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RIAS WITA SURYANI (16178070)

SUMMARY III - LANDASAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN

CHAPTER 5
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY III:
CONCEPTS AND PROBLEM SOLVING

A. CONCEPTS
Concepts is an internal representation of a category of related stimuli (objects, events,
and processes) which allows a person to sort those stimuli into that category. There are two
types of concepts, concrete and abstract. Concrete concepts such as table are tangible and can
be perceive, while abstract concepts such as democracy typically are not. An information
processing approach to concept learning involves developing declarative knowledge
(definition of concept) and procedural knowledge (procedures for using the concept) and
integrating this knowledge within an appropriate conceptual domain, which is an organized set
of related concepts.

Three Approaches to Concept Representation

Nature of Representation Process for Creating

Representation
Classical Each concept is represented by a The attributes are abstracted from
Approach verbal descriptions of its critical everyday examples
attributes which are necessary and
sufficient to define the concept
Prototypical Each concept is represented by an The attributes and examples are
Approach image of and idealized example or abstracted from everyday examples
by a verbal descriptions of idealized
attributes
Exemplar Each concepts is represented with an No abstraction occur, the verbal
Approach image or a verbal descriptions of a descriptions or image of one
distinctive and memorable example distinctive example is encoded in
memory

In teaching concept, it is critical to focus students on the critical defining attributes or the
prototypical attributes of teaching examples and nonexamples, to present prototypical and
distinctive, memorable teaching examples, and to present the teaching examples and
nonexamples in multiple formats such as actual objects, visual images, and written
descriptions.

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Our ability to classify new experiences as concepts examples and nonexamples depends
on procedural knowledge stored in long-term memory. Based on classical approach, we
categorize concepts by noting the critical attributes of a particular examples and if it possesses
all the critical attributes it is classified as an example of that concepts. Based on prototype
approach, an idealized examples are used in classifying potential examples. If a potential
example is similar, it will be classified as a member of concept. Exemplar concepts
classification involves evaluating the degree of overlap between novel examples and the stored
exemplar.

The development of procedural knowledge requires practice classifying novel examples

and nonexamples of target concepts. The classical approach suggest teaching examples and
nonexamples should be selected that will highlight the critical attributes of target concepts.
Prototypes and exemplar approach suggest that teaching concepts should focus on developing
students ability to compare potential examples with a target example.
Concepts are categorized into conceptual domains in long-term memory often
represented in term of hierarchy or taxonomy. Particular levels of relevant taxonomy are
identified as basic-level categories. They are coordinate (same level) concepts that are
normally more familiar are learned first, and are referenced more frequently than other level of
that domain.

B. PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem can be define as any situation in which there is an obstacle to obtaining a
particular goal. They are three distinct component of problem, they are initial stage or givens,
consists of a descriptions of existing conditions that need to be changed in order to attain the
goal, goal state or solution which consist of conditions that indicate the problem has been
solved, and obstacle or barrier, refer to the conditions which obstruct the individuals ability
to go from the initial stage to goal state. Problem also can be differed in terms of well-defined
problem which include a clearly specified initial stage, goal stage, and obstacle and ill-defines
problem which include one or more components are nor clearly specified and defined.

There are two types of methods that can be used to overcome problem, they are
algorithms, refers to guaranteed to lead to a correct solution if they are applied properly and
heuristics which refers to methods that are based on our best guess, rules of thumbs, or general
experiences. Two types of heuristics are analogical approach and the difference-reduction
approach. Problem solving by analogical approach involves comparing the current problem
with other similar problem that have been solved and applying to the current problem the same
method which solved the analogous one. A difference-reduction approach aims to reduce the
differences between the current state and the goal state by creating sub goals that will move
one to the final goal by successive approximations. An alternative methods is the means-end
analysis which an individual creates sub goals whose purpose is to eliminate the most
important difference between the current state and goal state. In order to become a more
effective problem solver, an individual needs to acquire a large store of declarative knowledge
related the problem solving domain.

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CHAPTER 6
PIAGETIAN AND NEO-PIAGETIAN THEORIES OF
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMET

A. PIAGETS THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

According to Piaget, changes in behavior that occur during development are a result of
changes in our ability to reason about the world around us (Piaget, 1964). Piaget identifies the
internal changes as primary and responsible for the external changes. Furthermore, a variety
of environmental factors can also influence most biological systems. For example, the types of
foods available will influence the development of the digestive system as well as other
biological system that depend on nutrients. Piaget used two methods of observations to verify
basis tenets of his theory: a naturalistic observational method and clinical observation.

According Piaget, all normal individuals follow the same pattern of development
influenced by biological systems which is identified as functional invariants. Functional
invariants constrain and encourage all types of development called organization and adaption.
In organization, there are cognition and scheme. Cognition is viewed as one of many biological
systems that help people adapt to environment. Besides, schemes are specific pattern of mental
or physical activity for acquiring information about environment. For example, infants will
invariably grab novel objects. This grabbing scheme allows them to learn about the
characteristics of these objects. There are two kinds of schemas: figurative schemas which
attempts to represent reality as it appears and operative schemas which do not have a clear
referent in the environment.

Moreover, adaption refer to humans attempts to create an accurate view of the world
around so that they can successfully develop physically, emotionally, and intellectually.
Adaption occurs through two basic processes: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation
is the process of lifting new information into existing schemas. Besides, accommodation is
the temporary or permanent modification of schemas in order to more easily interact with the
world around. The process of assimilation and accommodation influences the development and
learning in variety of ways. Assimilation results in constant activity because humans are
spontaneously applying old and new schemes in an attempt to understand and control their
current experiences. Besides, permanent change due to accommodations occur as a result of
feedback from the outside world. According to Piaget (1967), while assimilation allows human
to be constantly active and gain information about the world, accommodation allows human to
benefit from this activity. That is, accommodation ensures that these activities result in useful
learning.
The stages of Piagets cognitive developments are listed into 4 stages:

Sensorimotor Stage (age birth to 2 years) where human behavior is basically

reflexive; the child is totally egocentric; object recognition and object permanent
develop; mental representation begins,

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Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years) where thinking involves more use of

symbols; language skills develop, behavior is guided more by intuition than by
logic, and thinking remains egocentric,
Concrete Operational Stage ( 7 to 11 years) where the child relies on real,
concrete things to solve problems, thinking becomes less egocentric, thought
process can be reversed, conservation and classification tasks can be resolved,
Formal Operational Stage (11 years to older) where logic and abstract thought
develops, all variables are considered before decisions are made, not all adults
reach this highest level, scientific thinking develops, and learners can evaluate
their own thinking.

B. ROBBIE CASES NEO-PIAGETIAN THEORY OF COGNITIVE

Robbie Cases neo-Piagetian theory adopts stage view of development. He blends two
models of development. His structural model focuses on the stages of development and the
mechanisms responsible for transition from stage to stage. Its process model focuses on the
specific procedures or operations used to manipulate information and the factors which
constrain the manipulation of the information. According to his theory, the course of
development within each development stage is constraint primarily by the efficiency of short
term storage (STSS) which, in turn, is linked to maturation and practice. Consequently, these
two factors are important determinants of an individuals movement through the stages of
development.
Additionally, the cases cognitive development stages is divided into four:
Sensory Motor Control Structures (birth to 1.5 years) where mental
representations are linked to physical movements,
Relational Control Structures (1.5 to 5 years) where children can detect and
coordinate relations along one dimension among objects, events, or people. For
example, weight is viewed as bipolarheavy and light,
Dimensional Control Structures (5 to 11 years) where children can extract the
dimensions of significance in the physical and social world. They can compare
two dimensions, such as height and width, in quantitative way,
Abstract Control Structures (11 to 18.5 years) where children acquire abstract
systems of thought that allow them to use proportional reasoning, solve verbal
analogy problems, and infer psychological traits in other people.

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Differences between Piagets and Cases Views of Stages and Development

PIAGETS CASES
Domain A child is within one A child can be in
specificity of stage across all domains. That different stages at one time.
stages is if a child is preoperational in That is, she can be in
the social domain, when will dimensional stage in the social
be preoperational in all other domain and relational in the
domain (e.g., linguistic, mathematical domain.
moral)

Mechanism Equilibration, which is a Self-regulatory process

responsible for self-regulatory process that which consists of an
movement from reduces the cognitive conflict individuals tendency to
one stage to between the childs view of structure his interactions in
another the world and reality. terms of problems situation
and the development of skills
to solve these problems.

Role of Instruction is one of Instruction plays a

instruction in many environmental critical part in development. It
each development experiences that will influence allows for practice of schemes
development. It does not, and skills for solving
however, play a critical part in problems which directly
development. influence cognitive
development. Instruction also
allows for the transmission of
important culture knowledge
and skills.

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