Film and Music in Laboratory Experiments: Emotion Induction

Author(s): se Innes-Ker
Source: Music and the Moving Image, Vol. 8, No. 2 (Summer 2015), pp. 58-68
Published by: University of Illinois Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/musimoviimag.8.2.0058
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 Film and Music in Laboratory Experiments:
Emotion Induction
se Innes-Ker
Abstract. Emotion researchers have long used clips from commercial movies to
experimentally elicit emotional states. This paper describes how the Niedenthal
laboratory selected and tested emotion-eliciting movie clips, and presents data on
the clips effectiveness. A summary of published databases of emotion-eliciting
movies is presented and discussed.

A movie is a conspicuous example of un-
natural stimuli. Researchers thought mov-
ies would provide the solution to the chal-
lenge they face. Movies are make-believe
devices that popular wisdom identifies
as natural emotion elicitors. However,
the way in which movies cause emotions
is not a solution, but more of a research
problem in itself. Movies probably con-
stitute the least natural set of stimuli ever
produced. ... The emotions of movie
audiences are filtered and interfered with
by extremely sophisticated forms of media
literacy. The assumption that movies au-
tomatically elicit pure, ancestral, midbrain
basic emotions impervious to neocortical
processes would seem too nave from both
the evolutionary and psychological points
of view.1
Emotion researchers have spent decades
mapping how emotional states alter cogni-
tive processeshow we remember, think,
perceive, and attend. In fact, textbooks on
emotions devote entire chapters just to sum-
marize what we know so far.2
The ground premise for doing this work is
making sure that the participants are emo-
tional before asking them to perform some
experimental task. Researchers have spent
their creativity and imagination on devising
elicitation methods that reliably put partici-
pants in a desired emotional state, although
there has been less work on understanding
how they work.3 (Although see inroads made
by film psychologists such as Ed Tan and
Greg Smith.4)
I will first orient the reader in how psy-
chologists conceptualize emotion both theo-
retically and more pragmatically. I then sum-
marize different elicitation methods before
describing in detail work done in the Nie-
denthal lab using music and films as emotion
elicitors. Finally I present several validated
databases of emotion-eliciting movie clips.
Theoretical Background
Cognition while Emotional
Early research on how emotions influence
cognition was based on Gordon Bowers
network theory of emotion.5 At the time,
semantic-network theories were quite use-
ful for understanding cognitive phenom-
ena such as priming.6 A standard example
is that seeing the word doctor makes
people recall and respond faster to the word
nurse. If one thinks about these concepts
as being nodes in a web, activating the
doctor node will make activation spread
to the nearby nurse node, making it easier
for it to be brought to mind. Bower sug-
gested that an emotional state could func-
tion in a similar way; experiencing an emo-
tion would make it easier to remember and
attend to things with the same emotional
meaning. In other words, emotional states

58 music and the moving image 8.2 / summer 2015

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 Innes-Ker:Film and Music in Laboratory Experiments 59

will cause emotion-congruent processing. Eliciting Methods

This conceptualization of congruence is re-
Emotion researchers have used a number of
lated to how Cohen and Ireland (this issue)
different eliciting methods.9 These can be di-
use the term, although narrowly focused
vided up as correlational and experimental,
on the match between the experienced
where the correlational methods make use of
emotion and the emotional tone of either
naturally occurring emotions.
memories or stimuli.
Correlational Methods
Dimensional and Categorical Approaches
A well-known version of using naturally
Psychologists tend to think about emotions
occurring emotions is Schwarz and Clores
as either categorical or as falling on a two-
mood as information experiment.10 Partici-
dimensional continuum.7 In the categorical
pants were called on sunny or overcast days
approach, emotions are considered discrete,
and asked to rate their relative outlook on
for example, happiness, sadness, or fear. In
life. In some instances, the caller inquired
the dimensional approach, emotions are
about the weather, making the participant
thought to vary on how positive or negative
attend to a plausible cause of their mood,
they are (valence dimension) and how acti-
in others, no question about the weather
vating they are (arousal dimension). These
was made. Not surprisingly, participants
are not mutually exclusive, and validation
rated their outlook as more negative on
of film clips for emotion elicitation has used
rainy days, but the effect disappeared
both types of conceptualization.
when they had their attention called to the
Mood vs. Emotion: In Theory and Practice weather.
Another instance of making use of
Theoretically, moods and emotions differ.
naturally occurring emotions is Forgas and
Moods are longer-lasting affective states
Moylans work, where they interviewed peo-
where one is not necessarily clear about the
ple as they exited movie theatres after movies
source of the affect, whereas emotions are
that were known to be sad, happy, or aggres-
thought of as shorter episodes with a distinct
sive.11 The questions were general questions
elicitor. 8 The borders between these are
about politics, future outlook, and questions
fuzzy, and in experiments the elicitation of
of responsibility and quality of life. They
mood and emotions are quite similar. Usu-
documented differences in responses that
ally both types of experiments are structured
could be attributed to the emotion elicited by
using the two experiments technique,
the movies.
where participants are told that they will
The problem with methods is the lack
take part in two short experiments. The first
of control. If you find an effect, this could
experiment is really the elicitation phase,
be due to other reasons such as undetected
whereas the second experiment is the cogni-
depression, personality differences, or prefer-
tive task. For mood experiments, the first ex-
ences for particular types of movies rather
periment is clearly demarcated, usually with
than the emotional state. Methodological
an emotion measure and a questionnaire, be-
textbooks refer to these as confounding vari-
fore the second phase starts. In an emotion
ables.
experiment, the two phases are not as clearly
demarcated, and the elicitation continues Controlled Elicitation
during the second task. Any ratings will take
To get around this problem, participants can
place after both parts are completed.
be brought to a laboratory and randomly

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MMI 8_2 text.indd 59 5/28/15 10:38 AM

 60 music and the moving image 8.2/summer 2015
assigned to an emotion condition. The ran-
domization ensures that those other reasons
are evenly spread across conditions.
An early method was Free Mental Genera-
tion.12 Participants were simply asked to con-
jure up a particular emotional state.
Guided mental generation introduced ad-
ditional control. A well-known version is
the Velten task where participants are given
a deck of cards with printed sentences on
them and are asked to feel these feelings.13
Another method is playing music while ask-
ing participants to feel the emotion congru-
ent with the music.14
A drawback with these methods is that
the participants know the research is about
emotion. Any effect could be because the
participant figures out what the experiment
is about and acts accordinglya demand
effect. To avoid creating demand, researchers
use incidental methods of emotion elicita-
tion.15
Incidental Methods of Emotion Elicitation
These methods can be behavioral, such as
handing out gifts of candy or coins,16 asking
an actor to stage rude behavior,17 giving false
feedback about success or failure,18 or more
physiological, such as injecting participants
with adrenalin,19 sticking their hands in
freezing cold water,20 or posing their faces
and bodies in emotional poses to induce
bodily feedback.21
The movie and music method used in the
Niedenthal studies below is also an inciden-
tal method, in that the interest in emotion
is never mentioned. The method follows the
two experiment method described above.
In the elicitation phase, participants are sim-
ply asked to sit and either listen to the music
(musical elicitation) or watch the movies
(movie elicitation). At the end of the experi-
ment, participants usually complete a mea-
sure to check whether the intended emotion
has been attained.
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MMI 8_2 text.indd 60
Example: Emotion Elicitation
in the Niedenthal Lab
Research Interests
The research questions in the Niedenthal lab
during the 90s focused on emotion congru-
ence and emotional-response categoriza-
tion.22
Emotion congruence suggests that emo-
tional state will make it easier (usually faster)
to process stimuli with the same emotional
meaning. In a series of papers, Niedenthal
et al demonstrated these effects for emotion
words.23
Emotional-response categorization is
slightly different. The idea is that when peo-
ple experience an emotional state, the emo-
tional meaning of stimuli sticks out more
than other types of features. When asked to
group things according to similarity, emo-
tional individuals will tend to group those
that have similar emotional meaning, for
example, grouping sad items together and
happy items together. The effect has been
demonstrated for written concepts as well as
for facial emotional expressions.24
Theoretical Conceptualization
and Practical Concerns
Early work on emotion congruence had
not found clear effects, possibly because the
work considered emotions as dimensional.
Niedenthal et al. hypothesized that congru-
ence effects are specific to a discrete emo-
tion, rather than examining whether emo-
tions and items have the same valence. Thus,
the movies and music were selected to elicit
specific emotions.25
We were interested in how emotional
state incidentally affects cognitive processes.
To avoid demand, we used the incidental
movie/music method described above. All
cognitive tasks also used incidental methods
in that participants were never asked to focus
on the emotional meaning of stimuli.26
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 Innes-Ker:Film and Music in Laboratory Experiments 61
The Standard Procedure
All experiments followed this general out-
line. The experimenter read the participants
a scripted instruction. They were then seated
in their own, light-dimmed cubicle and
asked to put on headphones. Each cubicle
had a computer and a TV monitor that was
controlled from a central room. The experi-
menter started the movies from the control
room. After the elicitation, participants were
asked to turn to the computer and start the
cognitive task. During the task, music played
through the headphones to maintain the
emotion. Afterwards, participants completed
an emotion questionnaire, wrote down what
they thought the experiment was about, and
were debriefed.27
Emotion Elicitation Materials
Films Initially, clips from movies were
nominated by the researchers and then pilot
tested.28 Elicitation materials were created
for four different states: happiness, sadness,
fear, and neutral. Each film sequence lasted
about twelve minutes and consisted of three
to four short clips from commercial movies.
For happiness we used excerpts from Benny
& Joon (Chaplinesque scene),29 Butch Cas-
sidy and the Sundance Kid (Raindrops Keep
Falling on My Head scene),30 and the win-
ning scene from Hoosiers.31 For sadness we
began with Harry & Tonto (dancing with de-
mented old friend),32 Terms of Endearment
(saying goodbye to friends and sons),33 and
the choice scene from Sophies Choice.34 The
fearful selection contained sections from
Cape Fear (booby-trap scene),35 The Shining
(Redrum), 36 Fatal Attraction (bathroom
scene),37 and Silence of the Lambs (night-
goggles scene).38 The clips were ordered so
that the emotional strength would increase
with each clip. The neutral sequence con-
tained a clip about golf, the chase scene
from Bullitt,39 and a documentary about
lions.
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MMI 8_2 text.indd 61
We wanted to use both funny and pleasant
clips to elicit happiness. In the original se-
ries, the Benny & Joon clip can be considered
funny. The scene from Butch Cassidy and the
Sundance Kid is pleasant and romantic. The
winning scene from Hoosiers clearly elicits
a happy emotion, which is neither amusing
nor romantic. This last clip worked very well
at Indiana UniversityBloomington, where
basketball is a particularly important sport.
The Butch Cassidy scene was replaced with
excerpts from City Slickers II, which are
amusing, after some commentary during
debriefing suggesting that the original clip
was not as effective as we wished.40 The data
I report below uses this segment.
In the fear materials, the sequences were
cut off prior to their resolution to sustain
the dread. The first clip from Cape Fear is
ambiguous visually, and the mood is mainly
set by the music. The second scene, from
the Shining, is more clearly threatening and
ends at the climax of the scene. For the two
last films, Fatal Attraction and Silence of the
Lambs, the clips ended prior to their natural
resolutions.
The inclusion of a neutral condition is
important for several reasons. Experimental
research needs at least two conditions, where
one is a control. What constitutes a good
control condition is not entirely straightfor-
ward.41 If the control group simply does the
cognitive task, whereas the experimental
group goes through an elicitation, any dif-
ference could be due to watching movies,
rather than emotion. Also, participants ar-
rive at the lab with pre-existing emotional
states, and these need to be controlled. One
way to do this is to subject the participants
in the control group to a neutral elicitation.
The clips about golf and night-time animals
are unlikely to elicit the same intense emo-
tions as those in the emotion conditions. The
reason for the inclusion of the arousing car-
chase scene from Bullitt is to induce arousal,
5/28/15 10:38 AM
 62 music and the moving image 8.2/summer 2015
without inducing either positive or negative
valence. This was important for interpreting
effects in the subsequent cognitive task. We
wanted to be able to test whether a dimen-
sional or a discrete emotion model better
accounted for any emotional effects.
Music The principles behind the selected
music were that for happiness the music
would be in a major key and fast tempo. We
used Mozarts Eine Kleine Nacht Musik, Di-
vertimento # 136 and Ein Musikalisher Spass,
plus Vivaldis Concerto for Two Mandolins
and Strings. For sadness, the music was in
a minor key, and slow: Mahlers Adagietto
from Symphony No. 5 and Barbers Adagio for
Strings. The present author suggested second
movements from Brahmss First and Third
Symphonies for the neutral condition. The
movements are of intermediate pace, and
although they are engaging, do not seem to
be of any particular discrete emotion. For
the fearful induction, we used Pendereckis
Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima and
Polymorphy.42
Manipulation Check To check whether
the elicitation worked, participants com-
pleted the Brief Mood Introspection Sur-
vey (BMIS), which is a checklist consisting
of sixteen emotion adjectives (eighteen for
the fear measure).43 Each adjective is rated
on a four-point scale ranging from definitely
do not feel to definitely do feel.
The ratings were averaged into three emo-
tion indices: The sadness index used the
mean ratings for the adjectives sad, gloomy,
tired, and drowsy. The happiness index aver-
aged the ratings for happy, content, peppy,
lively, and active. Fear used ratings for fear-
ful, jittery, anxious, and nervous.44
Effectiveness of Manipulation To
demonstrate the effectiveness of our emo-
tion elicitation, I have collected the BMIS
ratings from seven studies from our work on
emotional-response categories that are un-
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MMI 8_2 text.indd 62
published for reasons unrelated to the elicita-
tion. The data is from 978 participants, and
the number of participants in each condition
ranges from 125 to 304. All experiments used
the combined movie/music elicitation, and
the manipulation check was collected at the
end of the experiment. The fear score was
only collected for those studies that involved
a fear manipulation, thus the fear rating for
the happy, sad, and neutral elicitation in-
volves fewer participants.
As can be seen in figure 1, participants
rated themselves as more happy after the
happy elicitation, more sad after the sad
elicitation, and more fearful after the fear-
ful elicitation, although the rated sadness is
quite high for these clips also. The happiness
and sadness ratings for the neutral condition
are quite high, but, most importantly, they
do differ from the same ratings in the happi-
ness and sadness conditions in the expected
direction.
Note that the ratings measure the emo-
tional state of the participants at the end of
a thirty-minute experiment, which means
that they cannot be attributed to any specific
feature of the experiment (film, music, or the
actual task). It is simply meant to check that
the manipulation worked as intended.
Databases
As demonstrated, the methods worked very
well and served our purposes. Other emotion
researchers have had similar goals, and there
are now several published papers describing
validated sets of movie clips for emotion elici-
tation. A large proportion of these are listed
in table 1. The selection and assessment of
the movies are very similar across all papers.
Initially, a set of clips are recommended by
friends, or solicited from highly knowledge-
able individuals, such as video-store managers
and individuals from university film depart-
ments. The nominated sequences are whittled
down to a smaller subset of clips. In prepara-
tion for the ratings, several clips with different
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 Innes-Ker:Film and Music in Laboratory Experiments 63

Figure 1: Mean emotion ratings for induction clips. Bars indicate average 95% confidence intervals.

intended emotions are edited together into a
longer sequence.. Some care has been taken to
order the clips in ways that minimize spillover
effects of an emotional state from an earlier
clip. In addition, they are usually put together
in a couple of different presentation orders for
similar reasons. Usually the validation takes
place in a group setting. The participants are
asked to rate how they feel at the end of each
clip using checklists similar to the BMIS. Un-
like our movies, where we assembled several
clips but kept the overall length at twelve
minutes, the clips in the validation studies
are rated discretely and vary considerably in
length.
Conclusion
The emotion communitys use of movies in
their research has mainly been to elicit emo-
tions. Much less research has been spent on
understanding the mechanisms behind the
elicitation, as the Fernandez-Dols quote above
suggests.45 Rottenberg, Ray, and Gross bring
up some additional issues with using mov-
ies as emotion elicitors.46 First, there is both
continuous change in emotion during the clip
(phasic) as well as the residual emotion after
the clip (tonic). Second, there are differences
in emotional response depending on whether
an individual is familiar with the film or not,
and finally there are idiosyncratic differences
in response. The results presented here sug-
gest that the residual (tonic) responses are
reliable (see the narrow confidence intervals
around the means in figure 1).
I disagree with Fernandez-Dolss statement
that films would not elicit pure, ancestral
midbrain basic emotions impervious to neo-
cortical processes in that I first of all dont
think any emotions elicited in adults with an
intact neocortex will be devoid of those in-
puts, regardless of how they are elicited. Sec-
ond, I would argue that the emotions elicited
by films are of the same kind as emotions elic-
ited by other means. Movies would not be the
effective emotion elicitors they are unless they
were capable of harnessing the emotion cir-
cuits that are already in place. Movies ability
to enthrall humans is based on their ability to
engage our evolved capacities and concerns.

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 Table 1: List and description of published validated data-bases of emotion-inducing movie clips.

Author #Parts #Films Clip-Lengths Selection Methods Emotions

McHugo, Smith & 64 1 2:207:33 Not stated Positive
Lanzetta1 Negative
Neutral
Philippot.1 60 12 36 mins 5 individuals rated 20 excerpts. Anger
All judges should agree on primary Disgust
emotion elicited Sadness
Fear
Gross & Levenson.1 494 78 8s1192s Nominations from colleagues, Film Amusement
critics, video-store employees, film Anger
buffs. Selection criteria: a) length b) Contentment
intelligibility, c) discreteness of emotion Disgust
Fear
Sadness
Surprise
Neutral
Hagemann, 43 13 32s171s 12 clips from other databases. 1 New Happiness
Naumann, Maier, neutral clip Sadness
Becker, Lrken Anger
Bartussek.1 Disgust
Hewig, Hagemann, 39 20 29s236s 16 clips from validated data-bases. Four Neutral
Seifert, Gollwitzer, new Neutral clips from Commercial Neutral
Naumann, movies. Shown without music Disgust
Bartussek. Fear
Amusement
Sadness
Anger
Schaefer, Nils 364 70 17 mins 50 film experts nominated emotion Fear
Philippot,1 eliciting Scenes. 10 most frequently Anger
Mentioned scene for each Emotion Sadness
selected URL: http://nemo.psp.ucl. Disgust
ac.be/FilmStim/ Amusement
Tenderness
Neutral
Bartolini, E.1 84 45 34s7:10 min 150+ scenes solicited from Faculty and Amusement
students at Wesleyans Film Studies Anger
Department. Disgust
Excitement
Fear
Happiness
Neutral
Sadness
Surprise
Carvalho, Leite, 113 52 40 s 127 clips selected by two researchers. Valence
Galdo-Alvarez, Criteria: a) stability of displayed Arousal
Goncalves.1 context, b) continuous presence of
people. c) unchanged hedonic valence.
1..J. Rottenberg, R. D. Ray, and J. J. Gross, Emotion Elicitation using films, in Handbook of Emotion Elicitation and As-
sessment (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007): 928.

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 Innes-Ker:Film and Music in Laboratory Experiments 65

Of course, this is not a passive effect, but an
interactive process between the movie and
the perceiver. Neither are the effects in other
emotion-eliciting situations.
I do agree, however, that the eliciting
power of movies is a research question in
itself, and something that has been woefully
underresearched. Emotion researchers know
a great deal about emotion. Filmmakers have
spent over a century honing their skills in
how to capture an audience. Film researchers
have spent decades understanding from their
point of view how this is done. Together, we
can continue further exploration that will
unveil thrilling theoretical tales of movies
and minds.
Notes
1. J. M. Fernandez-Dols, Advances in the Study
of Facial Expression: An Introduction to the Spe-
cial Section, Emotion Review 5, no. 1 (2013): 37.
2. K. Oatley, D. Keltner, and J. M. Jenkins, Un-
derstanding Emotions, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell,
2006; M. N. Shiota, and J. W. Kalat, Emotion, 2nd
ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Learning, 2012).
3. J. A. Coan, and J. J. B. Allen, Handbook of
Emotion Elicitation and Assessment (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2007).
4. Tan, E. S., Emotion and the Structure of Nar-
rative Film: Film as an Emotion Machine (New
York, Routledge, 1996); Smith, Greg M., Film
Structure and the Emotion System (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2007).
5. G. H. Bower, Mood and Memory, American
Psychologist 36, no. 2 (1981): 12948.
6. Allan M. Collins and Elizabeth F. Loftus, A
Spreading-Activation Theory of Semantic Process-
ing, Psychological Review 82, no. 6 (1975): 40728.
7. For a summary, see Shiota and Kalat, Emo-
tion, 2630.
8. Oatley, Keltner, and Jenkins, Understanding
Emotions, 30.
9. A, Gerrards-Hesse, K, Spies, and F. W. Hesse,
Experimental Inductions of Emotional States and
Their Effectiveness: A Review, British Journal of
Psychology 84 (1994): 5578.
10. Norbert Schwarz and Gerald L Clore,
Mood , Misattribution, and Judgments of Well-
Being: Informative and Directive Functions of
Affective States, Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 45, no. 3 (1983): 51323.
11. J. P. Forgas and S. Moylan, After the Movies:
Transient Mood and Social Judgments, Personal-
ity and Social Psychology Bulletin 13, no. 4 (1987):
46777.
12. Gerrards-Hesse, Spies, and Hesse, Experi-
mental Induction of Emotional States, table 1.
13. E. Velten, A Laboratory Task for Induction
of Mood States, Behaviour Research and Therapy
6, no. 4 (1968): 47382.
14. Eric Eich and Janet Metcalfe, Mood Depen-
dent Memory for Internal Versus External Events,
Journal of Experimental Psychology 15, no. 3 (1989):
44355.
15. This is central to research methodology
working on ruling out alternative causes for an
effect. Correlational methods cannot be used to
infer a causal relationship (as reflected in the cor-
relation is not causation mantra). A discussion
about strengths and weaknesses of various re-
search methods, as well as handling of confounds
can be found in any introductory methods book
in psychology. Many introductory texts in psy-
chology also cover methodology.
16. M. Isen, K. Daubman, and G. P. Nowicki,
Positive Affect Facilitates Creative Problem Solv-
ing, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
52, no. 6 (1987): 112231.
17. Dov Cohen et al., Insult, Aggression, and
the Southern Culture of Honor: An Experimental
Ethnography, Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 70, no. 5 (1996): 94560.
18. Paula M. Niedenthal, Marc B. Setterlund,
and Mary B. Wherry, Possible Self-Complexity
and Affective Reactions to Goal-Relevant Evalua-
tion., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
63, no. 1 (July 1992): 516.
19. S. Schachter and J. Singer, Cognitive, Social
and Physiological Determinants of Emotional
State, Psychological Review 69 (1962): 37999.
20. M. Kahn, The Physiology of Catharsis,
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3, no.
3 (1966): 27886.
21. F. Strack, L. L. Martin, and S. Stepper, In-
hibiting and Facilitating Conditions of the Human
Smile: A Nonobtrusive Test of the Facial Feedback
Hypothesis, Journal of Personality and Social Psy-
chology 54, no. 5 (1988): 76877.

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MMI 8_2 text.indd 65 5/28/15 10:38 AM

 66 music and the moving image 8.2/summer 2015
22. Regarding emotion congruence, see Paula
M. Niedenthal, Jamin B. Halberstadt, and Marc
B. Setterlund, Being Happy and Seeing Happy: cassette.
Emotional State Mediates Visual Word Recogni-
tion, Cognition and Emotion 11, no. 4 (1997):
40332. Regarding emotional response categoriza-
tion, see Paula M. Niedenthal, se H. Innes-Ker,
and Jon Margolin, Emotional Response Catego-
rization, Psychological Review 106, no. 2 (1999):
33761.
23. Paula M. Niedenthal and Marc B. Setterlund,
Emotion Congruence in Perception, Personal-
ity and Social Psychology Bulletin 20, no. 4 (1994):
401411; Niedenthal and Setterlund, Being Happy
and Seeing Happy; J. B. Halberstadt, P. M. Nie-
denthal, and J. Kushner, Resolution of Lexical
Ambiguity by Emotional State, Psychological Sci-
ence 6, no. 5 (1995): 27882.
24. Niedenthal, Innes-Ker, and Margolin, Emo-
tional Response Categorization; J. B. Halberstadt
and P. M. Niedenthal, Emotional State and the
Use of Stimulus Dimensions in Judgment., Jour-
nal of Personality and Social Psychology 72, no. 5
(1997): 101733.
25. Niedenthal and Setterlund, Being Happy
and Seeing Happy: Emotional State Mediates
Visual Word Recognition.
26. Ibid.; Niedenthal, Innes-Ker, and Margolin,
Emotional Response Categorization.
27. As a reviewer pointed out, this procedure
does not allow us to discern whether the final
measured emotional state was due to the films or
the music. The aim of the example is simply to
illustrate the effectiveness of one instantiation of
film/music induction. The referenced papers from
the Niedenthal Lab as well as the referenced data-
bases of movies include data on the efficiency of
both film and music inductions alone.
28. Halberstadt and Niedenthal, Emotional
State and the Use of Stimulus Dimensions in Judg-
ment.
29. Benny & Joon, directed by Jeremiah S. Che-
chik (Beverly Hills, CA: Metro-Goldwyn Mayer,
1993), videocassette.
30. Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, di-
rected by George Roy Hill (Los Angeles, CA: 20th
Century Fox, 1969), videocassette.
31. Hoosiers, directed by David Anspaugh (Los
Angeles, CA: Orion Pictures, 1986), videocassette.
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All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
MMI 8_2 text.indd 66
32. Harry & Tonto, directed by Paul Mazursky
(Los Angeles, CA: 20th Century Fox, 1974), video-
33. Terms of Endearment, directed by James L.
Brooks (Hollywood, CA: Paramount Pictures,
1983), videocassette.
34. Sophies Choice, directed by Alan Pakula
(Hollywood, CA: Universal Pictures, 1982), video-
cassette.
35. Cape Fear, directed by Martin Scorsese (Hol-
lywood, CA: Universal Pictures, 1991), videocas-
sette.
36. The Shining, directed by Stanley Kubrick
(Burbank, CA: Warner Bros, 1980), videocassette.
37. Fatal Attraction, directed by Adrian Lyne
(Hollywood, CA: Paramount Pictures, 1987), vid-
eocassette.
38. Silence of the Lambs, directed by Jonathan
Demme (Los Angeles, CA: Orion Pictures, 1991),
videocassette.
39. Bullitt, directed by Peter Yates (Burbank, CA:
Warner Bros.-Seven Arts, 1968), videocassette.
40. City Slickers II, directed by Paul Weiland
(Culver City, CA: Columbia Pictures, 1994), vid-
eocassette.
41. W. R. Boot et al., The Pervasive Problem
With Placebos in Psychology: Why Active Control
Groups Are Not Sufficient to Rule Out Placebo
Effects, Perspectives on Psychological Science 8, no.
4 (2013): 44554.
42. The specifics of the actual recordings is no
longer available. The eliciting materials were cre-
ated from the personal collections of the research-
ers, and details are not noted in the published
research.
43. John D. Mayer and Yvonne N. Gaschke,
The Experience and Meta-Experience of Mood,
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55, no.
1 (1988): 10211.
44. Niedenthal and Setterlund, Emotion Con-
gruence in Perception.
45. Fernandez-Dols, Advances in the Study of
Facial Expression: An Introduction to the Special
Section.
46. J. Rottenberg, R. D. Ray, and J. J. Gross,
Emotion Elicitation Using Films, in Handbook of
Emotion Elicitation and Assessment, ed. J. A. Coan
and J. J. B. Allen (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2007): 928.
5/28/15 10:38 AM
 Innes-Ker:Film and Music in Laboratory Experiments 67
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