraction processes, many step towards an
industrial-scale application in textile plant already being accomplished. Overwhelming
international resonance gained by new method has emphasized high, existential significance of
problem met with treatment of waste waters in textile finishing industries. Esp. smaller units
allowing short setting-up & dyeing times, i.e. assuring high degree of flexibility, were in the centre
of interest. Other field for application of supercritical fluid system such as extraction processes is at
present being considered, for instance preparation plants for removal of spinning oils etc. In other
words use of CO2 in textile finishing plants is by no means limited to dyeing of synthetic fibres. It
might, for instance be possible to use supercritical ammonia for mercerizing operation, or super
critical CO2 could be employed to replace chlorinated hydrocarbons in dry cleaning processes.
Conclusion
Today world is a competitive environment & “survival of the fittest” becomes a rule for the game.
There is a clear indication that Bangladesh textile & apparel industry is facing severe
competition. The market is already overcrowded with suppliers & price pressures. It is well
known that only those who are responsive to change will survive. The key to success in this
marketplace is quality & affordability. Along with Quality & affordability, implementation of
new concepts in textile industry has to strive & put in some real work towards fulfilling such
expectations.

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