Maxwells Equations and Light Waves

Electric field E Magnetic field B y

x
z

Vector derivatives: Div, grad, curl, etc.

Derivation of 3D wave equation from Maxwells Equations
Why light waves are transverse waves
Why we neglect the magnetic field
Interference of waves
Spherical waves and light bulbs
The irradiance and intensity
Div, Grad, Curl, and All That

3D Vector Derivatives use the Del operator:

, ,
x y z
For a function of A great book!
The Gradient of a scalar two variables f(x,y):
function f(x, y, z): Direction of
steepest slope
f f f at the point (x,y)
f , ,
x y z f(x,y)

The gradient points in the f

y
direction of steepest ascent. x (x,y)
Div, Grad, Curl, and All That
The Divergence of a vector function:

f x f y f z
f
x y z

The Divergence is nonzero

if there are sources or sinks.

A 2D source with a y
large divergence:
x

Note that the x-component of this function changes rapidly in the x-

direction, and the same for y and z, the essence of a large divergence.
 Div, Grad, Curl, and More All That
The Laplacian of a scalar function is the div of the grad:

f f f 2 f 2 f 2 f
f
2
f , ,
x y z x y z 2
2 2

The Laplacian gives the

curvature of a function
(here the intensity vs. x and y).

The Laplacian of a vector function is the same, but for each

component of f:
2
f 2
f 2
f 2
f 2
f 2
f y 2 f z 2 f z 2 f z
f 2 2 , 2 , 2 2 2
2 x x x y y
x y 2
z x 2
y 2
z x y z

Div, Grad, Curl, and Still More All That
The Curl of a vector function f :
f z f y f x f z f y f x
f , ,
y dz z dx x dy

The curl can be treated as a matrix determinant :

x y z


f Det
x y z

f x fy f z

Functions that tend to curl around have large curls.

A Function with a Large Curl
f ( x, y, z) ( y, x,0) y

f (1, 0, 0) (0,1, 0)
f (0,1, 0) ( 1, 0, 0) x
f (1, 0, 0) (0, 1, 0)
f (0, 1, 0) (1, 0, 0)

f z f y f x f z f y f x
f , ,
y z z x x y
0 0, 0 0, 1 (1)
0 , 0 , 2 So this function has a curl of 2z .
Lemma: A Result Well Need in Order to
Prove a Future Theorem

A lemma is in effect a mini-theorem.

The lemma we require involves all of these vector derivatives.

( f ) ( f ) 2 f

You get to prove this in a homework problem.

Divergence:

Imagine a fluid, with the vector field representing

the velocity of the fluid at each point in space.
Divergence measures the net flow of fluid out of
(i.e., diverging from) a given point. If fluid is instead
flowing into that point, the divergence will be
negative.

A point or region with positive divergence is often

referred to as a "source" (of fluid, or whatever the
field is describing), while a point or region with
negative divergence is a "sink".
 Curl:
Let's go back to our fluid, with the vector field representing
fluid velocity. The curl measures the degree to which the fluid
is rotating about a given point, with whirlpools and tornadoes
being extreme examples.

Imagine a small chunk of fluid, small enough that the curl is

more or less constant within it. You are also shrunk down very
small, and are told that you need to swim a lap around the
perimeter of that chunk of fluid. Do you choose to swim around
clockwise, or counterclockwise? If the curl of the velocity is
zero, then it doesn't matter. But, if it's nonzero, then in one
direction you'd be going mostly with the current, and in the
other direction you'd be going mostly against the current, and
so your choice of direction would matter. The sign of the curl
will tell you which is the right choice.
 Gradient:

While it's perfectly valid to take the gradient of a vector field,

the result is a rank 2 tensor (like a matrix), and so it's harder to
explain in intuitive terms (although perhaps someone else will
manage it). So, instead, lets talk about the gradient of a scalar
field: specifically, the field that gives the elevation of the
ground above sea level at a given point on the Earth
(specified, say, in terms of latitude and longitude).

In that situation, the gradient is actually fairly simple: it points

"uphill" (in the steepest direction), and the magnitude tells you
how steep that is. For example, if the gradient points northeast
with a magnitude of 0.2, then the direction of steepest climb is
northeast, and every meter you travel northeast will result in
0.2 meters of elevation gain. For the gradient of a vector field,
you can think of it as the gradient of each component of that
vector field individually, each of which is a scalar.
The equations of optics are
Maxwells equations.

B
E 0 E
t
E
B 0 B
t

where E is the electric field, B is the magnetic field, is the

permittivity, and is the permeability of the medium.

As written, they assume a vacuum and no charges.

Derivation of the Wave Equation from
Maxwells Equations
B B
Take of: E yielding: (E ) ( )
t t
Change the order of
differentiation on the RHS: (E ) ( B )
t
E
But: B
t
E
Substituting for B : (E ) ( )
t t

2E assuming that
(E ) and are constant
t 2 in time.
Derivation of the Wave Equation from
Maxwells Equations (contd)
2E
Using the lemma, (E )
t 2
2
E
becomes: ( E ) 2E
t 2

But weve assumed zero charge density (r = 0), so: E 0

and were left with the Wave Equation:

2
E
E
2
where = 1/c2
t 2 QED
Why Light Waves are Transverse
Suppose a wave propagates in the z-direction. Then its a function
of z and t (and not x or y), so all x- and y-derivatives are zero.

Ex Ey Bx B y
Specifically: 0 0
x y x y
Now, in a charge-free medium, E 0 and B 0

Ex Ey Ez Bx B y Bz
that is: 0 0
x y z x y z
Ez Bz
So: 0 and 0
z z
So the longitudinal fields are at most constant, and not waves.
QED
The Magnetic-Field Direction in a Light Wave
Suppose a wave propagates in the z-direction and has its electric field
along the x-direction.
Ey = Ez = 0 and Ex = Ex(z,t)

Whats the direction of the magnetic field?

B Ez Ey Ex Ez Ey Ex
Use: E , ,
t y z z x x y

B Ex B x and B z are at most

So: 0, ,0
t z constantsnot waves.

B y Ex
and:
t z
The magnetic field points in the y-direction, perpendicular to the
electric field (x) and the direction of propagation (z).
QED
The Magnetic-Field Strength in a Light Wave
Whats the strength of the magnetic field By?
t
B y Ex Ex ( z, t )

t

z
So: By ( z, t ) By ( z,0)

0

z
dt
Take By(z,0) = 0 (its not a wave)

Now:
Ex z, t Re E0 exp i kz t
Ex
So: ReikE exp i kz t
z
0

t t
Ex ( z, t )
0

z
dt
ReikE exp i kz tdt
0
0

t
ik
Re E0 exp i kz t
i 0
 The Magnetic-Field Strength (continued)
t
From the ik
previous slide: By ( z, t ) Re E0 exp i kz t
i 0
t t t 0
ik ik
Re E0 exp i kz t Re E0 exp i kz 0
i i
Constant in time (not a

k wave), so ignore this term.
Re E0 exp i kz t

Ex z, t 1
/k=c So: B y ( z, t ) Ex ( z, t )
c
An Electromagnetic Wave

The electric and magnetic fields are in phase.

Snapshot of the
wave at one time

Electric field E Magnetic field B y

x
z

The electric field, the magnetic field, and the k-vector are all
perpendicular:

E B k
The Energy Density of a Light Wave
1
The energy density of an electric field is: U E E 2
2
11
The energy density of a magnetic field is: U B B 2

2
1
Using B = E /c and c , we have: B E

So:
UB
11 2 11
2
B
2
E 2

1
2
E 2
UE

Total energy density: U U E U B E 2

And the electrical and magnetic energy densities in light are equal.
Why We Neglect the Magnetic Field
The force on a charge, q, is: Felectrical Fmagnetic

where v is the
F qE q v B charge velocity

Taking the ratio of

the magnitudes Fmagnetic qvB v B vB sin
of the two forces:
Felectrical qE vB

Fmagnetic v
Since B = E /c:
Felectrical c
So, as long as a charges velocity is much less than the speed of light,
we can neglect the lights magnetic force compared to its electric force.
The Poynting Vector: S = c2 E B
The power per unit area in a beam. U = Energy density

Justification (but not a proof): A

Energy passing through area A in time Dt:

= U V = U A c Dt

So the energy per unit area per unit time is: c Dt

= U V / ( A Dt ) = U A c Dt / ( A Dt ) = U c = c E 2

= c2 E B

And the direction E B k is appropriate.

The Irradiance |Vector magnitude|

A light waves average t T /2

1
power per unit area is I (r , t ) S (r , t ) S (r , t ) dt
the irradiance. T
t T /2
Time average

Substituting a light wave into the expression for the Poynting vector,
S c2 E B yields:
real amplitudes

S (r , t ) c 2 E0 B0 cos 2 (k r t )
The average of cos2 is 1/2:
cos2(ta)
1
I (r , t ) S (r , t ) 1/2

c 2 E0 B0 (1/ 2)
t
The Irradiance (continued)
Since the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular and B0 = E0 /c,

I 12 c 2 E0 B0
2
becomes: I c E0
1
2

or: 2 because the real amplitude squared

I 12 c E0 is the same as the mag-squared
complex one, that is, |exp(ij)| = 1.
where:
2
2 E0 is a vector magnitude
E0 E0 x E0*x E0 y E0*y E0 z E0*z and a complex-number
magnitude

Remember: the above formula only works when the wave is of the
form:

E r , t Re E0 exp i k r t

that is, when all the fields involved have the same k r t
The Irradiance of the Sum of Two Waves
If theyre both proportional to exp i(k r t ) , then the irradiance is:

I 12 c E0 E0* 12 c E0 x E0*x E0 y E0*y E0 z E0*z

Different polarizations (say x and y): Irradiances

add.
I 12 c E0 x E0*x E0 y E0*y I x I y

Same polarizations (say E0 x E1 E2): Fields add.

I 12 c E1 E1* 2 Re E1E2* E2 E2*

Therefore:
I I1 c Re E1E2* I 2 Note the
cross term!

The cross term yields interference!

Interference only occurs for beams with the same polarization.
The Irradiance of the Sum of Two Waves of
the Same Polarization, But Different Color
We cant use the formula because the ks and s are different.
So we must use the Poynting vector, I (r , t ) S (r , t ) c E B
2

Identical polarizations allow us to ignore the vector magnitude.

Itotal S (r , t ) c 2 E1 E2 B1 B2
I1 I2
c2 E1 B1 E1 B2 E2 B1 E2 B2
Consider a cross Because were multiplying fields,
term E1 B2 : we cant use complex fields here.

E10 cos(k1 r 1t 1 ) B20 cos(k2 r 2t 2 )

E10 B20 cos 1t (k1 r 1 ) cos 2t (k2 r 2 ) dt

The Irradiance of the Sum of Two Waves of
the Same Polarization, But Different Color

E10 B20 cos 1t (k1 r 1 ) cos 2t (k2 r 2 ) dt

Waves of different frequencies

go in and out of phase. So their
product is as often positive as
negative. t
It integrates (averages) to zero.

Thus the product, E1 B2, averages to zero, as does E2 B1.

Different colors: Itotal I1 I 2 Their irradiances add.

Waves of different color (frequency) do not interfere!

Irradiance of the Sum of Two Waves
Same polarizations Perpendicular polarizations
Coherent
addition
I I1 I 2
I I1 I 2
Same
colors
c Re E1 E2 *

Incoherent
addition
I I1 I 2 I I1 I 2
Different
colors

Interference only occurs when the waves have the same color and
polarization.
Irradiance for Many Fields with Random Phases
If each field has the same , k , and polarization, but random phase, i:

Etotal ( E1 E2 ... EN ) exp[i(k r t )] where Ei E0 exp(ii )

I total I1 I 2 ... I N c ReE1E2* E1E3* ... EN 1EN*

I1, I2, In are the irradiances Ei Ej* have the phase factors: exp[i(i-j)].
of the various beamlets. When the s are random, this sum isnt 0,
Theyre all positive real but its small compared to the sum of the
numbers and they add. irradiances.

Itotal I1 + I2 + + In All the

relative Im
phases
Re
I1+I2++IN
This is the essence of exp[i(i j )] exp[i(k l )]
incoherence.
A spherical wave is also a solution Spherical Waves
to Maxwell's equations.
Note that k and r are
not vectors here.

E ( r , t ) Re E0 / r exp[i(kr t )]

where k is a scalar, and

r is the radial coordinate.

Also, the directions of E and B

must still be to the propagation
direction, so the polarization
varies with angle.

A spherical wave has spherical wave-fronts.

Unlike a plane wave, whose amplitude remains constant as it

propagates, a spherical wave weakens. Its irradiance goes as 1/r2.

A light bulb is not a spherical wave, but its irradiance also goes as 1/r2.
 Argon ion laser: 10 W/cm2
Irradiance Laser pointer: 10 mW/cm2
vs. Intensity Sunlight at earths surface: 1 kW/m2
Moonlight at earths surface: 2 mW/m2

Irradiance (power per unit area) is ideal for describing lasers, which
emit unidirectionally. The sun and moon, which emit omni-
directionally, are far away, so the irradiance also works well for them.

Light bulbs and spherical waves emit omnidirectionally and are

nearby, so we must describe their power per unit solid angle (in
steradians), and not per unit area. This is the Intensity.
But the intensity is also often (sloppily) used to mean the irradiance.

Radiance, Radiancy, or Luminance is also used for omnidirec-

tional sources. Theyre the power per unit area per unit solid angle.
Intensity Units for Spherical
Waves and Light Bulbs
The radiant power includes all wavelengths.
The luminous power includes only those
the eye can see.

The Candela (cd) is the SI unit of luminous intensity (power per

steradian). Its based on a candle: 1 candela = 1/683 W/steradian.

A Lumen (lm) is the SI unit of luminous power for omnidirectional sources.

Its the total power emitted into 1 steradian (not 4p steradians). 1 lumen =
(1/4p) candela steradian = 1W/(4p 683). A 100W (electrical power)
incandescent light bulb emits only about ~2W of total luminous power
(that is, 2W/4p into 1 steradian) and so emits ~1366 lumens.

A Lux is the SI luminous power per unit area for omnidirectional sources.
1 Lux = 1 Lumen/m2. The lux from a light bulb decreases as 1/r2.
A Nit = 1 Candela/m2. Its units are power/(steradianm2).
Dynamic Range or Contrast Ratio
When emitting or detecting light, the dynamic range or contrast
ratio is the ratio of the maximum and minimum intensities that the
emitter can emit or the detector can measure.
Its often expressed in bitsthe exponent to which 2 must be
raised to yield it.
Dynamic ranges of some common light emitters:
Device Dynamic Range Bits
iPhone/computer display ~1000 ~10
HDTV (LCD & LED) display 500-4000 9-12
HDTV (plasma) display ~8,000 ~13

Dynamic ranges of some common light detectors:

Device Dynamic Range Bits
iPhone camera (jpeg) 256 8
Professional camera (raw) 16,000 14
Human eye >1,000,000 >20