Sofiload 1 PDF

SOFiLOAD
Loads and Load Functions
SOFiSTiK 2016
SOFiLOAD
Loads and Load Functions
SOFiLOAD Manual, Version 2016-11

Software Version SOFiSTiK 2016
Copyright 2015 by SOFiSTiK AG, Oberschleissheim, Germany.
SOFiSTiK AG
HQ Oberschleissheim Office Nuremberg

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Germany Germany
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info@sofistik.de
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This manual is protected by copyright laws. No part of it may be translated, copied or

reproduced, in any form or by any means, without written permission from SOFiSTiK AG.
SOFiSTiK reserves the right to modify or to release new editions of this manual.
The manual and the program have been thoroughly checked for errors. However, SOFiSTiK
does not claim that either one is completely error free. Errors and omissions are corrected as
soon as they are detected.
The user of the program is solely responsible for the applications. We strongly encourage the
user to test the correctness of all calculations at least by random sampling.
Front Cover
Project: MILANEO, Stuttgart, Germany | Client: Bayerische Hausbau and ECE | Architect: RKW Rhode Kellermann Wawrowsky
| Structural Engineering for Bayerische Hausbau: Boll und Partner | Photo: Dirk Mnzner
Contents | SOFiLOAD
Contents
Contents i
1 General 1-1
2 Theoretical Principles 2-1

2.1 Equivalent Nodal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
2.2 Equivalent Nodal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Literature 2-3
3 Input Description 3-1

3.1 Input language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.2 Input records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3.3 GRP Selection and Properties of Groups . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
3.4 ACT Definition of an Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
3.5 LC Definition of a Load Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17
3.6 NODE Nodal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21
3.7 CABL Cable Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24
3.8 TRUS Truss Element Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26
3.9 Definition of Beam Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28
3.10 BEAM Distributed Beam Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-31
3.11 BEPL Point Beam Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-35
3.12 QUAD Element Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-40
3.13 BRIC Element Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-45
3.14 COPY Loads from Other Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-47
3.14.1 Support forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-50
3.14.2 Load trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-50
3.14.3 Wind and Wave loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-52
3.15 Free Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-54
3.15.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-54
3.15.2 Projection of Loading Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-55
3.15.3 Beam loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-56
3.15.4 Special Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-57
3.16 LAR Load Distribution Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-59
3.17 POIN Free Point Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-63
3.18 LINE,CURV Free Line Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-67
SOFiSTiK 2016 i
SOFiLOAD | Contents
3.19 AREA Free Area Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-73

3.19.1 Wind loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-77
3.20 VOLU Volume Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-79
3.20.1 Loading in Silos and Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-82
3.21 EXPO Export of Load Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-84
3.22 EVAL Evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-85
3.22.1 Equivalent Linear Temperature Load . . . . . . . . . 3-85
3.23 CTRL Optional Control Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-89
3.24 COOR Enquire nodal coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-92
3.25 ECHO Printout Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-93
4 Dynamic Loads 4-1

4.1 Pushover Analysis - Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
4.2 RESP Response Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
4.2.1 Eurocode EC 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14
4.2.2 Uniform/International Building Code UBC/IBC . . . 4-15
4.2.3 DIN 4149 old and new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
4.2.4 SIA 260 and NORM B 4015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16
4.2.5 Italian NTC according DM-2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16
4.2.6 Greek Code EAK (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16
4.2.7 Russian Code SNiP II-7-81 (1995/2000) . . . . . . . 4-17
4.2.8 Indian Standard IS 1893-2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-17
4.2.9 Japan Road Association-2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-17
4.2.10 Chinese Code GB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18
4.2.11 Wind spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
4.2.12 Modal Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-20
4.3 FUNC Load Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-22
4.3.1 Functions for Pedestrians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-23
4.3.2 Aperiodic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24
4.3.3 Functions for Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25
4.3.4 Ground accelerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25
4.4 FIMP Import of Load Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-26
4.5 ACCE Accelerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-27
4.6 STEP Dynamic History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-34
4.7 SIMQ Simulation of earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-35
4.8 REVA Response spectra for acceleration function . . . . . 4-37
4.9 PUSH Pushover Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-39
4.9.1 TYPE - Analysis Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-40
4.9.2 SPL - Structural Performance Limits . . . . . . . . . 4-59
5 Train Loading 5-1

5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
5.2 Load Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
ii SOFiSTiK 2016
Contents | SOFiLOAD
5.3 GAX Geometry of an Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4

5.4 LANE Width of Traffic Lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
5.5 TRAI Load Train Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
5.5.1 Impact Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14
5.5.2 Centrifugal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16
5.5.3 Load Trains according to Eurocode . . . . . . . . . . 5-17
5.5.4 Load Trains SLW and LKW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-27
5.5.5 Load trains BS 5400 and AASHTO, TMH7 . . . . . 5-29
5.5.6 Heavy Load trains BS 5400, TMH7 . . . . . . . . . . 5-31
5.5.7 Single trucks according to AASHTO . . . . . . . . . . 5-33
5.5.8 Load trains according CAN/CSA . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-34
5.5.9 Load trains IRC 6-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-35
5.5.10 Load trains of the Japan Road Association . . . . . 5-36
5.5.11 Load trains AS 5100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-36
5.5.12 Swedish Load Trains (BRO 2004) . . . . . . . . . . . 5-38
5.5.13 Railway train loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-39
5.5.14 Military NATO Load Trains (Stanag 2021) . . . . . . 5-46
5.6 TRPL Point Load of load train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-47
5.7 TRBL Block Load of Load Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-50
5.8 TREX Load Train Visualisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-52
6 Wind Loading 6-1

6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.2 Wind Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
6.3 Windforce Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
6.4 Turbulences and Aerodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
6.5 Response Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
6.6 Atmospheric Wind Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
6.7 WIND Windparameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
6.8 WPRO Wind profils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17
6.9 WROU Roughness for wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-19
6.10 WTOP Topology for Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-22
6.11 WSPE Wind Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24
6.11.1 Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-25
6.11.2 Coherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-28
6.11.3 Turbulence Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-29
6.12 WTST Test of coherency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-31
6.13 WGEN Generation of Wind Spectra and Histories . . . . . 6-33
6.14 WIPT Wind Tunnel Data Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-36
7 Wave Loading 7-1

7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
SOFiSTiK 2016 iii

SOFiLOAD | Contents
7.3 Regular Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 7-2

7.3.1 Linear Wave Theory (Airy) . . . . . . . . ....... 7-3
7.3.2 Stokes 2nd and 5th Order Wave Theory ....... 7-5
7.3.3 Cnoidal Wave Theory: 3rd Order and 5th Order
Iwagaki approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 7-6
7.3.4 Stretching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 7-7
7.3.5 Validity of Wave Theories . . . . . . . . . ....... 7-9
7.3.6 Wave Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 7-11
7.4 Irregular Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 7-11
7.5 WAVE Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 7-14
8 Snow Loads 8-1
9 Output Description 9-1

9.1 Check List of Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
9.2 Check List of Load Case Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
9.3 Meshfree Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
9.4 Nodal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3
9.5 QUAD Element Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-4
9.6 BRIC Element Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-4
9.7 Beam Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5
9.8 Truss and Cable Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5
9.9 Accelerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-6
9.10 Wind Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-6
9.11 Load and Time Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-8
9.12 Export of Load Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-8
iv SOFiSTiK 2016
General | SOFiLOAD
1 General
SOFiLOAD generates loading for all SOFiSTiK-Modules.
Loads are organized in load cases, which are members of a unique action. Load
cases are addressed via a number, while the action is designated by up to 4
characters, 48 combinations have been reserved for designated types of ac-
tions.
The combination of the load cases within the actions may be done in a very gen-
eral way, there are however three predefined combination methods: permanent,
optional, exclusive.
The final combination of the actions is then done within MAXIMA or AQB via
combination coefficients () and safety factors (), which may vary in there value
from load case to load case, but will be always applied with the same kind of
factor.
The loads can be defined independently of a FEM-mesh. SOFiLOAD will handle

the transition from the geometric model to the analysis model by converting
general loading patterns to more specific nodal or elemental loads. The user
may influence the conversion process if needed.
The loads are either already in the database or may be defined via SOFiLOAD.
If the element mesh is changed, SOFiLOAD has to repeat the elemental assign-
ment. Beside that you may specify nodal or elemental loads directly as known
from other finite element systems. Those loads will be deleted however if the
element mesh is changed or explicit redefinition of a load case takes place.
Record names and items have been change compared to former definitions
in SOFiSTiK to become more simple and unified. Thus it is not possible in
general to copy old CADINP-data, but the export-function may be helpful in many
cases. All input load values will be converted according to the units defined in
SOFiSTiK. DIM.
There are also possibilities to generate loads from results in the database.
These are especially support forces converted to loads, imperfections, creep
deformations or prestressing effects.
As an special extension we have provided or intended load generators to deal

with the rather complex loading of load trains on bridges, earth quake, wind and
snow on the structure with very extended features. These options are not part
SOFiSTiK 2016 1-1

SOFiLOAD | General
of the basic program version however.
This manual starts with the simple nodal and elemental loads, will then cover
the geometric load definitions and finally come to the more complex load gener-
ators.
1-2 SOFiSTiK 2016

Theoretical Principles | SOFiLOAD
2 Theoretical Principles
2.1 Equivalent Nodal Loads

The Finite Element system is a discrete system and is therefore only enabled
to treat with equivalent nodal load contributions, not with real point loads or
moments. The difference of the two meanings can be seen in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Equivalent nodal loads for mesh refinement
When the mesh density is increased, you will have different load patterns for a
distributed load, but the same for a point load. This indicates also that a given
mesh has a distinct resolution for load distributions. The coarser mesh can not
distinguish between two point loads, a distributed load or a point load between
the nodes.
On the other side this states that a load may be specified as a single nodal load
only if the size of load is less than the element mesh size. If you refine the mesh
near that load point you will get higher and higher stresses or forces, as the
finite elements will approximate you infinite solution better and better. So you
choose either a mesh size not smaller than the minimum load distribution area
(thickness for plates for example) or you have to specify the loads as distributed
loads.
From that we conlude further, that the generated nodal loads by SOFiLOAD may
be only as accurate as the given Finite Element mesh.
For beam loading we have the special case, that loading is also defined within
SOFiSTiK 2016 2-1

SOFiLOAD | Theoretical Principles
the element having an effect on all internal forces. But we have to distinguish
between a standard FE-Beam-Element having only cubic displacement func-
tions and a more generalized Beam Element according to the Transfer-Method.
The first will require a finer mesh to model complex loading accurately, the latter
may have restrictions on the modelling of the stiffness. (Piece-wise constant in
STAR2 e.g).
2.2 Equivalent Nodal Loads

For springs, cables and trusses you may specify in SOFiMSHA a constant value
of prestress, acting in any load case. For cables and trusses you may also
define a load case dependant prestress. Any type of prestress will introduce like
a thermal expansion strains acting on the element.
Cables and trusses will be prestresses by some external influence. For fixed
ends these strains will introduce the prestress, for flexible supports you will get
deformations diminishing your given prestress. If you want to achieve a given
value of prestress you have to define external loading or use an element with
low stiffness and the given prestress.
For beams, by contrast, prestress is defined as an equilibrium state of stress

(prestressed concrete via tendons). Thus we have an additional component to
consider. Since the prestress is imposed on the element itself, the resulting
forces on freely deformable beams are the input prestress forces themselves. If
the deformation is constraint however, constraining forces arise. In the limiting
case, e.g. if a beam is not allowed to deform at all the resultant force is zero,
because the forces imposed by the prestress are beared by the support instead
of the beam.
For beams you may specify a statically determinate part of the prestress by the
tendon force and its eccentricity and inclination. The distribution along the axis is
linear for the stress, but cubically for the eccentricity. The effect of the prestress
has to aspects. First we have the additional forces within a section, second we
have deformations, introducing new forces if constraints exist.
Due to the shear forces it is strongly recommended not to combine different

tendons in a single one if the eccentricity is not the same.
2-2 SOFiSTiK 2016

Literature | SOFiLOAD
Literature
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[5] A.K. Chopra. Dynamics of structures: theory and applications to earth-
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[8] A.G. Davenport. The Application of Statistical Concepts to the Wind Load-
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[11] ECCS. European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, 1978.
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November 2004.
[14] ESDU. Characteristics of wind speed in the lower layers of the atmosphere
near the ground, Part II: single point data for strong winds (neutral atmo-
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[15] ESDU. Characteristics of atmospheric turbulence near the ground, Part III:
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[16] P. Fajfar. Capacity spectrum method based on inelastic demand spectra.
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SOFiSTiK 2016 2-3

SOFiLOAD | Literature
[17] P. Fajfar. A nonlinear analysis method for performance-based seismic de-

sign. Earthquake Spectra, 16(3):573592, 2000.
[18] J. D. Fenton. A fifth order Stokes theory for steady waves. J. Waterways,
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Science, volume 9. B. Le Mhaut & D. M. Hanes, 1990.
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bich, Gulf, Houston, 1999.
[21] S.A. Freeman. Development and use of capacity spectrum method. In Pro-
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[22] S.A. Freeman, J.P. Nicoletti, and J.V. Tyrell. Evaluations of existing buildings
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[23] Y. Goda. Random seas and design of maritime structures. Third Edition
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[24] N. Haritos. EJSE Special Issue: Loading on Structures: Introduction to the
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[25] L. H. Holthuijsen. Waves in oceanic and coastal waters. Cambridge Uni-
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[27] I. Kovcs. Synthetic Wind for Investigations in Time-Domain. In Structures
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namischer Windbelastung. Bautechnik, 11:650661, 1993.
[29] I. Kovcs, H. Svensson, and E. Jordet. Analytical Aerodynamic Investiga-
tion of the Cable-Stayed Helgeland Bridge. Journal of Structural Engineer-
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[30] H. Krawinkler and G.D.P.K. Seneviratna. Pros and Cons of a Pushover
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[31] J. Maier-Erbacher. Gelndebeeinflusste Windbelastung kreiszylindrischer
Bauwerke. Sonderforschungsbereich 210, Karlsruhe, 1989.
2-4 SOFiSTiK 2016

Literature | SOFiLOAD
[32] E. Miranda and V.V. Bertero. Evaluation of Strength Reduction Factors for
Earthquake-Resistant Design. Earthquake Spectra, 10(2):357379, 1994.
[33] R. C. Nelson. Depth limited design wave heights in very flat regions .
Coastal Engineering, 23, 1994.
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monographs on earthquake criteria, structural design, and strong motion
records. Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, 1982.
[35] US Army Corps of Engineers. Coastal engineering manual (CEM), 2008.
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Next Generations of Codes Structures, pages 277287. Balkema, Rotter-
dam, 1997.
[37] G. Rosemeier. Winddruckprobleme bei Bauwerken. Springer-Verlag,
Berlin-Heidelberg-New York, 1976.
[38] H. Ruscheweyh. Dynamische Windwirkung an Bauwerken. Bauverlag,
Wiesbaden/Berlin, 1982.
[39] H. Schmidt. Meteorologische Grundlagen der Windlastermittlung in der
Bundesrepublik Deutschland, .
[40] L. Skjelbreia and J. Hendrickson. Fifth Order Gravity Wave Theory. Pro-
ceedings of 7th Coastal Eng. Conf., pages 184196, 1961.
SOFiSTiK 2016 2-5

SOFiLOAD | Literature
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Input Description | SOFiLOAD
3 Input Description
3.1 Input language

The input occurs in a free format with the CADINP input language (see the
general manual SOFiSTiK: FEA / STRUCTURAL Installation and Basics).
Input is defined within blocks of CADINP-Input language, separated by the

record name END. Within each block, values to CTRL and ECHO will be ac-
tive for the total block, while all other values cover only the current load case.
There are the following possibilities:
Only definition of LC with a number

Will print all loads of that load case.
Definition of LC with parameters but without any loading
Will change those parameters and redistribute all global loading to a the
current mesh.
Input of LC with loads
The load case is redefined, deleting all old data.
Three categories of units are distinguished:
mm Fixed unit. Input is always required in the specified unit.
[mm] Explicit unit. Input defaults to the specified unit. Alternatively, an

explicit assignment of a related unit is possible (eg. 2.5[m] ).
[mm] 1011 Implicit unit. Implicit units are categorised semantically and de-
noted by a corresponding identity number (shown in green). Valid
categories referring to the unit length are, for example, geodetic
elevation, section length and thickness. The default unit for each
category is defined by the currently active (design code specific)
unit set. This input default can be overridden as described above.
The specified unit in square brackets corresponds to the default for
unit set 5 (Eurocodes, NORM UNIT 5).
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SOFiLOAD | Input Description
3.2 Input records

The following record names and icons are defined:
Record Items
GRP NO VAL CS WIND CW CFR
ACT TYPE GAMU GAMF PIS0 PSI1 PSI2 PS1S
GAMA PART SUP TITL
LC NO TYPE FACT FACD DLX DLY DLZ
GAMU GAMF PIS0 PSI1 PSI2 PS1S
GAMA CRI1 CRI2 CRI3 TITL
NODE NO TYPE P P2 P3 P4 P5
P6 P7 FRAD EXX EYY EZZ
CABL FROM TO INC TYPE PA PE
TRUS FROM TO INC TYPE PA PE
BEAM FROM TO INC TYPE PA PE A
L EYA EZA EYE EZE REF
REFT
BEPL FROM TO INC TYPE P A
EY EZ REF REFT OPT
QUAD FROM TO INC TYPE P X Y
Z DPX DPY DPZ NTYP VTYP
BRIC FROM TO INC TYPE P X Y
Z DPX DPY DPZ NTYP
COPY NO FACT TYPE FROM TO INC REF
DX DY DZ ALPH WIDE YEX
PROJ
LAR NO NAR GRP GRP1 GRP2 GRP3 M
N T X1 Y1 Z1 X2
Y2 Z2 X3 Y3 Z3 X4
Y4 Z4
POIN REF NO TITL PROJ WIDE NREF TYPE
P X Y Z
LINECURV REF NO TITL PROJ WIDE NREF TYPE
Table continued on next page.
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Record Items
P1 X1 Y1 Z1 P2 X2
Y2 Z2 ...
P6 X6 Y6 Z6
AREA REF NO TITL PROJ WIDE NREF TYPE
P1 X1 Y1 Z1 P2 X2
Y2 Z2 ...
P6 X6 Y6 Z6
VOLU REF NO TITL TYPE P1 X1 Y1
Z1 P2 X2 Y2 Z2 P3
X3 Y3 Z3
EXPO NO TO PASS
EVAL TYPE NO NAME IND
CTRL OPT VAL V2 V3 V4
ECHO OPT VAL
RESP TYPE CLAS MOD SA SB SMIN TB
TC TD TE K1 K2 ZONE AG
AH AV BEZ
FUNC T F T1 TMIN TMAX S F2
T2 F3 T3 F4 T4 TITL
ACCE TYPE NO AX AY AZ AXX AYY
AZZ WXX WYY WZZ REF REFX REFY
REFZ ARED AH GH LINF
STEP N DT LCST TITL
GAX NO S X Y Z R A
R2 NX NY NZ ALF INCL INCR
TYPE TITL
LANE NO TYPE WR WL SA SE YCA
YCE YRA YLA YRE YLE L HSA
HSE INCA INCE HEFF BEFF DEFF INCD
ASL
TRAI TYPE P1 PFAC WIDT PHI PHI2 PHIS
PHI4 V FUGA XCON YEX DIR DIRT
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Record Items
FRB DAB BOGI FRBO DABO WHEE FRWH
DAWH
TRPL P PB PW PF PFAC DIST A
DPOS DMIN DMAX Y Y2 HW ZW
HF PHI B BW LW SNO FRB
DAB BOGI FRBO DABO WHEE FRWH DAWH
CONT
TRBL P PB PW PF PFAC VARI A
L LMAX LDEL Y Y2 HW ZW
HF PHI B BW LW SNO FRB
DAB BOGI FRBO DABO WHEE FRWH DAWH
TREX NO GRP SNO NODE OPT
WAVE TYPE H T D SWL DX DY
DZ UC EXPU RHO NF TMIN TMAX
GAM ALF SIGA SIGB S PHI
WIND CODE ZONE CLAS DX DY DZ XREF
YREF ZREF DXR DYR DZR GH HMIN
VR VB
WPRO H V VBOE TLON TLAT TVER LLON
LLAT LVER
WROU SEA A1 R1 A2 R2 ... ...
A9 R9
WTOP TYPE XM YM ZM DX DY DZ
H B
WSPE TYPE A1LO A2LO A3LO BLO CLO
A1LA A2LA A3LA BLA CLA A1VE
A2VE A3VE BVE CVE C3E KUU KUV
KUW KVU KVV KVW KWU KWV KWW
WGEN LCG SPEC LCOH HIST T DT FMIN
FMAX FDEL HTYP NR0 NR1 NR2 NR3
NR4 NR5 NR6 NR7 NR8 NR9 TO
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Record Items
WIPT X Y Z GRP TOL ELIM MNAM
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3.3 GRP Selection and Properties of Groups
GRP
Item Description Unit Default

NO Group number -
VAL Value of selection LT FULL
OFF do not use group
YES use without printout
FULL use and print
CS Construction stage for sections -
WIND Option for Windloading LT LIT

NONE no wind loads
MEAN mean value
GUST max value of gusts
CW Factor for wind pressure coefficients -
CFR Factor wind pressure for frictional parts -
WAVE Option for wave loading LT LOAD
NONE No wave loading
LOAD apply wave loading
SHOW Visualisation of surface
EIGB Estimate for bending frequency -
EIGT Estimate for torsional frequency -
EIGL Estimate for lateral bending frequency -
Without specification all elements will be used. If defining values only the se-
lected groups will be used for the following load cases. This selection will be
needed only for those cases where the geometric selection is not sufficient.
The selection of groups may be different for different load cases. For very com-
plex load patterns you may generate the loading within several load cases and
combine them then via the command COPY to a single load case.
Values WIND to EIGT will be needed only for wind loading. Hereby the re-
quested option for static wind is the peak value (GUST), while the dynamic wind
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needs the mean value. (MEAN). The values EIGB and EIGT will be needed only
for the evaluation of the derivativa, see WGEN.
The value CW defines a global factor to the wind pressure coefficients. The
pressure coefficients are defined for plane elements via the record name QUAD,
for beam elements they are defined with the sections. Reduction factors are
f.e. defined for chimneys as a function of the total height.
The value CFR defines the frictional coefficients cfr according Table 10.13.1. of
EC 1 part 2-4:
Surface Frictional value cfr

smooth (e.g. Steel, smooth concrete) 0.01
rough (e.g. rough concrete, tar roofs) 0.02
very rough (e.g. corrugated, ripped, folded) 0.04
With CS you may select between different variants of cross sections defined in
AQUA with different wind loading areas and roughness values.
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3.4 ACT Definition of an Action
See also: ACT, LC

ACT

TYPE Designation of action LT4 !
GAMU Unfavourable safety factor *
GAMF Favourable safety factor *
PSI0 Combination coefficient rare *
PSI1 Combination coefficient frequent *
PSI2 Combination coefficient quasi-permanent *
PS1S Combination coefficient non-frequent *
GAMA Safety factor accidental *
PART Partition to which the action belongs: LT *

G permanent
P prestress
Q variable action
Q_1 variable action load group 1
...
Q_9 variable action load group 9
A accidental action
E earthquake
SUP Default superposition of the load cases LT *
within the action:
PERM permanent with unique factor
PERC permanent with individual factors
COND conditional
EXCL mutually exclusive within cate-
gory
EXEX mutually exclusive within action
UNSI conditional with unfavourable sign
USEX exclusive with unfavourable sign
ALEX always but exclusive
TITL Designation of action LT24 *
As type of the action one may use any literal with up to 4 characters, however
some combinations are reserved for special purpose. They are defined in the
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corresponding INI-files and will follow the designation of the selected design
code as close as possible. An overview is given in the table below. Furthermore,
it is possible to subdivide each action with up to two characters in categories,
designated with a character from A to Z, each having distinguished combination
coefficients or safety factors. The category will be appended with an underscore
to the name of the action.
Each category has its own combination values and its own load cases and a
default superposition rule within the action category,
Each Category comprehends all its categories, i.e. one may select either a
sub category on its own or all categories by the generic name of the category.
(Q selects all Q_?)
I N I - File/ EC- Default s
act ion G
loadcase
loadcase
act ion Q
act ion Q_A
loadcase
loadcase
act ion Q_B
loadcase
loadcase
Figure 3.1: Structure of the actions, their categories and their load cases
For example there are for road bridges in EC1-3 for the uniform life load UDL and
the movable double axle different combination coefficients. For simple cases
one will define a load case for every span of type L_U (UDL), to be superim-
posed conditionally, while the discrete load cases of different load positions of
the double axle will be defined as type L_T and exclude each other. All load
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cases however will be applied together as leading action.
Finally any individual load case may have its own combination factors assigned
in SOFiLOAD. (see LC). This should be avoided however and a definition of
combination coefficients in MAXIMA is then at least ambiguous and of little use
therefore.
Normal Add. Spec. Remark

for LC only: not assigned to an action
NONE
Gg ZGg SGq dead load
G1g Z1g S1q primary dead load
G2g Z2g S2q secondary dead load
Pg ZPg SPq Prestress (for old DIN use V !)
Cg ZCg SCq Creep and shrinkage
Qq ZQ SQ variable load
L ZL SL life load (L in analog mode L_T (TS), ZL in analog
mode L_U (UDL))
W ZW SW Wind (use ZW for Bridges)
Sq ZS SS Snow (use ZS for Bridges)
Rg ZR SR Earth pressure, Water Pressure
Fq ZF SF Settlements (ZF = expected, SF = possible)
T ZT ST Temperature
A ZA SA Accidental
B ZB SB Construction, Maintenance
(ZB = resistance of bearings, SB = Exchange of bear-
ings)
E ZE SE Earthquake (ZE = Service, SE = Design)
g
= Load case is permanent (always added)
q
= Load case is conditional (added if unfavourable)

= Load cases are conditional excluding each other
The actions indicated in the table are used only as preset action, provided that
they are available in the INI-file of the selected design code.
The entries within one row with preceding Z for additional loading and S for
special loading may be treated in AQB as belonging to the same action.
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Further there is an action GA for dead weight for the check of stability (Buoyancy,
overturning etc.) with = 1.10/ 0.90 instead of = 1.35/ 1.00.
For the action of earthquake there is in EC 8 an importance factor depending

on the importance class to be selected by the user explicitly:
Class factor Description

I 1.4 Buildings whose integrity during earthquakes is of vital impor-
tance for civil protection, e.g. hospitals, fire stations, power
plants, etc.
II 1.2 Buildings whose seismic resistance is of importance in view
of the consequences associated with a collapse, e.g. schools,
assembly halls, cultural institutions etc.
III 1.0 Ordinary buildings, not belonging to the other categories
IV 0.8 Buildings of minor importance for public safety, e.g. agricul-
tural buildings, etc.
In principal every action may be subdivided by categories. For some action

types (Q, L or S) the values from Table 9.3 of EC1 resp. DIN 1055-100, Table
A2 or other deviations are already available as follows:
Action 0 1 2
Q: Payload for buildings [0.70] [0.50] [0.30]
- Q_A Housing [0.70] [0.50] [0.30]
- Q_B Offices [0.70] [0.50] [0.30]
- Q_C Assembly rooms [0.70] [0.70] [0.60]
- Q_D Sales rooms [0.70] [0.70] [0.60]
- Q_E Storage rooms [1.00] [0.90] [0.80]
Live load for buildings
- Q_F truck load < 30kN [0.70] [0.70] [0.60]
- Q_G 30kN < truck load < 160kN [0.70] [0.50] [0.30]
- Q_H Roofs [0.00] [0.00] [0.00]
L: Live loads according EC 1.3 etc.
- L_T Tandem Axle of LM 1 [0.75] [0.75] [0.20]
- L_U UDL loading of LM 1 [0.40] [0.40] [0.20]
- L_C Load model UIC 71 ( = 1.45) [0.80] [0.80] [0.00]
- L_D Load model SW/0 ( = 1.45 [0.80] [0.80] [0.00]
- L_E Load model SW/2 ( = 1.20) [0.00] [0.80] [0.00]
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Action 0 1 2
Live load for buildings
- L_F truck load < 30kN [0.70] [0.70] [0.60]
- L_G 30kN < truck load < 160kN [0.70] [0.50] [0.30]
- L_H Roofs [0.00] [0.00] [0.00]
S: Snow for buildings [0.60] [0.20] [0.00]
- S_L = buildings up to 1000m elevation [0.50] [0.20] [0.00]
- S_H = buildings above 1000m elevation [0.70] [0.50] [0.20]
- For SIA 260 with PSI0 as elevation h 1-60/ h 1-250/ h 1-1000/ h
W: Wind for buildings [0.60] [0.50] [0.00]
T: Temperature (no fire) for buildings [0.60] [0.50] [0.00]
F: Settlements [1.00] [1.00] [1.00]
Other actions [0.80] [0.70] [0.50]
A definition of ACT will reinitialize the action with the defaults defined in the
INI-file depending on the category of the design code. Values GAMU to PS1S
replace the predefined values. The user should check the defaults in all cases.
Deviations of the PSI-values for wind and temperature especially for bridges
or other non buildings are to be expected as all values are "boxed values" de-
pending on individual or country dependant settings. For example you will find
in OENORM B 4750 categories with trucks between 30 and 60 kN with values
augmented by 0.1 for 1 and 2 .
For all EN codes as well the SIA codes there are two defaults for the live load for
buildings with the categories F,G and H. The user can choose, whether the live
load for buildings should be in an own action L (with categories L_F, L_G and
L_H) or whether these categories should be a part of the action Q in addition to
the payloads for buildings (categories Q_A till Q_H).
If the category of the design code or the design code is changed in AQUA, all
actions should be redefined. ACT INIT deletes all defined actions and superpo-
sition rules if specified in SOFiLOAD.
With the specification of ACT all subsequent load cases in SOFILOAD will then
have this action type as default.
PART defines, to which action of the selected superposition equation the input
action belongs. The actions in the superposition equations are distinguished
according to their temporal variances:
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permanent actions: PART G e.g dead load

PART P prestress
variable actions PART Q
PART Q_1 load group 1
...
accidental actions PART A
action earthquake PART E
Thus the item PART allows the correct classification of user-defined actions, but
also of special cases as for example PART G SUP ALEX (always but exclusive,
it means, that only one load case is always used). Exclusively the item SUP
controls, how the load cases which are a part of the actions are used for the
superposition (always, conditional, mutually exclusive).
Meant for example PART P, that the input action is used in the equation part
Pk for superpositions for ultimate and serviceability limit state (EC,DIN, DIN-FB,
see manual MAXIMA, chapter 2).
The item PART depends on TYPE for preset actions. For example PART G is
the default for the actions G, G1 and G2, PART P for the actions P and C, PART
Q for the actions Q and L, PART A for the action A and PART E for the action E.
The item PART has to be input for user-defined actions. Otherwise the user-
defined actions get PART Q (default).
The item SUP defines the default treatment of multiple load cases within an
action. The default will be taken from the INI-File, but for free defined types of
actions it is EXCL in general, if the type of the action has a leading Q it will
become COND and for a leading G it will be PERM.
In MAXIMA one may overwrite this for any particular load case of an action or
recombine load cases (e.g. 0.7*LC_101(Ex)+0.5*LC_102(Ey)). Due to historic
reasons there are special literals at record LC in MAXIMA in addition to the
literals of SUP:
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SOFiLOAD MAXIMA
Remark
ACT SUP LC TYPE
PERM G always (permanent), safety factor action-wise
PERC PERC always (permanent) with variable factors, safety fac-
tor load-case-wise
COND Q conditional (only unfavourable)
EXCL A* mutually exculsive
EXEX Ano mutually exclusive but conditional inclusive cate-
gories (only within an action), MAXIMA record LC
only one alternative group number Ano
UNSI W changing sign (e.g. earthquake)
USEX X* changing sign, mutually exclusive
ALEX AG1 always but exclusive (only within an action)
F additional load case to be combined
Using SUP PERM the same safety factor is used for all load cases of a perma-
nent action (e.g. ACT G). In this case the sum of the values of the single load
cases is decisive, whether the unfavourable (GAMU) or the favourable (GAMF)
safety factor is applied. In the contrast to that the safety factors are considered
load-case-wisely, if SUP PERC is defined. Here one load case of the permanent
action can get GAMU and another GAMF.
SUP EXEX excludes only categories against each other within an action
(no exclusion of different actions). If for example the categories X_1 and X_2
of the action X are defined with SUP EXEX, then only the most unfavourable load
case is used either from X_1 or from X_2 and also only, if it has an unfavourable
contribution. In the contrast to that an unfavourable load case from X_1 and an
unfavourable load case from X_2 are used for the input of SUP EXCL.
SUP ALEX defines a permanent alternative group (MAXIMA record LC TYPE

AG1). Only the load cases of an action or all load cases of the categories of
an action are used for the formation of a permanent alternative group. Here
only a load case is considered for the superposition, also if it has a favourable
contribution. Load cases of different actions do not exclude themselves mutually.
If SUP ALEX is input for some actions, a load case is considered per action.
In program MAXIMA it is additionally possible to assign load cases of an ac-

tion or category to several permanent alternative groups. The input is done in
program MAXIMA with LC ... TYPE AG1 till AG99.
The total mechanism of the defaults for the action types is governed by the
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following rules:
By selecting a design code within AQUA all definitions given in the asso-
ciated INI-File in the [action] -section will become available. If no such file
is available, defaults in the program are available for all EC and newer DIN
(since year 2000). For all other cases there are exactly two predefined ac-
tions G and Q without any coefficients or factors.
When addressing an action, a copy of this definition is created in the
database which has then the possibility of deviating factors if explicitly de-
fined with this record or via the SOFiPLUS menus.
When creating a load case, the factors are copied from the action definition
to the load case. However those factors may be modified for any individual
load case.
For special design purposes the factors may be changed temporarily when
using the load cases in AQB.
Variable action - load groups:
The load groups PART Q_1 till Q_9 can be used for a better formation of combi-
nation without intermediate superpositions in MAXIMA e.g. for the load models
of the bridge design (EN 1990/A1). If different load groups are defined for cate-
gories with corresponding inputs for the item SUP, then the intermediate super-
positions and the following superpositions are done in one MAXIMA run.
Example:
PROG SOFILOAD
HEAD
ACT XY_1 gamu 1.4 0.0 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.6 PART Q_1 SUP excl
ACT XY_2 gamu 1.3 0.0 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 PART Q_1 SUP excl
ACT XY_3 gamu 1.45 0.0 0.6 0.3 0.0 0.6 PART Q_2 SUP exex
ACT XY_4 gamu 1.35 0.0 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.5 PART Q_3 SUP exex
...
PROG MAXIMA
HEAD
COMB 1 desi TYPE desi BASE 2100
ACT XY_1
LC -1
ACT XY_2
LC -1
ACT XY_3
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LC -1
ACT XY_4
LC -1
or
COMB 2 expl TYPE desi BASE 2200

ADD {QI} gamm
First of all three load groups Q_1, Q_2 and Q_3 are defined with PART in the
program SOFiLOAD. The categories XY_1 und XY_2 are a art of the load group
1. Their load cases are mutually exclusive only within the respective category
about the input SUP EXCL. The categories XY_3 and XY_4 are a part of the
load groups 2 and 3. All load cases of both categories are mutually exclusive
about the input SUP EXEX.
With one of the MAXIMA combinations then the superposition is done as follows:
First of all MAXIMA searches which load cases of the load group 1 are decisive
(possible one ore two or no load case = first intermediate superposition).Then
the decisive load case of the load groups 2 and 3 is determined (possible one
or no load case = second intermediate superposition). In the last step the final
superposition is done. Either the decisive load cases of the load group 1 or the
decisive load case of the goups 2 and 3 are here the final result.
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3.5 LC Definition of a Load Case
LC

NO Number of load case 0
TYPE Type/Action of load case LT4 *
FACT Factor of load case 1.0
FACD Factor of structural dead weight 0.0
DLX component of dead weight in X-direction *
DLY component of dead weight in Y-direction *
DLZ component of dead weight in Z-direction *
GAMU Unfavourable safety factor *

GAMF Favourable safety factor *
PSI0 Combination coefficient standard *
PSI1 Combination coefficient frequent *
PSI2 Combination coefficient quasi-permanent *
PS1S Combination coefficient non-frequent *
GAMA Safety factor accidental *
CRIT Time criteria sec 0
CRI1 User criteria I 0
CRI2 User criteria II 0
CRI3 User criteria III 0
TITL Title of loadcase LT32 -
Defining LC will select this load case for further treatment.
nodal loads: NODE

Elemental loading: BEPL, BEAM TRUS, CABL, QUAD, BRIC
Copy loading: COPY, EVAL
meshless point load: POIN
meshless line load: LINE
meshless areal loading: AREA
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meshless load on volumes: VOLU

Dynamic Loads, Load Trains on bridges, Wind loads
There are levels of working on load cases for SOFiLOAD:
Change of parameters of an action

No definition of a load case number defines the safety factors and combina-
tion coefficients of the action TYPE.
Change of load case parameters
Values TYPE, FACT, CRIT to CRI3 or TITL may be changed for existing load
cases. But you may not define a factor of the dead load or any other loading
as this will delete the total loading of that load case automatically.
Load generation
Via load type REST you may change not only parameters but all the gener-
ated loading will be reestablished from the load generators - This is espe-
cially useful for postprocessing from graphical input definitions.
For a load case containing COPY commands, i.e. is composed by other
load cases, all loads are deleted and repeated all the COPY commands with
REST.
Explicit definition of loading
If factors of the structural dead weight or other loading are defined after a
LC record, all loading data for that load case will be deleted, to allow the
redefinition of loading for a given load case.
Explicit deletion of a load case
If defining the TYPE DEL the total load case including all known data will be
deleted immediately .
The factor of the load case has (despite the wind load generator) no specific
influence in SOFiLOAD and may be changed later at any time by any analysis
program. Loads will be multiplied by this factor only when used in the analysis
itself. The factor FACT affects all forces and moment loadings, however, not
temperature, strain and prestressing loadings! It does also not affect dead load
factors FACD, DLX, DLY or DLZ.
The components of the dead weight will be in the positive direction of the re-
quested global axis. You have to enter the correct sign for DLX to DLZ. If you
specify only FACD, SOFiLOAD will apply the dead load in the direction defined
as the gravity direction. A definition will delete all loads of this load case auto-
matically.
As type of the load case on may specify the name of an action. Only predefined
or explicitly defined actions may be used with LC (see ACT). If the load case is
3-18 SOFiSTiK 2016

supposed not to be assigned for an action, the literal NONE or - has to be input
for TYPE. There are also some special literals possible, assigning a (e.g. non
linear) load case to be of a spcific type used for special design tasks:
(D) Ultimate Design combination

(A) Ultimate accidental combination
(E) Ultimate Earthquake combination
(P) Service: Quasi permanent combination
(F) Service: Frequent combination
(N) Service: Non-frequent combination
(R) Service: Rare (characteristic) combination
(H) Comb. of principal loading
(HZ) Comb. of principal+supplemental loading
(PT) permanent load combination e.g. for timber
(LT) long term load combination e.g. for timber
(MT) middle term load combination e.g. for timber
(ST) short term load combination e.g. for timber
(VT) very short term load combination e.g. for timber
Values GAMU to PS1S belong to the action TYPE in general. However they
may have individual values for every specific load case. Thus at the time of the
creation of a load case, the current values from the action will be taken as default
for the individual load case for Version 23. Starting with version 2010 however
only the explicitly defined values will be kept, all other values will adopt to those
of the action itself if the action is changed.
Values CRI1 to CRI3 are very general parameters of the load case. They may be
used freely for postprocessing via DBVIEW. You may specify them in advance
or set them after the analysis by reading some results from the database. (e.g.
a system dimension, a strength reduction etc.) TALPA uses CRI1 for the safety
factor of the material needed by analysis according to Fellenius.
A load case imperfection will be defined with TYPE IMP. The load cases of this
type allow to use imperfection loads for the definition of load case combinations
for the analysis according to second order theory. These load cases can not be
used for a linear analysis of single load cases with ASE, STAR2 and also not for
a superpositon of the linear load cases with MAXIMA.
Defining TYPE EINF a load case will be declared as influence line. You have to
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-19

specify at least one load to select the value, the influence line is intended for.
You need a separate load case for any value to be treated, but then the influence
line will have all components of loading available. For an influence line load case
only deformations in global coordinates are printed in general.
Influence Line needed Loading e.g.

Beam-moment Unit disrotation BEPL D?
Beam-force Unit dislocation BEPL W?
QUAD-force Dirac-delta curvature QUAD E*
Support force nodal displacement NODE W?
Displacement nodal load NODE P?
Example for the influence line for moment MY at beam 1001 at location 2.0 to
be saved as load case number 91:
LC 91 EINF
BEPL 1001 DY 1.0 2.0
Via this concept you may compute very special influence lines. If you want to
know the influence line for the upper normal stress of a section = N/A - M/W,
you may define this via (Area A is #A, momentum resistance W is #W:
LC 92 EINF
BEPL 1001 WX 1.0/ #A 2.0
BEPL 1001 DY -1.0/ #W 2.0
For plates and shells there are special load types for QUAD, allowing the neces-
sary dirac-delta load to be defined.
To a establish and to evaluate many or all possible influence lines, the proce-
dures provided by program ELLA are far more easier and faster.
3-20 SOFiSTiK 2016

3.6 NODE Nodal Loads
See also: LC, TRUS, CABL, beam-loading, QUAD, BRIC,

COPY, free-loading
NODE

NO Number of node or designation of sec- / LT !
ondary group number
TYPE Type of Loading LT PG
P1 Load values [] !
P2 up to seven depending on load type [] -
P3 [] -
P4 [] -
P5 [] -
P6 [] -
P7 [] -
FRAD Radial factor for load values LT -
R multiply with radius
RR multiply with square of radius
EXX Exzentricity to node [m] 1001 -

EYY (will be immediately converted to moments) [m] 1001 -
EZZ [m] 1001 -
Loads in nodes will be defined in individual components or as complete vectors

with the Literals P, M and V resp. PP. MM and VV. In those cases up to seven
components may be defined.
Local load directions require nodes with a local coordinate system (SOFiMSHC).
Only nodes which are input as structural points (SPT points) with a local coor-
dinate system in SOFiMSHC can be used here. If no such system is found, the
global coordinate directions will be used instead.
For special cases you may multiply the load values with the radius (e.g. centrifu-
gal forces, internal pressures etc) or with the square of the radius. The radius is
the distance of the node to the global axis which has been selected as gravity
direction.
In the case of axial symmetry load values are interpreted as circumference re-
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-21

lated, e.g. a radial load of 2 kN/m must be provided as PYY 2.0. The program
then automatically accounts for the radial position of the load application point.
If a degree of freedom which has a cinematic constraint gets a nodal displace-

ment, the constraint will be deactivated. There is no way to invert that support
condition. Thats why there are no local displacements available. They have to
to be modelled with stiff spring elements if desired.
As type there is available:
Table 3.8: Type of the Nodal Loading
TYPE Description Unit

PG Load in gravity direction kN
PXX Load in global X-direction kN
PYY Load in global Y-direction kN
PZZ Load in global Z-direction kN
MXX Moment about global X-direction kNm
MYY Moment about global Y-direction kNm
MZZ Moment about global Z-direction kNm
PX Load in local x-direction kN
PY Load in local y-direction kN
PZ Load in local z-direction kN
MX Moment about local x-direction kNm
MY Moment about local y-direction kNm
MZ Moment about local z-direction kNm
MB Warping bimoment kNm2
Load vectors:
PP global components of force PXX-PZZ kN
MM global components of moment MXX-MZZ kNm
VV = PXX,PYY,PZZ,MXX,MYY,MZZ,MB kN, kNm
P local components of force PX-PZ kN
M local components of moment MX-MZ kNm
V = PX,PY,PZ,MX,MY,MZ,MB kN, kNm
(the components have to be defined via P1 to P3 resp
P1 to P7)
WXX Support displacement in global X-direction mm
WYY Support displacement in global Y-direction mm
3-22 SOFiSTiK 2016

Table 3.8: (continued)

WZZ Support displacement in global Z-direction mm
DXX Support rotation about global X-direction mrd
DYY Support rotation about global Y-direction mrd
DZZ Support rotation about global Z-direction mrd
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-23

3.7 CABL Cable Loading
See also: LC, NODE, TRUS, beam-loading, QUAD, BRIC,

COPY, free-loading
CABL

FROM Number of first element or GRP !
TO Number of last element or group number FROM
INC Increment of element numbers 1
TYPE Load type and direction LT PG

PA Load value at cable start point [] !
PE Load value at cable end point [] PA
CABL is loading a range of cable elements with the same loading. Instead of
a number FROM you may enter the literal GRP and the group number at TO to
select all elements of a group.
For TYPE you have the choice of:
Table 3.10: Type of the Cable Loading

PG Load in gravity direction kN/ m
PXX Load in global X-direction
PYY Load in global Y-direction
PZZ Load in global Z-direction
PXP Load in global x-direction measured in projection kN/ m
PYP Load in global y-direction measured in projection
PZP Load in global z-direction measured in projection
EX Strain in axial direction 0/ 00
VX Prestress kN
WX Change of length mm
DT Temperature difference K
WIND Wind loading
SNOW Snow loading
3-24 SOFiSTiK 2016

Loading on cable elements will be converted to nodal loads, as the element

has no basic bearing capacity transverse to the cable. In a following nonlinear
analysis the deflection of the cable will be evaluated. Thus it is recommended to
insert nodes at all important points of a cable.
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-25

3.8 TRUS Truss Element Loading
See also: LC, NODE, CABL, beam-loading, QUAD, BRIC,

COPY, free-loading
TRUS

PA Load value at truss start point [] !
PE Load value at truss end point [] PA
TRUS is loading a range of truss elements with the same loads. Instead of a
number FROM you may enter the literal GRP and the group number at TO to
select all elements of a group.
For TYPE you have the choice of:
Table 3.12: Type of the Truss Loading

PXX Load in global X-direction
PYY Load in global Y-direction
PZZ Load in global Z-direction
PXP Load in global x-direction measured in projection kN/ m
PYP Load in global y-direction measured in projection
PZP Load in global z-direction measured in projection
VX Prestress kN
WX Change of length mm
DT Temperature difference K
WIND Wind loading
SNOW Snow loading
3-26 SOFiSTiK 2016

Loading on truss elements will be converted to nodal loads, as the element has
no basic bearing capacity transverse to the element. Thus it is recommended to
insert nodes at all important points of a truss.
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-27

3.9 Definition of Beam Loading
See also: LC, NODE, TRUS, CABL, QUAD, BRIC, COPY, free-loading, BEAM, BEPL
Loading on Beams will be defined either via trapezoidal loads via BEAM or as
Point loads via BEPL or as general variant loading via multiple BEPL function
values.
Loading on beams will be defined independent from an elemental subdivision

covering multiple elements. You may specify always a range of element numbers
establishing a total beam.
The extensions of the loading will be referenced always to the total set of se-
lected beam elements. The position within the section is always based on the
beam axis. I.e. for a centric beam this will be the gravity axis, for an eccen-
tric beam it will be the reference axis which is in the origin of the cross section
coordinate system. The default however is always "gravity center". The input
reference system may be changed for every single beam loading.
The beams will be appended despite their position in space in the sequence of
their element numbers from start node to end node. Numbers may be missing
within the sequence. If the coordinates of two successive beams do not match
a message will be issued if the value of INC is defined explicitly.
PE
PA
Beam 1 Beam 2 Beam 3 Beam 4 Beam 5

A L
Figure 3.2: Beam loading
Via REF you may select different systems for the definition of the loading extent
(A and L). The extend will be converted in such cases to local beam coordinates
immediately. In general the distances are relative to the beginning node of the
beam sequence, if the following possible literals are specified with a preceeding
"-" sign, the extend will be measured in the reverse direction beginning at the
end node of the beam sequence.
S Beam longitudinal axis

XX Projection of beam axis on global coordinate axis
3-28 SOFiSTiK 2016

YY Projection of beam axis on global coordinate axis

ZZ Projection of beam axis on global coordinate axis
XY Projection of beam axis on global coordinate plane
XZ Projection of beam axis on global coordinate plane
YZ Projection of beam axis on global coordinate plane
SS ratio of the total overall continuous beam length
SSS ratio of the total supporting length
LSS ratio of the total free span length
GXX as XX but in absolute world coordinates
GYY as YY but in absolute world coordinates
GZZ as ZZ but in absolute world coordinates
XY
YY
y
z
Figure 3.3: Reference systems REF
Special attention has to be paid in those cases where the beam is not monotone
within the selected reference System. This is the case for all circular or general
closed liner systems. As the reference system is always using absolute values in
adding up the total length, we will have a total length of 2H in the depth direction
if the height of the structure is called H. A variant load depending on the depth
on both sides of the system is thus to be defined via two variant loads of length
H on the total beam system.
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-29

H
Y

Emax

Emax
Figure 3.4: Projective Loading
Input of loading via:
BEAM 1001 1021 1 PXX A 0.0 L #H PA 0.0 PE $$

- #EMAX REF YY
BEAM 1001 1021 1 PXX A #H L 2* #H PA #EMAX PE 0.0 $$
REF YY
The action point of the load within the cross-section can be controlled by means
of the excentricities EYA/ EYE and EZA/ EZE. Interpretation of these load ex-
centricities defaults to:
Load definition without Load definition with

excentricities excentricities
Beam type centric" excentricities refer to
(without reference axis gravity centre
NP=0)
Beam type excentric action in gravity centre excentricities refer to
(with reference axis origin of cross-sectional
NP=-1) coordinate system
However, via the item REFT an explicit reference measure may be specified
(change of default behaviour). For REFT there are the following possibilities:
Literal S for the gravity center

Literal NULL or 0000 for the origin of the sectional coordinate system
Any ID assigned to a sectional element (SPT, VERT, CIRC or PANE) where
for a circle the center is default, but ID+Y to ID-Z select the quadrants of
the periphery, and for a panel the ID.A and ID.E will select the start and end
point, while the deafult or ID.M use the mid point.
3-30 SOFiSTiK 2016

3.10 BEAM Distributed Beam Loading
See also: LC, NODE, TRUS, CABL, beam-loading, BEPL,

QUAD, BRIC, COPY, free-loading, EVAL
BEAM


PA Load value at load start point [] !
PE Load value at load end point [] PA
A Distance to start / end from total beam [m] 1001 *
L Length of loading [m] 1001 *
EYA Local coordinates of loading at start [mm] 1011 ys
EZA relative to the beam or reference axis [mm] 1011 zs
EYE Local coordinates of loading at end [mm] 1011 EYA
EZE relative to the beam or reference axis [mm] 1011 EZA
REF Reference system for A and L LT S
(see beam-loading for possible options)
REFT Reference system for EYA ... EZ LT *
S Center (NP=0)
NULL Sectional coordinate system
ID.opt Point within section
BEAM defines the loading on a sequence of beams as it is defined in the section

3.9: Definition of Beam Loading. Instead of a number FROM you may enter
the literal GRP and the group number at TO to select all elements of a group.
For TYPE you may specify:
Table 3.14: Type of the Beam Loading

PXX Load in global direction referred to the beam length
PYY (e.g. self weight)
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-31


PZZ
MXX Moment about global directions kNm/ m
MYY
MZZ
PXP Load in global direction referred to the projective kN/ m
PYP length
PZP (e.g. snow)
PX Load in local x-direction (Normal force) kN/ m
PY Load in local y-direction (Secondary bending)
PZ Load in local z-direction (Primary bending)
MX Moment about local x-direction (Torsion) kNm/ m
MY Moment about local y-direction (Primary bending)
MZ Moment about local z-direction (Secondary bending)
Pggl Componental loading (PXXX, PXXY to PZZZ) kN/ m
only the local component TlT of a global load direction
gg will be applied.
PgPl Similar to Pggl, but with projective loads instead (PXP)
WIND Factor for wind loading
SNOW Factor for snow loading
KX Curvature about local x-direction 1/ km
KY Curvature about local y-direction 1/ km
KZ Curvature about local z-direction 1/ km
(will generate deformations like moments with the
same sign)
DT Uniform temperature change K
DTY Temperature difference in local y-direction K
DTZ Temperature difference in local z-direction K

T Absolute temperature (2D FiberBeam, only) C
Hint: Please read the comments below
UY Secondary bending lateral imperfection mm
UZ Primary bending lateral imperfection mm
3-32 SOFiSTiK 2016


UYS Secondary lateral imperfection as factor of total length m/ m
UZS Primary lateral imperfection as factor of total length m/ m
PNX external prestressing force in local x-direction (N) kN
PMY external prestressing moment in local y-direction (My) kNm
PMZ external prestressing moment in local z-direction (Mz) kNm
The Literal CONT for item TYPE will activate defaults from the last record:
TYP (new) = TYP (old)

PA (new) = PE (old)
A (new) = A+L (old)
This simplifies the definition of trapezoidal combined loads
BEAM 101 PZ PE 100 L 2

= CONT PE 120 L 5
= CONT PE 0
This input defines a load ascending from 0 to 100 within the length of 2, then up
to 120 within the length five and descending than to the end.
The eccentricities of the load are defined in the local beam coordinate system
with reference to the connecting line between the nodes. This is the so called
reference axis. If not defined explicitly, this will be the center line of gravity.
Loads of type P will create moments if eccentricities are present. For nonlin-
ear analysis there will be additional geometric stiffness and forces. There is a
difference between loads acting on the upper or lower side of a section.
General temperature distributions over the cross-sectional height (temperature

profile for fire design) may be specified with several load inputs, each describing
a temperature level with a location ZA,ZE. These general temperature profiles
can be processed by the 2D FiberBeam (TALPA). Regarding the interpretation
of the ordinates ZA and ZE, three options are distinguished:
If REFT -Z is defined, the provided ordinates refer to the uppermost fibre of

the section; all ZA,ZE must be 0.
With REFT +Z, the provided ordinates refer to the lowermost fibre; all ZA,ZE
must be 0.
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-33

In all other cases, the ordinates ZA,ZE are interpreted as relative measures
and will be scaled to the actual cross-sectional dimension.
Positive values of DTY and DTZ mean that the temperature raises in the positive
direction of the corresponding y resp. z axis. Example: For a beam cross section
the temperature decreases, if 40 C are available at the side -y and 10 C at the
side +y. Thus the input reads DTY -30 [ C] . This load type is only applicable for
sections having a distinct extension or geometry.
An input of a temperature profile along the sectional local z-axis followed by

the EVAL TEQV will result in a computation of the equivalent linear temperature
distributions. For more details, see EVAL and Subsection 3.22.1.
The prestressing loadings PNX, PMY and PMZ are the result of a special im-
posed strain or curvature. If the element is fixed, the resulting forces and mo-
ments will be identical to those of the loading. However, if the element may
deform the prestress is then reduced. The opposite behaviour is given for the
tendon prestress definable with BEPL, an eigen stress state which needs de-
formability to become active. For very special cases this type of prestressing
may be also defined with load type PNXI for a whole beam in record BEAM.
3-34 SOFiSTiK 2016

3.11 BEPL Point Beam Loading
See also: LC, NODE, TRUS, CABL, beamloading, BEAM,

QUAD, BRIC, COPY, free-loading
BEPL


P Load value [] !
A Distance of load to total beam start / end [m] 1001 *
EY Local transverse y-coordinate of loading [mm] 1011 ys
EZ Local transverse z-coordinate of loading [mm] 1011 zs
REF Reference system for A and L LT S
(see beam-loading for possible options)
REFT Reference system for EY, EZ LT *
S Center (NP=0)
NULL Sectional coordinate system
ID.opt Point within section
OPT Additional Options / LT *
BEPL defines the loading on a sequence of beams as it is defined in the section

3.9: Definition of Beam Loading. Instead of a number FROM you may enter
the literal GRP and the group number at TO to select all elements of a group.
STEL creates a single load or a vertex for a continuous beam. There will be
always only one loading for the total quantity of beams, as long as OPT is not
specified otherwise.
For TYPE you may specify:
Table 3.16: Type of the Point Beam Loading

PG Load in gravity direction kN
PXX Load in global direction referred to the beam length
PYY (e.g. self weight)
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-35


PZZ
PX Load in local x-direction (Normal force) kN
PY Load in local y-direction (Secondary bending)
PZ Load in local z-direction (Primary bending)
Plgg Componental loading (PXXX, PYXX to PZZZ) kN
only the local component l of a global load direction
gg will be applied.
MX Moment about local x-direction (Torsion) kNm
MY Moment about local y-direction (Primary bending)
MZ Moment about local z-direction (Secondary bending)
MXX Moment about global directions kNm
MYY
MZZ
The eccentricities of the load are defined in the local beam coordinate system
with reference to the connecting line between the nodes. This is the so called
reference axis. If not defined explicitly, this will be the centre line of gravity.
Loads of type P will create moments if eccentricities are present. For nonlin-
ear analysis there will be additional geometric stiffness and forces. There is a
difference between loads acting on the upper or lower side of a section.
Table 3.17: Other types (Influence values)

WX Displacement jump in local x-direction mm
WY Displacement jump in local y-direction
WZ Displacement jump in local z-direction
DX Bending jump in local x-direction mrd
DY Bending jump in local y-direction
DZ Bending jump in local z-direction
STEL may be used to specify some standard load distributions. With a defini-
tionb of one of the following Literals at OPT a distributed loading will be defined
with a maximum value at a distinct location:
3-36 SOFiSTiK 2016

LINA Linear distribution, maximum at start

LINE Linear distribution, maximum at end
LINM Linear distribution, maximum at midpoint
QUAA Quadratic distribution, maximum at start

QUAE Quadratic distribution, maximum at end
QUAM Quadratic distribution, maximum at mid pointQ
CUBA Cubic distribution, maximum at start

CUBE Cubic distribution, maximum at end
An even more general approach may be addressed by specifying several data

points with STEL records (all consecutive records wit TYPE CONT) and OPT
SPLI. This will define a cubic spline for the load values. For prestress and im-
perfections the program is capable to handle with cubic load distributions directly
for a single beam. For all other load types the user has to specify multiple ele-
ments or sections to get an effect of the variation.
Table 3.18: Other types (Vertex of Imperfections/Prestress)

PNX Vertex of general prestress via tendon kN
PMY Vertex of primary bending prestress kNm
PMZ Vertex of secondary bending prestress kNm
CONT Continuation of vertices
With these load types of the above table you may also specify (depending on
the number of vertices) constant, linear, quadratic or cubic distributions of the
loading along the sequence of the beams. All other vertices have to follow im-
mediately with the load type CONT. The selection information of these records
(FROM TO INC) will not be evaluated.
Attention: STAR2 combines all load definitions with the same number, this ap-
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-37

proach is not possible in SOFiLOAD. The use of TYPE CONT is mandatory but
provides more flexibility.
The loading will be only applied within the defined abscissae, you need at least
two data points therefore. If you specify only one single value, additional values
will be supplied with 0.0 for imperfections at the beginning and the end. Thus
only one value at one of the ends will create a linearly varying distribution, while
one in the middle will generate a quadratic parabola. All other load types will
become constant along the total beam sequence.
For the load type PNX the cubically interpolated eccentricities Ey and EZ will
generate moments and shear forces. It has been shown, that correct shear
forces require separate definitions for every tendon with different geometry.
Example:
BEPL 101 110 1 UZS P 0.0 A 0.0 MESS SS

TYP CONT P 1/200*1/27 A 1/3 MESS SS
TYP CONT P 1/200*8/27 A 2/3 MESS SS
TYP CONT P 1/200 A 3/3
defines a cubic parabola with a maximum imperfection of 1/200 at the end of the
beam sequence 101 to 110.
Table 3.19: Other special types converting data from the database

PRE Prestress for stressing stage from the CDB.
The tendons with prestressing stage OPT will become
active with a factor P (default 1.0) as loading of type
PNX.
U Imperfections will be generated from deformations of
load case OPT with a factor P (default 1.0).
UPOL as U but as a polygon (only for special cases)
PRIM From the forces and stiffness of load case OPT the pro-
gram creates strain and curvature loading with a factor
P (default -1.0).
PRIP as PRIM but as a polygon (only for special cases)
The values A, EY, EZ and REF will not be used in those cases.
With the definition of TYPE PRE the user may create prestressing loading from
3-38 SOFiSTiK 2016

the tendon stored in the database. This is normally done by TENDON. For
changes of the system or tendons defined via AQBS, SOFiLOAD will perform
this task. With OPT -1 the prestress of the reinforcement defined within AQUA
will be used.
The definition of TYPE U will generate from the displacements in the database
a similar imperfection. This is useful to generate imperfections from buckling
forms as a difference between first and second order theory. Another task is
the effect of creep on the imperfection. There are different views about how to
chose the factor P in those cases, and the question if the imperfections should
enter in the calculations twice. If needed you may subtract the old imperfections
with a factor of -1.0
N
= P (3.1)
EA
My Ez Mz Eyz
ky = P 2
(3.2)
Ey Ez Eyz
Mz Ez My Eyz
kz = P 2
(3.3)
E Ez Eyz
With the type PRIM the program will generate strains and curvatures from the
forces of load case OPT:
The most important cases are:
Creep of a load case (unconstraint):
P= (3.4)
Constraints from construction stages (primary estate = default):
P = 1.0 (3.5)
Creep of constraining from a construction stage with relaxation :

P= 1.0 (3.6)
(1 + )
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-39

3.12 QUAD Element Loading
See also: LC, NODE, TRUS, CABL, beamloading, BEAM,

BEPL, BRIC, COPY, free-loading
QUAD


P Load value [] !
X Reference point for load value [m] 1001 0.0
Y [m] 1001 0.0
Z [m] 1001 0.0
DPX p(x,y,z) = p + (x-X)*DPX [] 0.0
DPY + (y-Y)*DPY [] 0.0
DPZ + (z-Z)*DPZ [] 0.0
NTYP Additional option LT/ -

VTYP Value for additional option -
Z0 Coordinate along local z-dir. (thickness) [mm] 1010 !

F0 Factor for load value at this location 1.0
... ... ...
Z15 Coordinate along local z-dir. (thickness) [mm] 1010 -
F15 Factor for load value at this location 1.0
All elements within the given range of numbers will be loaded. The range may be
larger than the existing numbers but must contain at least one element. Instead
of a number FROM you may enter the literal GRP and the group number at TO
to select all elements of a group.
With DPX to DPZ the user specifies global varying loads (like earth or water
pressure), P is then the value at (X,Y,Z), while DPX to DPZ describe the incre-
ment in the global coordinate directions. The Unit will be converted by the load
and the geometry unit (1001).
3-40 SOFiSTiK 2016

With NTYP the user may define additional data for the loading like a reference
number of prestress or special actions for wind loading.
Some loads, e.g. T for a fire design may be specified with a function describing
the value along the local z-axis. Up to 16 values may be defined as a pair of a
thickness and a factor. Their are three cases to be distinguished: If all ordinates
are positive, they are referred absolutely to the uppermost fibre of the QUAD-
element, if they are all negative they are referred to the lowermost fibre. In all
othe cases the reference is the mid surface of the QUAD element. If the real
thickness of the QUAD element does not match the load definition, the definition
will be scaled with a warning for the third case.
There are the following load types available:
Table 3.21: Type of the QUAD-Element Loading

PG loading in gravity direction kN/ m2
PX loading local with reference kN/ m2
PY to the element area kN/ m2
PZ kN/ m2
PXX loading global kN/ m2
PYY with reference to the element area (e.g. self weight) kN/ m2
PZZ kN/ m2
PXP loading global kN/ m2
PYP with reference to the projection area (e.g. snow) kN/ m2
PZP kN/ m2
WIND Wind loading factor Fctor
SNOW Snow loading factor Fctor
DTXY temperature change in xy-plane K
DTZ temperature difference (below-above) K
negative value of old DT load type
EX strain local x 0/ 00
EY strain local y 0/ 00
KX curvature local x 1/ km
KY curvature local y 1/ km
WZ settlement in local Z mm
PRE Prestress from TENDON Fctor
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-41


PMXX Prestress m-xx kNm/ m
PMYY Prestress m-yy kNm/ m
PMXY Prestress m-xy kNm/ m
PVX Prestress q-x kNm/ m
PVY Prestress q-y kNm/ m
PNXX Prestress n-x kNm/ m
PNYY Prestress n-y kNm/ m
PNXY Prestress n-xy kNm/ m
IMXX Influence area for m-xx
IMYY Influence area for m-yy
IMXY Influence area for m-xy
IVX Influence area for q-x
IVY Influence area for q-y
INXX Influence area for n-xx
INYY Influence area for n-yy
INXY Influence area for n-xy
The loading types of prestress will generate a stress state and the corresponding
strains and curvatures to calculate the constraining contributions.
Load type PRE (Prestress from TENDON) will generate the loading due to ten-
don with prestress stage NTYP within the selected QUAD-elements. The load
value P should be 1.0, but other values may be useful if you want to get the
required prestress. However, the prestress in the database will not be changed
by this factor. In ASE the user has to select the appropriate construction stage
number CS in record GRP. The Input
GRP ... CS 0 ; QUAD 1 9999 1 TYP PRE 1.0 NTYP 1
will generate the prestress loading of the first stage on the net section. The
calculated deformations will not create additional stresses in the tendons.
For the influence areas the loading will generate a dirac-delta strain within the
centre of the elements. Load value will be 1.0 in general. The deformation of the
mesh is the required influence area. However, directly in the point of interest the
3-42 SOFiSTiK 2016

FE- approach will smooth out the singularity of the theoretical influence area.
For wind loading NTYP may specify special patterns of wind factors derived from
the inclination of the inward normal direction of the QUAD, the direction of the
gravity and the wind direction.
STD Factors according DIN 1055 Table 11/Pict 12 fpr closed buildings, but
without the extra lift off at edges and corners. These effects and wind
load on interior areas have to be specified in addition. (VTYP has no
Meaning)
CYL Wind factors for cylinders based on Reynoldsnumber (DIN/EC)
where VTYP = equivalent diameter of cylinder for Reynold number
to be evaluated from VREF (see WIND) The type CYLR allows the
direct definition of the Reynolds number at VTYP.
CYLF Wind factors for cylinders (some other design codes)
Indische Norm IS 875: load value is slenderness h/D
load value < 1.0 = IS 11510 (cooling towers).
CYLK Wind pressure for cooling towers according to VGB-Richtline BTR-
1997 Table 1
VTYP = 1.0 / 1.1 / 1.2 / 1.3 / 1.4 / 1.5 / 1.6
For the literals CYL and CYLR the pressure coefficients will be interpolated
depending on the Reynolds number between (Re = 5105 , cpmn = 2.2) and
(Re = 1107 , cpmn = 1.5). The load value should then become the reduction
factor according to EN 1991-1-4, Pict. 17.36 resp. DIN-1055-4 [9], Pict. 14:
Figure 3.5: Reduction factor according to DIN-1055-4 [9]
For the literals CYLK the load value should be specified as the product of the
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-43

dynamic enlargement factor of picture 5 and the interference factor F of Table

3.
For wind loading the pressure at the top of the building for suction can be consid-
ered , if selected e.g. with -STD|-CYL|-CYR|-CYK where - works on suction
only, + on pressure only and * on all values.
There are the following load types available for HYDRA / DOLFYN:
Table 3.22: Type of the QUAD-Element Loading for HYDRA / DOLFYN

CFDP Pressure of fluid kN/ m2
H Piezometric head m
U, V, W Velocity of fluids m/ sec
TKN, TDN, TOM Turbulence values k , , m2 / sec2 , m2 / sec3 , 1/ sec
Q Quantity / sec/ m2
T Absolute temperature K
ENTH Enthalpy Wsec/ kg
SRAD Radiosity
MIXF,FUEL,OXID Fractions for combustion
LFR Liquid fraction
QT Heat quantity W/ m2
The value of NTYP is then a number for the balances (see HYDRA manual)
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3.13 BRIC Element Loading
See also: LC, NODE, TRUS, CABL, Beamloading, BEAM,

BPEL, QUAD, COPY, free-loading
BRIC


P Load value [] !
X Reference point for load value [m] 1001 0.0
Y [m] 1001 0.0
Z [m] 1001 0.0
DPX p(x,y,z) = p + (x-X)*DPX [] 0.0
DPY + (y-Y)*DPY [] 0.0
DPZ + (z-Z)*DPZ [] 0.0
NTYP reserved for additional options -
All elements within the given range of numbers will be loaded. The range may be
larger than the existing numbers but must contain at least one element. Instead
of a number FROM you may enter the literal GRP and the group number at TO
to select all elements of a group.
With DPX to DPZ the user specifies global varying loads (like earth or water
pressure), P is then the value at (X,Y,Z), while DPX to DPZ describe the incre-
ment in the global coordinate directions. The Unit will be converted by the load
and the geometry unit (1001).
Table 3.24: Type of the BRIC-Element Loading

PG loading in gravity direction kN/ m3
PXX loading in global directions kN/ m3
PYY kN/ m3
PZZ kN/ m3
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-45


DT uniform temperature change K
EX strain in global direction 0/ 00
EY (local only if defined by anisotropy) 0/ 00
EZ 0/ 00
There are the following load types available for HYDRA / DOLFYN:
Table 3.25: Type of the BRIC-Element Loading for HYDRA/DOLFYN

Q Quantity of Fluids / sec/ m3
QT Heat quantity W/ m3
The value of NTYP is then a number for the balances (see HYDRA manual)
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3.14 COPY Loads from Other Sources
See also: LC, NODE, TRUS, CABL, BEAM, BPEL, QUAD,

BRIC, free-loading
COPY

NO Number of a defined load case or name of !
an action
FACT Factor for loading or combination type / LT 1.0
TYPE Selector for elements LT ALL
ALL All type of loading
POIN free point loading
LINE free line loading
AREA free area loading
VOLU free volume loading
PSUP Supporting point loads
SUPP Vector of the supporting loads
TRAI load train loading
ELLA load train as applied in ELLA
INTE generated nodal loading
NODE nodal loading
BEAM beam loading
TRUS truss loading
CABL cable loading
QUAD QUAD loading
BRIC BRIC loading
WIND wind pressure coefficients
FROM Number of first element or node -

TO Number of last element or node -
INC Increment of element or node numbers -
REF Reference number of an axis or a lane -

DX global or local shift of loading [m] 1001 0.0
DY global or local shift of loading [m] 1001 0.0
DZ global or local shift of loading [m] 1001 0.0
ALPH rotation before shifting [grd] 0.0
WIDE Projection depth of generated loading [m] 1001 0.0
YEX Eccentricity for load trains [m] 1001 *
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-47

CASE Evaluation case in ELLA 1

NRE Number of element / influence line 1
XABS Section for beam elements [m] 1001 0.0
XCON Explicit value of convoy distance [m] 1001 -
XV1 explicit value for 1st variable length [m] 1001 -
XV2 explicit value for 2nd variable length [m] 1001 -
...
XV15 explicit value for 15th variable length [m] 1001 -
PROJ Name of an external database LT255 -
COPY will transfer loading from other load cases to the current load case. All
types of loading including generated loads by other programs will be copied. The
self weight created by the factors DLX-DLZ of record LC will be copied only if
not yet defined in this load case directly or with another COPY command within
this load case. The generated nodal loads from self weight will never be copied
even with TYPE INTE.
Without specification of a project name, the support forces will be read from the
current database, otherwise the loads will be taken from that database.
All load cases of an action are copied with the input of the action name for load
case number NO.
Load functions may not be copied, as every load case must have a unique load
function.
The load case NO may be created within a previous or the same input block.
All loads may be copied with a factor. As the global load factor of LC is not
applied to the loads in the database itself, the old global load factor remains out
of scope.
For a nonlinear analysis one needs the combination of several load cases with
factors normally taken from the extreme value of some important force or mo-
ment. If MAXIMA has saved this combination with the combination number nn,
it is possible to use those factors with a definition of COPY nn COMB.
However, with a literal for the item FACT the user may apply the building of a
combination of load cases for nonlinear analysis using safety factors and com-
bination coefficients. This is not a superposition like MAXIMA does. The user
3-48 SOFiSTiK 2016

has to specify the load cases in the correct sequence and selection. There is
available:
DESI/DESF Design combination unfavourable/favourable:

X
S = g Gk + q,1 Qk,1 q, 0, Qk, (3.7)
ACCI/ACCF Accidental design combination unfavourable/favourable:

X
S = g,A 0,g Gk + A Ad + 1, Qk,1 + 2, Qk, (3.8)
RARE Rare(characteristic) combination for serviceability:

X
Ss = Gk + Qk,1 + 0, Qk, (3.9)
FREQ Frequent combination for serviceability:

X
S = Gk + 1, Qk,1 + 2, Qk, (3.10)
NONF non frequent combination for serviceability:

X
S = Gk + 01 Qk,1 + 1, Qk, (3.11)
PERM Quasi permanent combination for serviceability:

X
Sp = Gk + 2, Qk, (3.12)
For the variable actions Q the first given load case will be treated with the special
combination value, all other will be assigned the right most coefficients.
LC 101 ; COPY 1 ,2 ,3 ,4 DESI

LC 102 ; COPY 2 ,3 ,4 ,1 DESI
Instead of those semi automatic values it is also possible to define literals for the
saved combination coefficients:
GAMU/GAMF = Safety factors unfavourable / favourable

PSIU/PSIF = Safety factors unfavourable / favourable 0
PSI0/PSI1/PSI2/PS1S = Combination coefficients 0 , 1 , 2 , 01
PS1U/PS1F = Safety factors unfavourable / favourable 1
PS2U/PS2F = Safety factors unfavourable / favourable 2
P1SU/P1SF = Safety factors unfavourable / favourable 01
It is possible to select special nodes or elements. This is done with the FROM
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-49

TO range in increments of INC. For free loading (POIN, LINE, AREA or VOLU)
this will filter on the given selector.
When copying loads, it will be remembered the source of the loadings, thus
a restart (LC nn REST) will repeat the copy process and use the current load
definitions. With CTRL COPY 256 this will be supressed, the loads are then
taken as currently defined and will be treated as explictly defined loadings.
3.14.1 Support forces

With the load type PSUP the program will convert nodal supporting loads and
with SUPP also moments at nodes to free POIN loads. If WIDE is defined the
loads will be projecting in the gravity direction and will be applied only if hitting
elements. A positive value will select the reference type MOVE, otherwise no
definition or negative values will select AUTO, trying to enforce the load to be
applied even with eccentricities. With DX, DY or DZ the user can select a special
coordinate value to select nodes. Thus a transfer of loading from one storey to
a lower one is possible.
3.14.2 Load trains

Geometric defined free loading may be rotated and shifted by global offsets DX,
DY and DZ to a different location. NREF is an optional number of a reference
axis, if specified DX is the station length value along the axis, DY and DZ are
local coordinates relative to the axis. Any rotation will be applied before the
shift.
If the load case to be copied contains a load train definition TRAI, NREF must
be an identifier of a reference axis, with the specification of one of the possible
lanes with number 0 to 9 appended as additional decimal digit. DX is again the
station value along the axis.
Loads of a loadtrain will be clipped at the edges of the traffic lane. This may be
used to apply wide special trains across several lanes. The value YEX shifts all
loadings only in lane 0, in all other lanes it is applied selectively. For Railway
loadings UIC it controls the distribution of the loading on the two rails.
Loadtrains with variable distances or acting as a convoy those distances may be

specified explicitly with the items XCON (see TRAIN) , XV1 to XV 15. It is also
possible to set the load train at a position saved from ELLA with Option ECHO
LPOS. To achieve this it is necessary to specify the TYPE ELLA, to specify with
NO the number of the result load cases created by ELLA and to enter REF,
CASE, NRE / XABS to address the correct selection. The respective result will
be deducted from the result load case number automatically.
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It has to be pointed out however, that SOFILOAD is not able to model all fancy
details of loadings as implemented in ELLA. The reason for this are for ex-
ample that a point or tandem load in ELLA may be treated at the same posi-
tion to be before or behind a point at the same time or that ELLA may decide
about favourable/unfavourable elementary based on all load components, while
SOFILOAD has to select based on the vertical loading only.
Spans will be defined with placements along the axis, if those do not exist the
segmenst defined with LANE will be taken instead. The values FROM to TO
select the spans of the lane with a loading pattern controlled by a DELT input
(the dotted line indicates the load train position specified):
4 MAX
4 MIN
3 4 MAX
3 4 MIN
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 3.6: Load distribution in spans
Without definition of INC only the selected interval will be loaded, where the de-
faults for FROM and TO are the total lane. A definition of INC will change the
default to the region containing the selected DX point. If INC is zero, only the
selected range is loaded. If MAX is defined for INC also every second span
outside the range is loaded. MIN will always reverse the selected pattern. A re-
ally correct evaluation for complicated loading should be performed via influence
lines and module ELLA.
Loads will be copied as default with a factor of one, but one may specify for FACT
one of the literals DESI, RARE, FREQ, NONF, PERM to select the combination
coefficients of the load case to be multiplied with. As an alternate or additional
mean one may select with TYPE combinations for load groups according to the
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-51

EC1 or DIN Fachbericht. While without entry all loads are taken, the possible
values are:
GR0 Single vertical loads only

GRU only vertical distributed loads (UDL+Residual area)
GRU0 only vertical distributed loads within lane (UDL)
GR1 Vertical loads (gr1 in Table 4.4a)
GR2 Horizontal loads (gr2 in Table 4.4a)
GR2N non-frequent variant of group 2
GR2F frequent variant of group 2
GR2L only longitudinal loads of group 2
GR2T only transverse loads of group 2
GR20 only horizontal loads of group 2
GR3 pedestrian walk (residual) area only (gr3 in Table 4.4a)
GR4 LM4 / P5 on total traffic area (gr4 in Table 4.4a)
GR5 Special vehicles of LM3 (gr 5 in table 4.4.a)
all other types of load train with its frequent value
GR6 Exchange of bearings
GR11 Max. vertical 1 according table 6.6 for 1 track

...
GR17 SW/2
GR21 Max. vertical 1 according table 6.6 for 2 tracks
...
GR27 SW/2
GR31 Max. vertical 1 according table 6.6 for 3 or more tracks
The distribution and the reference of the loading may be controlled with CTRL
COPY.
3.14.3 Wind and Wave loads

Loading on areas with wind according to EN 1991 requires a lot of calculation
steps, as the pressure coefficients are rather detailed and have to be specified
dependent on the size of the area. SOFiLOAD facilitates this task by providing
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the following steps:
A reference load case contains all loaded areas with their real size as AREA
loading of TYPE WIND. For more details see record AREA.
For a specific wind load case one has to specify with record WIND the direc-
tion of the wind and the profile of the wind speed along the height.
Then a COPY TYPE WIND (or the default ALL) will create the detailed pres-
sure distributions according to tables 4 to 6 of DIN 1055-4 resp. tables 10.2.1
to 10.2.4 of EN 1991-1-4 depending on the defined geometry and wind di-
rection. A positive factor selects for those regions with changing sign the
suction, a negative factor will select the pressure value. To define the load-
ing areas the outer dimensions of the building are needed. As these values
may not be derived from the load areas, SOFILOAD will use the outer box of
all active groups to evaluate these values.
Hint: The wind profile of the design codes define the air velocity along the height
for the undisturbed flow. For a slender building this distribution will be seen on
the front side (region D according picture 7.5 of EN 1991-1-4), however the rear
and the other sides (regions A,B,C and E according picture 7.5 of EN 1991-1-
4) have a rather constant suction which is referenced to the nominal reference
pressure at the top of the building. This is clearly stated in the remark of section
7.2.2. (1).
For compact buildings (H/B < 1) the same effect is observed for the front side.
The constant pressure is again referenced to the value at the top of the building
which is accounted for.
The staggered wind loading according to picture 7.4 of EN 1991-1-4, which is

introduced with "may" is not applicable in all cases and is not physical. Thus
the default in SOFiLOAD is to use the continuous variation. If that special load
pattern is required, this can be achieved by an input of:
TVAR ' WIND_PATTERN ' 2 SCOP ' LOADING '
The possible values 0,1,2 select no variation, continuous variation, staggered

load pattern.
For the wave loading a COPY will create the loadings with the Morrison equa-
tion and the defined force coefficients. A shift off the wave kinematics may be
specified by the global coordinates (DX,DY,DZ). However in this case an explicit
scalar definition for DX (0.5[-] or 50[%]) will shift the wave by this fraction of the
wave length.
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-53

3.15 Free Loading
See also: LC, LAR, POIN, LINE, AREA, VOLU, COOR
Free loading is a very convenient method to place loads at any location within the
structure and let the program decide how to convert it. This is especially useful
for the import of geometrically defined loading from a CAD model. The loads
will be converted by SOFiLOAD to equivalent nodal and elemental loading. For
this purpose the program will also work with pure geometrical elements having
no stiffness at all like the outer hull of a frame work. Eccentric loading may
create moments, but moments will not be transferred into a pair of forces by this
approach.
Free point and line loadings will be applied exactly once within a system. For
area loading the algorithm for that would be extremely complicated, so it has
not been implemented and there is the chance for an area loading to be applied
more than once.
3.15.1 References
If not otherwise specified (e.g. beam loading) the loading will be distributed in
general via quadrilateral elements, which may be taken from:
General QUAD elements

QUAD elements with NAR 0 (surface definition only)
QUAD elements from a load distribution area
Surfaces of BRIC elements These are defined by the active groups and with
GFA the area references defined for the nodes. Surfaces without area refer-
ence or with an interior volume node will not be loaded with GFA.
For all references one has to distinguish between group based types (BGRP,
QGRP and VGRP resp FGRP) and the geometric references (GPT, GLN, GAR,
GVO, GFA as well as LAR). The geometric reference will be defined automati-
cally with SOFiMSHC, but may be also defined explicitly with SOFiMSHA. This
information will be saved with the elements and the nodes.
The load may be specified to act only on certain types of structure. It may
be useful to specify if a load is intended to become a beam load or should
be converted to nodal loads. For curved reference elements it also makes a
difference and the total load sum if the eccentricities are taken relative to the
curved reference axis/area or to the polygon edges of the elements.
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If no element type is specified (AUTO), the program will try to use all possible
reference types. The difference is apparent for point loads, where a AUTO-load
will always be attached to the nearest node in the end, while an area or linear
reference may decide, that this load is now off the structure.
For the search of possible elements, the following rules are implemented:
Explicit references are always unique. The load will be applied with particular
reference to the selected element.
References on geometric or element types will choose between all possible
elements to find the best fit. For AREA loading this might create multiple
loading within the same loading area, for point and line loads the elements
nearest to the load will win, a definition of WIDE is ignored if an explicit
reference REF has been given.
For an unspecific reference to a geometric item. SOFiLOAD will first try to
use the structural references, but if this fails it will switch to the corresponding
finite element. Thus GPT will become NODE, GLN to BGRP and GAR to
QGRP.
For an automatic reference the program will work first on explicit load dis-
tribution areas LAR, then GAR resp QUAD, then on GLN resp. BEAM and
last on GPT resp NODE elements. The load must be within the dimensions
of the element, only for the final loop over all nodes the value WIDE will be-
come effective. The reference MOVE will not cycle over the nodes, thus it
will discard all loads of a load train outside the structure.
Loadings on TRUS and CABL elements are applied with a ranking following all
beam elements, as these elements can not account corretcly for partial loadings
or load excentricities. Thus some selection by a reference number, a group
number or a limited value for WIDE is always necessary. This behaviour is
manadatory to avoid loading on cables of an external tendon.
3.15.2 Projection of Loading Definitions

All loading is defined within global coordinates. The loading will become effective
however by some sort of a multiple projection process. The first projection has
nothing to do with the load direction itself and should never be mixed up with
that. A common projection is perpendicular to a structural region, but there are
also projections in the global directions available. If none of such possibilities
is available, the projection is done perpendicular to the loading plane, however
the true global coordinates are needed for all POIN and LINE-loads. For the
interpolation of the load values the projected geometry will be used in all cases.
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-55

WIDE WIDE
Figure 3.7: Projective loading with WIDE
The load may be defined e.g. with a certain offset from the structure itself. It will
then act on all elements within a certain range WIDE before or behind the load
plane, even those which are perpendicular to the projection plane of the load.
The load value will be interpolated within the plane of the load definition. WIDE
will not cut through the elements, it will only select them by a logical decision to
be within the range or not. The load itself can act in any local or global direction,
however.
For the decision if a load will be attached to a specific element, the geometric
size of the point (column head or prescribed mesh size), the section of a geo-
metric line or the thickness and eccentricity of the area for QUAD elements will
be used.
For curved surfaces the user should always specify the surface GAR if the load
points are within that structural area, or select a global projection if the loading
is separate from the structure. The latter will select only elements within the
projection. The load type has no influence on this process. If WIDE has been
specified only elements before and behind the load area will become loaded. A
selection via GAR may also be used for projective loads, it will then select the
elements of this region, but will not affect the projection of the load values.
For the so called componental loadings it is to distinguish between a variant

where the sign of the loading is intended for the global component and a variant
where it is intended for the local component. The latter of these two variants
may be selected with the projections XXL, YYL and ZZL instead of XX, YY and
ZZ.
3.15.3 Beam loading

In SOFiLOAD there are different methods to deal with loading for beam struc-
tures. The most general method is based on explicit load distribution areas LAR
and will then distribute all loads, even point loads, on multiple beams.
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This method is based on load distribution influence areas, constructed from re-
gions either already subdivided in quadrilaterals or to be established automati-
cally in simple cases of four edges. There is a tiny plate-bending FE-program
involved creating the support forces for supported edges or edges with a beam
section. These values are permanently saved to the database.
If now an arbitrary loading is defined it will be first converted to nodal loads for
the distribution mesh of the distribution region and then within a second step it
is converted to support forces and eventually beam loading along the edges of
the area.
The other methods will load only a single distinct beam for any created part of
the loading area. For point and line loads there is a hierarchic search method,
where beams are selected based on their distance to the load. In this sequence
the load will be projected onto the beams, subdividing line loads if necessary. A
point load will be always applied entirely on one beam.
For area loading however a primary and secondary span direction is selected
(automatically or explicitly). Loading will be distributed in the secondary span
direction.
3.15.4 Special Hints

Coordinate definitions relative to nodes are best performed by putting the coordi-
nates to a variable with COOR beforehand. For simple cases for all coordinates
a specification of the literal GPT instead of the X-value and for the number of
a geometric point or a node instead of the Y-value will directly use the coor-
dinates of that point. It is also possible to specify all coordinates relative to a
special nodal point, which is given with its number and the the item NREF for all
loadings but VOLU.
With the literals DXY, DYZ or DZX instead of an X-value it is possibel to specify
coordinates relative to the first defined load point. With literals DDXY, DDYZ and
DDZX the differences are taken relative to the last load point.
It is not required to specify a load value in all load points. Missing load values
will be interpolated before saving the load (e.g. linear variant load value along a
complex geometric curve)
The problem of multiple loading may occur if the user has defined overlapping
elements or there are multiple nodes with the same coordinates. For Point and
LINE-loads there is a rather easy way to assure, that no part of the loading will
be applied more than once. However, for QUAD-elements this is a very difficult
task. Therefore the program will load all possible elements. The user has to
define a WIDE-value which defines all elements within a distance WIDE before
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-57

or behind the load plane will be treated as loaded. For special cases a sound
group selection may be helpful.
For all loading the percentage of the active load area based on the defined
loading area respective length will be calculated and printed. A value deviating
from 100 percent will be marked. With ECHO LOAD the generated loads may
be printed and controlled.
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3.16 LAR Load Distribution Areas
See also: POIN, LINE, AREA, free-loading, COOR

LAR

NO Load distribution area for selection via !
AREA REF LAR NO
NAR Number of a geometric area (GAR) 0
GRP or selection of a group of QUAD elements -
GRP1 Group selection for beam groups all

GRP2 which should be loaded -
GRP3 -
Specification of an explicit structured area if

neither NAR nor GRP specified
M Partitions of N1-N2 or N3-N4 *
N Partitions of N2-N3 or N4-N1 *
T Application range of the load distribution 0.0
X1 Coordinates of first point or input of GPT [m] 1001 0.
Y1 for X1 and the point number for Y1 [m] 1001 0.
Z1 [m] 1001 0.
X2 Coordinates of second point or input of GPT [m] 1001 X1
Y2 for X2 and the point number for Y2. [m] 1001 Y1
Z2 [m] 1001 Z1
X3 Coordinates of third point or input of GPT [m] 1001 X2
Y3 for X3 and the point number for Y3. [m] 1001 Y2
Z3 [m] 1001 Z2
X4 Coordinates of fourth point [m] 1001 X3
Y4 For triangles the fourth point must be [m] 1001 Y3
Z4 the same as the third point. [m] 1001 Z3
Load distribution areas for beam systems can be generated with the record LAR.
So it is possible to define forces as free point, line and area loads at their ac-
tion position. These loads are converted then via load distribution areas into
equivalent beam loads acting on the corresponding beams. Other load types
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-59

(momnets, temperature etc.) may not be treated.
Single beam groups can be selected with GRP1, GPR2 and GRP3. Only the
selected beam groups get then a loading. Thus e.g. a loading can be allocated
only to the transverse or the longitudinal girders within a load distribution areas.
Use of all beam groups is the default.
The loading area may be defined as:
Existent QUAD elements of an area or a group

Explicit structures trinagular or quadrilateral mesh
Every load distribution area gets a local z direction. The positive z direction re-
sults from the defined sense of rotation in analog mode to the QUAD elements.
Thus it is possible to use free loads with the load type PZ - load in local z direc-
tion.
Explicit definition of a load distribution area

An explicit load distribution area is described via three or four nodes which are
the corner points of a triangle or quadrangle. This area is subdivided in M and N
elements. Either the node coordinates or the numbers of already defined GPT
points for X1, X2, X3, X4 are to be input. The highest subdivision value is used
here for the greater edge length in the smaller one for the smaller edge. If no
input for M and N was done or if a to coarse mesh was defined, then SOFiLOAD
generates automatically a mesh.
Figure 3.8: Generation
Generationa
The coordinates of the four corners may be defined in absolute coordinates or
taken from a structural node with the definition GPT nn. Further it is possible
to enter for Z2, Z3 or Z4 one of the literals DXY, DYZ or DZX. The other two
3-60 SOFiSTiK 2016

coordinates are then taken as increments within the specified plane to the first
point. A definition of only the first two points will create a rectangle within the
appropriate coordinate planes.
For every load distribution area a load case number 10000 + NO is generated. It
can be used exclusively for the graphical check and output of the load distribution
area in the ANIMATOR or with WinGRAF.
The load distribution areas should not be defined too large, because otherwise
deductional loads will arise. A load distribution area possibly with an overhang
shown in the following pictures for a four-span bridge should be input per span.
Four-span girder with four load distribution areas
Figure 3.9: Four-span girder with four load distribution areas
In case of one continuous load distribution area deductional forces can arise in
the neighbouring span due to a single load.
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-61

On the other hand deductional forces are generated as planned always inside
for external loads, because they are necessary for the equilibrium.
It is recommended to check the LAR areas in the ANIMATOR.
Examples for load distribution areas:
sofiload_LAR_girder.dat
LAR_Rahm.dat
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3.17 POIN Free Point Loads
See also: LC, LAR, LINE, AREA, VOLU, free-loading,

COOR
POIN

REF Reference type LT AUTO
AUTO Automatic
MOVE Automatic moving load
LAR load distribution area
SLN Structural linie
SAR Structural area
GFA Surface number of BRICs
NODE generated node
BGRP Group of beam / cable / truss ele-
ments
QGRP Group of QUAD elements
VGRP Group of BRIC elements
NO Reference or group number -
TITL Short title of loading LT12 -
PROJ Projection of load point LT N

N normal of reference area (GAR)
XX projection in global X-direction
YY projection in global Y-direction
ZZ projection in global Z-direction
WIDE Range in direction of projection [m] 1001 0.0
Default 0.0 with the tolerance =element
thickness
NREF Reference node for coordinate values -

P Load value 0.
X Global coordinates of loading [m] 1001 0.
Y [m] 1001 0.
Z [m] 1001 0
POIN is a single point load or a similar load type acting independent from the
element mesh. The program will search for points, lines or regions where to put
the load.
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-63

POIN-Loads are not singel loads with a singularity at the tip, but an energetic
equivalent for loadings in the vicinity of a node of the FE mesh. If the mesh is
refined at the tip of the POIN load, the singularities become more visible. As the
transverse loading of a plate or shell may be always spreaded to the mid surface
of the plate or shell, there is the following simple rule:
POIN loadings and point supports may be used without concerns if the element
size is larger that the plate thickness. If the mesh size becomes smaller all
loading ha to be defined as areal loading and all supports as areal support with
the true dimensions.
Explicit references are always unique. The load will be applied with particular
reference to the selected element including eccentricities if possible.
For an unspecific reference to a geometric item. SOFiLOAD will first try to
use the geometric references based on their dimensions, but if these fail
SOFiLOAD will switch to the corresponding FE-element. Thus GPT will be-
come NODE, GLN to BGRP and GAR to QGRP.
For an automatic reference the program will work on LAR/GAR resp QUAD,
then on GLN resp. BEAM and last on GPT resp NODE elements.
If the reference is NODE with an explicit number, the defaults of the coordinates
will be those of that point. Eccentricities will generate moments at the node.
For REF GLN/BGRP the eccentricities will be copied to the beam loading if
beams become active or transformed to moments in case of lines without
beams.
For REF GAR/QGRP the load will always converted to up to four nodal loads
without any eccentricities.
The following load types are available:
Table 3.29: Forces and moments

PG Load in gravity direction (not: self-weight loading) kN
PX Load in local direction kN
PY (Please keep in mind that according to REF kN
PZ different systems are available) kN
PXX Load in global direction kN
PYY kN
PZZ kN
3-64 SOFiSTiK 2016


MX Moment about local direction kNm
MY (Please keep in mind that according to REF kNm
MZ different systems are available) kNm
MXX Moment about global direction kNm
MYY kNm
MZZ kNm
MB Warping moment (only for REF GPT/GLN) kNm2
Table 3.30: Displacements of supports (only for REF GPT/NODE)

WXX Displacement in global X-direction mm
WYY Displacement in global Y-direction
WZZ Displacement in global Z-direction
DXX Rotational displacement about global X-direction mrd
DYY Rotational displacement about global Y-direction
DZZ Rotational displacement about global Z-direction
Displacements of supports in local directions are not possible due to mathemat-

ical reasons.
Table 3.31: Influence values for beam elements (for GLN/BGRP)

WX Jump of displacement in local x-direction mm
WY Jump of displacement in local y-direction
WZ Jump of displacement in local z-direction
DX Bend of displacement about local x-direction mrd
DY Bend of displacement about local y-direction
DZ Bend of displacement about local z-direction
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-65

Table 3.32: Influence values for QUAD elements (for GAR/QGRP)

IMXX Unit bend for influence area for moment m-xx
IMYY Unit bend for influence area for moment m-yy
IMXY Unit bend for influence area for moment m-xy
IVX Unit bend for influence area for shear v-xx
IVY Unit bend for influence area for shear v-yy
INXX Unit bend for influence area for membrane force n-xx
INYY Unit bend for influence area for membrane force n-yy
INXY Unit bend for influence area for membrane force n-xy
If several elements are possible, the first element (with the lowest number) will
win.
For the influence areas the loading will generate a dirac-delta strain within the
centre of the elements. Load value will be 1.0 in general. The deformation of the
mesh is the required influence area. However, directly in the point of interest the
FE- approach will smooth out the singularity of the theoretical influence area.
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3.18 LINE,CURV Free Line Loading
See also: LC, LAR, POIN, AREA, VOLU, free-loading,

COOR
LINE,CURV

AUTO Automatic
SLN Structural linie
SAR Structural area
EDG Nodal sequence
BGRP Group of beam / cable / truss ele-
ments
PROJ Projection of loading line LT N

XXL as XX, sign for local component
YYL as YY, sign for local component
ZZL as ZZ, sign for local component
Default 0.0 with the tolerance = element
thickness

P1 Load value of first point 0.
X1 Coordinates of first point or input of SPT [m] 1001 0.
Y1 for X1 and the point number for Y1 or [m] 1001 0.
Z1 S or SX and the ordinate along a SLN. [m] 1001 0.
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-67


...
P6 Load value of sixth point *
X6 Coordinates of sixth point or input of SPT [m] 1001 X5
Y6 for X6 and the point number for Y6 or [m] 1001 Y5
Z6 S or SX and the ordinate Y6 along a SLN. [m] 1001 Z5
LINE and CURV describe a polygon or a curved smooth line load independent
from the element mesh. Missing load values will be interpolated by a coarser
spline in a first step for both cases.
If the reference SLN,EDG or BGRP is used with an explicit number NO, the
coordinates may be omitted. The load is then uniform along the whole line. For
the first two types non uniform load distributions may be selected with NREF.
For EDG the polygonal geometry of the line will be used, while SLN follows the
real curved geometry. If a SLN has been subdivided only in parts with beam
elements, the load will be applied only on those generated beam elements. If
the total line should be loaded, either coordinates have to be defined or the REF
EDG has to be used to generate nodal loads only.
It is possible to define more than 6 (up tp 63) data points. As there are possible
only 6 per record, the following points have to specified with continuation record
with load type CONT:
LINE SLN 1 TYPE PX P1 to P6 $ for the points 1 $$

to 6 $
TYPE CONT P1 to P6 $ for the points 7 $$
to 12 $
to 15 $
LINE may be also used to specify some standard load distributions. With a
definitionb of one of the following Literals at NREF a distributed loading will be
defined with a maximum value P1 at a distinct location:
LINA Linear distribution, maximum at start

LINE Linear distribution, maximum at end
LINM Linear distribution, maximum at midpoint
3-68 SOFiSTiK 2016

QUAA Quadratic distribution, maximum at start

QUAE Quadratic distribution, maximum at end
QUAM Quadratic distribution, maximum at mid pointQ
CUBA Cubic distribution, maximum at start

CUBE Cubic distribution, maximum at end
Further it is possible to enter for X value from the 2nd load point one of the literals
DXY, DYZ or DZX. The other two coordinates are then taken as increments
within the specified plane to the first point.
It is recommended to use as few points as possible.
For the projection of the load there are the principal possibilities:
Explicit reference to a geometric line or Edge/Boundary Element In that case

all coordinates are converted relative to that line and the interpolation of all
data will be done along the line. Two load values thus define not a standard
linear loading geometry, but a loading with a linear varying distance quasi
parallel to the line. Thats why all the load points have to be able to be
projected on the SLN geometry. The load per length will be referred to the
SLN length. For any Xi it is possible to specify the literal S or SX, then Yi will
be taken as the station or true length along the structural line.
References on geometric lines without explicit numbers. In that case all
nodes of lines will be projected onto the loading geometry. If the projected
points are within the width of the line or the extensions of the section, the
load segment will be projected back to the beam or edge. Load values and
eccentricities will be scaled to fulfil the global equilibrium.
References on beams, truss or cable elements In a first step all beams will
sorted by their distance to the loading. Then the beams are projected on the
loading geometry and the loading segment is projected back to the beam,
applying scaling as in the point above. Loads to far away from the sectional
geometry or before or behind a beam will not be applied. If multiple element
types may be selected, they are selected in the sequence beams, trusses
and cables.
In all cases the program has a sort of Hidden-Line algorithm to ensure that no
part of the loading is active more than once.
For the loading on load distribution areas or QUAD-Elements the program pro-
ceeds as follows:
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-69

A projection of the loading will be done into the requested region if a GAR
reference type has been chosen. All calculations will be done within the
projected area. Load segments will be treated only for the area itself.
If a global projection is selected, all calculations will be made in the global
projective plane. The load may hit several elements which should be se-
lected via the WIDE item.
Without projection and reference area the projection will be done into the
local element plane.
For an automatic reference the program will first work on areas and then on
lines.
At the element level of a QUAD even curved loading lines will be converted
to straight segments. As long as a data-point is within a QUAD element that
will establish no problems, but if the curved geometry touches the element only
slightly this will not be considered further. A finer mesh will create different load
patterns for those cases therefore.
The following load types are available:
Table 3.34: Type of the free Line Loading

(not: self-weight loading)
PXX Load in global direction referred to the beam length kN/ m
PYY (e.g. self weight) kN/ m
PZZ kN/ m
PXP Load in global direction referred to the projective length kN/ m

PYP (e.g. snow) kN/ m
PZP kN/ m
PX Load in local direction kN/ m

PY (Please keep in mind that according to REF kN/ m
PZ different systems are available) kN/ m
PGGl load in local derived from global PGG kN/ m
PGPl load in local derived from global PGP kN/ m
where G {X, Y, Z} and {, y, z}
(see also PROJ XXL, YYL, ZZL)
3-70 SOFiSTiK 2016


MXX Moment about global direction kNm/ m
MYY kNm/ m
MZZ kNm/ m
MX Moment about local direction kNm/ m

MY (Please keep in mind that according to REF kNm/ m
MZ different systems are available) kNm/ m
Table 3.35: Further types of the free Line Loading for REF SLN/BGRP

KX curvature about local x-direction 0/ 00 / m
KY curvature about local y-direction 1/ km
KZ curvature about local z-direction 1/ km
(will generate deformations like moments with the
same sign)
DT Uniform temperature change K
DTY Temperature difference in local y-direction K
DTZ Temperature difference in local z-direction K
PRE Prestress from tendon kN
PREX External prestress kN
WIND Factor for wind loading
PCFD Pressure and wall shear stress from CFD-Analysis
SNOW Factor for snow loading m
See chapter 7 for more details
Positive values of DTY and DTZ mean that the temperature raises in the positive
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-71

direction of the corresponding Y resp. Z axis. This load type is only applicable
for sections having a distinct extension or geometry.
For the prestress type of loading the load value is the force of the tendon. All the
forces, moments, curvatures and strains will be established using the geometry
of the reference axis.
Factors of WIND define additional factors for the wind pressures calculated from
the wind speed and the drag coefficients to allow the description of additional
areas or shadowing effects. (cnf. input record WIND)
For DOLFYN and HYDRA are also the same load types available in 2D for
boundary elements (SLN) as specified for the record QUAD.
3-72 SOFiSTiK 2016

3.19 AREA Free Area Loading
See also: LC, LAR, POIN, LINE, VOLU, free-loading,

COOR
AREA

AUTO Automatic
SAR Structural area
BGRP Group of beam elements
TITL Short title or ident of loading LT12 -
PROJ Projection of loading area LT N

XXL as XX, sign for local component
YYL as YY, sign for local component
ZZL as ZZ, sign for local component

P1 Load value of first point 0.
X1 Coordinates of first point or [m] 1001 0.
Y1 GPT for X1 and the point number for Y1 [m] 1001 0.
Z1 [m] 1001 0.
... ...
P6 Load value of sixth point *
X6 Coordinates of sixth point or [m] 1001 X5
Y6 GPT for X6 and the point number for Y6 [m] 1001 Y5
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-73


Z6 [m] 1001 Z5
AREA describes general polygon loading areas independent from the element
mesh. The load does not need to be specified in all points, missing values will
be interpolated with a least square distribution accounting for the load projection
definition. Thus up to four points with a suitable pattern will define a bilinear
(4 coefficients) distribution, more points will allow a quadratic (6 coefficients) or
bicubic (10 coefficients) distribution, but sufficient points have to be defined in
at least two directions to allow the evaluation of all coefficients. If this is not
the case, the highest degree is selected which yields unique coefficients without
further notice.
Kinks in the load values have to be defined via separate load areas.
Loading on areas (e.g. fillings with liquids and silos) may be defined with VOLU
very efficiently.
If a constant loading on all elements of an area is to be defined, it is possible to

define a GAR/LAR/QGRP only with an explicit number NO and the load value
P1. All coordinates may be omitted in that case.
It is recommended to use as few points as possible. However it is possible to

define more than 6 (up tp 63) data points. As there are possible only 6 per
record, the following points have to specified with continuation record with load
type CONT:
AREA GAR 1 TYPE PX P1 to P6 $ for the points 1 $$

to 6 $
to 12 $
TYPE CONT P1 to P3 $ for the points $$
13 to 15 $
Further it is possible to enter for X value from the 2nd load point one of the literals
DXY, DYZ or DZX. The other two coordinates are then taken as increments
within the specified plane to the first point. A definition of only two points will
create a rectangle within the appropriate coordinate planes.
For the projection of the load there are the principal rules:
Explicit references to an area is always unique. However if the number is
3-74 SOFiSTiK 2016

not defined, the program will check all areas. So multiple instances of the
loaded area might occur. However only those areas are used, where the
load is completely within the volume defined by the elements of the area.
All Interpolations and geometric calculations will take place in the projected
area. For GAR and PROJ N this is the region, which might be curved. The
data points of the load should be on that surface therefore. For a global
projection however the loading area may be situated somehow away from
the real structure.
For a automatic reference, the program will start with any defined load dis-
tribution areas, then any defined QUAD elements and structural areas and
finally work on beam elements.
The loading on beam elements is best done via load distribution areas LAR or
real QUAD elements. If such are not present, the program will establish a main
girder direction and distribute the load transverse to them on those beams fully
or partial within the loading area. Eccentricities of the load will be established as
it would be without any transverse girders. However the user has CTRL options
STOL and COTB to influence this processing.
Table 3.37: Type of the Free Area Loading

WIND Wind loading factor Fctor
PCFD Pressure and wall shear stress from CFD-Analysis Fctor
Snow load shape factor
SNOW see chapter 7 for details Fctor
PG Loading in gravity direction kN/ m2
PX Loading local with reference kN/ m2

PY to the element area kN/ m2
PZ kN/ m2
PXX Loading in global direction with load kN/ m2

PYY value referenced to the element area kN/ m2
PZZ (e.g. self weight) kN/ m2
PXP Loading in global direction with load value kN/ m2

PYP referenced to the projection area kN/ m2
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-75


PZP (e.g. snow) kN/ m2
PXY Load in the normal direction of the area projected kN/ m2

PYZ into the given global plane kN/ m2
PZX kN/ m2
PXYS as above but load value referenced on element area kN/ m2
PYZS kN/ m2
PZXS kN/ m2
PXYP as above, but load value referenced on projected area kN/ m2
PYZP kN/ m2
PZXP kN/ m2
PGGl load in local derived from global PGG kN/ m2

PGPl load in local derived from global PGP kN/ m2
(see also PROJ XXL, YYL, ZZL)
MX Moment loading about local axis kNm/ m2
MY kNm/ m2
MZ kNm/ m2
MXX Moment loading about global axis kNm/ m2
MYY kNm/ m2
MZZ kNm/ m2
DTXY Uniform temperature in xy plane K
DTZ Temperature increase in local z-direction K
EX Strain local x 0/ 00
EY Strain local y 0/ 00
KX Curvature local x 1/ km
KY Curvature local y 1/ km
PMXX Prestress m-xx kNm/ m
PMYY Prestress m-yy kNm/ m
PMXY Prestress m-xy kNm/ m
PVX Prestress q-x kN/ m
3-76 SOFiSTiK 2016


PVY Prestress q-y kN/ m
PNXX Prestress n-x kN/ m
PNYY Prestress n-y kN/ m
PNXY Prestress n-xy kN/ m
The difference between PXX and PXP is given by the fact, that PXX is a load
referenced to the true area (e.g. dead weight) while PXP is referenced on the
projection into the XY-plane (e.g. snow). However, for planar systems there
will be no difference as the loads are always referenced on the true surface.
The component loadings define a load direction derived from a projection of the
normal of the area into the specified global projection plane (e.g. diverting forces
of tendons). The local loads based on a global load projection are required to
define earthquake loadings on fillings of tanks. A load type PXPZ will define
a horizontal projecting pressure applied in the normal direction Z of the plane.
In general the sign of the load value will be taken on the global component.
However with projection XXL, YYL or ZZL the sign of the load value will define
the local component. Thus specifying PXPZ on a circle with PROJ XX will define
a load acting depending on the orienation of the local z-axis, while PROJ XXL
will define a load acting everywhere in the same direction e.g. inwards.
For load types P and M equivalent nodal forces and moments will be established
by integrating the element shape functions.
For all other loads, creating initial stress (like temperature) over the whole el-
ement, the selection will be by hitting the loading area with the centre of the
element. This is why for irregular meshes the sum of the loading area might
deviate from the 100 % aim.
Using load distribution areas with REF LAR a moment loading is not considered!
For DOLFYN and HYDRA are the same load types available as specified for the
record QUAD.
3.19.1 Wind loads

Loading on areas with TYPE WIND have some special effects. In general the
load values specified are the pressure coefficients, but when using the COPY
command, an area may be subdivided and changed according to the provisions
of the EC 1.2-4 or the DIN 1055-4. If this should happen will be controlled by the
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-77

specified TITL.
If the title is not defined or starts with the letters "CP", no conversion will be
performed.
If the title contains the text MEAN or GUST, the pressures will be created
based on the mean or gust value which can be used than with LAR areas for
beam systems, otherwise the load type WIND will be unchanged.
A number within the title is used for flat roofs as follows:
>0 The height of an Attica in m
<0 The reduction of the eaves either with an angle in degree or the
ratio of a curvature r/h
There are of course some requirements on the geometry of the loading areas:
The loading require the total outer extend of the building, defined by all
groups active for wind loading.
A planar load area may have as many load points as possible, but all points
have to be defined, that they are counter clockwise if you look from the out-
side on the surface.
A double pitched roof (saddle or through) requires at least six load points.
The first point has to be on the ridge or groove, which is required to be hori-
zontal and the inclination of the roof must match along all edges everywhere.
3
4 3
2
5 4
5
1 2
1
6 6
Figure 3.10: Load points of a double pitched roof (saddle or through)
If a load area can not be treated an error message occurs, but it is strongly
recommended to check the load values especially if the wind attack is not
perpendicular to the structure.
3-78 SOFiSTiK 2016

3.20 VOLU Volume Loading
See also: LC, POIN, LINE, AREA, VOLU, free-loading,

COOR
VOLU

REF Reference type LT VGRP
LAR Load distribution area
GFA Faces of BRIC elements
SAR Structural region
SVO Structural volume
FGRP Surface of BRIC elements
A/U Reference value for Silo loadings -

P Load value at reference point 0.
X Coordinates of reference point or [m] 1001 *
Y GPT for X and the point number for Y [m] 1001 *
Z [m] 1001 *
P1 Load value of first point/Increment P/0
X1 Coordinates of first point or [m] 1001 *
Y1 GPT for X1 and the point number for Y1 [m] 1001 *
Z1 [m] 1001 *
... ...
P5 Load value of fifth point/Increment P/0
X5 Coordinates of fifth point or [m] 1001 *
Y5 GPT for X5 and the point number for Y5 [m] 1001 *
Z5 [m] 1001 *
VOLU describes loading on volumes or a group of BRIC-elements or all QUAD-

elements within the volume. If no Coordinates are given, all elements of the
group or the volume will be loaded.
It is possible to enter for X1, X2 or X3 one of the literals DXY, DYZ or DZX. The
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-79

other two coordinates are then taken as increments within the specified plane to
the first point.
A geometric description like the LINE and AREA loading is not available, be-
cause this would be to much effort. Therefore the selection of elements is only
by a sheared cube, defined by three selectable directions p1-p, p3-p2, p5-p4,
which must not be colinear.
P5
P3
P1
P
P2
P4
Figure 3.11: The selected volume definition
The load values will be interpolated within the sheared coordinate system and
added for all three directions. In most cases it will be sufficient to define only
load values P and P1 and to use the other four points only to limit the loading
ares. If the user does not supply coordinates for a direction, the program will try
to add the missing directions and treat the load value as an increment.
For the common case of a fluid pressure it is thus sufficient to define the free
surface (X or Y or Z) and the weight of the fluid at entry P1.
LC 2 ; VOLU REF QGRP NO 1 TYPE PZ Z 0.0 P1 -10

LC 3 ; VOLU REF QGRP NO 1 TYPE PZ Z 2.0 P1 -10
Partial loading on BRIC-elements is not implemented, all elements having their

centre point within that body will be loaded, all other not. QUAD-Elements how-
ever will be clipped properly.
Table 3.39: Type of the Volume Loading
TYPE Description Unit Unit

QUAD BRIC
PG Loading in gravity direction kN/ m2 kN/ m3
(not self weight !)
PV Internal pressure kN/ m2 n..
3-80 SOFiSTiK 2016


QUAD BRIC
load value is dependant on orientation
PX Loading local with reference kN/ m2 n..

PY to the element area kN/ m2 n..
PZ kN/ m2 n..
PXX Loading global with reference to the kN/ m2 kN/ m3

PYY element area kN/ m2 kN/ m3
PZZ (e.g. self weight) kN/ m2 kN/ m3
PXP Loading global with reference to the kN/ m2 n..
PYP projection area kN/ m2 n..
PZP (e.g. snow) kN/ m2 n..
PXY Component loading in kN/ m2 n..
PYZ global directions kN/ m2 n..
PZX kN/ m2 n..
PXYS Component loading in kN/ m2 n..
PYZS global directions kN/ m2 n..
PZXS referred on the element area kN/ m2 n..
PXYP Component loading in kN/ m2 n..
PYZP global directions kN/ m2 n..
PZXP referred on the projection kN/ m2 n..
PGGl Load in local l derived from global PGG kN/ m2 n..

PGPl Load in local l derived from global PGP kN/ m2 n..
MXX Moments about global directions kNm/ m2 n..
MYY kNm/ m2 n..
MZZ kNm/ m2 n..
DTXY Temperature difference in the xy-plane K n..

DTZ Temperature difference in local z-direction K n..
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-81


QUAD BRIC
EX Strain local x 0/ 00 0/ 00
EY Strain local y 0/ 00 0/ 00
EZ Strain local z n.. 0/ 00
For DOLFYN and HYDRA are the same load types available as specified for the
records QUAD and BRIC.
3.20.1 Loading in Silos and Tanks

For liquid tanks and silos, there is the load type PV. The reference line P-P1 has
then to be inside the volume and SOFiLOAD uses the orientation of the local
coordinate system of the QUAD relative to that axis to establish the correct sign
of the load "outwards". Further the thickness and the relative position to the
nodes will then be accounted for when calculating the load values.
For this special load type the load values have other meanings:
P Self weight of filling ()

P1 Coefficient for bottom pressure Cb
P2 Coefficient for horizontal pressure Ks
P3 Coefficient horizontal pressure for discharge Ch
P4 Wall friction coefficient
P5 Coefficient wall friction C
Values for granular fillings are given in EC1-4 Table 7.1 or DIN 1055 part 6 Table
1. For the EC lower (0.90) and upper (1.15) bounds have to be considered.
The definition of a value A/U activates the nonlinear distribution along the height
caused by the wall friction. zo defines the values in infinite depth as limit value.
A
z0 = (EC5.6/ DN5) (3.13)
Ks U
p (z) = z0 1 e(z/ z0 ) (EC5.4/ DN3)

(3.14)
ph (z) = Ch Ks z0 1 e(z/ z0 ) (EC5.3/ DN2)

(3.15)
p (z) = C Ks z0 1 e(z/ z0 ) (EC5.2/ DN1)

(3.16)
3-82 SOFiSTiK 2016

Further this definition will apply the factor Cb 1.2 for all flat base plates (<
20 degree) according to equation EC-5.14/DIN-14. For hoppers (> 20 and
< 70 degree) the transition from the walls to the hopper will be detected au-
tomatically and the load distribution according to equations EC (5.15) to (5.18)
will be established. Here DIN has slightly different formulas (16) to (23).
Loading for discharge has to be accounted for either by spot pressures to be

defined independently or by correction factors according to be selected by the
user individually.
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-83

3.21 EXPO Export of Load Cases
EXPO

NO Number of a load case ( 0 = all) -
TO Name of a file to write to LT96 *
PASS Password of CDB data base LT16 -
OPT Options -
With the command EXPO you may write the loads form load cases in the
database to a input file for SOFiLOAD. This may be useful in special cases,
but you have to keep in mind that during the input processing always some infor-
mation gets lost (e.g. local to global transformations), so the user should check
the resulting data to be sure that nothing is missing.
If the filename is not specified the data will be appended to the most lately de-
fined file or set to project_LFD.DAT.
OPT allows some extra options to be activated:
1 only nodal and elemental loads will be exported, but including all
generated loads.
1024 only those free loadings are exported which have not been applied
with 100 %.
3-84 SOFiSTiK 2016

3.22 EVAL Evaluations
See also: BEAM

EVAL

TYPE Type of evaluation LT RU
RR norm of load vector
RU scalar product R with U
RUU scalar product R with U2
RV,RVV with velocities V
RA,RAA with accelerations A
RP,RPP with support forces P
RI,RII with displacement increments
TEQV equivalent linear temperature
load
NO Second load case number (U,V,A ...) !
NAME Name of a CADINP-Variable (without #) LT8 -
With command EVAL one may evaluate expressions with the actual load vector
of defined or generated nodal forces with displacements of other load cases in
the database and supply these values to CADINP for the next input block (after
the END-record) as a variable. This is an evaluation of an influence area or an
integral over a given displacement function and is very helpful for some special
loading.
If for example a constant area load with value 1.0 is specified, the result of RU
will be the integral of that area within the loaded area. EVAL may be also helpful
for a fast evaluation of different loads on a calculated influence line.
3.22.1 Equivalent Linear Temperature Load

An input of a temperature profile along the sectional local z-axis followed by the
EVAL TEQV will result in a computation of the equivalent linear temperature distri-
butions - an equivalent uniform temperature change DT (Teq ) and an equivalent
temperature difference in local z-direction DTZ (Tz,eq ), e.g.
1 BEAM ... TYPE T EZA #z1 PA #dTz1 ...
2 BEAM ... TYPE T EZA #z2 PA #dTz2 ...
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-85

3 . . .
4 BEAM ... TYPE T EZA #zn PA #dTzn ...
5 EVAL TYPE TEQV
This load is saved in the database and can be used for the computation of the
beam reactions.
Hint
The determination of the equivalent linear temperature load is possible only
for the finite-element cross sections.
The temperature induced axial strain (thermal strain) of the beam cross section
at the position along the beam axis can be described by the following expres-
sion:
t (, y, z) = t (, y, z) T(, y, z) , (3.17)
where t (, y, z) is the thermal expansion coefficient and T(, y, z) is the tem-

perature change distribution.
Under the constrained conditions, the temperature induced strains will cause
corresponding axial constraint stresses to develop in the beam, i.e.:
t (, y, z) = E(, y, z) t (, y, z) = E(, y, z) t (, y, z) T(, y, z) . (3.18)
From now on we restrict ourselves to the case where the temperature only varies
along the z-axis of the cross-section.
Axial force of the beam under the constrained conditions due to thermal strains
can now be determined as
Z Z
t
N () = t (, y, z) dA = E(, y, z) t (, z) dA
A A
Z
= [E(, y, z) t (, z) T(, z)] dA . (3.19)
A
Similarly, bending moment about cross-sectional y-axis under the constrained

conditions due to thermal strains can be computed as
Z Z
Mty () = t (, y, z) z dA = [E(, y, z) t (, z) T(, z)] z dA . (3.20)
A A
3-86 SOFiSTiK 2016

z
T(z) Tcons = Teq Tne (z) = Tz,eq Tnon (z)
h
T(z1 )
T(z2 )
neutral axis
T(z ) h
z
T(zn )
Teq Tz,eq
Figure 3.12: Temperature distribution decomposition into constant Tcons , linear

Tne (z) and remaining non-linear part Tnon (z)
Any temperature distribution T(z) can be decomposed into a constant (uni-

form), a linear and a remaining non-linear part (see Fig. 3.12). Under the
constrained conditions, the constant temperature change Tcons will result in the
axial force, while the linear temperature change Tne (z) will cause the bending
moment to appear. The remaining non-linear temperature change Tnon (z) will
yield the eigen-stresses which are self- equilibrating (i.e. they do not contribute
to internal reaction forces in the beam). 1
Assuming an uniform temperature distribution along the cross-sectional z-axis,

Tcons () = Teq (), we can compute the thermal axial strains teq () and the
resulting constrained axial force Neq () as follows
Neq () = EA() teq () = EA() t () Teq () , (3.21)
where EA and T are the elastic axial stiffness and the coefficient of thermal
expansion of the gross cross-section of the beam.
By comparing the two expressions for axial force, Eq. 3.19 and Eq. 3.21, we
can finally derive the equivalent uniform temperature change along the x-axis of
the beam Teq ()
[E(, y, z) t (, y, z) T(, z)] dA
R
A
Neq () = N () t
Teq () = . (3.22)
EA() t ()
In case of a linear temperature distribution along the z-axis of the cross-section,

Tne (, z) = Tz,eq () z/ h, the corresponding equivalent curvature y,eq
t
()
(change of the curvature of the beam) and the resulting constrained bending
1 For cross-sectional stress checks, these eigen-stresses may, however, be relevant. Auto-
matic account of this stress state for the checking procedure is currently not provided.
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-87

moment about neutral y-axis My,eq () are given as

Tz,eq ()
t
My,eq () = Ey () y,eq () = Ey () t () , (3.23)
h
where Ey is the gross cross-sectional elastic bending stiffness of the beam.
Again, by comparing the bending moments from Equations 3.20 and 3.23, we
can derive the equivalent temperature difference in local z-direction along the
x-axis Tz,eq ():
[E(, y, z) t (, y, z) T(, z)] z dA

R
h A
My,eq () = Mty () Tz,eq () = .
Ey () t ()
(3.24)
Hint
In order to list the determined equivalent linear temperature load in the
SOFiSTiK Report Browser, ECHO LOAD EXTR is required.
3-88 SOFiSTiK 2016

3.23 CTRL Optional Control Values
CTRL

OPT Name of control option LT FULL
VAL Value of control option / LT !

V2 additional value for option -
With CTRL you may specify some control options for the analysis. A definition
for CTRL is evaluated sequentially within the input. The control values have to
be input therefore before the load cases.
COMP Compatibility to older versions

0 current (from Version 20.00-99)
99 from Version 10.00-99
Default: 0
COPY Options for the COPY-Record
1 Create loads from load trains always as point and line
loads only (instead of area loads)
2+4*N Create loads from load trains with Referenz N
where: N=0 LAR N=4 EDG/NODE
N=1 SLN N=5 BGRP
N=2 SAR N=6 QGRP
N=3 GFA N=7 VGRP
N=8 AUTO N=9 MOVE
64 Clipping of load trains at trainwidth
128 Clipping of load trains at lane width
196 No clipping of load trains
256 Loads copied will include a reference to the original load
case, i.e. for a restart changes of the original load case
will be taken into account. This option is not available for
free loadings however.
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-89

Default: 0
DIST Distribution of loads for beam elements:
0 on single beam elements only
1 distributed between beam elements (AREA BGRP)
(explicit direction dx,dy,dz definable with V2,V3,V4)
2 distributed via influence areas only
+4 suppress torsional moments as much as possible
WIND Control pattern for Wind loads
1 Create wind loading even for static wind as wind velocities
(ASE/DYNA only)
Default: 0
SUML saves the sums of the generated nodal forces
PX, PY, PZ in CRI1, CRI2, CRI3 of the load case header (see LC)
the three consecutive values are factors for the PX, Py and PZ, while
the fourth value is an angle to rotate the resultants PX, PY (useful for
drag coefficients)
SUML fak1 fak2 fak3 alf genrates factorised and for 2D also rotated
integrals of the forces from WIND.
Default: 0
LAR Variation of LAR-support
> 1.0 rigid support
< 1.0 soft support
For example LAR 2.0 creates a stiffer elastic support for the load
distribution areas.
Default: 1.0
CFDL Selection of a load case of the CFD results
The selection of a load case of the CFD results is done independently
from the generated load cases.
The following options are intended only for internal purpose up to now.
CHEC Check option

Default: (not yet used)
GTOL Precision for geometric calculations
Default: *
STOL Precision for load subdivision calculations (DIST 1)
Default: *
3-90 SOFiSTiK 2016

COTB minimum Cotangent of angle between beam and load directions for
DIST 1
Default: *
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-91

3.24 COOR Enquire nodal coordinates
See also: LC, LAR, POIN, LINE, AREA, VOLU

COOR

NO number of a node !
VAR Name of a CADINP variable Lt8 !
(without # character of course!)
IND index of the variable -
With this record it is possible to save coordinates for a given point or node num-
ber in a variable. Due to technical reasons it is not possible to access the nodal
coordinates directly from CADINP. But defining COOR allows to save and use
these coordinates in arithmetic expresssions.
The coordinates of one selected node are put to the variable

varname[ IND+1:IND+3] . With a definition of
COOR 5121 XYZ

COOR 5122 XYZ 3
COOR 5123 XXX ID -1
STO#XYZ
the variables #XYZ(1),#XYZ(2) and #XYZ(3) will contain the coordinates of node
5121, the variables #XYZ(4),#XYZ(5) and #XYZ(6) will contain the coordinates
of node 5122 and the variables #CEN(0),#CEN(1) and #CEN(2) will contain the
coordinates of node 5120. The variable #XYZ is finally saved to the data base
permanently.
3-92 SOFiSTiK 2016

3.25 ECHO Printout Options
ECHO

OPT A literal from the following list: LT FULL
FULL Set all options
LANE Lane geometries
ACT Actions
LOAD Loading
WIND Wind parameters
VAL Volume of printout LT FULL

NO no printout at all
YES standard printout
FULL enhanced printout
EXTR extended printout
With ECHO you my control the volume of the printout.
LANE Table of traffic lanes

NO do not print table
FULL list of lanes
ACT Table of actions
NO do not print table
YES Only list of actions
FULL List of actions and their load cases
LOAD Table of loadings
NO do not print tables
YES Load case + general infos
FULL YES + defined loading
EXTR FULL + generated loads
SOFiSTiK 2016 3-93

3-94 SOFiSTiK 2016

Dynamic Loads | SOFiLOAD
4 Dynamic Loads
Dynamic loading may be accounted for among others with
static equivalent loading

response or power spectra
via a transient analysis with time functions.
In all cases you need a loading, in many cases generated by some unit acceler-
ations (ACCE).
A spectrum defines the response for a single degree of freedom system depend-
ing on the eigenfrequency period and may be used for systems with multiple
degrees of freedom with statistical algorithms.
For a dynamic analysis one or more load cases will be combined via time func-
tions to a complete loading, which is then subdivided into discrete time steps.
The tasks to do are:
Definition of the spectra (RESP)

Definition of time functions (FUNC)
Creating of loads for the single time steps (STEP)
The last task is much more effective for linear dynamics (DYNA) within the time
stepping algorithm, but for more general cases, like nonlinear dynamics with non
conservative loading it will become necessary to save all the loading within the
database for ASE with the command STEP.
Hint
The options RESP, FUNC and STEP are only available with a special li-
cense for dynamic effects.
4.1 Pushover Analysis - Theoretical Background

Seismic design of structures is a challenging and demanding task for a struc-
tural engineer and the tools at his disposal range from a relatively simple multi-
modal response spectrum analysis (RSA) which has been incorporated into al-
most all modern seismic design codes to a rather complex and expensive direct
nonlinear response history analysis (RHA). Despite its accuracy and rigorous-
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-1

SOFiLOAD | Dynamic Loads
AQUA + SOFIMSH SOFILOAD ASE SOFILOAD

Mat. / Hinges + System Push Load Push Analysis Performance
cnod
S
M
Sp

P
Sdp Sd
M Vb
Figure 4.1: Pushover analysis workflow
ness in estimating the seismic response of structures, direct nonlinear response

history analysis still remains impractical for a wide range of problems encoun-
tered in earthquake engineering practice. On the other hand, the multimodal
response spectrum analysis with its use of the estimated average ductility ca-
pacity based mostly on the type of the structure often provides a too crude es-
timation of the nonlinear seismic demand. In recent years, a turn from RSA
towards performance-based seismic design based on the nonlinear static pro-
cedure (NSP) or pushover analysis has been evident. This procedure recog-
nizes the fact that the capacity of the structure and a seismic demand are two
inseparable parts of the performance-based design.
Pushover analysis is a procedure whose purpose is to evaluate the performance

of the structure under a specified earthquake hazard by comparing the available
capacity and estimated structural demands.
Pushover analysis procedure comprises of the following stages (Figure 4.1):
1. AQUA + SOFIMSHA/SOFIMSHC: First stage is the definition of the material

properties, or what is more common in the pushover analysis definition of
non-linear link elements, or plastic hinges (see AQUA: SMAT). Next the
system is defined, with appropriate non-linear links assigned to e.g. ends
of the beams.
2. SOFILOAD: Next stage is the definition of the pushover lateral load case
pattern. Choice of the load case pattern is an important point in the
pushover analysis since these lateral forces should be able to represent
the inertial forces that the structure will be experiencing when subjected to
earthquake ground motion as accurately as possible. The load pattern is
usually assumed to be proportional to some assumed displacement shape
4-2 SOFiSTiK 2016

vector . Most commonly, the chosen load pattern is proportional to the

fundamental eigenmode of the structure. However, any other reasonable
displacement shape can also be used (e.g. constant or linear distribution
of forces, etc.). Instead of a load driven pushover analysis, a displacement
driven analysis might also be required (Figures 4.11 and 4.12). For more
details about the definition of the pushover load see ACCE: Pushover Load.
3. ASE: Pushover analysis is performed by subjecting the structure to a mono-
tonically increasing load pattern of lateral forces defined in stage 2. As
aforementioned, these lateral forces represent the inertial forces that the
structure will be experiencing when subjected to earthquake excitation. The
goal of this incremental nonlinear static analysis is to obtain the capacity of
the structure.
4. SOFILOAD: Based on the previous stages the structural capacity can be
analyzed together with the seismic demand and the structural seismic per-
formance can be determined.
Hint
The capacity of structure can be defined as the maximal force, associ-
ated to the maximal displacement, which a structure might exhibit dur-
ing a series of seismic excitations with a growing intensity. The base-
shear force Vb and control node displacement cnod can be taken as
a measure of these maximal forces and corresponding maximal dis-
placements of the structure, respectively. As noted in R EINHORN [36],
it can be shown that envelope of all force maxima and their associ-
ated displacements are close to the curve obtained by monotonically
increasing the inertial forces and determining the associated displace-
ments (pushover curve).
The procedure consists of the following steps:

(a) Choosing the characteristic force and displacement of the structure, a
so called pushover curve of the multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) sys-
tem can be obtained. The force, here denoted as Vb , is usually base-
shear, while the displacement is a displacement of the characteristic
point on the structure cnod , also called the roof displacement or the
control node displacement (Fig. 4.2).
How to pass the pushover curve to SOFiLOAD is described in Subsec-
tion: VB-U: Base Shear - Control Node Displacement Diagram.
(b) Next step in the pushover analysis is the transformation the original
MDOF system, whose nonlinear behavior is described by the pushover
curve, into an equivalent single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system. In
doing so, we can also transform the pushover curve into the so-called
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-3

cnod
Vb
cnod
Vb
Figure 4.2: Pushover curve (Vb-u diagram)
capacity diagram, plotted in the spectral displacement - spectral accel-

eration coordinate system, also know as ADRS format.
Starting point is the equation of motion of the nonlinear MDOF system
M (t) + C (t) + s () = M g (t) , (4.1)
where (t), (t) and (t) are the relative displacement, relative velocity
and relative acceleration vectors, respectively, while M and C are mass
and damping matrices of the structure. s () denotes the nonlinear in-
ternal resistance force of the structure. Right hand side represents the
effective earthquake forces, where is the unit directional vector and
g (t) is the ground acceleration.
First and basic assumption in the formulation of an equivalent SDOF

system is that the deflected shape remains constant during the entire
structural response to ground motion, regardless of the level of deforma-
tion (K RAWINKLER AND S ENEVIRATNA [30], FAJFAR [17]). In that case,
the relative displacement vector of an MDOF system can be approxi-
mated as follows:
(t) q(t) , (4.2)
where q(t) represents the modal coordinate, according to the terminol-

ogy used in the modal analysis.
Substituting Eq. 4.2 in Eq. 4.1 and premultiplying with T yields
T M q(t) + T C q(t) + T s (q) = T M g (t) , (4.3)
or written in a more compact form
m q(t) + c q(t) + s (q(t)) = m g (t) . (4.4)
In modal analysis m = T M and c = T C are usually called general-
4-4 SOFiSTiK 2016

ized modal mass and damping. This is general true only if the assumed
displacement shape corresponds to one of the natural modes, but for
convenience sake the same terminology will be used herein regardless
of the chosen displacement shape. s = T s and m = T M are
the nonlinear resisting force and mass of the equivalent SDOF system.
Introducing a new reference SDOF displacement D(t) as follows
q(t) = D(t) , (4.5)
we finally obtain the equation of motion of the equivalent inelastic SDOF

system
m D(t) + c D(t) + s (D(t)) = m g (t) , (4.6)
where c = c denotes the damping of the equivalent SDOF system.

The transformation constant controls the transformation from the
MDOF to the SDOF system and vice versa (FAJFAR [17]). It is also
called the modal participation factor, but again this is only true if cor-
responds to the natural mode. It is defined as
T M m
= = . (4.7)
T M m
It is common to represent the structural resisting force s (D(t) as a prod-

uct of the equivalent mass m and pseudo-acceleration A(D(t)) 1
s (D(t)) = m A(D(t)) . (4.8)
Introducing equivalent damping ratio and equivalent circular fre-

quency = 2T (T - equivalent period of the structure) and sub-
stituting Eq. 4.8 in Eq. 4.6 results in a inelastic differential equation of
motion of the SDOF system in a common acceleration form:
D(t) + 2 D(t) + A(D(t)) = g (t) . (4.9)
If the earthquake ground acceleration g (t) is know, the solution of this

equation can be obtained by the numerical integration. However, in
most practical applications the seismic excitation is usually represented
by the earthquake (elastic or inelastic) response spectrum. The maxi-
1 For the undamped structures the pseudo-acceleration is equal to the total acceleration,
i.e. A(t) = D(t) + g (t). In reality all structures posses some damping, but this structural
damping is usually very small so that the pseudo-acceleration can be approximated with the
total accelerations. The internal resistance structural forces are proportional to the pseudo-
accelerations.
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-5

mal response of the SDOF Eq. 4.9 is then given by
m |D(t)| = Sd (T , ) , (4.10a)
m |A(D(t))| = Sp (T , ) ,

(4.10b)
where Sd (T , ) is the spectral relative displacement response and

Sp (T , ) is the pseudo-acceleration spectral response 2 .
Similar to MDOF system, the capacity of the equivalent inelastic SDOF

system can be defined as the maximal force s,m (D) = s (Sd ), asso-
ciated to the maximal displacement Dm (t) = Sd , which a SDOF sys-
tem might exhibit during a series of seismic excitations with a growing
intensity. As noted in R EINHORN [36], it can be shown that an enve-
lope of all force maxima and their associated displacements is close to
the monotonic curve represented by the capacity diagram 3 . This im-
plies that the time-dependent nonlinear resisting force - displacement
behavior, s (D(t)), of the SDOF system can be described by the time-
independent monotonic maximal nonlinear force - maximal deformation
relationship s (Sd ) of the SDOF system (capacity diagram, Fig. 4.3)
used in the response spectrum solution, i.e.
s (D(t)) = m A(D(t)) s (Sd ) = m S (Sd ) . (4.11)
Now we can transform the Vb cnod pushover curve of the MDOF sys-
tem to the Sp Sd capacity diagram of the equivalent SDOF system
(Fig. 4.3).
S = Vb / (2 m) D(t)
Vb
m
c
s (D)
cnod Sd = cnod / ( cnod ) g (t)
Figure 4.3: Conversion of the pushover curve to capacity diagram (A-D format)
Considering the Eqs. 4.2, 4.5 and 4.10a the absolute maximal displace-
ment of the control node of the MDOF system cnod can be related to
2 Where there is no possibility for confusion, the notation S will also be used to denote the
pseudo-acceleration spectral response Sp .
3 As further noted by R EINHORN [36], for a SDOF system with bi-linear resisting force -
deformation characteristics, the envelope of the force maxima and associated maximal dis-
placements will exactly follow the bi-linear relationship.
4-6 SOFiSTiK 2016

the spectral relative displacement response Sd (T , )
cnod = cnod m |q(t)| = cnod Sd (T , ) , (4.12)
and vice versa

cnod
Sd (T , ) = . (4.13)
cnod
To complete the transformation the base shear Vb needs to be related

to the pseudo-acceleration spectral response Sp (T , ). This can be
done by first recollecting that the vector of pushover loads p is defined
by (see ACCE: Pushover Load)
p=M , (4.14)
where is a parameter which controls the magnitude of the pushover

loads. The distribution of the pushover loads is governed by the vector
. It is reasonable to assume that the vector can be approximated
by the assumed displacement shape . Consequently, the assumed
pushover load and displacement shapes are mutually dependent, which
is the assumption which is used in the majority of the pushover analysis
approaches (FAJFAR [17]).
Base shear Vb of the MDOF system is
n
X
Vb = p = T M = m . (4.15)
=1
From statics it follows that the internal forces s are equal to the applied
external loads p, i.e.
s = p . (4.16)
Taking the Eqs. 4.14, 4.15 and 4.16 into consideration, the maximal
nonlinear resisting force of the equivalent SDOF system s can be writ-
ten as
m Vb (cnod )
s (Sd ) = T s = T M = m = = . (4.17)

Substituting Eqs. 4.8 and 4.10b into 4.17 yields

s (Sd ) Vb (cnod ) Vb (cnod )
Sp (T , ) =

= = . (4.18)
m m 2 m
Equations 4.13 and 4.18 are used to convert the Vb cnod pushover
curve from the stage 4a to the SDOF system spectral acceleration
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-7

Sp - spectral displacement Sd coordinate system to obtain the ca-

pacity diagram (Fig. 4.3). The corresponding SOFiLOAD input is
described in A-D: Spectral Acceleration - Spectral Displacement Dia-
gram.
Hint
Two main assumptions used for the conversion of the MDOF into
an equivalent SDOF system are:
Displacement shape remains constant during the entire struc-
tural response to ground motion, regardless of the level of de-
formation
The distribution of the pushover loads is proportional to the
product of the mass and the displacement shape (pushover
load and displacement shapes are mutually not independent)
(c) Elastic response spectrum can also be transformed from the traditional
spectral acceleration S versus period T format to the spectral acceler-
ation S versus spectral displacement format Sd (a.k.a. A-D format or
ADRS format) to obtain the elastic demand diagram by utilizing the well
known relation
2
S T

Sd = = S . (4.19)
2 2
Figure 4.4 shows the conversion of the elastic response spectrum from
traditional to A-D format. In A-D format the lines radiating from the origin
have constant periods.
T = cons S T = cons
S
T Sd = S (T/ 2)2
Figure 4.4: Conversion of elastic response spectrum to A-D format (elastic de-
mand diagram)
How to pass the the elastic demand response spectrum to SOFiLOAD

is described in Subsection: A-D: Spectral Acceleration - Spectral Dis-
placement Diagram.
(d) Next step in the structural seismic performance analysis is the deter-
4-8 SOFiSTiK 2016

mination of the performance point (a.k.a. target displacement, demand

point, etc.). The performance point defines the internal state (internal
forces, displacements, rotations, interstory drifts, etc.) of the structural
system under an earthquake demand. To determine the performance
point, the capacity and elastic demand diagram in A-D format are plot-
ted in the same graph. Then based on the available capacity the elastic
demand is reduced to obtain inelastic seismic demand for the equiv-
alent SDOF system. The intersection between the capacity and the
inelastic demand diagram represents the performance point (Sdp , Sp )
(Fig. 4.5). In other words, the performance point corresponds to the
structural state.
S
El. Demand Diagram
Performance Point
Capacity Diagram
Sp
Demand Diagram
Sdp Sd
Figure 4.5: Determination of the performance point
In formulating and solving the equivalent inelastic SDOF system (Eq.

4.6 or 4.9) and determining the inelastic from the elastic seismic de-
mand, two methods are most commonly used:
i. Method based on the elastic highly damped demand spectrum and
an elastic SDOF system with equivalent damping and period. This
method is also know as the capacity spectrum method (ATC-40
[1], F REEMAN ET AL . [22], F REEMAN [21]). Underlying principle
behind this method is described in ATC: ATC-40 Procedure.
ii. Method based on the inelastic demand spectrum and an inelastic
SDOF system (EN1998-1:2004 [13], FAJFAR [16], C HOPRA AND
G OEL [6, 7]). Underlying principle behind this method is described
in EC8: Eurocode 8 Procedure.
5. ASE + WINGRAF: Once the performance point is computed the struc-
tural demand of the original MDOF system can easily be established.
Back transformation of the inelastic seismic demand of the SDOF sys-
tem represented by the performance point (Sdp , Sp ) to the MDOF system
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-9

(cnod,p , Vb,p ) is performed with the help of the Eqs. 4.12 and 4.18, i.e.
cnod,p = cnod Sdp , (4.20a)

Vb,p = m Sp .
2
(4.20b)
Now the performance of the original MDOF system at maximum control

node displacement cnod,p can be evaluated on the global and local level.
In other words the MDOF structure is pushed up to the target displacement
level of the the control node cnod,p (displacement demand).
cnod,p = cnod Sdp

Sdp
s = m Sp = m Sp
Vb,p = s = 2 m Sp
Figure 4.6: Transformation of the seismic demand of the SDOF system to the
seismic demand of the MDOF system
Pushing the structure until reaching the target displacement level of the
control node cnod,p is performed with ASE analog to the stage 3. If the
pushover analysis in the stage 3 is performed with the reasonably small
load increments then the user could take one of the two load cases in be-
tween which the control node displacement level cnod,p is located as the
final performance (demand) load case.
Finally the global structural performance can be assessed by performing
checks that the structural and nonstructural components are not damaged
beyond the acceptable limits of the performance objective for the level of
forces and deformations corresponding to the displacement demand cnod,p
(ATC-40 [1]).
4-10 SOFiSTiK 2016

4.2 RESP Response Spectrum
See also: FUNC, ACCE, STEP, Eurocode, DIN, OENOR-

M/SIA, NTC, EAK, SNIP, UBC/IBC, GB, IS, JRA, Wind-
RESP
spectra

TYPE Type of spectra LT *
see remarks
(i.e. follow links on top of the page)
CLAS Soil class or similar (see comments) / LT *

MOD Damping or behaviour factor
modal damping or 0.05
behaviour factor q (EC8 Design 1.5
spectra)
SA Rigid acceleration (T = 0) *
SB Constant acceleration *
S 0 for elastic Spectra
S 0 / q for design spectra
SMIN Minimum acceleration threshold *
TB Time value sec *
TC Time value sec *
TD Time value sec *
TE Cut-Off Time value sec *
K1 Exponent TC < T < TD *
K2 Exponent T > TD *
ZONE Seismic Zone LT (NORM)

AG Free field basic acceleration m/ sec2 (NORM)
AH Horizontal acceleration factor 1.0
AV Vertical acceleration factor -
TITL Title of response spectrum LT32 *
Earthquake loading is defined in most design codes as a basic acceleration de-

pendant on the importance of the building and the seismic zone. The response
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-11

of the structure is then defined as a response spectra depending on soil classes

and the magnitude. RESP allows not only the selection of the standard spectra,
but also variants with explicit parameters. For special cases even an individual
curve may be defined with succeeding FUNC records.
For the complete loading definition you need the direction of the acceleration
specified with the record ACCE. Please note that the spectra may be defined
in absolute accelerations or as a fraction of the gravity acceleration g or a base
acceleration g . The second approach is more straight, as we have the theoret-
ical value of 1.0 for T = 0 (perfect rigid structure). Thus this approach is chosen
for all spectra beside the UBC and the Chinese and Japanese spectra. It might
happen that SA is less than 1.0 for some design codes due to soft soils.
In general you are using only one spectra, but it is possible to define multiple
spectras with different modal damping ratios. The response is then interpolated
between the adjacent curves for any eigenmode.
For those design codes using different spectra for vertical and horizontal re-
sponse (Eurocode), two factors AH and AV are provided. However only one of
these factors should be defined, but a definition of AH 0.0 will preset the value
AV to the default of the design code.
In general there are two cases to be distinguished for the design:
Limit state of serviceability

This is normally a request for deformations and constructional rules.
Ultimate Limit design
This requires the stability of the structure. The most severe case would
be the elastic response, but in general it is justified to use reduced design
spectras taking into account the ductility of the structure with a reduction
behaviour factor q. The selection of an appropriate behaviour factor is within
the responsibility of the designing engineer.
All values will be preset according to the selected type and Parameter CLAS,
but may be changed as desired. Thus the total spectra has the following shape:
4-12 SOFiSTiK 2016

Figure 4.7: Shape of the response spectrum
T

0 < T < TB : S = SA + (SB SA ) (4.21)
TB
TB < T < TC : S = SB (4.22)
k 1
TC

TC < T < TD : S = SB Smn (4.23)
T
k 1 k 2
TC TD

TD < T < TE : S = SB Smn (4.24)
TD T
TE < T : S=0 (4.25)
If the value TD = 0, the parameter k2 is not used as above, but for the first
segment as follows (e.g. JRA):
k 2
T

0 < T < TB : S = m SA , SB (4.26)
TB
The values of the spectra depend also from the damping or the behaviour fac-
tor q. The plateau of the spectra is modified in general with one of the following
factors on the modal damping or behaviour factor:
With damping :
v
u 1.0
= (4.27)
t
0.55
0.5 + 10
With behaviour factor q:

1.0
= (4.28)
q
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-13

If no definitions are made for MOD, the modal damping of the eigenforms will
be used to factorize the response with the factor of formula 4.27. If values
are specified it is possible to interpolate the response between various spectra
depening on the specified damping.
Hint
The following remarks do not allow to skip the study of the design codes for
earthquake. Some remarks below will necessarily make no sense if one
has not read the corresponding paragraphs of the design code. Further
it has to be stated, that we can not claim that our readings of the design
codes are always complete or correct.
4.2.1 Eurocode EC 8
While the original version had only three different types of spectras, still available
with TYPE EC-0, the manifold of the later versions requires now more parame-
ters do be defined. For TYPE one may select between EC-1 (Type 1) or EC-2
(Type 2, for M < 5.5) and for CLAS the soil classes A to E accounting for the
following soils:
Soil class A
Rock or other stiff formations with shear wave velocities above 800 m/sec
with at most 5 m soft strata on top as well as stiff soils of several ten meters
with an increase of soil values with depth reaching a shear wave velocity of
400 m/sec in a depth of 10 m.
Soil class B
Stiff deposits with mean shear wave velocities above 360 m/sec (former 200
m/sec in 10 m depth and above 350 m/sec in 50 m depth).
Soil class C
Medium dense or medium stiff soils with shear wave velocities above 180
m/sec (former below 200 m/sec in the uppermost 20 m)
Soil class D (since 2001, former C)
Loose cohesionless soil deposits or deposits with predominant soft-to-
medium stiff cohesive soils with shear wave velocities below 180 m/sec.
Soil class E (since 2001)
Soil made up of superficial alluvial layer (C and D) 5 to 20 m covering stiffer
deposits (A).
The acceleration g is ruled by the local site and has to be specified with the
record ACCE. An explicit definition of MOD>1.0 will automatically select the
design spectra. A direct or indirect definition of AV will switch to the vertical
4-14 SOFiSTiK 2016

spectra parameters.
4.2.2 Uniform/International Building Code UBC/IBC

UBC and IBC distinguish the soil classes A to E and the special class F with
individual parameters.
A Soil Profile Type A (Hard Rock)

B Soil Profile Type B (Rock)
C Soil Profile Type C (Very Dense Soil and Soft Rock)
D Soil Profile Type D (Stiff Soil Profile)
E Soil Profile Type E (Soft Soil Profile)
F Soil Requiring Site-specific evaluation
The IBC defines in detailed maps the basic acceleration for a short period Ss
and at 1 sec S1 . From these and the soil class all parameters of the spectra are
defined according to equations 16-38 to 16.43. The user specifies this by the
soil class and a literal of the form s.ss/t.tt for the seismic zone, where s.ss and
t.tt are the values for Ss and S1 .
For the UBC the Zone-Factor is derived from table 16-I according to the seismic
zone value 1, 2A, 2B, 3 or 4. From that table 16-Q and 16-R yield the values
C and C. The near source factor of table 16-S and 16-T as well as the mod-
ifications for isolated systems in zone 4 have to be specified with parameters
explicitly.
The acceleration you have to specify at ACCE is then for both cases required to
be given as g = 10.0.
Hint
Modification of the UBC/IBC spectra with a factor based on the modal
damping (Eq. 4.27) or the behaviour factor q (Eq. 4.28) is not supported.
4.2.3 DIN 4149 old and new

The new DIN has three earthquake zones with g = 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8m/ sec2 and
the spectra follows closely the EC, but with a much more narrow shape. Due
to the separation of the soil in the upper soil classes (A,B,C) and a geological
underground class (R,T,S) the possible values for CLAS are A-R, B-R, C-R, B-T,
C-T or C-S.
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-15

The old DIN 4149 (TYPE RDIN) however has a rather simple spectra for the
seismic zones 1 to 4 with acceleration values of 0.25, 0.40, 0.65 und 1.0m/ sec2 .
Those values however have to be multiplied with a soil factor between 1.0 and
1.4 and thus should be explicitly given via ACCE.
4.2.4 SIA 260 and NORM B 4015

SIA (TYPE SIA) knows about elastic and inelastic spectra similar to EC. The
base acceleration for the four seismic zones 1, 2, 3a and 3b has the value of
0.60, 1.00, 1.30 and 1.60m/ sec2 .
An explicit definition of D> 1.0 will select the design spectra. The importance
factor r may be accounted for either by a modified SA-value or as safety factor
within the superposition.
Without a soil class the spectra of the old SIA for medium stiff soils is taken
where we have the value of TC = 0.5sec, which should be changed for stiff soils
to 0.33sec.
For the NORM B 4015 (TYPE OEN) the default is the spectra for medium stiff
soil. You have to specify the corresponding accelerations with ACCE.
4.2.5 Italian NTC according DM-2008

The Italian design code defines in an appendix (Allegato B) for every individual
location the following values: A base acceleration ag , a peak factor F0 and a
reference time value Tc *. The spectras are classified according the soil class
and the topological situation. Thus we have to specify:
Topografic situation: TYPE NTC1, NTC2, NTC3 und NTC4

Soil class: CLAS A,B,C,D und E
Zone: Values for F0 and T
c
separated by "/"
(e.g. 2.50/ 0.21)
AG: Basevalue of acceleration
(in g/ 10 m/ sec2 )
All time values and spectral response values are then established based on
these values. If AH is specified as 0.0, the vertical spectra will be generated.
4.2.6 Greek Code EAK (1999)

In Greece (TYPE EAK) there are the seismic zones I to IV with basic accelera-
tions of 1.2, 1.6, 2.4 and 3.6 m/sec2 . The acceleration ah you have to specify at
ACCE is then this value multiplied with the importance factor 1 of table 2.3. Soil
4-16 SOFiSTiK 2016

classes are defined as A, B, (= C) and (= D) and a special category X. For the

first four the time values from table 2.4 are preset by the program. Behaviour
and other factors have to be incorporated for SB by the user.
4.2.7 Russian Code SNiP II-7-81 (1995/2000)

In Russia there were soil classes I to III which lead dependant on the layer thick-
ness to response spectras (eq. 3 to 5) numbered CLAS 1, 2 or 3, in 2000 these
formulas have been changed , addressable with CLAS I or II. The acceleration
to be defined via record ACCE, is given by formulas 1 and 2 dependant on the
type and importance of the building as h = K1 K2 A K k . Values of 1.0, 2.0
or 4.0 for AG will be preset according to Zone 7, 8 or 9.
4.2.8 Indian Standard IS 1893-2002

According to this Code Table 2 gives Zone Factors Z, addressed as ag within
this section.
Building Site Class

Seismic Zone
II III IV V
Zone Factor, ag 0.10 0.16 0.24 0.36
As soil classes CLAS we have (I=hard, II=medium and III=soft, without = speci-
fication according to old code from 1984).
In Fig. 2 elastic spectra for several soil classes are given and reduction factors
for damping ratios in Table 3, which may be selected by several RESP records.
They are the same for all seismic zones (ag ), Importance (I, Table 6: 1.5 for
important buildings, 1.0 for all other) and Response reduction (R, Table 7, values
between 1.5 and 5.0). The acceleration you have to specify at ACCE is then
given by:
g
Ah = g (4.29)
2R
Damping is accounted for by multiplication with a factor according to table 7.

SMIN is then to be specified as R/ g to match the condition Ah > g / 2.
4.2.9 Japan Road Association-2002

According to this code there are two levels of earthquake, Level 1 (JRA) with
high probability and Level 2 for low probability. The latter has two subtypes,
I (JRA1) for plate boundary types and II (JRA2) for inland direct strike types.
There are further the soil classes I, II and III as well as the earthquake zones A,
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-17

B and C. These spectra already include the soil acceleration.
S = cZ cD S0 (4.30)
1.5
cD = 0.5 + (4.31)
1 + 40d
4.2.10 Chinese Code GB

According to appendix A of the GB 50011-2001 we have intensities and groups
of design earth quakes (1,2,3) specified for all locations in China. Then we have
to distinguish between a frequently and a rarely earthquake. So we have the
following types:
GBF1 Frequently Earthquake of 1st group

GBF2 Frequently Earthquake of 2nd group
GBF3 Frequently Earthquake of 3rd group
GBR1 Rarely Earthquake of 1st group

GBR2 Rarely Earthquake of 2nd group
GBR3 Rarely Earthquake of 3rd group
According to Table 3.2.2. the basic accelerations are given according to the
seismic intensity 6, 7, 8 or 9 with two subclasses as factors of g as follows:
Intensity 6 7, 7a 8, 8a 9
a/g 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40
m (frequently) 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.24 0.32
m (rarely) - 0.50 0.72 0.90 1.20 1.40
The spectra maximum value m according Table 5.1.4-1 follows the same
scheme. The spectra is referenced to the maximum value SB=2 m . The
shape of the spectra is given in picture 5.1.5 with the damping and the values
of TG=TC according to table 5.1.4.-2: (Characteristic natural period values (s))
Building Site Class

Design Seismic Group
I II III IV
1 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.65
2 0.30 0.40 0.55 0.75
3 0.35 0.45 0.65 0.90
4-18 SOFiSTiK 2016

2 = 1.00 + (0.05 )/ (0.06 + 1.7) 0.55 (4.32)

0.05
K1 = = 0.9 (4.33)
0.5 + 5
K2 = 1 = [0.02 + (0.05 )/ 8] (4.34)
It is mandatory to define K2 with a negative value to distinguish the linear de-

cay from the general approach of the Eurocode spectra. The end value of the
spectra may be changed by the SMIN value. According to old GBJ 11-89
(TYPE GBJ) Table 4.1.4-1 there are the earthquake influence factors preset for
the earthquake intensities 6, 7, 8 and 9 with values of 0.04, 0.08, 0.16 and 0.32
. Thus the spectra is referenced to the maximum value SB=m . The shape of
the spectra is given in picture 4.1.4 (SA=0.45SB, K1=0.9, TD=3.0) and the value
of Tg = TC has to be selected by the user according to table 4.1.4.-2:
Proximity of Building Site Class

the earthquake I II III IV
Near 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.65
Far 0.25 0.40 0.55 0.85
4.2.11 Wind spectra

With RESP it is also possible to define wind spectra. These spectra define the
turbulence dependent from a scalar frequency (e.g. Monin coordinate). While
the generic type WIND allows to define a spectrum individually with FUNC, it is
possible to select the well known spectra with an additional item at CLAS. (see
also WSPE)
KARM Karman longitudinal (1948, ESDU 85920 A2.1)

KARL Karman lateral and vertical (1948, ESDU 85920 A2.2)
CEN Eurocode EN1991 (2005)
DAVE Davenport (1967)
HARR Harris (1970)
KAIM Kaimal (1972), Panofsky (1983), Simiu (1998)
KAIL Kaimal lateral (1972), Panofsky (1983), Simiu (1998)
KAIV Kaimal vertical (1972), Panofsky (1983), Simiu (1998)
OLES Olesen (1984)
FMV Fichtl/McVehil neutral longitudinal (1970)
FMVL Fichtl/McVehil neutral lateral (1970)
FMU Fichtl/McVehil unstable longitudinal (1970)
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-19

FMUL Fichtl/McVehil unstable lateral (1970)
The coefficients may be explicitly overwritten with the values 1 to 3 at SA and

b,c,d with TB,TC,TD:
S 1 X + 2 X 2 + 3 X 3
= TD (4.35)
2 1 + TB X TC
The spectra defined here may be imported in WSPE or may be used for an ex-
plicit evaluation. The latter is done in DYNA by associating to a load case with a
wind spectrum individual load vectors to every eigen form with MODB in record
LC. The load values should be specified according to the coherence distribution
with a pressure value of q0 kp , the product of the mean pressure, the peak fac-
tor and the relevant turbulence intensity. The spectrum will be evaluated in that
way, that every frequency the background and resonance repsonse will be eval-
uated and combined with the SRSS method. We have to distinguish depending
on the numbers of spectra defined in the basic load case function:
With only a single spectrum

The eigen frequency will be multiplied with a reference time (e.g. L/v or z/v)
specified with item CRIT at record LC. The background response is taken
with 1.0.
With 2 or 3 spectra in the sequence LON, LAT, VERT
The eigen frequency will be multiplied with a reference time (e.g. L/v or z/v),
specified with items CRI1 to CRI3 at record LC. The item CRIT is used to
specify the background response.
If those items have not been defined, the spectrum will not be evaluated.
4.2.12 Modal Coordinates

When evaluating spectra especially for wind it is possible that explicit modal
displacements are defined. The common procedure is then to establish a static
loading based on the equivalent modal loadings via the masses:
EQX
EQX
k
(t) = M k 2k qk (t) (4.36)
This deviation is not necessary in DYNA. With RESP EXMC the qk factors may
be defined directly with consecutive FUNC records where the number of the
mode has to be defined instead of the time value.
The scaling of the eigen forms has to be selected properly. If default (modal
masses = 1.0) has not been used, the definition of an appended character can
select the direction where the maximum component should be assumed to be
4-20 SOFiSTiK 2016

1.0.
EXMC:X scale to the maximum displacement in X

EXMC:Y scale to the maximum displacement in Y
EXMC:Z scale to the maximum displacement in Z
EXMC:* scale to the maximum displacement in any direction
EXMC:XX scale to the maximum rotation in X
EXMC:YY scale to the maximum rotation in Y
EXMC:ZZ scale to the maximum rotation in Z
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-21

4.3 FUNC Load Functions
See also: RESP, ACCE, STEP

FUNC

T Time value / type or mode number sec !
F Amplitude F1
T1 Phase for periodic function sec -
TMIN Start time for periodic function sec -
TMAX End time for periodic function sec -
S Function type / Impact factor pedestrians / LT 0.0

0.0 Fourier series
< 0.0 Pedestrian acc. Bachmann
> 0.0 Pedestrian acc. Seiler/Httner
WALK +0.4 = Walking with 2.0 Hz
RUN +1.6 = Running with 2.4 Hz
JUMP +3.0 = Jumping with 2 Hz
FRUN RUN as Fourier series
FJMP JUMP as Fourier series
COMP Compound intensity function
EXPO Exponential intensity function
F2 Amplitude for Timevalue T/2 *

T2 phase of that harmonic sec *
TBLC time for base line correction sec -
TITL Title of function Lt32 -
Each load case may obtain free selectable time functions for dynamic response
analysis. A load function may be defined in different ways:
4-22 SOFiSTiK 2016

As a discrete polygonal function given by several pairs of data values (T,F).

The first time value is the start time. The function will be zero before the
first or after the last time value. Between any two time values the function
value will be interpolated linearly. For consecutive input the default of the
time value will be: T+1 = T + (T T1 ).
If a phase value or TMIN is defined the function becomes a periodic function
with the general period T. For time values less than TMIN or greater TMAX
the function value is zero.
2
X
F(t) = F sin (t t ) (4.37a)
T
t = + tmn (4.37b)
If the basic period T is given negative, a triangular intensity function between

TMIN and TMAX will be applied to the function values.
Hint
Please note, that the phase is now relative to the start time TMIN and is
defined as a time value and not in degrees or fractions of , allowing to use
the same CADINP-variable and unit for T and T1 to T3.
If the series are given with cosinus functions, the phases have to be reduced by
a quarter of the cycle time.

cos( t ) = sin + ( t ) = sin t 0.25 T (4.38)
2 2
If the user defines multiple functions for a load case, he should precede all the
functions with a record FUNC MULT or FUNC ADD to specify if the function
values should be multiplied or added. This headder allows also to specify the
unit of that function with a value at F with a unit sepcification, e.g. 1 [mm/ sec] .
4.3.1 Functions for Pedestrians

If an impact factor S is given, a periodic loading typical for pedestrians is applied.
The load value number of persons times 0.8 kN must then be specified with
the load itself:
If this factor s is defined within the range from 0.0 and +1.0 or as the literal
WALK, the four values and phases given by Seiler/Httner (Bauingenieur, 2004,
S. 483-496) are preset, but the coefficients (F1 etc.) may be specified explicitly.
Values between -1.0 to 0.0 selects the three coefficients and phases according
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-23

to Bachmann (Vibrations in Structures, IABSE 1987).

2
X
F(t) = 1.0 + F sin (t t ) (4.39)
T
If s is given with an absolute value greater than 1.0 an corresponding impulse

function is generated either according to Seiler/Httner:
h i
G 1 + s sin t + rcsin 1 t < tc
t s
F(t) = G (4.40)
0 tc < t T
or (for values s < 1.5) according to Bachmann as pure half sine function:

|s| G sin t t < tc =
T
F(t) = t c 2 |s|
(4.41)
0 tc < t T
As these functions are only usable for a transient analysis it is possible to select
the first case with the Literals FRUN or FJMP also as Fourier series for a modal
analysis.
4.3.2 Aperiodic Functions

For the generation of artificial earth quakes an intensity function is needed,
which has to be specified by an extra function. Three common shapes of func-
tions may be selected explictly by a literal for item S:
TM AX
T R AP - T2- - T1- - T3-

Figure 4.8: TRAP
TM AX
EXPO
(t) = F eF2 t eF3 t

Figure 4.9: EXPO,
4-24 SOFiSTiK 2016

TM AX
COM P - T2- - T1 - - T3-

t3
t F2

Figure 4.10: COMP, (t) = T2
, e (t) = eF3 T3
The time T defines the total duration, while the time values T1, T2 and T3 define
the duration of the three phases (Plateau, Lead-In, Lead-Out). The factors F2
and F3 define the shape of the lead-in and lead-out according to the above
formulas.
4.3.3 Functions for Spectra

If FUNC is defined after a record RESP it will specify explicit parameters of the
selected spectra. T is then the period of the spectra, values from T1 on will not
be used. If multiple functions for different damping values should be defined,
multiple RESP records with a D value, each followed by the FUNC values, have
to be defined-
FUNC after a RESP EXCM require at T the number of the eigenform to be

associated with the modal coordinate F.
4.3.4 Ground accelerations

If FUNC is used to describe diskrete ground accelerations, it might be very use-
full to apply a so called "base line correction". Stochastically generated or mea-
sured accelerograms may introduce a drift when beeing integrated, resulting in
large displacements or velocities at the end of the time integration. A definition
of the time value TBLC will modify the function to get rid of these deviations at
that time value.
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-25

4.4 FIMP Import of Load Functions
See also: RESP, ACCE, STEP

FIMP

TYP Typ of Results LT !
U-X,U-Y,... U-RZ Displacements
V-X,V-Y,... V-RZ Velocities
A-X,A-Y,... A-RZ Accelerations
NO Number of node or element 1

LC Load case of results 1
TEFF Averaging time value [sec] -
TBLC Time for base line correction [sec] -
TITL Title of function Lt32 -
FIMP allows the definition of a function by an import of a transient result in the

database (HIST). This is especially usefull for response spectra evaluation for
local components (see SIMR), but may be usefull for other tasks as well.
4-26 SOFiSTiK 2016

4.5 ACCE Accelerations
See also: RESP, FUNC, STEP

ACCE

TYPE Type of result LT NODA
NO Number of a node (0 = base acceleration) -

AX Acceleration in global X-direction m/ sec2 0.0

AY Acceleration in global Y-direction m/ sec2 0.0

AZ Acceleration in global Z-direction m/ sec2 0.0

AXX Acceleration about global X-direction 1/ sec2 0.0

AYY Acceleration about global Y-direction 1/ sec2 0.0

AZZ Acceleration about global Z-direction 1/ sec2 0.0
WXX Rotation about global X-direction [1/ sec] 0.0
WYY Rotation about global Y-direction [1/ sec] 0.0
WZZ Rotation about global Z-direction [1/ sec] 0.0
REF Reference node of the rotations / LT *

REFX additional offset of rotation point [m] 1001 0.0
REFY [m] 1001 0.0
REFZ [m] 1001 0.0
GRP Group selection -
XMIN Selection box [m] 1001 -

YMIN Only nodes within that box will have loads [m] 1001 -
ZMIN (only for NODE/DIRN) [m] 1001 -
XMAX [m] 1001 -
YMAX [m] 1001 -
ZMAX [m] 1001 -
ARED Reduction factor -

AH Z-coordinate for reduction factor 30
GH Z-coordinate of ground surface 0.0
LINF Number of an influence line
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-27

Load type ACCE defines a translational and rotational acceleration and the cen-
trifugal acceleration of a uniform rotation. This can be saved as nodal accelera-
tions or as element loads to all active element groups. The acceleration will act
on all masses defined in the database and will create nodal loads or loads on
beam, cables and truss elements. This feature can be used not only for vari-
ant earthquake loading and loads on moving structural parts, but also just for
creating all the loads from self weight.
For TYPE it is possible to define:
NODA accelerations for DYNA

NODE pure nodal loads from mass acceleration
NODC NODE including nodal moments
ELEM NODE including element loads (beams)
MBOD Rotation and acceleration in local axis directions
DIR NODA but AX,AY,AZ define the direction only
DIRN NODE but AX,AY,AZ define the direction only
DIRC NODC but AX,AY,AZ define the direction only
BASE Equivalent loadings form total force (Base Shear)
DISP Loading in form of the prescribed nodal displacements (only for
Pushover Analysis)
If the basic reference value of the acceleration has been defined with RESP
already, ACCE is only needed to define the direction. This may be selected
with the literals DIR / DIRN / DIRC / DIRE instead of NODA / NODE / NODC /
ELEM. The defined values AX to AZ will be multiplied then with the horizontal
and vertical acceleration components defined with the last RESP before.
The total acceleration consists either of three global components referred to

the point selected by REF (0 for origin), or for the case MBOD the three local
components in the direction of the local coordinate system of the beam with
number REF:
This is a translational acceleration with the values a , ay and az .

A rotational acceleration with a value of a , ayy and azz .
A uniform rotation with angular velocities (2/T) with a value of w , wyy and
wzz .
If an eccentricity or any definition for the reference point is specified for a trans-
lational acceleration, an additional torsional moment will be created by an addi-
4-28 SOFiSTiK 2016

tional variation of the acceleration referenced to the center of mass:

P
e m
= P (4.42)
r m r2
According to the regulations of EC8 for accidential torsional effects have to be

calculated for every storey individually if the storeys have different horizontal
dimensions. The user may therefor restrict the forces with a BOX (XMIN to
ZMAX) to those nodes within that box.
For the analysis of earthquakes with soil-structure interaction the accelerations

should be only applied to the structure but not to the soil. This effect has
to be taken into account by using the group or box selection mechanism in
SOFiLOAD.
An additional influence function LINF may be applied to account for special ef-
fects. Different accelerations for different footings are described either by in-
fluence functions, which are established by the deformations caused by a unit
displacement in the appropriate supports or the accleration is only applied to a
single node NO.
For a structure with three supports aimed to get different accelerations a defini-
tion may be as follows:
+PROG SOFILOAD
HEAD LC FOR Influence Lines
LC 101 TYPE NONE TITL ' ug1 =1 ' ; NODE NO 1 TYPE WZZ P1 $$
1.0 [ m]
1.0 [ m]
1.0 [ m]
END
+PROG ASE
HEAD COMPUTE iL 'S
LC 101 ,102 ,103
END
Once the influence vectors are know, we can use them to define the effective
forces by specifying the load case of the corresponding influence vector in the
LINF option-
+PROG SOFILOAD
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-29

HEAD p_eff ( t )
$$
LC 1100 TYPE NONE TITL ' p_eff_X_1 = -M * i1 * ag1 ( t ) '
ACCE TYPE NODA NO 0 AX 1 LINF 101
FUNC T F
. . .
FUNC T F
. . .
FUNC T F
. . .
$$
END
For the static equivalent loading of an earthquake it is possible to calculate such

total load value with DYNA as so called "base shear" and save this data to
the data base. Then an ACCE BASE will distribute this force according to the
masses and the unsclaed influence function LINF (e.g. the first eigen value)
. The total force may be read from load case NO from the DYNA analysis or
specified explicitly with AX, AY und AZ.
With ARED and the values AH and GH a reduction of the acceleration with the
depth may be defined for underground structures as given in the Indian design
code. The value ARED (e.g. 0.5) is the factor to be applied at a depth of AH, i.e.
where the coordinate of the gravity direction has this value. At the coordinate
GH is the surface and the factor becomes 1.0, between those two coordinates a
linear interpolation is used. Discrete loadings should be selected for that option.
In every case it is required to select the horizontal and vertical components of

the excitation. In general we have a response spectra (see RESP) and a base
acceleration a (ACCE) defined in the design codes for earthquake. Then one
has to define at least three load cases with AX=a, AY=a and AZ=a and the
corresponding response spectra
Pushover Load
In order to perform the pushover analysis the pushover load must be defined
first. Pushover load case must contain additional information (e.g. participation
factor, modal mass, displacement shape vector, etc.) which needs to be saved in
4-30 SOFiSTiK 2016

mn n pn = mn n n = n
... ... ... ...
mk k pk = mk k k = k
... ... ... ...
m1 1 p1 = m1 1 1 = 1
(a) M (b) (c) p = M (d) =

Figure 4.11: Pushover load
the database. This additional data is later used in the pushover post-processing
stage where the pushover performance is determined (see PUSH). Therefore
pushover load is defined and the necessary additional information are saved in
database by specifying negative value for LINF.
Depending on the type of the pushover analysis - force or displacement con-

trolled - two possibilities for the definition of the pushover load exist:
1. Forces - loads as external forces p. These loads are specified by se-

lecting NODE as TYPE in the ACCE-command (Figure 4.11c).
2. Displacements - loads as prescribed displacements of the nodes .
These loads are specified by selecting DISP as TYPE in the ACCE-
command (Figure 4.11d).
The pushover static load should be able to represent the inertia forces that the
structure will be experiencing when subjected to earthquake ground motion as
accurately as possible. The load pattern is usually assumed to be proportional to
some assumed displacement shape vector . Most commonly, the chosen load
pattern is proportional to the fundamental eigenmode of the structure. However,
any other reasonable displacement shape can also be used (Figure 4.12).
For the displacement based pushover analysis (TYPE DISP), the load as the
prescribed displacements is directly taken from the specified displacement
shape vector (Figure 4.11d), that is
=. (4.43)
If the loads are in form of forces (TYPE NODE; force based pushover analysis),
the displacement shape vector is additionally weighted by the mass matrix M in
order to simulate the inertia forces (Figure 4.11c), i.e., the load pattern p is
p=M . (4.44)
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-31

(a) Eigenvector (b) Constant (c) Linear (d) Arbitrary

Figure 4.12: Pushover displacement shape
Hint
The mass matrix M is based on the masses which are currently active,
i.e. which are specified before the current SOFiLOAD block. It is therefore
recommended to run one ASE/DYNA eigenvalue analysis with all the nec-
essary additional masses prior to the definition of the pushover loads, in
order to ensure that the correct mass matrix is taken into consideration.
Displacement shape vector is defined by specifying negative number of the

load case containing displacements of the nodes for the LINF. For example, if the
displacement shape vector corresponds to some eigenvector which is previously
computed and stored in e.g. LC 9001, the input would read (Figure 4.12a)
LC NO 101 TITL ' Eigenvector '

ACCE TYPE NODE / DISP . . . LINF -9001
Constant and linear displacement shape vectors can be defined by specifying

the negative number of the running load case for LINF, e.g. (Figures 4.12b and
4.12c)
LC NO 102 TITL ' Constant '

LC NO 103 TITL ' Linear '

ACCE TYPE NODE / DISP . . . LINF -103 GH ... AH ... ARED
As aforementioned any other displacement shape vector existing in the

database can be used. For example, if an arbitrary static load case LC 501
which has been computed and for which the displacements of nodes are avail-
able in database is specified in LINF, then these displacements will be taken as
4-32 SOFiSTiK 2016

the displacement shape vector for the definition of the pushover load pattern,
e.g. (Figure 4.12d)
LC NO 104 TITL ' Arbitrary '

SOFiSTiK 2016 4-33

4.6 STEP Dynamic History
See also: RESP, FUNC, ACCE

STEP

N Number of time steps or divisor 1
DT Time step or total time sec !
LCST First load case of explicit history 1000
TITL Title of history Lt32 -
For a general dynamic analysis all selected load cases and time functions within
an input block may be combined to generate the transient loading for all time
steps to be used then in a load case loop for ASE and DYNA. Possibilities are:
A time interval of N time steps of size DT with a total length of NDT

A total time interval of DT divided into time steps NDT. This case is selected
with a value of N < 0.
All the load cases for a nonlinear dynamic analysis are created and saved to the
database.
4-34 SOFiSTiK 2016

4.7 SIMQ Simulation of earthquake
See also: RESP, FUNC, ACCE, REVA

SIMQ

LSPE Case number of target spectrum !
LINT Case number of intensity function 0
DT Time step of resulting function sec 0.01

TMIN smallest period sec 0.01
TMAX largest period sec 10.0
NFRE number of frequencies 100
ITER Number of iterations 1
AG Base acceleration [m/ sec2] *

D Target damping for spectra 0.05
TITL Title of history Lt32 -
The generation of artificial accelerograms for earthquakes follows the proce-

dures published by the NISEE in 1976 for the software SIMQKE. From a given
target spectra, defined as:

Powerspectra in m2 / sec3
Velocity spectra in [m/ sec]

Acceleration spectra in m/ sec2
random phase values (based on the load case number) will be generated and
with the help of an intensity function will yield an accelerogram, adjusted with a
target damping D to the response spectra with an iterative process. The base
acceleration AG has to be selected to match the spectra. The default is 9.81

m/ sec2 . However the most common case is to switch off the scaling of the
accelerogram altogether. This can be achieved by specifying the negative value
for AG (e.g. SIMQ ... AG -1) (see sofiload.dat/english/simq.dat). If the
value AG is specified as 0.0, the function of the power spectra is created instead
of the accelerations.
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-35

Hint
It is strongly recommended, as a way of checking the validity of
the generated accelelogram, to always calculate a response spectrum
from a generated accelerogram and compare it with a target spectrum
(LSPE). This can be achieved with the help of the command REVA (see
sofiload.dat/english/simq.dat).
4-36 SOFiSTiK 2016

4.8 REVA Response spectra for acceleration function
See also: FUNC, RESP

REVA

TYPT Representation in dependence from LT TIME
TIME time
FREQ frequency
LOGT logarithmic time
LOGF ogarithmic frequency
TYPE Result to be presented: LT -
P Force
S Displacement
V Velocity
A Relative acceleration
AA Absolute acceleration
AS A as function of S
AAS AA as function of S
LFUN Number of the load function 1
TMIN Lowest natural period/frequency sec, 1/ sec 0

TMAX Highest natural period/frequency sec, 1/ sec !
TDIF Step size of the natural periods or frequen- sec, 1/ sec *
cies, Default: (TMIN-TMAX)/50
D1 Modal damping value 1, marked with . 0.

D2 Modal damping value 2, marked with + -
D3 Modal damping value 3, marked with * -
D4 Modal damping value 4, marked with o -
D5 Modal damping value 5, marked with x -
REF1 Number of an optional reference curve -

RID1 Colour and line type for REF1 2001
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-37

REVA allows the calculation of a response spectra for a given load or accelera-
tion function. This is done by the response analysis of a single mass oscillator
within a given frequency range and showing the maximum results depending on
the frequency or period.
In the case of excitation through an acceleration, TYPE AA can be used to plot

the total acceleration (ground+oscillator). This is usually the desired value. For
TYPE one can also enter P+, S+, V+, A+, AA+ as well as P-, S-, V-, A-, AA-.
Then only the positive or negative components are evaluated. Without a speci-
fication for TYPE the original function is shown.
The duration of the evaluation is determined by the highest time value of the
excitation value. A somewhat longer time range with exciting function 0.0 should
thus be defined in the case of high frequency excitation.
Up to five different damping values can be examined simultaneously. The damp-

ing values D1 through D5 can be used arbitrarily according to the desired mark-
ing.
Three external reference curves may be shown. These functions have to be

defined either via FUNC or may be selected as a constant limit value specified
by a number and an attached unit specification.
When TYPE FREQ is input, the values TMIN, TMAX and TDIF of the RESP
input are interpreted as frequencies too.
If LOGT or LOGF are defined, a logarithmic scale is selected. TDIF defines

then a subdivision factor relative to 1.0 for the number of intermediate values
(e.g. TDIF 0.05 = 20 intermediate values).
4-38 SOFiSTiK 2016

4.9 PUSH Pushover Analysis
See also: ACCE, RESP

PUSH

TYPE Analysis Type LT VB-U
VB-U Base Shear - Control Node Dis-
placement Diagram
A-D Spectral Acceleration - Spectral
Displacement Diagram
ATC ATC-40 Procedure
EC8 Eurocode 8 Procedure
OPT Additional Option LT *
SBTA Structural Behavior Type A
SBTB Structural Behavior Type B
SBTC Structural Behavior Type C
LCC0 Basis load case for capacity curve -

LCC1 First load case of the capacity curve -
NLCC Number of load cases of the capacity curve 1
CNOD Control node -

DSTR Viscous structural damping *
LCDM Demand load case -
SPL1 Structural Performance Limit 1 [mm] 1003 -

General workflow and theoretical background behind the pushover analysis are
described in Section 4.1.
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-39

4.9.1 TYPE - Analysis Type

VB-U: Base Shear - Control Node Displacement Diagram
PUSH Description Unit Default

TYPE VB-U Base Shear - Control Node Dis- LT VB-U
placement Diagram
CNOD Control node -
The pushover curve is passed to SOFiLOAD by specifying the basis load case
LCC0, first load case LCC1 and the number of the load cases NLCC of the
capacity as well as the number of the control node CNOD. E.g. the input
LC 5001
PUSH TYPE VB - U LCC0 301 LCC1 2301 NLCC 25 CNOD 4
will define a pushover curve with the base-shear and the displacement of the
node 4 taken from the calculated load cases 2301 to 2325 (Fig. 4.13). The
displacement degree-of-freedom of the node 4 is taken from the basis capacity
load case LCC0 301, which is defined in the Stage 2 with the help of the ACCE.
The basis load case LCC0 contains necessary information needed for the deter-
mination of the performance of the structure (participation factor, modal mass,
assumed displacement shape vector, etc.).
Vb [kN]
80.0
Capacity
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
u-cnod [mm]
0.000
50.000
100.000
150.000
200.000
250.000
300.000
350.000
400.000
450.000
Figure 4.13: VB-U Diagram
4-40 SOFiSTiK 2016

A-D: Spectral Acceleration - Spectral Displacement Diagram

TYPE A-D Spectral Acceleration - Spectral Dis- LT A-D
placement Diagram
CNOD Control node -
Equations 4.45a-4.45b are used to convert the Vb cnod pushover curve from
the Stage 4a of the Subsection 4.1 to the SDOF system spectral acceleration
Sp - spectral displacement Sd coordinate system to obtain the capacity diagram.
cnod
Sd (T , ) = , (4.45a)
cnod
s (Sd ) Vb (cnod ) Vb (cnod )
Sp (T , ) =

= = . (4.45b)
m m 2 m
For example, the input
LC 5002
PUSH TYPE A - D LCC0 301 LCC1 2301 NLCC 22 CNOD 4 LCDM 11
will convert the pushover curve defined by the LCC0, LCC1, NLCC and CNOD
into A-D format (Fig. 4.14). Other analysis types TYPE (ATC or EC8) of the
PUSH command will perform this conversion as well.
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-41

Sa [m/sec2]
Tb = 0.2 Tc = 0.5
T = 1.0
10.00
Capacity T = 1.5
5.00
Td = 2.0
EC8-elastic
T = 3.0
T = 4.0
0.00
Sd [mm]
0.000
50.000
100.000
150.000
200.000
250.000
300.000
350.000
Figure 4.14: A-D Diagram
Similarly, the elastic demand diagram is obtained by transforming the elastic

response spectrum from the traditional spectral acceleration S versus period
T format to the spectral acceleration S versus spectral displacement format Sd
(a.k.a. A-D format or ADRS format) using the relation:
2
S T

Sd = = S . (4.46)
2 2
The elastic demand response spectrum in traditional format can be defined us-
ing the RESP command, e.g.
LC 11
RESP TYPE EC -1 CLAS B AG 4.0 TITL 'EC8 -5%- elastic '
ACCE TYPE DIR AX 1.0
Passing the load case of the elastic demand response spectrum to the demand
load case LCDM of the PUSH command and selecting one of the adequate
analysis types (A-D, ATC, EC8) will convert this spectrum to A-D format, e.g.
LC 5002
PUSH ... LCDM 11
4-42 SOFiSTiK 2016

ATC: ATC-40 Procedure

TYPE ATC ATC-40 Procedure LT ATC
OPT Additional Option LT SBTA
SBTA Structural Behavior Type A
SBTB Structural Behavior Type B
SBTC Structural Behavior Type C
CNOD Control node -
DSTR Viscous structural damping 0.05
In this section the underlying principle behind the ATC-40 procedure for formu-
lating and solving the equivalent inelastic SDOF system (Eq. 4.9) and deter-
mining the inelastic from the elastic seismic demand is described. This method
is also know as the capacity spectrum method (ATC-40 [1], F REEMAN ET AL .
[22], F REEMAN [21]) 4 .
The method is based on the elastic highly damped demand spectrum and an
elastic (linear) SDOF system with equivalent (herein effective) damping (e )
and period (Te ). These equivalent SDOF system properties are obtained from
the properties of the original MDOF system, whose nonlinear behavior is de-
scribed by the pushover curve (Fig. 4.15).
cnod
Vb S = Vb / (2 m) D(t)
e
e

Vb
Figure 4.15: Idealization of the MDOF system with the equivalent inelastic SDOF
system
4 ATC-40 [1] SOFiSTiK notation: 0 0 , e e , ESo ES
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-43

The starting point is the modeling of the equivalent INELASTIC SDOF system,
given by the Eqs. 4.6 and 4.9, with the equivalent ELASTIC (linear) SDOF
system, i.e.
D(t) + 2e e D(t) + 2e D(t) = g (t) . (4.47)
In doing so we have approximated the nonlinear force-displacement hysteretic

behavior of the inelastic SDOF system, s (D(t)), by the equivalent linear force-
displacement behavior, m 2e D(t), with the addition of the effective linear
viscous damping e .
The solution of Eq. 4.47 can be obtained from the elastic highly damped re-
sponse spectrum which represents the maximal response of the elastic SDOF
system with period of vibration Te and viscous damping e
m |D(t)| = Sde (Te , e ) = Sdp , (4.48a)

m |A(D, t)| = Se (Te , e ) = Sp , (4.48b)
where Sde (Te , e ) is the elastic spectral relative displacement response and
Se (Te , e ) is the elastic pseudo-acceleration spectral response.
The values Sdp and Sp are the coordinates of the Performance Point PP in the
A D coordinate system.
Hint
The performance point represents the solution of the Eq. 4.47 and the main
outcome of the analysis described herein. It defines the (probable) internal
state (internal forces, displacements, rotations, interstory drifts, etc.) of the
structural system under an earthquake demand. The performance point
can be described in different coordinate systems:
PP (Sdp , Sp ): SDOF Spectral Acceleration - Spectral Displacement

coordinate system (A D)
PP (Tp , Sp ): SDOF Spectral Acceleration - Period coordinate system
(A T )
PP (cnod,p , Vb,p ): MDOF Base shear - Control Node Displacement
coordinate system (VB U)
Formulas governing the transformation between these coordinate systems

are described in Section 4.1, Stage 4 and 5 of the pushover workflow.
In order to determine the performance point PP, the effective damping e and
the effective period Te of the equivalent elastic SDOF system need to be related
4-44 SOFiSTiK 2016

to the performance point coordinates Sdp and Sp .
Recalling that for the elastic SDOF systems, the following relation holds
Sde (T, ) = 2 Se (T, ) , (4.49)
for the effective (secant) period we can write (Fig. 4.16b)

v
2 uS
t dp
Te = = 2 . (4.50)
e Sp
The total damping of the inelastic SDOF system is comprised of the viscous
damping inherent in the structure str (PUSH ... DSTR) and the damping
which is proportional to the energy dissipation as a result of the inelastic force-
displacement hysteretic behavior s (D(t)). In order to linearize the equation of
motion of the inelastic SDOF system this hysteretic damping needs to be related
to the equivalent viscous damping of the linear system 0 . Hence for the total
effective damping of the linear SDOF system we can write e
e = str + 0 , (4.51)
in which, as aforementioned, str is viscous damping inherent in the structure

and 0 is equivalent viscous damping representing the hysteretic damping. Fac-
tor is called the damping modification factor whose meaning will be become
apparent later.
Common way for determining the equivalent viscous damping of the linear sys-
tem 0 from the hysteretic damping is to equate the energy dissipated in one
vibration cycle of the inelastic system to that of the equivalent linear system.
Hence, 0 can be calculated as (C HOPRA [5])
1 ED
0 = , (4.52)
4 ES
where ED is the energy dissipated by damping of the inelastic SDOF system and
ES is the maximum strain energy of the system.
The hysteretic energy ED can be determined from the capacity diagram (Fig.
4.16). First the bi-linear representation of the capacity diagram at the perfor-
mance point PP can be established by equating the area underneath the capac-
ity curve Ec (Fig. 4.16a) and the area underneath the bi-linear representation of
the capacity curve Eb (Fig. 4.16b), i.e.
Z Sdp
Eb = Ec = S (Sd ) dSd . (4.53)
0
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-45

S S
2e
PP PP
Sp Sp
PY
Sy
Ec Eb
Sdp Sd Sdy Sdp Sd
(a) Capacity diagram (b) Bi-linear approximation of capacity

S
ke
PP
Sp
PY
Sy
ES
Sdy Sdp Sd
ED
(c) Hysteretic dissipation energy ED and maximum strain energy ES
Figure 4.16: Derivation of the effective viscous damping e of the elastic SDOF
system due to hysteretic energy dissipation of the inelastic SDOF system
The initial branch of the bi-linear representation is taken in the direction of the
maximal tangent to capacity diagram at point (0, 0).
The physical meaning of the energy ED is illustrated in Fig. 4.16c. It represents

the energy dissipated in a single cycle of motion associated with the maximum
displacement of Sdp in the inelastic SDOF system. In other words this energy
is the energy enclosed by a single hysteresis loop. As it turns out, the bi-linear
idealization of the capacity diagram is not necessary for the calculation of ED
since it can be shown that ED depends solely on the area EC and the coordinates
of the performance point PP (Sdp , Sp ), i.e.
ED = 4 2EC Sdp Sp .

(4.54)
ES is the maximum strain energy of the system at the displacement Sdp and with
4-46 SOFiSTiK 2016

Table 4.12: Values for damping modification factor, (ATC-40 [1], Table 8-1)
SBT 0 [%]
16.25 1.00
A
> 16.25 1.130 0.510 (0 / 2)
25.00 0.67
B
> 25.00 0.845 0.446 (0 / 2)
C Any value 0.33
effective stiffness ke = 2e . From Fig. 4.16c it follows
ke S2dp, Sdp, Sp,

ES = = . (4.55)
2 2
Once the values of the ED and ES are know, we can determine the 0 and e
from the Eqs. 4.52 and 4.51.
The damping modification factor is measure of the extent to which the actual
hysteretic behavior of the structure can be represented by the parallelogram of
Fig. 4.16c. It is intended to take into an account the cyclic degradation effects
such are the stiffness and strength degradation and the pinching effects. It de-
pends on the hysteretic behavior of the structure characterized by three types
(Table 4.12):
Type A (SBTA) represents stable, reasonably full hysteresis loops.

Type B (SBTB) represents a moderate reduction of the loop area.
Type C (SBTC) represents poor hysteresis behavior with a substantial re-
duction of the loop area (severely pinched and/or degraded loops).
For more about the structural behavior types reader is advised to consult the
ATC-40 [1].
With the properties Te and e of the equivalent linear SDOF system know,
the solution of the Eqs. 4.48a and 4.48b can be obtained from the elastic highly
damped response spectrum, which is described next.
The elastic acceleration spectral response Se (T, e ) can be obtained by reduc-

ing the elastic 5% damped acceleration spectral response Se (T, 5%) using the
spectral reduction factor SR(T, e , SBT), i.e.
Se (T, e ) = SR(T, e , SBT) Se (T, 5%) . (4.56)
Spectral reduction factor SR(T, e , SBT) for different ranges of the response
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-47

spectrum is defined by
v
u SR
k1
SR (e , SBT) for T Tc0 = Tc

t
SR(T, e , SBT) = SR , (4.57)

SR (e , SBT) for T Tc0

where SR is the spectral reduction value in constant acceleration range of spec-

trum (T Tc0 ) and SR is the spectral reduction value in constant velocity range
of spectrum (T Tc0 ). Period Tc0 marks the transition between the two ranges of
spectrum.
Se (T) Se TC TC0
Se = SB k1
SB TC

SB Elastic 5% response spectrum
Se = SB
Se = S0B T
S0B = SR SB S0B
k1
TC0

Reduced response spectrum
Se = S0B
T
TC TC0 T Sde
(a) S T format (b) S Sd format
Figure 4.17: Reduced response spectrum
The spectral reduction factors can be estimated from the effective viscous damp-
ing e using relationships developed by Newmark and Hall (N EWMARK AND
H ALL [34])
3.21 0.68 ln (e )
SR SR,mn , (4.58a)
2.12
2.31 0.41 ln (e )
SR SR,mn . (4.58b)
1.65
Minimum allowable values of the spectral reduction factors, SR,mn and SR,mn ,
depend on the structural behavior type and are given in the Table 4.13.
Table 4.13: Minimum allowable SR and SR values (ATC-40 [1], Table 8-2)
SBT SR,mn SR,mn

A 0.33 0.50
B 0.44 0.56
C 0.56 0.67
4-48 SOFiSTiK 2016

Intersection between the capacity diagram and the demand diagram represents
the performance point (4.18).
S
El. Demand Diagram
Performance Point
Capacity Diagram
Sp
Demand Diagram
Sdp Sd
Figure 4.18: Determination of the performance point PP
The workflow for the determination of the performance point can be summarized
as follows:
1. Start from a trial performance point PPt (Sdp,t , Sp,t ).

2. Determine effective period Te at PPt (Eq. 4.50).
3. Calculate EC at PPt (Eq. 4.53).
4. Calculate energy dissipated by histeretic damping ED and maximum
strain energy ES at PPt (Eqs. 4.54 and 4.55).
5. Determine equivalent viscous damping 0 (Eq. 4.52) and effective
damping e . (Eq. 4.51, Table 4.12).
6. Calculate the spectral reduction factors (Eqs. 4.57 and 4.58 and Table
4.13), and the reduced demand response spectrum (demand diagram).
(Eq. 4.56, Fig. 4.17).
7. Determine a new performance point PP (Sdp , Sp ) at the intersection be-
tween the capacity and demand diagram (Fig. 4.18).
8. Check if the new performance point PP is within a tolerance of the trial
performance point PPt :
(a) If NO Take the point PP as new trial performance point, i.e. PPt =
PP and return to step 1.
(b) If YES Analysis is finished and the performance point is
PP (Sdp , Sp ).
The following input will determine the performance point according to the ATC-
40 procedure (TYPE ATC) of the structure with the structural behavior type B
(OPT SBTB) and the inherent damping str = 3.5% (DSTR 3.5%):
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-49

LC 5003
PUSH TYPE ATC OPT SBTB LCC0 301 LCC1 2301 NLCC 25 $$
CNOD 4 DSTR 3.5 [%] LCDM 21
The pushover curve for the control node 4 (CNOD 4) previously obtained by in-
cremental pushover analysis with the basis load case 301 (LCC0 301) and the
results saved in the load cases 2301 to 2325 (LCC1 2301 NLCC 25) is trans-
formed to the capacity diagram. The elastic 5% damped response spectrum,
previously defined with the help of the RESP command in the load case 21, is
transformed to the elastic demand spectrum (LCDM 21). The outcome of the
analysis is illustrated in the Fig. 4.19.
Sa [m/sec2]
Tb = 0.1 T = 0.5 Tc = 0.6 T = 1.0
Ty Tp
10.00
T = 1.5
Capacity
PP
5.00 PY T = 2.0
UBC-elastic
Td = 3.0
Demand,
T = 4.0 -eff = 16.56%
0.00
Sd [mm]
0.000
100.000
200.000
300.000
400.000
Figure 4.19: ATC: A-D Capacity-Demand-Diagram
4-50 SOFiSTiK 2016

EC8: Eurocode 8 Procedure

TYPE EC8 Eurocode 8 Procedure LT EC8
CNOD Control node -
In this section the underlying principle behind the Eurocode 8 procedure for
formulating and solving the equivalent inelastic SDOF system (Eq. 4.9) and de-
termining the inelastic from the elastic seismic demand is described (EN1998-
1:2004 [13], FAJFAR [16], C HOPRA AND G OEL [6, 7]) 5 .
cnod
Vb S = Vb / (2 m) D(t)
c
s (D)

Vb
Figure 4.20: Idealization of the MDOF system with the equivalent inelastic SDOF
system
The principle idea behind the method is the solution of the equivalent inelastic
SDOF system with the help of the inelastic demand spectrum. The equivalent
SDOF system represents the idealization of the MDOF system, whose nonlinear
behavior under earthquake is characterized by the pushover curve obtained in
the incremental nonlinear static analysis (Fig. 4.20), as described in Section 4.1.
As aforementioned, the method is based on the solution of the equation of mo-

tion of the equivalent inelastic SDOF system which is derived in the Section 4.1
5 EN1998-1:2004 [13] SOFiSTiK notation: target displacement performance point,
, d S , d S , = 1
Fb Vb , dn cnod , F s , Fy sy d y dy n cnod ,

Em Em / m ,
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-51

(Eq. 4.6) and repeated here for the sake of completeness
m D(t) + c D(t) + s (D(t)) = m g (t) , (4.59)
or written in a acceleration form common for the SDOF systems
D(t) + 2 D(t) + A(D(t)) = g (t) . (4.60)
Mass m and damping c of the equivalent SDOF system are obtained from the
properties of the MDOF system (Section 4.1, Stage 4b), whereas the nonlinear
(inelastic) resisting force s (D(t))
s (D(t)) = m A(D(t)) m D(t) + g (t) ,

(4.61)
is obtained from the MDOF systems pushover curve.
The solution of Eq. 4.60 can be found with the help of the inelastic (design)
response spectrum representing the maximal response of the inelastic SDOF
system with elastic period of vibration T = 2/ , viscous damping = 5%
and nonlinear resisting force s as follows
m |D(t)| = Sdd (T ) = Sdp , (4.62a)

m |A(D(t))| = Sd (T ) = Sp ,

(4.62b)
where:
Sdd (T) inelastic design pseudo spectral displacement,

Sd (T) inelastic design pseudo spectral acceleration,
Sdp , Sp coordinates of the Performance Point PP in the A D coordinate
system.
Hint
The performance point represents the solution of the Eq. 4.60 and the main
outcome of the analysis described herein. It can be described in different
coordinate systems:
PP (Sdp , Sp ): SDOF Spectral Acceleration - Spectral Displacement

coordinate system (A D)
PP (Tp , Sp ): SDOF Spectral Acceleration - Period coordinate system
(A T )
PP (cnod,p , Vb,p ): MDOF Base shear - Control Node Displacement
coordinate system (VB U)
4-52 SOFiSTiK 2016

(Hint continued...)
Formulas governing the transformation between these coordinate systems
are described in Section 4.1, Stage 4 and 5 of the pushover workflow.
In order to determine the performance point PP, the period T and the nonlinear
resisting force s of the equivalent elastic SDOF system need to be related to
the performance point coordinates Sdp and Sp .
As shown in Section 4.1, Stage 4b, the time-dependent nonlinear resisting force
- displacement behavior, s (D(t)), of the SDOF system can be characterized by
the time-independent monotonic maximal nonlinear force - maximal deformation
relationship s (Sd ) of the SDOF system (capacity diagram, Fig. 4.21a) used in
the response spectrum solution (Eq. 4.11).
The most common approach to solve the nonlinear Eq. 4.60 is to idealize the
maximal nonlinear resisting force - maximal displacement relationship s (Sd )
(capacity diagram) by a bi-linear model with the initial stiffness, k = 2 and a

yield strength limit sy . The bi-linear idealization of the capacity diagram accord-
ing to EN1998-1:2004 [13] is an elastic-perfectly plastic function (Fig. 4.21b).
The influence of moderate hardening is incorporated in the demand spectra (FA -
JFAR [17]).
s
S
m k = 2

sy PP PY PP
Sp
m Sy
E
c
E
m
Sdp Sd Sdy Sdp Sd
(a) Capacity diagram (b) Bi-linear approximation of capacity
Figure 4.21: Elastic-perfectly plastic idealization of the capacity diagram
Equating the area (deformation energy) underneath the capacity curve E c

and

the bi-linear idealization of the capacity curve Em up to the performance point PP
(Fig. 4.21), i.e.
Sdp s (Sd )
Z
E
m
= E
c
= dSd , (4.63)
0 m
the displacement of the idealized equivalent SDOF system Sdy (and the yield
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-53

point PY (Sdy , Sdp )) can be determined as

E

m
Sdy = 2 Sdp . (4.64)
Sp
The period of the idealized system T = Ty is also easily obtained by

v
2
Sy 2 uS
t dy
= T = Ty = = 2 . (4.65)
Sdy Sy
The determination of the inelastic spectral response of the SDOF system with
the bi-linear force deformation relationship (PP (Sdp , Sp )) from the spectral re-
sponse of the corresponding linear elastic SDOF system (PE (Sde , Se )) is based
on the well know concept involving two additional parameters - the displacement
ductility factor, , and the (yield) strength reduction factor due to ductility, Ry (Fig.
4.22).
S T = Ty

se PE
Se =
m

sy PY PP
Sy = Sp =
m
O Sdy Sde Sdp Sd
Figure 4.22: Elastic-ideal plastic system (O PY PP) and the corresponding

linear system (O PE)
The ductility factor is defined as the ratio of the maximal displacement of the
inelastic SDOF system Sdd = Sdp to its yield displacement Sdy
Sdd (T ) Sdp
= = . (4.66)
Sdy (T ) Sdy
The yield strength reduction factor (i.e. the reduction in strength demand due to
nonlinear hysteretic force-deformation behavior) Ry is defined as the ratio of the
4-54 SOFiSTiK 2016

6
elastic strength demand se to the inelastic strength demand sy

se Se (T ) Sde (T )
Ry = = = , (4.67)

sy Sy (T ) Sdy (T )
where Sde (T ) and Se (T ) represent the elastic spectral displacement and elas-
tic spectral acceleration responses of the equivalent SDOF system (Eq. 4.60)
with the period T and damping = 5%, respectively.
The strength reduction factor Ry and the displacement ductility are dependent
on each other. Several proposal have been made for the definition of the Ry
dependency. A comprehensive overview can be found in M IRANDA AND B ERT-
ERO [32]. In Eurocode 8 the following relationship is used
T

( 1)

+1 for T < TC
Ry = TC , (4.68)

for T TC

where TC represents the period which marks the transition between the con-
stant acceleration range (T TC ) and the constant velocity and constant dis-
placement range of spectrum (T TC ). Eq. 4.68 defines a bi-linear Ry T
spectrum (Fig. 4.25)7 .
Inverting the Eq. 4.68, the ductility demand can be expressed in terms of Ry
and T

TC
(Ry 1)

+1 for T < TC
= T . (4.69)

R
y for T TC
Substituting Eqs. 4.67 and 4.66 into Eqs. 4.62b and 4.62a, we obtain:
Sde (T )
Sdp = Sdd (T ) = Sdy (T ) =

, (4.70a)
Ry
Se (T )
Sp = Sd (T ) = . (4.70b)
Ry
The Eqs. 4.70a - 4.70b enable the determination of the inelastic spectral re-
sponse of the equivalent SDOF system (performance point, PP (Sdp , Sp )) from
the elastic response of the corresponding elastic system (PE (Sde , Se )). This
procedure is illustrated in Fig. 4.23.
6 Forinelastic SDOF system with elastic-ideal plastic resisting force-displacement relation-
(T ) represents also the ultimate strength.
ship the yield force sy
7 Note that for = 1 the following holds: = .
se sy
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-55

S T = Ty S
Tc Tc
Se T = Ty
PE
PE
Se
PY PP =1
Sp
=1
PY PP
Sp
>1 Sy
>1
Sdy Sde Sdp Sd Sdy Sdp = Sde Sd
(a) Short period range, T < TC (b) Medium and long range, T > TC
Figure 4.23: Determination of the performance point PP for the equivalent SDOF
system
The workflow for the determination of the performance point can be summarized
as follows:
1. Start from a trial performance point PPt (Sdp,t , Sp,t ).

2. Calculate deformation energy E
m
= E
c
at PPt (Eq. 4.63, Fig. 4.21a).
3. Determine bi-linear idealization of capacity (point PY ) by determining
yield displacement Sdy and period T = Ty of equivalent SDOF system
at PPt (Eqs. 4.64 and 4.65, Fig. 4.21b).
4. Calculate the elastic spectral response PE (Sde , Se of the equivalent
SDOF system with T = Ty from the elastic 5%-damped response spec-
trum (Fig. 4.23).
5. Calculate yield strength reduction factor Ry associated with PPt (Eq.
4.67, Fig. 4.22).
6. Calculate ductility associated with PPt (Eq. 4.69, Fig. 4.22).
7. Determine a new performance point PP (Sdp , Sp ) from the inelastic de-
sign spectrum (demand diagram) for the SDOF system with period
T = Ty , yield strength reduction factor Ry and ductility (Eqs. 4.70a
and 4.70b, Fig. 4.23)8 .
8. Check if the new performance point PP is within a tolerance of the trial
performance point PPt :
8 Note that in Eurocode 8 procedure there is no need to draw demand curve to find the
performance point.
4-56 SOFiSTiK 2016

(a) If NO Take the point PP as new trial performance point, i.e. PPt =
PP and return to step 1.
(b) If YES Analysis is finished and the performance point is
PP (Sdp , Sp ).
The following input will determine the performance point according to the Eu-
rocode 8 procedure (TYPE EC8):
LC 5004
PUSH TYPE EC8 LCC0 301 LCC1 2301 NLCC 22 CNOD 4 LCDM 11
The pushover curve for the control node 4 (CNOD 4) previously obtained by in-
cremental pushover analysis with the basis load case 301 (LCC0 301) and the
results saved in the load cases 2301 to 2325 (LCC1 2301 NLCC 25) is trans-
formed to the capacity diagram. The elastic 5% damped response spectrum,
previously defined with the help of the RESP command in the load case 11, is
transformed to the inelastic demand spectrum (LCDM 11). The outcome of the
analysis is illustrated in the Figures 4.24 and 4.25.
Sa [m/sec2]
Tb = 0.2 Tc = 0.5
T = 1.0
Ty
Tp
10.00
Capacity T = 1.5
PY PP
5.00
Td = 2.0
EC8-elastic
Demand, = 1.44
T = 3.0
T = 4.0
0.00
Sd [mm]
0.000
50.000
100.000
150.000
200.000
250.000
300.000
350.000
Figure 4.24: EC8: A-D Capacity-Demand-Diagram
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-57

Ry
6.00 = 6.0
= 5.0
4.00 = 4.0
= 3.0
2.00 = 2.0

== 1.5
1.44
0.0 Tc = 0.5
T [sec]
0.0
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.0
Figure 4.25: EC8: Ry T Spectrum
4-58 SOFiSTiK 2016

4.9.2 SPL - Structural Performance Limits

The performance point is used to compare the global response of structure and
individual component deformations to limit values in context of the specific per-
formance objectives for the building in question. The performance objective
represents the desired building performance level under a given seismic hazard
(earthquake ground motion). The performance levels are defined by the perfor-
mance limits (ATC-40 [1]). The structural performance limits can be categorized
as:
Local element and component acceptability limits. Each component

(beam, column, slab, connections, etc.) of the structural elements
(frames, seismic walls, diaphragms, foundations, etc.) should be checked
to verify if its response under a given seismic demand (level of forces
and deformations corresponding to the performance point) is within the
acceptable limits (performance limits). Local performance limits for beam
plastic hinges can be defined in AQUA (see AQUA: SFLA).
Global structural performance limits. Similar to local performance limits
it is possible to define the global performance limits. Up to five global
(structural) performance limits can be specified by the user (PUSH ...
SPL1 ... SPL5).
The following input will set the global structural performance limits (SPL1-SPL5)
as the cnod displacements (VB-U coordinate system). If the analysis is of the
type which works with the A-D coordinate system (e.g. PUSH TYPE ATC, EC8,
etc. ), then the performance levels specified as the cnod displacements will be
converted into the spectral displacements of the equivalent SDOF system Sd
(Fig. 4.26).
LC 5003
PUSH TYPE ATC ... SPL1 0.10 [ m] SPL2 0.18 [ m] SPL3 $$
0.25 [ m] $ $
SPL4 0.35 [ m] SPL5 0.45 [ m]
SOFiSTiK 2016 4-59

Sa [m/sec2]
Tb = 0.1 T = 0.5 Tc = 0.6 T = 1.0
Ty Tp
SPL 1 SPL 2 SPL 3 SPL4 SPL5
10.00
T = 1.5
Capacity
PP
5.00 PY T = 2.0
UBC-elastic
Td = 3.0
Demand,
T = 4.0 -eff = 16.56%
0.00
Sd [mm]
0.000
100.000
200.000
300.000
400.000
Figure 4.26: Structural performance limits
4-60 SOFiSTiK 2016

Train Loading | SOFiLOAD
5 Train Loading
5.1 General
Train loads for bridges are ruled by the fact, that the most unfavourable position
of the loading is different for every single element and reaction and not known in
advance.
The base of the moving load process is a lane geometry, described in the plan
view by straight, circular or clothoid segments and in the elevation as straight
or quadratic parabula. This can be taken from the database as defined by
SOFiMSHB or explicitly input with the record GAX. Each axis may have up to
nine separate lanes with the sub numbers 1 to 9 defined via LANE. For the
dynamic impact coefficients an effective length may be specified and the extra
width of the traffic area may be defined.
Each lane has two coordinate systems. There is a local system (x) at the lane
axis for real distances. However, the inputs for the positions along the lanes
are entered in a global system of stations (s) which defines an alignment of the
lanes to each other.
There are three principal approaches for the problem of finding the most un-
favourable load position:
One can generate numerous load cases with the train load at distinct po-
sitions and search for the maximum with the superposition tool MAXIMA.
For some load definitions this approach is not possible with acceptable effort
however.
More general one can establish the influence lines for the forces and mo-
ments of all or selected locations within the structure. In a second step
these influence lines may be evaluated with the load trains. The result are
direct extreme values of all forces and moments. This is performed with the
program module ELLA, highly optimized for this task.
Last not least a transient analysis of the load coursing the structure with
the program DYNA is possible. For the animation of this process the record
TREX is very helpful.
Depending on the system and the loading, the one or the other method will be
better. Special effects like a load which is not bound to the lane in transverse
direction (EC) or having independent wheels (DIN) may increase the number of
needed load cases considerably.
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-1

SOFiLOAD | Train Loading
The commands available for the load train definition are:
TRAI Specifying the load train

TRPL, TRBL Explicit loading of a load train
With this commands no loading will be applied to the structure yet. The load
definitions are saved under a load case number which should not be used oth-
erwise. It is the SOFiLOAD / COPY command that will transform the train to
individual loading. With a reference to a geometric line (GAX) and an associ-
ated lane (LANE) the following transformations will take place:
The eccentricity will be applied relative to the lane.

The load train will be adopted to the geometry of the lane.
Centrifugal loading will be created based on the speed of the train and the
curvature of the lane.
Hint
These functionalities require a license of ELLA or a special license TRAI.
5.2 Load Groups

There are possibly different combination coefficients within one load train.
Therefore we have load groups within the EN 1991-2 or the DIN FB. For road
bridges they are given in table 4.4, for railway bridges in table 6.6. From these
definitions the following table is deducted:
Traffic area
type vertical loads horizontal loads
model LM1(TS) LM1(UDL) LM4 braking centrifugal
gr0 Charact.
grU Charact.
gr1 Charact. Charact. (*) (*)
gr2 frequent frequent Charact. Charact.
gr2n frequent frequent non non
frequent frequent
gr2f permanent permanent Frequent Frequent
gr3 Charact. on
sidewalks
5-2 SOFiSTiK 2016

Traffic area
type vertical loads horizontal loads
model LM1(TS) LM1(UDL) LM4 braking centrifugal
gr4 Charact.
UDL on
total area
gr5 LM 3 LM 1
charact. in frequent on
main lane other lanes
gr6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Charact. Charact. Charact. Charact.
The selection of a group will select individual factors for the components from a
complete load train definition. gr6 is used for the exchange of supports according
to DIN FB. For all combinations with other than the characteristic values the PSI-
factors of EC1 are used. Any deviation of this has to be build up with the special
groups and an explicit factor FACT.
Appendix C of DIN FB 101 states also for road bridges ("if not specified other-
wise"):
LM2 and the single loads on pathways should not combined with any other
life load
Neither snow nor wind should be combined with braking or load group gr2 or
gr3.
Snow or wind actions larger than o *FWk should not be combined with gr1 or
LM1.
Wind and temperature should not be applied together.
The life load groups for railway bridges 11 to 31 according to table 6.6. of DIN
FB 101 should be best evaluated with ELLA or MAXIMA and not with combined
explicit loading. For those bridges, wind and life load are bound together, thus
should act only at the position where the train is, but only if the wind load does
not exceed a certain threshold.
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-3

5.3 GAX Geometry of an Axis
See also: Load-train, LANE

GAX

NO Axis identifier LT4 A1
S Total arc length (station) 0
X Real world coordinates of point [m] 1001 0
Y [m] 1001 0
Z [m] 1001 0
R Radius of the lane axis [m] 1001 -
A Spiral transition curve RL=A2 [m] 1001 -
NX Direction vector *
NY *
NZ *
TYPE Type of axis LT AXIS

AXIS general axis
LANE traffic lane
BGEO bridge geometry line
TITL Designation of lane LT32 -
A general geometric axis with all details may be now defined in SOFIMSHC. For
SOFiLOAD / ELLA / TENDON only a simplified definition is provided as follows.
Definition with a length resp. station in the plan view For the first record of
an axis the start point (X,Y,Z) and the start direction (NX,NY,NZ), the length
S of the first segment and optional curvature and clothoidal parameter is
specified. All consecutive records contain only the next S-value and the
curvature parameters.
If a radius is defined, a transition element from the last radius to the current
value is generated. Positive values for R cause a curvature to the right-hand
side, whilst negative values a curvature to the left-hand side. If A is defined,
a clothoidal spiral transition curve is created where the curvature increases
for the positive values of A and decreases for the negative values. If the
5-4 SOFiSTiK 2016

radius R is not given it will be calculated automatically based on the length,

if it is given together with A the curvature of the start point will be calculated
instead. Basket arches with piecewice constant curvatures may be defined
with A=0.0 and the selected radius.
GAX ' B1 ' S 8.0 A 10 X -1.000 NX 1.0 TITL $$

' SPIRAL AND CIRCLE '
S 16.0
GAX ' B2 ' S 8.0 R 25.0 A 0.0 Y -1.000 NY 1.0 $$
TITL ' THREE CENTER CURVE '
S 16.0 R 14.0 A 0.0
Figure 5.1: Lane axis
Definition about 3D points at a curve The coordinates have to be input for

all records. The given direction (NX,NY,NZ) is the local z-axis and thus a
defined circular arc turns around this vector.
GAX A1 - X S 0.0 X -1.000 TITL ' CENTER GEOMETRY '

S 16.0 X 30.000 R 150.0 NZ 1.0
The described elements will be automatically adopted from WinGRAF as dy-

namic axis. A graphical check is recommended with the programs WING or
WinGRAF.
The options to define the elevation or cross falls are now only available in
SOFiMSHC.
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-5

5.4 LANE Width of Traffic Lanes
See also: Load-train, GAX

LANE

NO Lane number (lane_ident.nummer) LT *
e.g. A1.3 = third lane of axis A1
lane_ident only = all/total lanes
TYPE Predefined type (see remarks) LT *
WR Ordinate of right curbstone [m] 1001 -
WL Ordinate of left curbstone [m] 1001 -WR
SA Coordinate along lane axis for start !

SE Coordinate along lane axis for end !
YCA Offset of centre of lane at start (SA) [m] 1001 *
YCE Offset of centre of lane at the end (SE) [m] 1001 YCA
YRA Right value at start (SA) [m] 1001 *
YLA Left value at start (SA) [m] 1001 *
YRE Right value at end (SE) [m] 1001 YRA
YLE Left value at end (SE) [m] 1001 YLA
L Effective length of segment for impact coef- [m] 1001 *
ficients and loaded length dependencies
CONT add to last segment
HSA Height of deck or rail above lane at SA [m] 1001 0.0

HSE Height of deck or rail above lane at SE [m] 1001 HSA
INCA Cross fall dz/dy or h[mm] at SA [mm] 0.0
INCE Cross fall dz/dy or h[mm] at SE [mm] INCA
HEFF Effective height of rail and sleeper [m] 1001 -
BEFF Effective length of sleeper [m] 1001 -
DEFF Effective width of sleeper [m] 1001 -
INCD Spread angle for stresses 0.25
ASL Distance between mounting points [m] 1001 -
WREF Gauge to convert inclinations [m] 1001 1.435
5-6 SOFiSTiK 2016

The total loading area will be subdivided in up to 99 individual traffic lanes rela-
tive to a given geometrical axis. These may be created automatically by a pre-
defined standard section or with explicit coordinates. One may subdivide each
segment with different widths and dynamic impact factors. All lanes have to be
defined together to an existing axis, any new definition will delete all previously
defined lane definitions.
Figure 5.2: Single lane loaded and residual area
The width of the lane is defined through the left and the right boundaries. The
lane can be widened or narrowed by different input data at different stations.
If the lane edges happen to intersect the lane, this should be defined only at
distinct points to allow for correct treating of torsional loading.
The width of the load train may be less than those of the lane. In that case
additional basic areas are established loaded by a constant load specified with
the load train. If the load train is larger than the lane width, reductions of the
applied loading are possible.
The lane 0 has to be defined always, for the following procedures two cases
have to be distinguished:
There is only lane 0, the width of the moving loading is defined only by the
load train.
There are other lanes within the curb stone limits. Then lane 0 defines the
total extend of the traffic load including pathways. The width of the moving
load is the maximum extend of the other lanes.
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-7

AXIS.1

Y 4.00 2.00
T 0.00
101 2.00 4.00 m
M 1 : 70
Figure 5.3: Two lanes loaded and residual area
Default constant sections are available via literals as follows. If such type (with-
out blanc spaces) is given at the main lane, secondary lanes will be automati-
cally created:
RQ7.5, RQ9.5, RQ10.5, RQ15.5,

RQ20, RQ26, RQ29.5
RQ33, RQ35.5 Setting total width automatically
For the following types the definition of the curbstone coordinates is always re-
quired, which is constant along the total lane.
EC EC 1-3 (4) / DIN-Fachbericht 101

BS even lanes according BS resp. BD 37-01
TMH7 even lanes according TMH7
CAN even lanes according Canadian Standards
IRC even lanes according Indian road congress
JRA Main and secondary lanes (Japan road congress)
AS Main and secondary lanes (Australian AS 5100)
If the lanes have all the same width, they will be aligned from the right (positive
y-values) starting with number 1. However if this is not the case, lane 1 is always
the central lane with the total traffic area, more lanes with numbers 2 to 9 will
be created aside. together with lane 1. Additional lanes will be created right
adjusted starting with number 10 and left adjusted with number 20. If those lanes
are identical to the primary lane definitions, the numbers are just synonyms. For
TMH7 lanes 11,12,13 resp. 19,18,17 with extreme eccentricity will be created.
5-8 SOFiSTiK 2016

AXIS.11
AXIS.10

Y 4.00
T 102
2.00 0.00
T 2.00
101 4.00 m
M 1 : 70
Figure 5.4: Two lanes adjusted to the right loaded and residual area
AXIS.20

AXIS.21

Y 4.00
T2.00
101 0.00
T 1022.00 4.00 m
M 1 : 70
Figure 5.5: Two lanes adjusted to the left loaded and residual area
Residual areas are the areas between the edges defined by the width of the
load train and the edges of the lane itself. The pathways are thus only included
in lane 0. Gaps between the lanes are NOT treated as residual loading areas.
For the loading of the lane in SOFiLOAD it will be subdivided in the longitudinal
direction into segments (e.g. each span). If several lane-definitions should be
combined to one single segment, the definition of L is only possible for the first of
the definitions, while specifying for all the others the literal CONT at this position.
For railway bridges there are detailed tables available within EC1 or DIN FB 101
how to select the governing length. Further there are detailed descriptions how
to calculate the effective pressures from the load which needs the input values
HEFF to ASL however which are definable in SOFiLOAD only.
+ INC
s
BEFF HEFF HS
INCD INCD y
YL z YR
Figure 5.6: Ballast and sleepers
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-9

5.5 TRAI Load Train Definition
See also: COPY, TRPL, TRBL, LANE, TREX

TRAI

TYPE Type of a load train LT CONS
P1 class of load train or load value kN, m *

P2 second value for load train kN, m *
P3 Third value for load train kN, m *
P4 fourth value for load train kN, m *
P5 loading on spare areas kN/ m2 *
P6 Wind loading kN/ m2 *
P7 Height of wind attack area [m] 1001 *
P8 Parameter for brake load *
P9 Height of mass center for centrifugal load [m] 1001 *
PFAC Factor for vertical-loading of total train 1.0
(e.g. classified UIC loading)
WIDT Width of load train [m] 1001 *
PHI explicit impact coeffizient for bending *

PHIS explicit impact coeffizient for shear *
V Speed of load train [km/ h] 1203 *
FUGA Factor for the masses of total train for the 1.0
centrifugal forces
XCON Minimum distance for repeated load train [m] 1001 0

(convoy)
YEX Eccentricity value for special trains [m] 1001 0.0
DIR Direction of train LT B
B = in both directions
R = only to the right (positive)
L = only to the left (negative)
N = train does not move at all
5-10 SOFiSTiK 2016


DIRT Direction of transverse loading LT B
B = in both directions
R = only to the right (positive)
L = only to the left (negative)
N = suppress this loading
Parameters for multibody dynamics:

FRB Frequency for body Spring Cb 1/ sec
DAB Modal Damping of body support 0.0
BOGI Load value of bogie / kN 0.0
FRBO Frequency for bogie Spring Cbo 1/ sec
DABO Modal Damping of bogie support 0.0
WHEE Load value of wheel / kN 0.0
FRWH Frequency for wheel spring Cwh 1/ sec
DAWH Modal Damping of wheel support 0.0
The description of all available load trains can be found within the next pages.
If a value for the convoy distance is given (XCON), the specified train will be
applied multiple times with that given minimum distance between the last load
ordinate and the reference point of the consecutive loadtrain.
The the residual area loading P5 is applied without dynamic impact factors and
without centrifugal forces. It is applied only for:
Areas between the constant width of the load train and the polygonal
bounds of the lane. If the load train has no width (WIDT 0) there wont
be a residual area either (Railways)
Areas between the borders of lane 0 and all other lanes (e.g. pathways)
The total lane area for the load group GR4 (e.g. pedestrian bridges)
The wind loading is generally equal to P6 and acts horizontally upon a traffic
band with height P7. As there will be no traffic for strong winds, this is not the
maximum wind load on the structure itself. The sign of the wind load is defined
as positive if coming from the right in the moving direction, but option DIRT
allows a more specific definition. ELLA has the possibility in record POSL via
OPT to apply the wind load in the most unfavourable direction at its own, if DIRT
has allowed this. Both options are combined with a logical and-operation.
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-11

The load trains have a moving direction which is not only important for some of
the train loads but also for the direction of the braking load. Positive load values
are considered to be braking loads in traveling direction, negative load values
are accelerating loads in reverse direction. If DIR N is specified, no impact
factor will be applied and the brake and velocity and wind load will be preset to
zero.
The meaning of value P8 is different for each loading type. The sign of the
braking load will be taken from the moving direction. A changing sign (DIR B)
will be only possible for ELLA to take care of. ELLA and SOFILOAD allow to
change the direction or deactivate the loading.
For an analysis with multi-body-dynamics it is possible to generate masses,

beams, springs and dampers via the record TREX. The mass of bogie and wheel
may be specified either as a positive absolute load value or as a negative fraction
of the total mass. For more information see record TREX.
Table of Standard Load Trains:
USER constant Area Loading P5 / user defined Load Train
LM1 double axle load model 1 according Eurocode 1 part 3

LM2 single axle load model 2 according Eurocode 1 part 3
LM3 special case load model 3 according Eurocode 1 part 3
SV,SOV Special vehicles according BS EN1991-2
LM4 pedestrian load model 4 according Eurocode 1 part 3
FLM1 Fatigue load model 1 according Eurocode 1 part 3

SLW Heavy load truck according to DIN / OENORM / IAP

LKW Standard truck (according to country code)
LKWD German truck (in Austria)
LKWA Austrian truck
NBR Brasilian load trains NBR 7188 / NB6 similar to SLW/LKW
5-12 SOFiSTiK 2016

H Highway Load according AASHTO resp. BS 5400

HS Highway Load according AASHTO resp. BS 5400
HT Highway Truck H(M) according AASHTO
HST Highway Truck HS(MS) according AASHTO
CAN Highway Load according Canandian Standard CSA

ONT Highway Load according Canandian Standard CSA (Ontario)
HA HA according BS 5400
HB HB according BS 5400
IRC Loading Class AA, A, B and Appendix I of

Indian Road Congress 6-2000
JRA Load trains T and L of the Japan Road Association
BRO1 3 axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 1

BRO2 Single axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 2/3/4
BRO3 2 x 3 axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 5
BROF Fatigue relevant load train of the Swedish BRO
AS_A Single wheel / axle according australian AS 5100

AS_M Load train M 1600 according AS 5100
AS_S Load train S 1600 according AS 5100
HLP Heavy load platform according AS 5100.7
UIC Loading according UIC 71

resp. RU of BS 5400
SW Heavy load trains SW/0 DS 804 / EC
SW/2 Heavy load trains SW/2 DS 804 / EC
RFAT Railway Fatigue loading EC and others
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-13

HSLM Load trains according EC 1 Annex 2

RL Railway Loading BS 5400
ASRT Railway Loading AS 5100
All load trains may be extended with TRPL and TRBL definitions. If none of
the standard load elements of the rain should be used, but other properties like
impact factors should be retained, the literal USER may be defined for P1. The
user should take care of:
The default live load P5 should be deducted for the areas loaded by the
defined loading.
The distance to the last load of a standard train may be not as expected due
to automatically generated loads of those type and should be checked.
The Eurocode load model allows the loading to be moved across the lane within
some limits, each load will have therefore a range of possible eccentricities for
ELLA.
5.5.1 Impact Factor

Two different dynamic factors are provided for bending or shear effects. The
values depend on the dynamic properties of the structure, the type of loading
and on an effective length, to be defined in general for every individual element
and result with record CALC. If that is not done, the value defined with the lane
geometry is used, but one can also specify an explicit value for each of those
four values. With the definition of PHI STEE, CONC, PRCO und COMP variants
of the formulas may be selected, if the design code supplies such variants.
Default formulas are:
DIN Impact factor according to DIN 1072

(Default for SLW and LKW)
PH = 1.4 0.008 LPH (5.1)
UIC Impact factor according to EN 1992 / DS 804

for extended maintenance
p
PH = 0.82 + 1.44/ ( LPH 0.2) 1.67 (5.2)
UICB Impact factor according to EN 1992 / DS 804

with standard maintenance
p
PH = 0.73 + 2.16/ ( LPH 0.2) 2.0 (5.3)
5-14 SOFiSTiK 2016

BS Impact factor according to BS 5400

p
PHB = 0.73 + 2.16/ ( LPH 0.2) 2.0 (5.4a)
p
PHS = 0.82 + 1.44/ ( LPH 0.2) 1.67 (5.4b)
NA Impact factor according to TMH7
PH = 0.05 (100 + LPH)/ (10 + LPH) (5.5)
SW/0 Impact factor according to DS 804

between 1.48 and 1.08
SW/2 Impact factor according to DS 804
AASH Impact factor according to AASHTO
PH = 1.0 + 15.24/ (LPH + 38) (5.6)
CAN Impact factor according to CAN/CSA

between 1.25 and 1.40, depending on the available length for
one, two or three axles. (A depencency for the true number of
applied axles is not available)
IRC Impact factor according to Clause 211 Fig. 5. for Class A, B
and AA loading for concrete and steel bridges.
PH = 1.0 + 4.5/ (LPH + 6) (5.7a)

PH = 1.0 + 9.0/ (LPH + 13.5) (5.7b)
JRA Impact factor according to JRA are only distinct for T-Loading,
for L-loading there are deviations for standard concrete and
steel bridges.
PH = 1.0 + 20/ (50 + LPH) (T) (5.8a)

PH = 1.0 + 10/ (25 + LPH) (L) (5.8b)
AS Impact factor according to AS 5100 are defined as (1+). For

roads fixed values are given in Table 6.7.2, however as M1600
requires a greater allowance if only a single three- axle compo-
nent controls and there exists also a stationary loading S1600
without dynamic allowance, a user definition is required in some
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-15

cases.
AS_A PHB = 1.0 + 0.40 (5.9a)

AS_M PHB = 1.0 + 0.30(1.0 + 0.35) (5.9b)
Railway loading distinguishes between ballasted and direct fix-

ing (input with LANE) and account for the reference length as
follows:
p
PHB = 1.0 + 2.16/ ( LPH 0.20) 0.27 ( > 3.6) (5.10a)
p
PHB = 1.0 + 2.16/ ( LPH 0.20) 0.17 ( > 2.0) (5.10b)
LPHI should be defined for the axis via LANE. However ELLA may also use
the distance of the zero values of the influence line as a good approach to the
effective length. If no input for LPHI is given, the dynamic factor will be set equal
to the value with a minimum length and the width of the lane will be set equal to
0.0.
Dynamic coefficients according to appendix E of DIN FB 101 are dependant on

the frequency of the structure and should be specified explicitly therefore.
5.5.2 Centrifugal Forces

In case of a curve, the mass of the loading, usually derived from the vertical
load, is used together with the speed of the train and the curvature of the lane
to compute the centrifugal load components.
The forces calculated according to the laws of physics with vin [ m/sec] are:
2
P = P ; g = 9.80665 m/ sec2 (5.11)
Rg
Sometimes there is an equivalent formula in the design code for a speed in [

km/h] with a factor of v2 /(127R).
These forces will be changed for Eurocode and BRO as follows:
According to Eurocode EC 1-3 4.3 (independent from v)
Qtk = 0.2 Q (r < 200m) (5.12a)

Qtk = 40 Q / R (200m r 1500m) (5.12b)
Qtk = 0 (r > 1500m) (5.12c)
These forces will be changed for railway loadings UIC as follows:
5-16 SOFiSTiK 2016

UIC Reduction according DS 804 / BS 5400 / EC 1-3 6.5

for v > 120 km/h and L > 2.88
120 814

p
red = 1.0 + 1.75 1 2.88/ L (5.13)

1000
For FUGA you may however specify an additional factor explicitly. Negative
factors will enforce the laws of physic to all type of load trains.
In those cases where a constant horizontal centrifugal loading or horizontal

bumping has to be considered a horizontal loading PW/HW may be specified
with TRPL/TRBL.
5.5.3 Load Trains according to Eurocode

The position of the loading according to Eurocode within the traffic lanes is free.
The synchronisation with secondary lanes should not be applied. The minimum
distance of 0.5 m between adjacent loading is not checked by ELLA but will be
satisfied in almost all cases if the width of the lane is at least 2.5 m.
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-17

The double axle should be applied only in total. Thus all loads of the axles will
be set to be applied even if favourable.
Load Model 1
Figure 5.7: Load model 1
There is one double axle with a spacing of 1.2 m. For the different lane classes
it is generally recommended to use three different load trains with individual
adjustment factors q. These factors are specified in national annexes and are
defined in the INI-files. (e.g. DIN Fachbericht with a value of Q = 0.8, SIA with
a value of Q = 0.9). Other values may be specified with a direct load value if
needed.
P1 = Class 300 200 100

P2 = Axle load [ kN] 300 200 100
P3 = reserved [ kN] 0 0 0
P4 = traffic lane [ kN/m2 ] 9.0 2.5 2.5
P5 = Residual area [ kN/m2 ] 2.5 2.5 2.5
P8 = Brake loading [ kN] * 0.0 0.0
5-18 SOFiSTiK 2016

The brake loading is calculated according to the length of the total lane and
distributed as uniform load along the line:
Qk = 1.2 P2 + 0.10 P4 WDT L ; 180Q1 Qk 900kN (5.14)
The upper limit is defined by the requests of the STANAG, it may be redefined
by a national annex or other means. This may be specified via a global variable
EN1991-2_QLMAX in the INI-file.
Load Model 2
This load model is a single axle taken from load model 1, but with a dynamic
impact factor and the wheels may act independently. As this load model is only
for local elements it should not be selected within ELLA, especially as it does
not work with influence areas (INT>2). A possible application is the accidential
load case of a vehicle on the pathway:
P1 = Basic Value 400 300 200 100

P2 = Axle load [ kN] 320 240 160 80
P3 = Rotation [ ] 0 0 0 0
P5 = Residual area [ kN/m2 ] 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
P8 = Brake loading [ kN] 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-19

Load Model 3
This load model is for special cases of heavy load vehicles. We have to dis-
tinguish between the narrow version fitting within one lane (2 axles) and the
broader version for P2=240 (3 axles). For the latter case the loading of the
same load train in two synchronized lanes with special provisions of YEX should
be used. Parts of the load train not within the lane imits will be clipped automat-
ically.
The three values of P1 to P3 define the loading as follows (Table A1):
5-20 SOFiSTiK 2016

600 / 150 4 150 kN

900 / 150 6 150 kN
1200 / 150 8 150 kN
1200 / 200 6 200 kN
1500 / 150 10 150 kN

1500 / 200 7 200 kN + 1 100 kN
1800 / 150 12 150 kN

1800 / 200 9 200 kN
2400 / 200 12 200 kN

2400 / 240 10 240 kN
2400 / 200 / 200 6 200 kN + 6 200 kN
3000 / 200 15 200 kN

3000 / 240 12 240 kN + 1 120 kN
3000 / 200 / 200 8 200 kN + 7 200 kN
3600 / 200 18 200 kN

3600 / 240 15 240 kN
3600 / 200 / 200 9 200 kN + 9 200 kN
Figure 5.10: Loadmodell LM3
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-21

The speed of the load train is a very important parameter, it does not only control
front and rear for some load trains, but it defines also if the load train is moving
slowly (v = 5 km/h) or with a regular speed (v = 70 km/h). This triggers if an
impact factor is applied or not.
Further there will be no loading witin a distance of 25 m before and behind

that vehicle, but then a load train LM1 with ist frequent load values (1 ) may be
applied, by specifying the load case number of a correspondig LM1 load train at
P4. To select the relative position to the vehicle before or behind the sign of the
P4 definition will be taken. A positive value will select a vehicel before, while a
negative value will select a value behind. The implemented algorithm does not
allow to select this automatically.
As the coefficients 1 are different for UDL and TS, we use from this load case
the value 1 for TS, but for UDL and the residual loding the default value of 0.4
of the EN will be taken.
Load Model 3 (NA BS)

NA to BS EN 1991-2:2003 defines different types of this load model. The dis-
tance to the residual loading in the lane has been reduced to 2.5 resp 5.0 m.
As every axle has a different dynamic amplification factor, these will be applied
directly if V is larger than 5 km/h.
Load trains of the Special Types General Order (STGO) will be selected with
TYPE SV, where P1 defines the class (80, 100 or 196), P2 and P3 are not used,
alle other remarks especially about P4 remain valid:
Figure 5.11: Load Model 3 (NA BS)
5-22 SOFiSTiK 2016

Load trains of the Special Order (SO) will be selected with TYPE SOV:
Figure 5.12: Loadmodell SO
P1 = Class 250 350 450 600

P2 = combination of tractors in gradients larger 1:25
= Number of pulling tractors * 10 + number of pushing tractors
P3 = explicit fixed distance between trailers (default is variable)
Load Model 4
This is a pedestrian load model with a basic load area with a maximum value of
5.0kN/ m2 . For a loaded length greater 10 m the load value will be decreased:
120
q k = 2.0 + > 2.50 kN/ m2 (5.15)
L + 30
Further we have the standard service vehicle according Eurocode:
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-23

Figure 5.13: Load Model 4
P1 = Axle loading QSV1 80 kN

P2 = Axle loading QSV2 40 kN
P3 = Distance of axles 3.00 m
For the application of this load model the definition of the loadgroup is manda-
tory: GR3 or GR4 for the area loading and GR0 for the service vehicle.
Load Model FLM1

This model is identical to LM1, but the Axle loads will be reduced by a factor of
0.7, and the distributed loading by 0.3.
Load Model FLM2

This selects via P1 the frequent truck models according Table 4.6 with the fol-
lowing axle load values:
P1 = 1 90 / 190 kN
P1 = 2 80 / 140 / 140 kN
P1 = 3 90 / 180 / 120 / 120 / 120 kN
P1 = 4 90 / 190 / 140 / 140 kN
P1 = 5 90 / 180 / 120 / 110 / 110 kN
5-24 SOFiSTiK 2016

Figure 5.14: Load Model FLM2
Load Model FLM3
This is a complete truck with two double axles P1 with a distance of 6.0 m
designed for the fatigue design.
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-25

P1 = axle loading [ kN] 120

P5 = default life load [ kN/m2 ] 0.0
Load Model FLM4

This selects via P1 the heavy load trucks according to table 4.7 with the following
axle loading:
P1 = 1 70 / 130 kN
P1 = 2 70 / 120 / 120 kN
P1 = 3 70 / 150 / 90 / 90 / 90 kN
P1 = 4 70 / 140 / 90 / 90 kN
P1 = 5 70 / 130 / 90 / 80 / 80 kN
5-26 SOFiSTiK 2016

5.5.4 Load Trains SLW and LKW

Load Train SLW
Figure 5.17: Load Train SLW
Load Train LKW
Figure 5.18: Load Train LKW
Those classical load trains are used in several countries in Europe (DIN 1072,
OENORM B 4002, Spanische IAP and Brasilian NBR). National variants may
be selected with a country code. The width of the moving loading is 3.0 m
in general, for the OENORM it is 2.5 m and for the Spanish IAP a minimum
distance to the secondary truck suggests a width of 4.0 m. The rest of the traffic
band is loaded by P3, the remaining areas inside the lane are loaded with the
basic area loading P5. With DIR N one may select a secondary lane without any
dynamic factors.
The direct definition of a second load train beside with P2 und P4 can not be
supported for some of the recent features. It us strongly recommended to use
synchronized lanes instead, it is recommended to use two lanes with individual
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-27

load trains instead.
All loads are divided to portions to the right and to the left of the lane axis, which
can act independently.
Axial Loads [kN]

P3 kN/ m2 P4 kN/ m2 P5 kN/ m2
SLW 30 100 5.0 - 3.0
SLW 60 200 5.0 - 3.0
LKW 3/3 20+10 3.0 2.0 2.0
LKW 6/6 40+20 4.0 2.0 2.0
LKW 9/9 60+30 4.0 3.0 3.0
LKW 12 80+40 4.0 3.0 3.0
LKW 12/12 80+40 4.0 3.0 3.0
LKW 16/16 100+60 5.0 3.0 3.0
LKWA 110+50 4.0 3.0 3.0
16/16
LKWA 170+80 5.0 3.0 3.0
25/25
NBR 45 150(SLW) 5.0 - 3.0
NBR 30 100(SLW) 5.0 - 3.0
NBR 12 80/40(LKW) 4.0(3.0) - 3.0
NBR 36 120(SLW) 5.0 - 3.0
NBR 24 80(SLW) 4.0 - 3.0
The IAP (Instruccin sobre las acciones a considerar en al proyecto de puentes

de carretera, Ministerio de fomento, 2000) has a constant value of 4.0 kN/m2 on
the total area of the bridge, but without any deduction for the SLW. For fatigue a
SLW with 390 kN and an impact factor of 1.2 may be selected by P2 = 468 kN.
Wind loading: P6 = 1.25 kN/m2

P7 = 3.50 m
Brake loading: P8 = 1.00 (Factor for horizontal force)
DIN 1072 defines a total brake loading with a maximum of 900 kN and a min-
imum of 30 % of the heavy load trains within the principal and secondary lane
or 25% of the total principal lane. As the brake loading is an other load class
than the standard life load it is not always possible to apply both loads within one
loadcase. IAP has a minimum of 140 kN and a maximum of 720 kN.
5-28 SOFiSTiK 2016

5.5.5 Load trains BS 5400 and AASHTO, TMH7

Load Train for H, HS, HA, NA
Figure 5.19: Load Train for H, HS, HA, NA
The loading H, HS and HA, NA is described by a uniform load and an additional

concentrated single or tandem load with spacing P4.
The value P1 specifies for H and HS the type of load train according to AASHTO.
The width of the train is 3.048 m. The following values are possible:
P1 Load train P2 (H) P2 (HS) P3 P4

10 H10-44(M18) 40 kN 58 kN 4.7 kN/m 0
15 H15-44(M13.5) 60 kN 87 kN 7.1 kN/m 0
20 H20-44(M9) 80 kN 116 kN 9.4 kN/m 0
25 HL 98 (2005) - 110 kN 9.3 kN/m 1.20
Wind loading: P6 = 1.46 kN/m

P7 = 1.829 m (6ft)
Brake loading: P8 = 0.05 (friction coefficient)
The loading HA (Departmental Standard BD 37) is represented by a uniform

load P3 pu, with the magnitude pu depending on the length of the loading, and
either a concentrated load (KEL) P1=120 kN or a tandem loading with P1=148
kN (with distance P2, default 1.2m). The value of P4 defines the loaded length L.
If P4 is not given, L will be calculated in ELLA based on the sum of the distances
of the null points of the influence line.
The value pu is calculated from the total loaded length L
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-29

up to L = 50 m:
p = 336 L0.67 (5.16)
from L = 50 m (and for the tandem loading):
p = 36 L0.1 (5.17)
It is then possible that shorter loaded lengths could lead to higher forces. As
this can not be treated easily, ELLA uses an approximation by evaluating an ef-
fective length according to BD 37/01 figure 11. SBase lengths for highly cusped
influence linesT. In a first step the integral of the total positive and negative
contributions of the influence line will be evaluated, then the effective length is
caluclated:
(Area under IL)
Le = 2 (total length of IL) (5.18)
(value of maximum ordinate)
In Hong Kong (BS + Country code 852) the formulas are slightly different:
up to L = 70 m:
p = 400 L0.67 (5.19)
from L = 70 m:
p = 44 L0.15 < 14.85 kN/ m (5.20)
the old definition of BS may be selected if P4 is specified explicitly negative or

the country code has been set for Israel (972). it is defined as:
p = 151 L0.475 ; 9 p 30 (5.21)

P7 = 2.50 m
The brake loading is also calculated according to the loaded length of the lane:
P8 = 200kN + 8.0 L 700kN
The loading NA (Bridge Design Code TMH7, South Africa 1981) is represented
by a uniform load P3 pu, with the magnitude depending on the length of the
p
loading and a concentrated load P1=144/ n kN (KEL). The value of P4 defines
the loaded length L as with the HA loading described above. P2 may be used
as with HA to generate a tandem loading.
5-30 SOFiSTiK 2016

The value pu is calculated from the total loaded length L
up to L = 36 m:
p = 36 (5.22)
from L = 36 m:
p = 6 + 180/ L0.5 (5.23)

P7 = 2.50 m
The brake loading is also calculated according to the loaded length of the lane:
P8 = 100kN + 3.0 L 400kN
5.5.6 Heavy Load trains BS 5400, TMH7

Load Train HB, NB
Figure 5.20: Load Train HB, NB
The loading HB and NB consists of a heavy loading and a simultaneous traffic

band load. P1 selects the "units", values between 24 and 45 are possible, each
inducing an axle loading of 10 times the unit. The value P3 of the latter load
varies with the length P4 according to the loading HA.
x can take the values 6.0, 11.0, 16.0, 21.0 or 26.0 m.
P1 = 30.0 (Default Axle loading)
BS 5400 makes a distinction between four positions of the HB loading, which

affect the magnitude of the traffic band load. These are controlled by the factor
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-31

P3 and the eccentricity P2:
P3 = 1.000 ; P2 = 0.0 HA-UDL simply centred

P3 = 2.000 ; P2 = 0.0 HA-UDL doubly centred
P3 = 1.333 ; P2 = +a/4 HA-UDL full to the right, 1/3 to the left
a = nominal lane width
P3 = 1.333 ; P2 = -a/4 HA-UDL full to the left, 1/3 to the right
a = nominal lane width
The Departmental Standard BD37/88 has other factors (Table 14). The default
value for P3 will be selected based on a nominal width bL of 3.048 m and the first
lane.
TMH7 applies the NB vehicle not combined with other life loads. Values P2 to
P4 will be ignored. The distance between the axis is 2.0 instead of 1.8 m.
Basic area loading: P5 = 0.00 kN/m2

P7 = 2.5 m
Brake loading are % of the total load. If the train has a unique traveling direction it
is applied between the first and second axle. If the train travels in both directions
it is distributed in two separate blocks at both ends.
P8 = 0.25 (HB)
P8 = 0.20 (NB)
Hint
The basic area loading P5 is not deducted in the case of HA and HB load-
ing. It always acts upon the full width of the lane.
TMH7 knows also a NC loading. As this is defined by two blocks of varying

width, length and distance. If the variation of this loading becomes t complex a
definition with individual block loads with TRBL may be useful.

P1 = 30.0 (Area loading kN/ m2 )
P2 = 5.0 (Width of loading [m] )
P3 = 40.0 (Total loaded length [m] )
5-32 SOFiSTiK 2016

5.5.7 Single trucks according to AASHTO

Load train HT (Two axle Truck, ed. 2002)
Figure 5.21: Load train HT (Two axle Truck, ed. 2002)
Load train HST (three axle truck, ed. 2002/2005)
Figure 5.22: Load train HST (three axle truck, ed. 2002/2005)
The load train has a width of 3.048 m, the value of X can be between 4.267 and
9.144 m.
The values P2 and P3 are preset as follows:
P1 Load Train P2 (H und HS) P3

10 H10-44(M18) 90.0 kN 4.7 kN/m
15 H15-44(M13.5) 135.0 kN 7.1 kN/m
20 H20-44(M9) 180.0 kN 9.4 kN/m
US HL 98 (2005) 180 kN (40 kip) 9.34kN/m (640lb/ft)
SI HL 98 (2005) 35 / 145 kN 9.3 kN/m
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-33

Basic area loading: P5 = 0.00 kN/m2

P7 = 1.829 m
Brake loading: P8 = 0.05 (frictional coefficient)
The traffic band load P3 has been specified in the 2002 edition as an alternate
loading, with the load model HL 98 of the 2005 edition it is now active on the full
longitudinal length.
5.5.8 Load trains according CAN/CSA

The Canadian standards define a truck load in several variants. The type CAN
is used for the default load train according chapter 14.9, while the type ONT is
used for the variation to be used in Ontario according Annex A14.4.
Axle no. 1 2 3 4 5
0.04W 0.1W 0.1W 0.14W 0.12W Wheel loads
CL-W
0.08W 0.2W 0.2W 0.28W 0.24W Axle loads
25 62.5 62.5 87.5 75 Wheel loads, kN
CL-625
50 125 125 175 150 Axle loads, kN
3.6 m 1.2 m 6.6 m 6.6 m
18 m
0.25 m
(Typ.)
0.25 m 2.40 m 1.80 m 0.60 m

(Typ.) (Typ.)
Figure 5.23: Load trains according CAN/CSA
The value P1 defines the level of the load train (CL1, CL2, CL3) or with MV the
maintenace vehicle according 3.8.11.
The value P2 defines the class of the load train (default 625).
If the value P3 is defined ( 9.0, 8.0 or 7.0 for class A, B or C and D) a constant
lane load will be defined with reduced load values of the load train without any
dynamic allowance. For this loading a braking load P8 of min(700,180+0.1*L)
will be applied. So P8 should become zero for secondary lanes.
5-34 SOFiSTiK 2016

The height of the wind attack area P7 is 3.0[ m] , the zentrifugal force is acting
at P9=2.0[ m] aove the lane.
5.5.9 Load trains IRC 6-2000

The provisions of the Indian Roads Congress has load trains acting always in
total. The type of the load train is always IRC, the subtype is given via P1. There
will be no other life load on the bridge (P5=0.0). How many lanes should be
loaded is given in table 2.
IRC AA - Heavy Loading for certain areas or highways This is a bogie of two
axles with a total weight of P2 (40t). There is only one lane loaded with this
train.
IRC AAT - Loading for certain areas or highways This is a tracked vehicle
with a total weight of P2 (70t). A convoy with a minimum distance of 90 m is
foreseen. There is only one lane loaded with this train.
IRC A - Loading for all permanent bridges This is a train with two trailers,
repeatable with a minimum distance of 18.5 m. The axle loading is P2 (27
kN), P3 (114 kN) and P4 (68 kN).
IRC B - Loading for timber bridges and temporary structures This is a train
with two trailers, repeatable with a minimum distance of 18.5 m. The axle
loading is P2 (16 kN), P3 (68 kN) and P4 (41 kN).
IRC nnR
All numbers refer to the hypothetical vehicles of appendix 1. An appended
R will select the wheeled trains, an appended S the four wheelers (only 3 to
24) and an appended T will select the tracked vehicle:
3, 5, 9, 12, 18, 24, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70
IRC PD for loading on footways is just a selectable type. The reduction
according to clause 209.4 dependant from width and length has to be done
by the user explicitly via parameter P5.
For the longitudinal effects of the loading the clause 208 establishes reduction
factor for multiple lanes. This effect should be taken into account during the
superposition of load cases.
The brake load with P8 (0.2 = 20 %) is defined as the fraction for the first load
train, while the other trains have only half of this value. P8 = 0.05 should be
applied in the case of more than two lanes to the other ones.

P7 = 3.0 m
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-35

(attack in height of 1.5 m with 3 kN/m)
The height of the mass centre is defined as P9 = 1.2 m.
5.5.10 Load trains of the Japan Road Association

The following load trains are available:
JRAT A Mult. Single Axis Class A for L < 15.0 m

JRAT B Mult. Single Axis Class B for L < 15.0 m with Tab. 2.2.2.
P2 Value of axle load (100 kN)
P4 Effective span length L (default from lane)
P5 Residual load for pedestrian areas (5 kN/m2 )
JRAL A Area loading Class A for L > 15.0 m with D= 6 m
JRAL B Area loading Class B for L > 15.0 m with D= 10 m
JRAL AS Area loading LA with enlarged p1 value for shear
JRAL BS Area loading LB with enlarged p1 value for shear
P2 explicit lane load p2 ( -1 variable, kN/m2 )
P3 explicit extra lane load p1 ( 10 / 12 kN/m2 )
P4 explicit value of distance D (m)
Load values P2 of JRAL are dependant on the length. In that case negative
values for P2 define factors to these basic values. Loads for pedestrian lanes
according to Tab. 2.2.4. have to be defined with type JRAL and P3=0.0.
5.5.11 Load trains AS 5100

The provisions of the Australian AS 5100 may be subdivided in two basic load
trains.
AS_A 160 A single axle, including the special case of a single wheel W 80
for local effects.
and further a system with 12 axles and a variant length to be used with influence
lines.
5-36 SOFiSTiK 2016

Figure 5.24: Load trains AS 5100
AS_M the moving load M 1600

AS_S the stationary load S 1600
P1 = Total load (1600)
P2 = Load of an axle group (360/240)
P3 = uniform distributed load (6 / 24 kN/m)
P4 = fixed distance ( > 6.25 m)
P8 = Brake coefficient acc. 6.8.2.
0.45 for single lane (200 < FBS < 720)
0.15 for multi lane
If more than one lane is loaded, the second lane shall be loaded with a lane
factor of 0.8 all subsequent lanes with 0.4. For fatigue 70 percent of the A160 or
M1600 load without uniform load value P3 should be used.
The "heavy load platform" is given in AS 5100.7. It is a load with 16 axles with
200 kN each for the HLP 320 and 250 kN for the HLP 400. The have either a
uniform distance of 1.8 m or a variable distance between 6 and 15 m between
two groups of 8 axles each.
HLP P1 = total weight in tons (320/400)

P2 = distance between groups (default = 6 to 15 m)
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-37

5.5.12 Swedish Load Trains (BRO 2004)
Figure 5.25: Swedish Load Trains (BRO 2004)
The Swedish load trains have the special feature of variant distances between
the loads which are best treated using influence lines. However the short dis-
tance of 1.5m will be fixed to that minimum value, as there are hardly cases to
be expected not yielding the most unfavourable value with that short distance.
Most train types have different load values for primary and secondary lanes. The
parameter P1 is used to specify an enumeration for the most important lane, the
secondary lane etc.
BRO1 3 axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 1/4

P1 Lane index 1 2 3 4
P2 Axle load [ kN] 250 170 0 325
P3 Line loading [ kN/m] 12 9 6 0
P4 explicit distance (minimum 6.0 m)
P5 area loading [ kN/m2 ] 4 3 2 0
BRO2 Single axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 2/3
P1 Lane index 1 2 3
P2 Axle load [ kN] 310 210 155
BRO5 2 x 3 axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 5
5-38 SOFiSTiK 2016

Figure 5.26: BRO5
P1 Lane index 1 2 3
P2 Axle load [ kN] 250 170 0
P3 Line loading [ kN/m] 12 9 6
P4 explicit distance (minimum 6.0 m)
P5 area loading [ kN/m2 ] 4 3 2
The second train has a distance with minimum of 50 m, the individ-
ual loads with a minimum of 10 m
BROF Fatigue relevant load train of the Swedish BRO
Figure 5.27: BROF
5.5.13 Railway train loads

Load trains of the railway are defined as axle loading in general. To get dis-
tributed loads more data is required, this is the dimension of the ballast with the
lane definition and here the distance of the sleepers and the gauge width. There
are hundreds of gauge widths, dependant on the country code the default is:
1520 mm (Russian gauge) Russia, Ukraine, Finland

1668 mm (Iberic gauge) Spain, Portugal
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-39

1676 mm (Indian gauge) India, Pakistan, Argentinia, Chile

1435 mm (Standard gauge) all others
Load train UIC = UIC 71 = RU (BS5400)
Figure 5.28: Load train UIC = UIC 71 = RU (BS5400)
Defaults: P1 = Sleeper distance / block length

0 with four single loads (Default)
>0 with distributed single loads
6.4 with simplified block load
P2 = Axle loading (250 kN)
P3 = Lane loading (80 kN/m)
P4 = Nosing force (100 kN)
The type UIC is considered for a train within a excellent maintained track. If
that is not the case, it is possible to select with type UICB a variant with impact
factors for the standard maintenance.
Loadings are defined with a possible eccentricity of 1/18 of the gauge according
to EC / DIN-Fachbericht, if not an explicit value is specified.
For a sleeper distance up to 0.8 m each load is converted to 3 single loads equal
to 0.25 PA, 0.50 PA and 0.25 PA at distances of P1 from each other. A value
greater 0.8 will yield a constant block load as follows:
5-40 SOFiSTiK 2016

Figure 5.29: Load train UIC = UIC 71 = RU (BS5400) - Constant Block Load

P7 = 3.50 m
Brake loading: P8 = 20.0 kN/m (constant brake load)

( -33.0 kN/m for starting)
Centre of mass: P9 = 1.8 m
Aerodynamic loading due to trains passing and derailing loading are not avail-
able.
Load train SW Schwerlastzug
Figure 5.30: Load train SW Schwerlastzug
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-41

Load train SW/2 Schwerlastzug
Figure 5.31: Load train SW/2 Schwerlastzug
Defaults: P2 = Block load 133 kN/m / 150 kN/m

P4 = Nosing force (100 kN)

P7 = 3.50 m
Brake loading: P8 = 20.0 kN/m (constant brake load)

P8 = 35.0 kN/m (constant brake load)
Hint
load trains SW will act also if their contributions have favourable effects.
Load train RFAT Real Load trains of EC / DIN Fachbericht etc.

Defaults: P1 = Class of load train
1 = Passenger train with engine (663 t)
2 = Passenger train with engine (530 t)
3 = High speed passenger train (940 t)
4 = High speed passenger train (510 t)
5 = freight train with engine (2160 t)
9 = suburban multiple unit train (296 t)
10 = subway - multiple unit train (360 t)
5-42 SOFiSTiK 2016

IC = German Intercity (549 t)

ICE1 = German Intercity 1 (780 t)
ICE2 = German Intercity 2 (693.6 t)
ICE3 = German Intercity 3 (992.6 t)
ICT2 = German Intercity-T (2xBR411=814 t)
ICT3 = German Intercity T (3xBR415 = 902 t)
THAL = French ( 878.4 t)
TGV = French TGV (1020 t)
VIRG = British Virgin (748 t)
EURO = eurostar 373/1 (816 t)
TALG = Spanish TALGO AV 2 (680 t)
AVE = Spanish TALGO 350 (842.9 t)
ETRY = Italian ETR-Y 500 (629.6 t)
P2 = Total load (kN)
P3 = Total length (m)
P4 = equivalent block load (kN/m)
Load values P2 to P3 are informative values only. These load trains will be ap-
plied as constant block load in general, but if you specify P4 = 0.0, all individual
axles (up to 96!) will be generated. The speed of the trains will default to the
values specified in the EC.
Load trains HSLM of EN1991-2 (Annex E)

Specification: P1 = characterist. Length L-lamda of HSLM-B
or Class of load train (A1 to A10)
Defaults: P2 = Axle loading (kN)

P3 = Number of inner coaches (HSLM-A)
Number of loads (HSLM-B)
P4 = Coach length (D) [ m] for HSLM-A
Distance of loads for HSLM-B [ m]
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-43

Load train RL = Railway Loading BS 5400
Figure 5.32: Load train RL = Railway Loading BS 5400
Defaults: P1 = 200 kN
P2 = 50 kN/m
P3 = 25 kN/m

P7 = 3.7 m
Brake loading: P8 = 8.0 kN/m (constant load)
5-44 SOFiSTiK 2016

Load train ASRT = Railway Loading 300LA according AS 5100
Figure 5.33: Load train ASRT = Railway Loading 300LA according AS 5100
The load train 300LA of the AS 5100 consists of a locomotive and as many
vehicles as necessary, each of them with a variant length between 12 and 20 m.
Unfortunately even with influence line it is hardly possible to deal with an infinite
number of variables, thus the load train has always a finite number of vehicles.
Defaults: P1 = 300 kN (Axle load)

P2 = 360 kN (leading axle load)
P3 = number of vehicles (12)
P4 = fixed length of vehicles (-)
Brake loading: P8 = 100.0 + 15*(L-50) kN (continuous track)
For more than tow tracks, the loading in the third track is applied with a factor of
0.85, the fourth track with 0.70 and all other with 0.60.
For this load train different coefficients for dynamic allowances are specified, de-
pending on the type of the rail fixing. (Ballast or direct fixing). These information
is taken from the LANE definition.
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-45

5.5.14 Military NATO Load Trains (Stanag 2021)
Figure 5.34: Military NATO Load Trains (Stanag 2021)
MLC Load trains of the STANAG are given in the sixth edition in appendix A.
There are the classes P1 = 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 30 up to 150. For every class
we have available:
P2 = 1 Values from column 4 (Single Axles)

P2 = 2 Values from column 2 (tracked vehicles)
P2 = 3 Values from column 3 (Wheeled vehicles)
5-46 SOFiSTiK 2016

5.6 TRPL Point Load of load train
See also: TRAI, TRBL, LANE, TREX

TRPL

P Loadvalue of vertical load [kN] 1190 0.0
PB Loadvalue for braking [kN] 1190 0.0
PW Loadvalue transverse (bumping, wind) [kN] 1190 0.0
PF Value of vertical load for centrifugal load [kN] 1190 P
PFAC Factor for favourable components 0.0
DIST Minimum (MIN) / absolut (ABS) distance LT ABS
A Distance to last load of train [m] 1001 0.0
DPOS Minimum distance to load refer. point [m] 1001 0.0
DMIN Influence area before [m] 1001 0.0
DMAX Influence area behind [m] 1001 0.0
Y Excentricity to lane axis ( > 0 = to the right) [m] 1001 0.0
Y2 2nd value of excentricity to lane axis [m] 1001 Y
HW Total height of wind attack area [m] 1001 0.0
ZW Height of horizontal force [m] 1001 HW/2
HF Height of resulting mass forces [m] 1001 0.0
PHI Special options (see remarks) 1
B Distance of wheels across the lane [m] 1001 0.0
BW Width of Wheel contact area [m] 1001 0.0
LW Length of wheeel contact area [m] 1001 0.0
SNO Section number for Animation -

FRB Frequency for body Spring Cb 1/ sec *
DAB Modal Damping of body support *
BOGI Load value of bogie / kN *
FRBO Frequency for bogie Spring Cbo 1/ sec *
DABO Modal Damping of bogie support *
WHEE Load value of wheel / kN *
FRWH Frequency for wheel spring Cwh 1/ sec *
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-47


DAWH Modal Damping of wheel support *
CONT Contact node -
A freely defined loading by the user comprises an arbitrary number of loads

defined relative to each other. The first load determines the load reference point
(x=0.0). Each further loading is defined with a distance to the previous one.The
distance of the point load to the last load point may be either constant or variable
with a minimum value. In the latter case and additional minimum distance to the
load reference point may be defined with DPOS. For the evaluation in ELLA two
additional values DMIN and DMAX may be specified for special cases describing
an influence region before and behind the load.
x > DPOS(4)
A1
A2 A3 A4 A5
Figure 5.35: Freely defined load train
The loading has a vertical component P, a longitudinal component PB and two

components in transverse direction. The load may be defined either as single
point load, as a pair of wheels (Definition of B < WIDT) or as distributed load
(Definition of BW only or B equal to WIDT)
Positive loadings of PB are braking loads acting in traveling direction, negative

values are intended as accelerating loads in the reverse direction. Loads are
applied at the height of the lane.
The centrifugal loading acts in the height hs, the constant horizontal force in the
height zw, thus creating torsional moments. If the load has a width B, this mo-
ment will be applied as a pair of forces on the lane surface, a torsional moment
along the lane axis will be generated otherwise.
5-48 SOFiSTiK 2016

PW hw
PFSv2/gR
hs
Figure 5.36: Single load and its components
With the item PHI several options are controlled:
1 Apply impact factor

2 Multiply vertical load value with UDL-value of design code (eg.BS)
4 Multiply longitudinal load value with value of design code (eg. EN),
8 split load in transverse direction if unfavourable,
16 the load is an area load, the total load value will be adopted to the
lane width
32 load is always centric, YEX is not applied
For an analysis with multi-body-dynamics it is possible to generate masses,

beams, springs and dampers via the record TREX. The mass of bogie and
wheel may be specified either as a positive absolute load value or as a neg-
ative fraction of the total mass. The default values are specified with the record
TRAI. For more information see record TREX.
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-49

5.7 TRBL Block Load of Load Train
See also: TRAI, TRPL, LANE, TREX

TRBL

P Loadvalue of vertical load [kN/ m] 1191 0.0
PB Loadvalue for braking [kN/ m] 1191 0.0
PW Loadvalue in transverse direction [kN/ m] 1191 0.0
PF Value of vertical load for centrifugal load [kN/ m] 1191 P
PFAC Factor for favourable components 0.0
DIST Minimum (MIN) / absolut (ABS) distance LT ABS
A Distance to last load of train [m] 1001 0.0
L fixed or minimum length of load [m] 1001 0.0
(positive or negative, 0 = unlimited) -
LMAX maximum length of load [m] 1001
LDEL discrete variable length: L + n LDEL [m] 1001 0.0
Y Excentricity to lane axis ( > 0 = to the right) [m] 1001 0.0
Y2 2nd value of excentricity to lane axis [m] 1001 Y
HW Total height of wind attack area [m] 1001 0.0
ZW Height of resulting force PW [m] 1001 HW/2
HF Height of resulting mass forces [m] 1001 0.0
PHI Special options (see remarks) 1
B Distance of wheels across the lane [m] 1001 0.0
BW Width of Wheel contact area [m] 1001 0.0
LW Length of wheeel contact area [m] 1001 0.0
SNO Section number for Animation -

FRB Frequency for body Spring Cb 1/ sec *
DAB Modal Damping of body support *
BOGI Load value of bogie / kN *
FRBO Frequency for bogie Spring Cbo 1/ sec *
DABO Modal Damping of bogie support *
WHEE Load value of wheel / kN *
5-50 SOFiSTiK 2016


FRWH Frequency for wheel spring Cwh 1/ sec *
DAWH Modal Damping of wheel support *
A freely defined loading by the user comprises an arbitrary number of loads

defined relative to each other. The general parameters and remarks are given
at record TRPL .
Figure 5.37: Block loading
All load values will be treated as line loads in general. If the width of the load is
equal to the width of the train or option 16has been set, the load values will be
converted to a distributed load and applied on the current lane width. 12kN/m
distributed on 3m yield 4kN/m2, for a total lane width of 5m the resulting load
equals to 20kN/m. For standard load trains, the definition is taken from the code.
If the width B is smaller than the width, two line loads with the distance B will be
created. If only BW is defined, an area load is selected with a width BW less
than the width of the lane.
If only HW is specified a value for PW will be evaluated from the wind load given
with the load train wind definition.
Input values for multi-body-dynamics of line loads TRBL for record TREX will not
be used currently.
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-51

5.8 TREX Load Train Visualisation
See also: TRAI, TRPL, LANE

TREX

NO Load case number of a load train !
GRP group number 900
SNO Section number 900
NODE Smallest node number *
OPT Bitpattern for options 3
1 Real Run / Stargate Run
2 Beam elements with hinges
4 Generate Bogies and wheels
8 without artificial rigidities
A load train may be used within DYNA as movable load (CONT). For the visu-
alisation with the Animator or for a multibody dynamic analysis it is possible to
create beam elements from any load train belonging to a selected special group
with separate nodes. All nodes may be along the global x-axis with the real dis-
tances of the loads or collapsed to the origin (0,0,0). In the latter case the load
elements will appear and disappear near the structure just before usage.
The properties of the bogie and the wheel are specified with a general model
for each axis based on the mass, the frequency and the modal damping as
specified with the TRAI record.
Body

Cb Db
Pbo Bogie
Cbo Dbo
Pwh Wheel
Cwh Dwh
Figure 5.38: Bogie and Wheel system of a coach
5-52 SOFiSTiK 2016

Mb = (P Ph Pbo )/ g; Cb = (2b )2 Mb ; Db = 4b b Mb (5.24a)

Mbo = (P Ph )/ g; Cbo = (2bo ) Mbo ;
2
Dbo = 4bo bo Mbo
(5.24b)
Mh = P/ g; Ch = (2h ) Mh ; Dh = 4h h Mh
2
(5.24c)
For the analysis only as loading a selection of those groups with a FAKS of 0.0
is recommended, to activate the group but without static properties. The section
may be defined as a contour of the train. For free defined load trains, any single
load may have its own section.
All TREX-definitions are treated together at the very end of the program run, old
definitions of those elements will be removed for the same specified load case.
For more complex cases the load train may be modelled with finite elements in
the classical way (beams, springs, dampers, masses). Then TREX needs not
to be used, but the train and all its loads should be specified with a user defined
TRAI and each single TRPL should have its contact node properly assigned.
SOFiSTiK 2016 5-53

5-54 SOFiSTiK 2016

Wind Loading | SOFiLOAD
6 Wind Loading
6.1 General
Wind is a randomly non deterministic dynamic loading. The flow of the air in-
duces a velocity pressure on the structure. Dynamic effects of natural wind are
mainly introduced by a variance of wind speed and thus wind pressure within
time and space.
The complex action of wind is a combination of mutually influencing effects like:
Wind climate (the global wind)

Topology and roughness of terrain (the local wind)
Aerodynamics, aeroeleasticity (drag coefficients and wind force derivativa)
Structural dynamics (response of the structure)
Design of the structure
The program SOFiLOAD allows to take into account and to simulate most of the
above effects. To use these features two extra licences are needed: SOFILOAD-
W for the static wind loading and SOFILOAD-WH for the dynamic wind loading
(especially WGEN) and NONL-DYN for the interaction analysis in DYNA.
As basic safety concept for the wind loaded structure it will be specified in the
design codes or especially for large projects in the submission that within a
given time (e.g. 50 or 100 years) the failure of the structure will be avoided
with a given safety factor. The analysis itself will be based on shorter interval
- in Europe: 10 minutes - which includes the maximum wind speed of the 50-
year-wind but is long enough to allow a considerable dynamic response for all
resonance frequencies. The wind speed within that interval may be described
as the sum of
a timely constant, but spatial variant basic mean wind speed (10-minute-
wind) and
a superimposed timely and spatial variant part of turbulence.
The treatment of dynamic wind effects is governed by the fact that turbulences
may be only described by statistical means: The real time-spatial wind speed is
within the statistical limits purely random. The usual analysis methods use prob-
abilistic analysis with power spectras (RUSCHEWEYH [38], DYRBYE AND H ANSEN
[10], R OSEMEIER [37], DAVENPORT [8]). As these methods do not use the time
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-1

SOFiLOAD | Wind Loading
but the energy content of the wind speeds, they yield clear and reliable basics for
the analysis. Several steps then provide the power spectra of the deformations
and forces within the structure. The probabilistic peak value will be the result
of an extremal analysis of the spectras. At the time being, most of wind loaded
structures will be analyzed via this approach. And all modern design codes for
wind use these methods to obtain wind pressures.
National and international Design codes nowadays however use strongly simpli-
fied methods (ECCS [11, 12]) [ 11, 12, 13] . The total map will be subdivided
with 3 or 4 wind zones with step-wise wind speeds. To facilitate the usage, sev-
eral wind parameters will be set up on the safe (unfavourable) side naturally. The
complex structure is reduced to a simple single one degree of freedom oscillator.
Even then working with wind loads is still difficult. Compared to the efforts, the
results will be unsatisfactory in numerous cases: The total dynamic effects will
be accounted for with a constant gust factor for the total structure which might be
rather faulty for individual elements. Structures with several sensible frequencies
(skeletons, towers with antennas, pedestrian and other types of bridges) are not
applicable for this simplified approach. The same holds for structures with tuned
damping elements and many more cases.
The complete spectral design - the so called stochastic analysis - is rather com-
plex and costly, it is thus applied only for very sensitive structures (cable stayed
bridges with large spans). On the other side the stochastic analysis is still un-
derestimating the ultimate load, because the spectral methods are purely linear
for the structure and especially for the wind loads and do not account for any
nonlinear effects. The linear relation between the angle of attack and the wind
force coefficients are seldom admissible. The stochastic analysis is further un-
precise for systems with close eigenfrequencies (e.g. tuned damper systems).
Further more it has only limited possibilities to account for interactivity (dynamic
response of the structure and its effect on the wind pressures or forces).
SOFiLOAD has been created to cope with more detailed and thus more eco-
nomic wind loading for the design of structures, overcoming the above limita-
tions. Two of the benefits of the new method to be stated are:
SOFiLOAD generates more precise wind profiles accounting for the environ-
ment of the structure - roughness, elevations - similar as but more precise
than it is foreseen partially in the most recent design codes like EC1.
DYNA evaluates more precise forces and moments via transient analysis,
accounting on one side for nonlinear effects like changes of the wind forces
when the cross section rotates and on the other side for interactive behaviour
like aerodynamic damping, potential flutter, galloping and torsional galloping
or discrete damping elements. The current version still uses stationary as-
6-2 SOFiSTiK 2016

sumptions for the interactivity, enhancements are under construction how-

ever.
The second method is based on a mathematical turbulence generation which

creates a series of random transient wind histories. The structure will be im-
posed via program DYNA to that wind history and the development of deforma-
tions and forces will be recorded and superimposed by statistical means to get
the extreme values along the time interval. The total methodology has been de-
veloped in the years 1992 to 1994 (KOVCS ET AL . [29], KOVCS AND A NDR
[28], KOVCS [27]) and has been applied since then to many large buildings,
bridges and towers.
6.2 Wind Profiles

The wind in great heights is coherent and will be dominated only by global me-
teorological conditions. Near the surface the roughness of the terrain will induce
an atmospheric boundary layer, where the wind speed is zero at the ground and
will approach the limit asymptotically. In SOFiLOAD this limit value is called "at-
mospheric wind" which is not in correspondence with the general literature. By
the effect of the Coriollos forces we have a rotation of the wind direction by 10
to 45 degrees over the height, which will be neglected here.
The SOFiLOAD-user may create the wind profile - as the first method - by defin-
ing the appropriate atmospheric wind speed. To facilitate this we have provided
a a global wind map for the 10 min wind with a return period of 50 years. This
wind map has been established by us using older wind maps and meteorological
measurements. It allows a smooth interpolation of the atmospheric wind and is
therefore more elaborate than the rough subdivision in 3 or 4 wind zones of the
design codes.
The transformation of the atmospheric wind speed defined for a 50 year return
period to another time value - as it might needed for large bridges - has to be
performed by the user if needed. A rather good estimate is given by:
1 + 0.12 ln N
VN V50 (6.1)
1.47
The distribution of the wind speed over the height is depending on the terrain
roughness and topology. Within SOFiLOAD it is possible to define a distribution
of roughness (WROU), along the wind luv direction up to 200 km and geometric
simplified elements like a hill, edge or ridge. For the latter there are estimates
given in the literature, especially in Eurocode 1 part 4, and in the newest EDIN
1055-4, having been implemented in SOFILOAD.
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-3

The wind definition may be taken as a second choice based on a specific design
code. For special applications like large and sensitive structures, bridges and
towers it is also possible to define explicit wind profiles.
SOFiLOAD establishes from the wind definitions all other characteristic wind
data which are relevant for the description of the natural wind or the generation
of the artificial wind histories later on. The result of the wind profile thus has the
following elements
the profile of the mean wind velocities (Vmean, 10-Minutes-Wind), generally

called the wind profile;
the profile of the 5 s - gust wind velocities;
the profile of the longitudinal, lateral and vertical turbulence components,
defined by
k = k Vmen , (6.2)
with k = Turbulence intensity; k = , , .

the profile of the longitudinal, lateral and vertical integral measures of turbu-
lence also called the effective wave length. L is a scale measure for the tur-
bulence spectra, it yields from the physical meaning the effective frequency
of the turbulence:
k,e = Vmen / Lk , (6.3)
with k = u, v, w
Input and results are also displayed graphically. For any wind definition via
SOFiLOAD three pictures will be created:
Picture 1: Site overview and topology A plan view of the site with wind direc-
tion, coordinate axis, roughness and topologic formations etc.;
Picture 2: Wind speed in the boundary layer A side view of the site with
roughness profile along the luv wind direction and the complete V mean -
profile up to the atmospheric wind;
Picture 3: Distribution of speed, turbulences and effective wave lengths A
detailed side view of the structure with all characteristic values along the
structures height;
6.3 Windforce Coefficients

These are the static wind force values for a given shape of a body also called
aerodynamic coefficient (to be distinguished from the aeroelastic derivativa)
6-4 SOFiSTiK 2016

yielding the forces for a uniform velocity field or the steady state equivalent value
of the relative velocity of a structural component to the wind field. The definition
for a plane section is as follows:
F=CqA (6.4)
with:
F Wind force (Drag, uplift, Windmoment)

q velocity pressure
C = CD , CA , CM : Wind force coefficient
A Wind attack area or width for linear elements
For extended analysis it is also possible to define the Derivativa according to

Scanlan. These define frequency dependant forces on the structure induced
from the movements of the structure in the air.
1 0 B 0

L
Fm = 2
+ KH2
U B KH1 + K H3 + K H4 2 2
(6.5)
2 U U B
0 0
1 B

M
Fm = U B KA1 + KA2
2 2
+ K A3 + K A4
2 2
(6.6)
2 U U B
The elements to be loaded with wind are selected via the GRP record. A purely
steady loading without any dynamic effects may be also created via SOFiLOAD.
Figure 6.1: Wind force coefficients
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-5

The wind force coefficients for the element types beam, cable and truss may
be defined within AQUA for any section depending on the angle of attack. This
definition is strongly recommended for all dynamically sensitive structures or el-
ements sensitive for galloping or flutter. To obtain those values it is common
practise to perfom wind tunnel tests or use a CFD (Computational Fluid Dynam-
ics) analysis.
For standard steel shapes or buildings there are values given in the literature or
the design codes. AQUA generates for steel shapes simple functions depending
on the angle of attack but without any information about galloping. SOFiLOAD
has all values for rectangular and circular sections available. Without any spec-
ification only the component in wind direction is considered with a coefficient of
2.0.
SOFiLOAD has also the possibility via records BEAM, TRUS and CABL to define
additional factors to the defined force coefficients selectively for for those type
of elements individually. Further there is the record GRP with additional factors
available to define shadowing, influence ordinates etc.
For areas it is possible to define in SOFiLOAD via AREA or QUAD explicit wind
pressure or uplift values perpendicular to the area. For cylindrical shapes ac-
cording to many codes and for planar standard roofs and walls according to DIN
1055 Teil 4 values may be selected. If no such values are defined, all coefficients
are taken to be 1.0.
If the pressures are defined in several data points from a wind tunnel test, the
record WIPT allows a comfortable method with an external FE-mesh of the data
points to generate the required loading data. Especially in case of transient
loadings, this method is strongly recommended.
6.4 Turbulences and Aerodynamics

The natural wind is the sum of the mean wind velocity and the variances due
to turbulences which might be decomposed in three directions within the wind
coordinate system:
longitudinal (= parallel to the mean wind velocity)

lateral (horizontal inclined to the wind direction) and
vertical
The turbulences are then the sum of an infinite large number of small harmonic
velocity frequencies. Their distribution along the axis of frequencies is charac-
terised by a power spectra.
6-6 SOFiSTiK 2016

The power spectras are the deterministic part of the wind load, the real kernel as
the Fourier-Integral of the turbulence time history. The power spectra of the nat-
ural wind may be described by simple formulas according to the general pattern
of the Karman spectra definition. If one chooses then a random phase distri-
bution for all the frequencies, it is possible to reconstruct the Fourier-Integral of
a clearly defined random time history and thus the time history itself. This is
exactly what SOFiLOAD does when generating a wind history.
The ratio between the turbulence in different locations in space are character-
ized by special similarity or coherence functions. These functions define in a
coarse sense the relation between gust wind velocity, the duration of the gust
and the size of the gust. It is clear that the spatial distribution of the gust has
a large influence on the forces within the structure. SOFiLOAD works with nat-
ural sizes of the gust which are otherwise overestimated in most design codes
considerably. (Davenports model with constant size of the gust in all heights).
The coherence algorithm of the wind history generation has to reflect that the
similarity between two natural wind histories in two points must become smaller
with larger distances. This decay of correlation is described in the literature in
different ways depending on the author of the publication, but may be general-
ized by the use of the half value distance (KOVCS ET AL . [29]), where the square
root of the coherence of the stochastic process has reduced from the full value
of 1.0 ( full coherence with distance zero) to a value of 0.5. Each turbulence
along any of the axis has the same function of similarity. Thus the coherence of
the natural wind is described by a 3 by 3 matrix of the half value distances. For
more details see notes for the record WSPE.
6.5 Response Dynamics

SOFiLOAD generates from the wind profile, the turbulence spectras, the coher-
ences and some random numbers artificial random wind histories, based on the
theoretical considerations in KOVCS ET AL . [29] , to be used then within the
program DYNA with a transient dynamic analysis of the structure. By applying a
sufficiently large number of such histories it is possible to establish a statistically
based proof of the ultimate state limit or a serviceability state limit including any
material or geometric nonlinear effects available.
Such a design based on transient analysis facilitates the design process of a

structural system against wind loading to a great extent. Instead of a simple
dynamic gust factor we have dynamic forces and stresses available for all points
of the structure which might be introduced into the design process directly. By
repeating the process for a reworked structure it is possible to optimize it for the
wind loading criterias.
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-7

The first step of a wind analysis is always a static wind load (basic load case),
introducing all values needed for the wind history generation. Based on this
data the random time histories will be generated in a second step within time
and space.
The transient analysis in DYNA is nonlinear by using the nonlinear wind force
coefficients defined within AQUA. The analysis is interactive as it is considered
that the structure will move within the wind field and will thus modify the relative
wind speed in all cases by a vectoral superposition of the structural and the wind
velocity. Only by this feature important aerodynamic effects may be simulated
like aerodynamic damping or the bending galloping excitation.
The aerodynamic damping is introduced into the simulation with the den-Hartog
formulas, i.e. as a stationary approach automatically. (It should be noted here,
that despite the important effect it is hardly accounted for in German design
codes) Also the bending galloping excitation is automatically introduced in the
analysis if the wind force coefficients have been properly defined in AQUA.
The more enhanced possibilities to check for torsional galloping and general
flutter are only available with the inclusion of the Scanlan derivativa.
Last not least it should be pointed out, that the treatment of critical wind effects
is also a complicate matter of safety definitions (see e.g. KOVCS AND A NDR
[28]). This manual will not state any rules for that, the user will need to find its
6-8 SOFiSTiK 2016

own demands for that purpose.
6.6 Atmospheric Wind Map
Figure 6.2: 50-Year-Wind / 10-Minute-Mean value of the atmospheric wind velocity

in infinite height
The theoretical background of this map is the 2D wind profile from ESDU
[14, 15]. The term atmospheroc wind is the asymptotic value for the wind profile
allowing to extrapolate from the wind in low heights the velocity in the atmo-
sphere. The same term will be addressed in ESDU [14, 15] as gradient wind,
UG . However for UG there are more contradictory definitions in the literature (e.g.
as the wind speed in a height of 300 - 500 m for a roughness of the surface of
0.05). The new name should allow to distinguish this meaning from the other
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-9

definitions.
The sources (see Bibliography; meteorological measurements, maps within the

design codes) normally refer to a height of 10 m above ground and other ref-
erence parameters. The atmospheric map has been extrapolated from these
data.
There are differences between the data. We had to judge on the reliability of the
data and will give more details about our selection:
Germany
In the region of north and Baltic sea, there are sufficient meteorological mea-
surements in S CHMIDT [39]. The statistical evaluation by the "Deutsche Wetter-
dienst" have been slightly modified (reduced Weibull coefficients)
In the region of the north sea there has been a good match between measure-
ments in S CHMIDT [39] and specifications in ECCS [11] , ECCS [12] and the
regional values in [ 13] . The regional values of Eurocode [ 12] /A however
appeared much to high and have been ignored (numbers from [ 12] /A are from
the very first version of [ 13] .
Control calculations for the German costal regions have shown that the rough-
ness for the offshore region with strong winds may be chosen to 0.005 m.
SOFiLOAD will use this value in all cases. design codes however quite often
use 0.01. So it might happen, that the program will evaluate 6 to 8 % higher
wind speeds for locations at the coast. This is also valid for all other coastal
regions. To get closer to the design codes it is recommended to add a region
with the roughness of 0.01 before the building.
For central Germany the ECCS iso lines ECCS [11], ECCS [12] are rather
on the conservative side. This is not only compared with french design codes
(a high jump at the boarder) [ 12] /A) but also compared to C ASPAR [3]. At
Rhine and in the Pfalz the isolines have been adopted to the regional values of
France. For eastern parts of central Germany mainly the evaluations of C ASPAR
[3] have been taken into account. The values from Caspar however have a rather
high variation of the yearly maximum, as the author has accounted for some
confidential corrections due to insufficient measurement data. The isolines are
based on a mean variation value of 12 % (Davenport suggests in general 10
%).
In Central Europe thus we have slower wind speeds than those of the design
codes. On the other side some values of the Caspar papers show that it is much
more important to account for the local topology.
6-10 SOFiSTiK 2016

South of the line Freiburg - Nuremberg the maps of ECCS [11], ECCS [12] have
been used. the values are rather close to the DIN assumptions.
France
Base was the regional map in [ 12] /A. Between the regions we have interpo-
lated. Compared to [ 12] /A the maps in ECCS [11], ECCS [12] show unrealistic
high wind speeds. (20 % deviations). [ 12] /A shows, that the wind speed at the
Biscaya is considerably lower than that of the North Sea.
Great Britain, Ireland

Derived form the map ESDU [14]. There is a good match with [ 12] /A. The
regional map of Great Britain assumes a typical roughness of 0.03 (instead of
0.05). For sites in Great Britain the roughness should be specified explicitly with
a default value of 0.03.
The wind speeds according to ECCS [11], ECCS [12] are up to 25 % higher
than those of ESDU [14]; the difference is assumed to be caused by a inconse-
quent usage of reference roughness in ECCS [11], ECCS [12].
Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland

The basics of the map are derived from [ 11] /A; some individual reports for
tenders have been incorporated (Great Belt, resund, Gteborg, Helgeland,
Hga-Kusten).
Italy, Greece
According to [ 11] . As these are regional maps, the wind speeds will be on the
conservative side, especially for the isles of the Aegis.
Spain, Portugal
Mainly according to ECCS [11], ECCS [12]; for Portugal additional data from [
12] /A) has been taken into account.
Eastern Europe
According to ECCS [12] with a transition to the Scandinavian codes in the Baltic
region.
Higher Altitudes
For the influence of the altitude ECCS [12] has a factor cALT , defined in the
national contributions to ECCS [12]/A. In general cALT will become greater 1.0 in
altitudes from 500 - 800 m. For example in Germany we have (for altitudes 800
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-11

- 1100 m):
cALT = 1.0 1.14 (6.7)
An exception is in Great Britain where we have:
cALT = 1 + 0.001 hg [m] (6.8)
This last increase has not been taken into account in the map. Thus it is recom-
mended to account for this effect in Great Britain via the topology.
6-12 SOFiSTiK 2016

6.7 WIND Windparameters
See also: WPRO, WROU, WTOP, WSPE, WGEN, WTST

WIND

CODE Wind according to LT ATMO
ATMO Atmospheric wind
EN Eurocode 1991-1-4
ISO ISO 4354 (2009)
1055 DIN 1055-4 (2006)
VGB VGB-BTR (1997/2005)
SNIP SNIP 2.01.07-85
ZONE Windzone / Windspeed *
CLAS Category of terrain *
I to IV depending on Design code
A to C depending on Design code
K mixed profile for coast (DIN)
B mixed profile for inland (DIN)
GH Groundlevel in system coordinates [m] 1006 0

RHO density of the air kg/ m3 1.25
LAT geografical lattitude (for ATMO) [] -
VR0 optional explicit reference wind speed [m/ sec] *
VG0 optional explicit gust wind speed [m/ sec] *

QP0 optional explicit reference pressure kN/ m2 *
HMIN Height with constant wind speed [m] 1006 *
DX Direction of the wind 0.0

DY (define one component at least!) 0.0
DZ 0.0
XREF Point in reference plane for dynamic [m] 1001 0.0

YREF wind generation [m] 1001 0.0
ZREF [m] 1001 0.0
DXR Direction of the reference plane *
DYR (default: perpendicular to wind direction) *
DZR *
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-13

A wind profile will be generated defining the wind speed along the height. The
type of the profile is selected via the item NORM. For the distribution of the wind
you may choose between:
the literal ATMO (the default), creating a profile based on the atmospheric
wind speed, which may be defined at item ZONE. The 50-year reference
value for ATMO may be taken from the wind map in paragraph 6.6 (Default:
60 m/sec for ZONE). The program generates a theoretical logarithmic profile
taking into account the roughness of the terrain based on the flow models
described in [ 8.1, 8.2] .
one of the listed classical design codes. The program then generates wind
profiles conforming to those design codes. Although the codes contain only a
static wind profile, it is possible for those standard wind profiles to perform a
transient dynamic analysis. The program will select the missing parameters
(gust speed, turbulence, coherences) automatically with a reasonable value.
an explicit profile along the height. The detailed definition is done via the
record WPRO. NORM does not need to be specified in that case, data en-
tered anyhow will be ignored respectively.
The classical design codes have in general 3 to 4 wind zones (ZONE) to be taken
from national wind maps or given in the appendices of the Eurocode. Some de-
sign codes allow also a more detailed specification via terrain categories CLAS
and with topological formations (WTOP). The following table shows an overview
of the possible classes. Any mismatch of classes or allowed numbers of the
topological elements will terminate the wind profile generation. It has to be
noted, that the Eurocode 1991 foresees the definition of the wind profiles within
the national annexes. Thus in Germany even an analysis according to Eurocode
has to select 1055, as this scheme has replaced the Eurocode formulation within
the NA.
Design code EN ISO DIN VGB SIA SNIP

1991 4354 1055
Wind zones 1-9(2) VG0 1-4 1-4 1-4 Ia-VII
(default)) country (2) (2) (2) II
Roughness classes I-IV 1-4 I-IV I, II II, IIa A-C
terrain category K, B 1997 III, IV (B)
No of edges/ridges 1 1 1 0 0 0
It should be pointed out, that SOFiLOAD can use only physically reasonable
wind profiles, roughness and simplified topological models from the design
6-14 SOFiSTiK 2016

codes.
The Indian design code IS 875 provides a map with basic wind velocities. be-
tween 33 and 55 m/sec. The mean velocity and the gust wind speeds are ob-
tained from that value by three factors k1, k2 and k3. While the coefficient k2
is evaluated by SOFiLOAD, the other two have to be combined to a value VG0
= Vbk1k3 at this record. The specification of the wind zone I to VI itself is of
less importance. However for the categroy the structure class A (d < 20m), B
(20 < d < 50) or C (d > 50m) has to be combined with the terrain category 1 to 4
to a single input data 1A to 4C. The density of the fluid defaults with that design
code to 1.20 kg/m3 .
Some historic design codes are also still available. (Wind zones definable with
0 to IV, default is II):
1056 DIN 1056 App. A

4131 DIN 4131 A (Antennas)
4133 DIN 4133 A (chimneys)
4228 DIN 4228
The coordinate values DX, DY, DZ will define the direction of the mean wind in
the coordinate system of the building. The reference point REF and the direc-
tion DR are only of relevance for a dynamic wind history. The define a so called
vertical reference plane which should fulfill the coherence properties to the best
degree according to the wishes of the user. More details to this question are
given at record WSPE. For the definition of the above points, all three coordi-
nates are available as the orientation of the coordinate system of the structure
may have any orientation.
GH specifies the height of the terrain in structural coordinates. This is the origin
of the so called wind coordinate system to be used for all input and output. The
coordinates of the heights within the picture 3 created by SOFiLOAD are thus
measured not within the structural system but the wind coordinate system.
The density of the air defines the conversion between velocities and pressures.
It is depending on the temperature, the moisture and the air pressure respective
elevation. It is assumed to be constant for the total structure.
The geografical lattitude LAT defines via the Coriolis force (Ekmann-Spiral) the
height of the atmosperic boundary layer and the distribution of the mean wind
speed along the height. The default yields f=0.0001.
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-15

HMIN defines the height above ground which contains the constant part of the
wind profile. Below HMIN the profile is extended as constant and no special
turbulence properties will be developed. If the design code does not specify
such a value, 10.0 m will be the default.
6-16 SOFiSTiK 2016

6.8 WPRO Wind profils
See also: WIND, WPRO, WROU, WTOP, WSPE, WGEN

WPRO

H Height above ground [m] 1006 !
V Mean value of wind speed (10-min-wind) [m/ sec] *
VBOE Gust wind peak value (5-sec-wind) [m/ sec] *
TLON longitudinal turbulence [m/ sec] *
TLAT lateral turbulence [m/ sec] *
TVER vertical turbulence [m/ sec] *
LLON effective longitudinal wave length L [m] *
LLAT effective lateral wave length L [m] *
LVER effective vertical wave length L [m] *
Enables the definition of individual wind profiles by up to 9 WPRO records. The

value of the height H must be specified for all WPRO-record and the list must be
sorted by increasing H values.
Any single WPRO-definition will invalidate all recent NORM or ATMO definitions.
Only the explicit WPRO definitions will be used from then.
The input of the values does not need to be complete or consist of uniform types
of values. A simple value of H, V or VBOE will be sufficient. Gaps will be filled
by SOFiLOAD on its own as reasonable as possible. Physically contradictions
will be corrected as far as possible. Thus the following input definitions are
possible:
LC 100
WIND DY 1
WPRO 50 V 52.5
defines a logarithmic profile with a prescribed wind velocity at a height of 50 m

for a terrain roughness of 0.050 m (farmland); or
LC 8200
WIND DY 1
WPRO 15 V 30
WPRO 30 VBOE 58
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-17

WPRO 45 TLON 5.55 $$

TVER 2.22 LLON 250
enforces a not really sound or even matching set of all characteristic parame-
ters.
In such a case with not really clear definitions, which might be a real case if only
sparse data is available for the site of the structure, it is strongly recommended to
check the diagrams created by SOFiLOAD (especially picture No 3.) and modify
the input in such a way until a reasonable smooth wind profile is obtained.
The lateral and vertical turbulences as well as the corresponding wave length
will be needed only in case of a dynamic wind generation. Their input is of no
importance therefore for purely static wind design.
6-18 SOFiSTiK 2016

6.9 WROU Roughness for wind
See also: WIND, WPRO, WTOP, WSPE, WGEN

WROU

SEA Distance to the Sea [km] -200
(only distances nearer than -200 km
will have an effect)
A1 Distance of 1st section to structure [km] !
R1 Roughness of section [m] 0.05
A2 Distance of 2nd section to structure [km] -
A3 Distance of 3rd section to structure [km] -
A4 Distance of 4th section to structure [km] -
The wind profile is influenced by the distribution of the roughness of the terrain
on the luv side of the structure, called the roughness profile. A change of the
roughness in a distinct distance from the site will create a bench in the wind
velocity profile in a certain height and a jump in the profile of the gust wind
velocity, visible in the pictures created by SOFiLOAD (pict. 2):
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-19

Figure 6.3: Roughness profile (WIND ATMO 75 DX 1 ; WROU A1 -25 0.01 -3

0.30)
The roughness profile may be specified with the record WROU against the luv
side of the structure up to a distance of -200 km. However a maximum of 9
sections with different roughness are allowed. The input for every section i has a
(negative) distance of the start of the section to the structure and the roughness
Ri = within that section. To specify the correct mean value for the effective
roughness an influence width should be taken into account within an aperture
angle of 60 respective to the structure.
The roughness value itself is equivalent to the roughness measure in the litera-
ture defining an integration constant for the differential equation of the fluid flow,
usually called z0 [ m] , but with no direct physical meaning. Values taken from
the literature for various terrain conditions are:
Type of terrain z0[m]

broad free water surfaces 0.005
shallow sand areas 0.020
Meadows with hedges and single houses 0.050
(is the effective roughness in Germany) (default)
Suburbans and forrests 0.300
Towns with buildings higher than 15 m 1.000
6-20 SOFiSTiK 2016

Roughness values larger than 1.0 m can not be treated by SOFiLOAD. The
default is a homogeneous roughness of z0 = 0.050 m.
The treatment of costal regions via SEA has the following background: the at-
mospheric wind is influenced only by the global roughness which is uniform for
sea and landside. At a coast like the northern sea there is a rather smooth tran-
sition. The wind from the seas side, which is the only important case will create
two boundary layers. The lower one is influenced by the land, while the upper is
governed by the sea. The limit between those layers is increasing in the height
when going to the interior of the landside. The limit will me manifested by a bend
in the wind profile. This point may be within the height of a structure. This spe-
cial case will be modelled by defining the SEA and prevent the over estimation
of the wind speed.
The definition of SEA will create a steadily increasing roughness profile derived
from measurements and statistical analysis of the German Weather Service
(DWD) in the North Sea region. Thus SEA is only usable to model the Ger-
man North or Baltic Sea or a similar flat coast region. For a steep or rocky coast
SEA should not be specified.
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-21

6.10 WTOP Topology for Wind
See also: WIND, WPRO, WROU, WSPE, WGEN

WTOP

TYPE Type of topological element LT !
HILL a hill
EDGE an edge
RIDG a ridge
XM Position of epi-centrum (Summit or low [m] 0.0
YM point in global coordinates) [m] 0.0
ZM [m] 0.0
DX Direction of main extension = 0.0
DY local x-axis of a hill or edge or ridge 0.0
DZ 0.0
H Height of summit above ground [m] !
B Width (lokal y-direction) [m] 1000
L Length (lokal x-direction) [m] -
For wind profiles created from the atmospheric wind or from individual wind pro-
files, there are possibilities for geometric elements like hills, edges (sometimes
called steps) or ridges in the vicinity of the structure as well as on the luv as on
the lee-side. They influence the wind speed distribution which is accounted for
approximately based on the wind tunnel tests and evaluations given in M AIER -
E RBACHER [31].
For a hill the epi-centrum is at the top of the hill, for an edge or ridge it might be
chosen arbitrarily along the top line. The longitudinal axis of the hill or the top
line of an edge or a ridge is oriented in direction DX,DY,DZ. For an edge it is also
important to know about the sign of the direction. According to the next picture,
the foot line of the elevation is always on the right hand side of the direction
vector.
6-22 SOFiSTiK 2016

DX,DY
DX,DY
DX,DY
Figure 6.4: Topology: a) WTOP HILL XM 1000 500 DX 2 4.4 H 300 1400 2600,
b) WTOP RIDG YM 1000 DX -1 2 H 400 2500, c) WTOP EDGE 1000 0 DX 1.9 -1 H
500 2100
H is intended as the height at the epi-centrum relative to the base. H may be

defined either as positive or negative. A value H > 0 will raise the wind velocities
in general, while a value H > 0 will smooth the flow such that in the lower part
of the boundary layer the mean velocity will become higher and the turbulence
lower. With H < 0 the influence is opposite, but the favourable effect of this
formation is applied only with 50 % on the save side.
The influence of the topology is nonlinear and thus should not be superimposed
in general. To be more precise, the superposition will yield reliable results only if
the effect within the plan view is considerably different, i.e. the dimensions of the
elements are considerably different. Topology effects with more than 50 to 60 km
extensions are already included in the atmospheric wind map, the definition of
such elements would thus double the effects. Proper definitions do not contain
more than two elements, one of which has an extension of about 10- 30 km,
while the other (rather local) has not more than 1 to 2 km.
Wind definitions according to standard design codes will not allow for such pro-
visions in general. An exception is the EC, resp the 1991 and 1055, but even
then only a single edge or a ridge. Both codes use the same approach which
is implemented in SOFiLOAD. Both codes allow only one single formation and
the correction of the wind velocities is in general surely on the save side. H is
allowed only with a positive value if combined with a standard code. An improper
definition (number of elements, type and size of elements etc.) will always yield
an error message.
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-23

6.11 WSPE Wind Spectra
See also: WIND, WPRO, WROU, WTOP, WGEN, WTST

WSPE

TYPE General type of wind spectra LT KARM
KARM Karman (1948)
CEN Eurocode EN 1991 (2005)
DAVE Davenport (1967)
HARR Harris (1970)
KAIM Kaimal (1970)/Simiu/Scanlan
FMV Fichtl/McVehil (neutral)
FMU Fichtl/McVehil (unstable)
LON explicit longitudinal spectrum / LT -
LAT explicit lateral spectrum / LT -
VER explicit vertical spectrum / LT -
C3E Longitudinal factor 1.0
KUU coherency 0.2206

KUV coefficients of half value distance 0.1136
KUW Distance defined where the value of the 0.1136
KVU root of the coherences has diminished 0.1103
KVV by a factor of 2. 0.1672
KVW 0.1672
KWU 0.1103
KWV 0.1672
KWW 0.1672
With WSPE the power spectra of the turbulence components of the wind and the
coherence for a dynamic wind generation are defined. The definition of TYPE
will select appropriate functions for all three directions. However it is possible to
select for any direction (LON, LAT, VER) an explicit typed spectra or a modified
spectrum defined with RESP.
6-24 SOFiSTiK 2016

6.11.1 Spectra
Spectra are defined in the scaled form introduced by Karman along the fre-
quency axis as follows:
S 1 X + 2 X 2 + 3 X 3
= (6.9)
2 (1 + b X c )d
L
X= = (6.10)
m V
where L is the effective wave length defined with the wind profile and thus fm
is the effective frequency of the turbulence. Spectra from Kaimal and Panofsky
use for X the Monin coordinates, replacing L by the height z. The spectra from
Fichtl/McVehil will be used with coefficients scaled to the Monin-coordinates as
well.
The shape of the spectra are different for different directions, therefore the six
coefficients a1, a2, a3, b1, b2, c are defined for three components. There are
other deviations dependent on the author or the type of spectra taken from
the literature. The most important are available and may be selected directly.
a1 a2 a3 b c d X
Karman longitudinal 4.000 0.0 0.0 70.8 2 5/6 L/
Karman lateral 4.000 0.0 3021 283.0 2 11/6 L/
CEN 6.800 0.0 0.0 10.2 1 5/3 L/
1200
Davenport 0.0 0.667 0.0 1.0 2 4/3 (10)
1800
Harris 0.374 0.0 0.0 0.5 2 5/6 (10)
Kaimal 33.33 0.0 0.0 50.0 1 5/3 z/

Kaimal lateral 2.50 0.0 0.0 9.5 1 5/3 z/
Panofsky Lumely 0.56 0.0 0.0 10.0 5/3 1 z/
Fichtl/McVehil 54.38 0.0 0.0 36.5 0.845 5/3c z/
Fichtl/McVehil lat 66.17 0.0 0.0 30.5 0.781 5/3c z/
The defaults for the longitudinal / lateral / vertical coefficients from type KARM
follow the approach introduced by Karman, which describes the reality in the
best way according to common practice. A deviation from that should be made
only in special cases. A second common approach is the Eurocode-Spectra
(part 2-4 Appendix B.11, Type CEN), a simplified form of the Karman spectra
to become more important with the application of Eurocodes. There are two
classical spectra available, the spectra from Davenport (DAVE), which is very
popular in the above form in Germany and Central Europe. Dave is not math-
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-25

ematical correct in its asymptotic behaviour, and has been corrected therefore
multiple times, however it is mostly used in its original form. DAVE describes as
well as EC or the Harris (HARR) spectra only the longitudinal component. The
missing two other directions are calculated with the Karman formulas therefore.
DAVE and HARR use a simplified scaling with small deviations from the Karman
approach.
An other possible choice are the formulas published by Fichtl/McVehil (NASA

TN D 5584, 1970).
S C ( / m )
= (6.11)
2 5
1 + 1.5 ( / m )r 3r

C r fm
neutral longitudinal 6.198 (z/18)0.63 0.845 0.03(z/18)
neutral lateral 3.954 (z/18)0.35 0.781 0.1(z/18)0.58
unstable longitudinal 2.905 (z/18)0.14 1.235 0.04(z/18)0.87
unstable lateral 4.599 (z/18)0.04 1.144 0.033(z/18)0.72
SLongtdn 200 z
= (6.12)
2 (1 + 50 z )5/ 3
SLter 15 z
= (6.13)
2 (1 + 9.5 z )5/ 3
SVertc 3.36 z
= (6.14)
2 1 + 10 z5/ 3
z
z = (6.15)
U(z)
To compare the different formulas, the next picture shows the longitudinal com-
ponents of the implemented spectras: the relative displacement of the maximum
from DAVE, HARR and NASA compared to the Karman spectrum is a conse-
quence of the different scaling.
6-26 SOFiSTiK 2016

Figure 6.5: Spectras in comparison
There is sometimes the need to change individual spectral components. This

can be done with a definition of a special preselected type or a number of a load
function with a RESP WIND. There it is possible to define coefficients explicitly
for a specific tender or a foreign design code. Only formulas matching the gen-
eral definitions are allowed. It should be also taken care of the correct definition
of all six values in those cases. The correct definition for a longitudinal spectrum
with a higher value of the constant a1 (5.0 instead of 4.0) is then:
LC nn ; RESP WIND KARM SA 5.0

LC mm ; WIND WSPE KARM LO nn
Any spectrum including the individual defined spectra have to fulfill as all other
implemented spectra the normalization condition:

S( )d
Z
= = 1.0 (6.16)
0
SOFiLOAD will check for any use of WGEN the normalization in the highest and
lowest point of the structure and will flag any deviation with more than +/- 5%
for . In those cases the simplest remedy is to scale the coefficients a1, a2,
a3 within a new definition of WSPE by 1/. For larger deviations a check of the
function definition is strongly recommended.
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-27

6.11.2 Coherence
The coherence function implemented in SOFiLOAD are according ESDU 86010
(ESDU [15], chapter 7, appendix A2).

p
coherence = () = exp (6.17)
V
p
coherence = (r) = exp 1.151.5
1
(6.18)
p
coherence = (r) = exp 0.651.3
1
(6.19)
This is a good approximation to the function given by Karman analytically. The

matrix of coherence defines an isotropic coherence, which is distorted however
near the surface due to roughness effects (ESDU [15]). The function is cor-
rected near the surface automatically and does not need to be corrected for
that case. The values are therefor higher than those of the original Davenport
formulation from 1962.

k ep(C r ) (6.20)
V
For the Davenport formulation care should be taken, as there are also coeffi-
cients in use which are defined for the coherence 2k itself. These coefficients
are larger by a factor of 2.
A better approach are the modified exponential functions of Krenk DYRBYE AND
H ANSEN [10], which account for negative coherence as well as for the decay of
the coherence for zero frequencies for larger separation distances. A compari-
son can be done with the record WTST.
n n

(r , ry , rz , n) = 1 rc exp rc (6.21)
2U U
r
2
rc = (C r )2 + Cy ry + (Cz rz )2 (6.22)
v
2
U
u
n = +
t
n2 (6.23)
2L
6-28 SOFiSTiK 2016

The coherence () will thus be controlled via the half value distance factor 1 ,
thus the distance where the square root of the coherence diminishes by a
factor of 2. This factors 1 have to be defined for the coherence factor kk . For
high frequencies and large heights we have:
V
HWDk = kk (6.24)

r
1 2 (6.25)
Vm
with:
first Index , , = Turbulence component

k second Index , , = Separation direction (axis along which the
coherence is checked)
If for example in picture A2 of the ESDU for the root of coherence = 0.5 a
value = 0.7 is taken. Then an approximate value of k = 0.7/ (2) = 0.11 is
obtained. The default of the elements of the Kj -Matrix is slightly conservative
taking into account measurements of the last 30 years. It is possible to change
single elements individually. The values define a homogenous coherence which
is stretched at the surface depending on the roughness.(ESDU [15]) The values
thus are larger than the original values from Davenport.
6.11.3 Turbulence Field

The turbulence field generated by SOFiLOAD is mainly the result of a 2D-
turbulence generation within the reference plane defined within the WIND-
record:
Y
WX
WY

Referenzebene

Referenzpunkt

Windrichtung
Figure 6.6: wind reference systems
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-29

The axis WX, WY and the vertical gravity direction WZ define a skewed coordi-
nate system where the longitudinal, lateral and vertical turbulence is calculated
along the reference plane defined by WY and WZ following the coherence within
that plane. This pattern of turbulence moves than along the wind direction in a
frozen form passing the structure, ie. the coherence in wind direction is always
1.0, the history is identical only with a different phase. This approach may be in
rare cases to much on the safe side. Examples for this are structures repeating
itself along the wind direction showing a resonance with the frequency of the
excitement not observed in nature. In those cases a correction with a slightly
change of value C3E 6= 1.0 may help.
6-30 SOFiSTiK 2016

6.12 WTST Test of coherency
See also: WIND, WPRO, WROU, WTOP, WSPE

WTST

TYPE Component to be tested LT !
KUU, KUV, KUW
KVU, KVV, KVW
KWU, KWV, KWW
NEIG Number of frequencies 0
LC Loadcase number of first eigen value 1
XREF coordinate of reference point [m] 1001 0.0
YREF coordinate of reference point [m] 1001 0.0
ZREF coordinate of reference point [m] 1001 0.0
RX Extension in global X-direction [m] 1001 0.0
RY Extension in global Y-direction [m] 1001 0.0
RZ Extension in global Z-direction [m] 1001 0.0
COMP Comparison curve LT KREN
DAV1 Davenport, 1977
DAV2 Davenport, 1968
KREN Krenk, 1995
CU coefficient according Krenk/Davenport [] -
CV coefficient according Krenk/Davenport [] -
CW coefficient according Krenk/Davenport [] -
If no frequencies are selected, the coherence between point

(XREF,YREF,ZREF) and (XREF+RX,YREF+RY,ZREF+RZ) are shown as a
function of the frequency 2 n r/ U.
If frequencies are selected, the coherence from (XREF,YREF,ZREF) along the

direction (RX,RY,RZ) for all selected frequencies will be calculated and pre-
sented.
As comparison a curve with the Krenk/Davenport formulation will be shown if

parameters CU to CW are specified. For the Davenport formula there are two
versions around, either the coherence itself is the target other sources use co-
efficients for the root of the coherence.
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-31

(Davenport, 1968)
n
(r , r , r , n)2 = exp rc
q
U
rc = (C r )2 + (C r )2 + (C r )2
(Davenport, 1977)
n
(r , r , r , n) = exp rc
q
U
rc = (C r )2 + (C r )2 + (C r )2
(Krenk, 1995)
n n

(r , r , r , n) = 1 rc exp rc
q
2U U
rc = (C r )2 + (C r )2 + (C r )2
v
U 2
u
n = n +
t
2
2L
6-32 SOFiSTiK 2016

6.13 WGEN Generation of Wind Spectra and Histories

WGEN

LCG Loadcase number of basic wind !
SPEC Generate spectra LT REST
REST Spectra already defined
U only longitudinal
V only lateral components
W only vertical components
or UV, UW, VW, UVW
LCOH account for local coherencies LT ON
ON/OFF
HIST Generate wind history LT *

NONE create only spectra
or U, V, W, UV, UW, VW, UVW
T Total time of wind loading [sec] 620
DT time step of wind loading [sec] 0.2
FMIN minimum frequency of spectra Hertz 0.0
FMAX maximum frequency of spectra Hertz 1.0
FDEL Resolution of spectra Hertz 0.001
EIGB Estimate for flutter bending frequency Hertz -
EIGT Estimate for flutter torsional frequency Hertz -
HTYP Selection for explicit wind histories LT -

NR0 BEAM | TRUS | CABL | QUAD -
NR1 for up to 10 numbers saved to the -
... database to be shown with
NR9 DYNR HIST V-X, V-Y and V-Z -
FROM Name of a database with existing history Lt -

TO Name of a database to receive history Lt -
Based on the wind profile and parameters including, turbulence and integral
length distributions, defined with the basic load case LFG a number of load
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-33

cases will be generated with random transient wind loading. The random prop-
erties are assured by the load case number, which is also used as the initializa-
tion value for the random sequence. The required number of wind histories has
to be derived from the safety concept of the building. For the common design
codes and safety factors for wind a number between 9 and 11 histories should
be adequate in most cases.
The wind definition thus starts with the basic wind load case, e.g..
LC 300 W TITL ' Wind basic loadcase '

WIND DY 1 XREF 0 0 0 DXR 0.1 1.0 GH 5.0
WROU 0.02 ; WPRO H 100 VBOE 65 ; WTOP ...
WSPE EC
It is highly recommended to check first this load case thoroughly in all details
and proceed then to the generation of the individual spectra and wind histories,
where it is recommended to reflect those dependencies within the load case
numbers, e.g. the wind histories with load cases 301,302,... should be derived
from the basic wind load case 300.
LC 301 W TITL ' Dynamic Wind ' ; WGEN 300 SPEK UVW $$
HIST UVW 620 0.1
HIST UVW 620 0.1
HIST UVW 620 0.1
....
It is possible to change the spectra individually for some histories. In that case
WSPE has to be defined with all parameters between the LC and the WGEN
definition again. It is also possible to import wind spectra or even complete
histories from a secondary data base FROM. If SPEC is selected only the base
wind data is imported. The default for HIST contains the same components as
the spectra, for REST and FROM the wind history will be imported to.
The generation of the wind history has two steps. The first step (spectra gener-
ation) will create form the energy spectra based on the theory given inKOVCS
AND A NDR [28], KOVCS [27] an individual Fourier-spectrum for this load case
(a discrete Fourier-Integral) for all turbulence components of all nodal points of
the structure. The second step (history generation) will then create the discrete
wind history via a discrete Fourier-Retransformation. The spectras generated
once may be used for different wind histories: e.g. variant durations of wind,
variant time steps or the selection of lower or higher frequencies of turbulence
6-34 SOFiSTiK 2016

etc..
Some parameters of wind generation (e.g. DT, FMAX, FDEL) may be selected
by the user, they have to match however. The frequency step FDEL has to
be small enough, otherwise a non natural periodicity of the wind load may be
obtained. DT has to be chosen in such a way that all important frequencies of
the structure are properly addressed. An optional value of FMAX has then to be
larger that those important structural resonance frequencies. For the case of a
steady wind it is possible to specify DT 0.0 as special case.
The wind generation will become very costly on the other side if the parameters
are chosen to generous, thus it might be necessary to choose a best compro-
mise. FMAX and FDEL may be also changed for tests or prechecks in the eval-
uation phase of a project to have shorter response times. For the final design
however, the parameters should match the statistic necessaries. The defaults
are selected based on the needs for large bridges. for smaller structures mod-
ifications are necessary, e.g. reducing the value of DT, enlarging the value of
FMAX.
Within the generation of turbulence a decay of turbulence for the end point of
an element based on the local decay of coherences along the beam axis is
implemented allowing an easier generation of beam loading. For checks of the
turbulence it might be requested to switch this option off via the definition of
LCOH OFF.
For the inclusion of the Scanlan derivativa into the wind dynamics it is neces-
sary to have the sections defined with those wind coefficients in AQUA and an
estimated value for EIGB and EIGT has to be specified in the GRP-record.
For the lowest and the highest point of the wind profile the total spectra will ready
for graphical evaluation. Without definition of components for SPEC and HIST,
the analysis is terminated at that stage.
It is also recommended to start with a primary load case in DYNA / ASE based
on the static wind to keep the disturbances of the start up period as low as
possible.
The volume of the data may become rather large, because a nonlinear history
will create an own loadcase for every time step. That is why we recommend
to use a separate copy of the database for every history. With the definition of
the TO item, a clone of the current database is created containing all necessary
data for the wind history analysis. After performing the analysis and all super-
positions, the extreme values may be imported into the master via the program
DBMERG.
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-35

6.14 WIPT Wind Tunnel Data Point

WIPT

X Coordinates of measurement point [m] 1001 0.0
Y [m] 1001 0.0
Z [m] 1001 0.0
GRP Group in wind mesh (optional) -
TOL Tolerance in projected direction [m] 1001 0.01
ELIM Limit value for edge point detection 0.4
(0 = centre, 1 = edge)
MNAM Name of data base containing wind mesh Lt !
Using a wind tunnel experiment a model of the building is tested yielding integral
forces or pressures in discrete points. They vary along time and it is depending
on the structure if the loading may be taken as quasi static mean value or if the
dynamic effects should be modelled. To convert those pressures to loadings the
recommended procedure is as follows:
For every measured data item a separate load case is defined.

Then a unit pressure of 1.0 is applied in that data point while all other data
points have the value of 0.0. This yields a areal distribution of pressure to be
taken as influence function of the pressure in that point.
Each of this load cases may be taken as static or defined with FUNC as
transient. In both cases the applied factors are the real pressures in that
data point.
Assuming that we have an area of the hull of our structure with several measure-
ment data points, we may create a coarse mesh of triangles or quadrilaterals in
two ways. We have either the possibility to create this mesh to have each data
point near the center of one element (a) or in the corners or near the corners of
a bilinear mesh (b):
6-36 SOFiSTiK 2016

(a) (b)
Figure 6.7: Meshing of measurement points
Than the coordinates of that selected data point are specified with WIPT.
SOFILOAD will create an areal load pattern with the selected shape of the in-
fluence function. If the point is inside the element a constant pressure for the
whole element is created. if the point is near the edge (ELIM) a bilienar shape
function is assumed with the value 1.0 in the data point and 0.0 in the distant
nodes. Thus the node nearest to the data point will have an extrapolated value
> 1.0.
The influence functions may be then used directly within DYNA or may be con-
verted with STEP to single load cases for ASE.
Values for ELIM, TOL and MNAM are retained as default for all following defini-
tions.
SOFiSTiK 2016 6-37

6-38 SOFiSTiK 2016

Wave Loading | SOFiLOAD
7 Wave Loading
7.1 General
Waves on the ocean are primarly created by wind over longer distances. They
are an essential loading for embedded structures in the coastal regions or off-
shore. Similar to the wind a large scale stochastic wave field is generated, in-
fluenced substantially by sea currents and the shape of the coast. For these
problems special software (e.g. SWAN) is available.
For the loading of a structure a local design wave or wave spectra is provided,
which is saved in SOFiLOAD in an individual load case number. The SOFiSTiK
solution separates the wave model from the structure similar as in the previous
chapter. The water flow is calculated as if there is no structure present. For the
evaluation of the forces however the movement of the structure will be accounted
for by taking the relative velocities and accelerations by the Morison equation.
1 U
F = Fd + F = Cd D U2 + Chyd D2 (7.1)
2 4 t
c
z
x
Fi Fd
vy
vx
Figure 7.1: Wave Loading
7.2 Introduction
Oceanic waters are deep waters, such that the waves are unaffected by the
SOFiSTiK 2016 7-1

SOFiLOAD | Wave Loading
seabed, without currents or obstacles such as islands, headlands and break-

waters. In contrast with the treatment of coastal waters, a limited but constant
water depth, i.e. a horizontal bottom, is considered [25].
Waves on the surface of the ocean, with periods usually between 3 to 25 sec, are
a fundamental feature of coastal regions. Other wave motions exist on the ocean
including internal waves, currents, tides, and edge waves. The term waves will
here apply only to surface gravity waves, to water with idealized physical prop-
erties and motions and with gravitation as the only external force [35].
Knowledge of these waves and the forces they generate is essential for the
design of offshore structures. An overview of the theories and mathematical
formulas for describing ocean surface waves and the forces, accelerations, and
velocities due to them, is given here, and two main wave categories are treated:
regular waves and irregular waves.
In the Regular Waves section, the objective is to provide a detailed understand-

ing of the kinematics of a wave field through examination of waves of constant
height and period. In the Irregular Waves section, the objective is to describe
the methods involved for analyzing irregular waves which are more descriptive
of the waves seen in nature.
7.3 Regular Waves

Wave theories are approximations to reality. When looking at the sea surface, it
is typically irregular, three-dimensional and changes in time. The complexity of
this time-varying 3 D surface cannot be adequately described in its whole, and
thus simplifying assumptions must be employed in order to arrive at estimates
able to represent it.
The simplest mathematical representation of oceanic waves is provided by the

linear wave theory. Linear theory is described by freely propagating, small in
amplitude, harmonic waves. The main requirement for the linear theory to apply
is that the amplitudes of the waves are small, i.e. small compared with the wave
length and small compared to the water depth. This linear theory is also called
Airy and can cover many engineering problems with reasonable accuracy.
When wave heights become larger, the linear theory may not be adequate and
finite amplitude wave theories have to be used. These theories are nonlinear
and allow formulation of waves that are not purely sinusoidal in shape. For
steep waves or waves in shallow water, e.g. waves with flatter troughs and
peaked crests, higher order theories will be described such as the Stokes wave
theory and the Cnoidal wave theory. Furthermore, the stretching of linear theory
is introduced, which compensates for the small amplitude assumption and maps
7-2 SOFiSTiK 2016

the results into the finite region of their extent.
Adopting a wave theory, care must be taken to ensure that the wave phe-
nomenon of interest is described reasonably well by the theory, since offshore
design depends on the ability to predict sufficiently wave surface profiles and
water motion.
z

H
x SWL d
d
L h
Figure 7.2: Wave
A regular wave, may be described by a periodic deterministic function controlled

by three essential parameters:
a wave height H (difference between crest and trough)

a period of the wave T (mostly between 3 and 25 sec)
a (constant) water depth d
7.3.1 Linear Wave Theory (Airy)

The surface elevation of an Airy wave of wave height H, at any instance of time
t and horizontal position in the direction of travel of the wave, is denoted by
and is given by:
H
= cos (k t) (7.2)
2
with the following velocity potential
cosh [k (z + d)]
= sin (k t) with = (7.3)
k sinh(kd)
where k is the wave number k = 2/ L, L the wavelength, the circular frequency

= 2/ T and T the period. The wave speed (celerity) c is defined as c = L/ T .
SOFiSTiK 2016 7-3

The particle velocities can readily be obtained from the velocity potential as
/ = and / z = z and the accelerations as the time derivative of the
velocities / t = and z / t = z . The alongwave horizontal and ver-
tical z velocity and the horizontal and vertical z acceleration, at position z
measured from the Still Water Level (SWL), in water depth d, are given by:
cosh [k (z + d)]
= cos (k t) (7.4)
sinh(kd)
sinh [k (z + d)]
z = sin (k t) (7.5)
sinh(kd)
cosh [k (z + d)]
=2 sin (k t) (7.6)
sinh(kd)
sinh [k (z + d)]
z = 2 cos (k t) (7.7)
sinh(kd)
where is the wave amplitude = H/ 2. The dispersion relationship relates the

wave number k or the wavelength L to the circular frequency through:
gT 2 2d

= gk tnh (kd) or L =
2
tnh (7.8)
2 L
where g is the acceleration due to gravity. For deep water tnh (kd) 1 while
kd , whereas for very shallow tnh (kd) kd while kd 0, leading to further
simplification of the above equations.
Table 7.1: Summary of Linear Wave Theory (Airy) wave characteristics
d 1 d 1

Wave property Shallow Water < Deep Water >
L 25 L 2
Dispersion 2 = g k 2 d 2 = g k
relation
g
L=T L=
p
Wave Length - gd T 2 1.56 T 2
2
Period relation

Horizontal = cos (k t) = ekz cos (k t)
kd
velocity
z+d
Vertical z = sin (k t) z = ekz sin (k t)
d
velocity
2
Horizontal = sin (k t) = 2 ekz sin (k t)
kd
acceleration
z+d
Vertical z = 2 cos (k t) z = 2 ekz cos (k t)
d
Acceleration
7-4 SOFiSTiK 2016

7.3.2 Stokes 2nd and 5th Order Wave Theory

In the linear wave theory, a wave with a harmonic surface profile that conforms
to the linearised basic equations and boundary conditions is described. It only
approximates though the nonlinear equations and boundary conditions. A better
approximation can be found by adding corrections to the harmonic wave profile.
This is done by the Stokes theory by adding extra harmonic waves to the basic
harmonic, in terms of a successive correction, where every higher-order correc-
tion is obtained on the basis of the previously obtained lower-order correction.
The order of the theory is the number of terms considered. For example, the
surface elevation for Stokes 2nd order, consisting of two terms, is given by [25]:
cosh(kd)
(, t) = cos (k t) + k 2 [2 + cosh(2kd)] cos [2(k t)] (7.9)
4 sinh3 (kd)
Stokes waves are an extension to Airys wave theory and therefore are also
formulated in terms of the velocity potential. For the Stokes 5th order waves the
potential reads:
5
c X
= G cosh [ k (z + d)] sin [ (k t)] (7.10)
k =1
Accordingly, the water particle velocities and accelerations, as well as the sur-
face elevation, are given by [40]:
5
X
=c G cosh [ k (z + d)] cos [ (k t)] (7.11a)
=1
X5
z =c G sinh [ k (z + d)] sin [ (k t)] (7.11b)
=1
5
X
= c 2 G cosh [ k (z + d)] sin [ (k t)] (7.11c)
=1
5
X
z = c 2 G sinh [ k (z + d)] cos [ (k t)] (7.11d)
=1
5
1 X
= F cos [ (k t)] (7.11e)
k =1
The dispersion relationship now becomes:
2 =gk tnh (kd) 1 + 2 C1 + 4 C2 or

(7.12a)
gT 2 2d

L= 1 + 2 C1 + 4 C2

tnh (7.12b)
2 L
For a design wave, and k are to be determined by virtue of the following pair
SOFiSTiK 2016 7-5

of equations:
gT 2 2d

L= 1 + 2 C1 + 4 C2

tnh (7.13a)
2 L
H =L + 3 B33 + 5 (B35 + B55 )

(7.13b)
The coefficients G , F , Bj , C are given in terms of the wavelength L and can be

found in Skjelbreia and Hendrickson [40]. 1
7.3.3 Cnoidal Wave Theory: 3rd Order and 5th Order Iwagaki approxi-
mation
Korteweg and de Vries (1895) developed a wave theory termed the cnoidal the-
ory. The cnoidal theory is applicable to finite-amplitude shallow-water waves and
includes both nonlinearity and dispersion effects. The theory is defined in terms
of the Jacobian elliptic function, cn, hence the name cnoidal. Cnoidal waves are
periodic with sharp crests separated by wide flat troughs. Many advancements
have been made since the initial theory and the cnoidal wave theory presented
byF ENTON [19] (1990), [20] (1999) is included here, both the full 3rd order as
well as the 5th order Iwagaki approximation.
In F ENTON [20] (1999) the underlying method relies on the expansion in two
main parameters: the wave height relative to the trough depth = H/ h and
the shallowness parameter = 42 / 3. The symbol cn is used to denote
cn(X/ h|m) = cn(( ct)/ h|m), where is a coefficient given in terms of . The
parameter m, the modulus of the elliptic function, is determined by the geometry
of the wave through an iterative process. The surface elevation for Cnoidal 3rd
order is given by:
2 3 3 2 4
3

=1 + m cn + m cn + m cn +
2 2 2

h m m 4 4 m
(7.14)
61 2 111 3 61 2 53 3 101 3 6

m + m cn + 2
m m cn +
4
m cn
80 80 80 20 80
1 The expressions are given in S KJELBREIA AND H ENDRICKSON [40], but notice that in Skjel-
breias original expression for C2, the factor +2592 should be replaced by 2592, see
Nishimura & al. (1977), F ENTON [18] (1985), B HATTACHARYYA [2] (1995).
7-6 SOFiSTiK 2016

while for the 5th order Iwagaki approximation it becomes:

3 3 5 151 101

=1 + cn + cn + cn +
2 2 2 4
cn cn +
3
cn +2 4 6
h 4 4 8 80 80
8209 2 11641 4 112393 6 17367 8

+ 4
cn + cn cn + cn +
6000 3000 24000 8000
(7.15)
364671 2 2920931 4 2001361 6 17906339 8

+ 5
cn cn + cn cn +
196000 392000 156800 1568000
1331817 10

+ cn
313600
For the Cnoidal 5th order Iwagaki approximation a simplification is assumed,

suggested by the fact that for waves which are not low and/or short, the values
of the parameter m used in practice are very close to unity indeed. This suggests
the simplification that, in all the formulae, wherever m appears as a coefficient,
it is replaced by m = 1, leading in much shorter formulae. This theory takes its
name by its originator Iwagaki (1968). Here, the F ENTON [20] (1999) approach is
implemented, which suggests that wherever m appears explicitly as a coefficient,
not as an argument of an elliptic integral or function, it is replaced by 1, but is
retained in all elliptic integrals and functions.
The velocities are given by:

5 1 0 2j X
c X X z
p =p 1+
cn2k (( ct)/ h|m) jk (7.16a)
gh gh =1 j=0
h k=0
5 1 0 2j+1
z X X z
p =2 cn() sn() dn()

gh =1 j=0
h
(7.16b)

X k
cn2(k1) (( ct)/ h|m) jk
k=1
2j + 1
where the coefficients jk and the rest of the parameters and their definition,
can be found in F ENTON [19] (1990) and F ENTON [20] (1998) for both 3rd and 5th
order.
7.3.4 Stretching
AIRY-Theory is only defined up to the SWL and for waves of infinitesimal small
height. However, when extended to finite crest amplitudes the results above the
SWL are overestimated [4], [24]. To remedy this, either the values are extrapo-
lated or the results are stretched (or compressed) to the actual water level.
SOFiSTiK 2016 7-7

Table 7.2: Stretching Formulas for Horizontal Velocity
Scheme Horizontal Velocity

z+d

cosh kd
+d
Wheeler = cos (k t)
sinh(kd)
Stretching
cosh [k (z + d)]
Chakrabarti = cos (k t)
sinh [k ( + d)]
Stretching
cosh (kd)
Vertical = cos (k t) for z > 0, Airy for z 0
sinh(kd)
Stretching
cosh (kd)

Linear = + zk cos (k t) for z > 0, Airy for z 0
sinh(kd)
Extrapolation
Four different extrapolation or stretching schemes are implemented here, in or-

der to provide a more realistic representation of the near surface fluid kinematics
for linear waves and random waves consisting of linear waves:
Wheeler Stretching: the profile of the fluid kinematics computed by the lin-
ear theory is effectively stretched or compressed to the instantaneous wave
d+z
surface. This is achieved by replacing z with z 0 = d d+ d in Eq. 7.11.
Chakrabarti Stretching
Vertical Stretching: for fluid particles located above the SWL, the values are
taken equal to those obtained at z = 0, hence are stretched vertically.
Linear Extrapolation
Hint
The stretching is a filtering technique, which modifies the small-amplitude
assumption of linear Airy wave theory. Its use is important for the irregular
waves, since they are composed by superposing linear Airy waves. With
this linear filtering method, a wave train of any length and any degree of
irregularity can be used in design of offshore structures.
Stretching is applicable to finite water. This means that when the full range
of irregular waves (Tmn - Tm ) is evaluated, the stretching scheme will only
be applied for those regular waves that will fall into finite water.
7-8 SOFiSTiK 2016

7.3.5 Validity of Wave Theories

The simplest linear wave theory from Airy is based on the assumption of small
wave heights. When the waves become steeper nonlinear theories have to be
used like Stokes 3rd of 5th order or the cnoidal wave theory. But above a certain
wave height the waves will break and a consistent description is only possible
with extended methods like particle or CFD models. The limits of the different
theories may be seen in Fig. 7.3 H OLTHUIJSEN [25]:
dH/HLH=H0.04 dH/HLH=H0.5
dH/HgTH=H0.00155 dH/HgTH=H0.0792
HShallowHwaterHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHFiniteHwaterHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHDeepHwater
0.1
Deep water H
breaking criterion = 0.142
H L
2
gT
Stokes 5th order
0.01 Shallow water

Stokes 3rd order
breaking criterion
H
= 0.78
d
Stokes 2nd order
s
ve
way
0.001
ar
lit
HL
26
So
0.0001
Linear wave theoryH5Airy3
Cnoidal
waves
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 d 1.0

2
gT
Figure 7.3: Wave models
Wave height is limited by both depth and wavelength. For a given water depth
and wave period, there is a maximum height limit above which the wave be-
comes unstable and breaks. This upper limit of wave height, called breaking
SOFiSTiK 2016 7-9

wave height, is in deep water a function of the wavelength. In shallow and tran-
sitional water it is a function of both depth and wavelength. Wave breaking is
a complex phenomenon and it is one of the areas in wave mechanics that has
been investigated extensively both experimentally and numerically.
The range over which periodic solutions for waves can occur is given in Figure
7.4, which shows limits to the existence of waves determined by computational
studies. The highest waves possible, H = Hm , are shown by the thick line, which
is the approximation to the results of Williams (1981), presented as Equation
7.17 in F ENTON [19] (1990):
2 3
L L L
0.141063 + 0.0077829
+ 0.0095721
Hm d d d
= 2 3 (7.17)
d L L L
1 + 0.0788340 + 0.0317567 + 0.0093407
d d d
Nelson has shown from experiments, that the maximum wave height achievable
(just below breaking) in practice is actually only Hm / d = 0.55, rather than 0.78
which is the theoretical maximum. According to N ELSON [33] (1994), the differ-
ence between ratios of H/ d 0.78 to 0.55 may lead to a significant reduction in
the wave loadings and the design crest levels above mean water level.
The degree of nonlinearity of waves is often quantified with the Ursell number U,
which combines wave steepness S = H/ L and relative water depth:
steepness (H/ L) HL2
U= = = (7.18)
(rete depth)3 (d/ L)3 d3
It has been pointed out that the Cnoidal theory should be applied for U > 40,
marking the boundary between Stokes and Cnoidal theory, as shown in Fig.
7.4. Furthermore, it is necessary to know the limiting value of wave heights
and wave steepness at different water depths to establish range of valid-
ity of a Stokes-type expansion. This is customarily done by comparing the
magnitude of each successive term in the expansion [35]. Each should be
smaller than the term preceding it. For example, if the third-order term is
to be less than 1 percent of theq second-order term, the limiting wave steep-
ness is H/ L = (1/ 7) sinh (kd) 1 + 8 cosh3 (kd). The maximum steepness is
3
Sm = 0.142 tnh(2d/ L), which leads to the deep water breaking wave limit of
H/ L = 0.142, as shown in Fig. 7.3.
7-10 SOFiSTiK 2016

1
Hm / d Solitary>Wave
0.8 U>40
0.6 H>/>d>=>0.55
Wave height / depth
H/d
0.4
Stokes Theory Cnoidal Theory

0.2
0
1 10 100
Wavelength / depth
L/d
Figure 7.4: Applicability of Stokes - Cnoidal Theory, Steady waves
7.3.6 Wave Forces

The simplest loading is a static loading for a given time. For the design a se-
quence of discrete time steps have to be established in different load cases.
The results of these load cases are then taken mutually exclusive for the most
unfavorable case. This will be achieved in SOFILOAD with the COPY command
and a shift by DX,DY.
A dynamic analysis will then account for the fluid structure interaction according
to the assumptions stated before. A complete modeling of all effects requires
considerable numerical effort for a fluid structure interaction with field methods
(CFD).
7.4 Irregular Waves

A more realistic description of the waves has to account for different directions
and periods of the waves. If a restriction to the linear wave theory is accepted,
it becomes possible to use statistical methods with a wave spectra. Then the
moving surface elevation (t) can be described as a sum of NF harmonic waves,
each with a constant amplitude A and a phase randomly chosen [25].
NF
X
(t) = A cos (k t + ) (7.19)
=1
Two methods are implemented here for the sampling of the spectrum and the
determination of the amplitude:
SOFiSTiK 2016 7-11

constant frequency interval: = (m mn )/ NF, A =

p
2E()
PNF p
irrational frequency: = / ( + 1) m / / ( + 1), A = 2E()
p p
=1
A well-known spectrum is the JONSWAP, which was developed by the Joint

North Sea Wave Project for the limited fetch North Sea ans is used extensively
by the offshore industry[23].

pek 2

ep 1
g2 5 pek 4 2 pek

E() = ep (7.20)
5 4
In JONSWAP, the scatter in the values of the shape parameters , and b

was so large that average values were determined and are usually applied. Two
values for the standard deviation = 0.07 and b = 0.09 are used here: the
first for < pek , while the second for pek . For the peak enhancement
coefficient , the average value of 3.3 is used here, and is limited with a lower
bound of 1.0. The energy scale parameter is here expressed in terms of
the peak period as = 0.0317(1/ Tpek )0.67 . An average value commonly used
is also = 0.0081. For = 1.0, JONSWAP falls into the special case of the
Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum, which is used to describe fully developed seas.
For shallow waters a transformation of JONSWAP to the TMA (Texel, Marsen,

Arsloe) spectrum may be applied [26]:
ETMA () = EJONSWAP () (, d) (7.21)

1 1 2kd

(, d) = tnh2 (kd) ; n = 1+ (7.22)
2n 2 sinh(2kd)
approximated by

p 2 p
0.5 d/ g if d/ g < 1

(, d) =
p 2 p
1 0.5 2 d/ g if 1 d/ g < 2

p
1 if d/ g 2
Hughes gives also the following expressions for the parameters and in the
TMA spectrum based on shallow water data and applied here:
= 16 2 ()2 , = 6614()1.59 (7.23)
where = H/ (4L), H the significant wave height and L the wavelength at the
peak frequency, as defined by the linear theory.
The directional distribution of the spectra is implemented with s {0, 2, 4, 6}

independent from the frequency and the following equations (St. Denis und
Pierson):
7-12 SOFiSTiK 2016

!

G =C(s) coss (7.24)
2
p
(s/ 2 + 1)
C(s) = (7.25)
(s/ 2 + 1/ 2)
p
2
12.0
10.0
=7.0
8.0
=5.0
ES()
6.0
4.0 =3.3
=2.0
2.0
=1.0
0.0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Figure 7.5: Jonswap Spectra
SOFiSTiK 2016 7-13

7.5 WAVE Wave
See also: WIND

WAVE

TYPE Wave model LT *
Regular Waves
AIRY Linear wave theory (Airy)
STOK Stokes 5th order
CNOI Cnoidal 5th order
optional appendix for other Stokes order
:2 = Stokes 2nd order
optional appendix for other Cnoidal order
:3 = Cnoidal 3rd order
Irregular Waves
JONS Jonswap Spectra
TMAS TMA shallow water extension
optional appendix for stretching of Airy
waves
:W = Wheeler stretching
:C = Chakrabarti stretching
:V = Vertical stretching
:E = Linear Extrapolation
optional appendix for frequency sampling of
irregular waves
:I = Irrational frequency
H significant wave height m !
T Period of the wave sec !
D Water depth m
SWL Sea Water Level (e.g. storm tide) m 0.0
DX Main direction of wave 0.0

DY resp. current 0.0
DZ 0.0
UC superimposed tidal current m/ sec 0.0
7-14 SOFiSTiK 2016


EXPU Profile exponent for U 0.17

RHO density of the water kg/ m3 1025
NF number of frequencies 100

TMIN smallest wave period 3
TMAX highest wave period 25
GAM Peak-enhancement coefficient 3.3
ALF Energy scale parameter *
SIGA Peak-width parameter 0.07
SIGB Peak-width parameter 0.09
S Exponent directional distribution 0
PHI resolution for direct. distribution 5
Instead of the single design wave a complete spectra of an irregular wave field
may be used. In that case H is the siginficant wave height, while T is the peak
period of the spectra. The seed for the random generator is the load case num-
ber. Values of NF, TMIN, TMAX etc. are used only for that case.
Furthermore, the irrational frequency, rather than the default constant frequency
interval, can be applied for the calculation of the amplitudes, when using a spec-
trum. This is done by specifying the literal :I after the input spectra type, e.g.
JONS:I or with a stretching scheme JONS:IW.
For the TMA spectrum, the default values used here for the parameters and
are given by Eq. 7.23, as described by Hughes [26]. The main advantage of
this parameterization is the ability to specify the equilibrium wind sea spectrum
associated with a given energy level. Otherwise a standard input could be given
as in JONSWAP spectra, such as for example = 3.3 and = 0.0081, which
will just transform the corresponding JONSWAP to a shallow water spectrum.
The wave kinematics may be enhanced by a constant current. For this an expo-
nential distribution may be specified. For the exponent a value of 0.17 is found
in the literature.

z+d

U(z) = U (7.26)
d
SOFiSTiK 2016 7-15

7-16 SOFiSTiK 2016

Snow Loads | SOFiLOAD
8 Snow Loads
The snow loading in SOFiLOAD is just at the beginning of the total development.
Wehen defining the design code with NORM it is possible to define the snow
zone and the altitude about sea level. From those values a basic snow load is
derived according the provisions of the design codes.
The basic snow load is defined in SOFiLOAD according to EN-1991-1-3 for

the climate regions following appendix C according to table C.1 dependant
on the country code and the Z-value defined at NORM SNOW (1,2,3,4 or
4.5), and the altitude.
For Germany, Austria and Switzerland the national documents have been
provided instead: DIN (Zones 1,1a,2,2a and 3), OENORM (2*,2,3,4) and the
SIA 261.
For Italy the national document DM 2005 with Snow Zones I,II,III according
table 3.5 has been implemented.
Snowloads are available for all free loadings of type LINE and AREA as load type
SNOW. The load value then defines the form factor wich is used to be multiplied
with the basic snow load on the ground, depending on the inclination of the roof
and local aglomerations.
SOFiSTiK 2016 8-1

SOFiLOAD | Snow Loads
8-2 SOFiSTiK 2016

Output Description | SOFiLOAD
9 Output Description
The output extent can be controlled via the option ECHO LOAD. Following inputs
are possible here:
NO no printout at all
YES only printout of the most important load case information
FULL printout of all input loads
EXTR printout of all generated loads
9.1 Check List of Actions

The check list of the actions is printed with ECHO ACT YES (default). The load
cases generated for the actions are output additionally with ECHO ACT FULL.
Actions
type Type of the action

T Action group
sup Superposition of the load cases within the
action
Title Title of the action, in a 2nd line title of the
load case
gamu Safety factors and combination coefficients
gamf for the superposition
psi-0 In a 2nd line the load case coefficients are
psi-1 printed, if they are different from those of
psi-2 the action
psi-1
9.2 Check List of Load Case Selection

The check list of load case selection is printed for every processed load case.
Load Case Load case number, the load case type is

printed in parentheses, if defined, and then
the load case description
SOFiSTiK 2016 9-1

SOFiLOAD | Output Description
Factor forces and moments

Factor dead weight with information of the dead weight compo-
nent
The following values are only output, if they were defined in the input or if the
default was used via the input of a load case type:
Optimisation criteria cri1

unfavourably safety factor Safety factors and combination coefficients
for superpositions
favourably safety factor
Combination factor psi-0
If the loads are copied from previous load cases in the current one with the
record COPY, the output is done below the check list of load case selection.
Loads completely copied from load case ... with factor ...
or
Loads partially copied from load case ... with factor ...
Either the factor was defined explicitly or it was determined from the relevant
safety and combination coefficients according to the input superposition rule.
The used partial safety factors and the input superposition rule are printout after
the factor.
9.3 Meshfree Loading

The list of the meshfree loading is output in the result file of free loads of the
input records POIN, LINE, AREA and VOLU:
Meshfree Loading
Kind Kind of load (poin, line, area, volume)

Reference to Reference type and reference identifier
9-2 SOFiSTiK 2016

Projection and W [m] Projection direction and window size in pro-

jection direction
Coordinates X, Y, Z [m] Coordinates of the load points
Type Load type and direction
Loadvalue Load values of the load points
activated Value in % which specifies how much of
the defined load was considered during the
generation
The reference typ contains quite a lot of additional information. If given in capital
letters it is a definition by the user. If the first position of the reference type
is given as capital letter and the other ones are given in lower case, then the
reference type was selected by the user, however, without a reference or group
number. If the reference type is in lower case, it gives the type and identifier
of the object the program has selected automatically. If multiple ids have been
used a "-mult-" is given instead of a number. The literals for the reference types
are specified with the corresponding load definitition records.
Example:
GAR 1 explicit reference at the area with number 1

Gar no. or -mult- explicit reference at an area or at some areas without
defined reference number
gar no. or -mult- automatic reference at a found area or at some found

areas
An expression in parentheses is printout additionally at reference type, if using

the load type PSUP in record COPY in order to taken over the support reactions
and moments from the database. In that mean:
(LC number: nodenumer)
The load case number is the number of the read load case from the database.
A warning is printout after the calculation, if a defined load was not considered
with 100% during generation.
9.4 Nodal Loads
SOFiSTiK 2016 9-3

Loads acting on Nodes
Node node number

PX, PY, PZ [kN] nodal loads
MX, MY, MZ [kNm] nodal moments
MB [kNm2]
sum sums of the relevant nodal loads
9.5 QUAD Element Loads

Loads acting on QUAD-elements
Elements from Start element number

to End element number
inc Increment
Load Type Load type
Prim LC / CC Primary load case number or construction
stage number
for wind loading: printout of the design
code or wind pressure distribution
Load val. [kN/m2] Load value for QUAD elements
Dimension Load dimension
Variation dP / dX Load variation load difference with
dP / dY reference to reference point with the
dP / dZ distance X,Y or Z
9.6 BRIC Element Loads

Loads acting on BRIC-elements
Elements from Start element number

to End element number
inc Increment
Load Type Load type
9-4 SOFiSTiK 2016

Prim LC / CC Primary load case number or construction

stage number
for wind loading: printout of the design
code or wind pressure distribution
Load val. [kN/m2] Load value for BRIC elements
Dimension Load dimension
Variation dP / dX Load variation load difference with
dP / dY reference to reference point with the
dP / dZ distance X,Y or Z
9.7 Beam Loads

Loads acting on Beam-elements
Number Beam number

a [m] Load distance from total beam start
l [m] Load length (no value for beam single
loads)
Loadval Start load value
Loadval [kN/m] End load value (no value for beam single
loads)
Dimens. Load dimension
ya, za [m] Local eccentricities of load point at start
ye, ze [m] Local eccentricities of load point at end
9.8 Truss and Cable Loads

Loads acting on Truss-elements
Number Number of the truss element

Loadval Load value at truss start
Loadval Load value at truss end (omits for constant
truss load)
SOFiSTiK 2016 9-5

Loads acting on Cable-elements
Number Number of the cable element

Loadval Load value at cable start
Loadval Load value at cable end (omits for constant
cable load)
9.9 Accelerations
If translational or rotational accelerations are used with the record ACCE, then
they are converted within the program in corresponding element loads and print-
out.
9.10 Wind Loading

Kind and extent of the output for wind loading depend on the input of the single
wind definitions and the system. The list of the wind loading is printout after the
check list of load case selection:
Wind loading
Wind according to code Selected design code is printout here.

Z or zone Wind zone
R Roughness zone
atmospheric wind v = Wind type and velocity in [m/sec]
Surface height
Wind direction with output of the direction components
Reference point with output of the coordinates
Reference direction with output of the direction components
Coefficients of the wind spectrum

(...) Type of wind spectrum according to input
or explicit for explicit specification
A1,A2,A3,B,C Coefficients
Longitudinal longitudinal of spectrum
Lateral lateral of spectrum
9-6 SOFiSTiK 2016

Vertical vertical of spectrum

coherences
Longitudinal
Lateral
Vertical
Roughness profile
D [km] Distance from building
r [m] Roughness
Hr [m] Relative height
Hi [m] Influence height
Topological ridge/summit Output of global coordinates XM,YM,ZM

Direction of length Direction of main expansion values
DX,DY,DZ
Height above ground
Width of elevation
Length of elevation Output only for topological summit
The output of the wind profile follows:
Windprofil (according to design code or explicit specification) or Wind-

profil v-boe
h Height above ground

v-mean Mean value of wind velocity
v-boe Gust wind maximum
t-lon Longitudinal turbulence
t-lat Lateral turbulence
t-ver Vertical turbulence
l-lon eff. wave length of long. turbulence
l-lat eff. wave length of lat. turbulence
l-ver eff. wave length of vert. turbulence
phase
SOFiSTiK 2016 9-7

At last the relevant element loading follows.
9.11 Load and Time Function

After definition of a load function with the record FUNC a graphic of the function
and (for ECHO LOAD EXTR or deactivated URSULA) a table of the single func-
tion values are printed before the actual loads. Following function parameters
result for periodical functions:
Variation of Loading in Time
Amplitude [-] Function value

Frequency [1/sec] Frequency value
Phase [sec] Phase displacement
start [sec] Start time
end [sec] End time
or
time [sec] Discrete time value

Factor [-] Function value
A graphic and/or a table is also printed before the output of the corresponding
load case for a definition of a time function with the record STEP.
Variation of Loading in Time Transient
T [sec] Discrete time value in sec

nn Number of used load case
9.12 Export of Load Cases

If loads are exported from a database into a input file with the record EXPO, then
the program SOFiLOAD generates a DAT-file with explicit defined name or with
the name project_LFD.DAT according to the default. The generated file includes
the corresponding SOFiLOAD input records for the load generation.
9-8 SOFiSTiK 2016

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SOFiLOAD

Loads and Load Functions

SOFiLOAD Manual, Version 2016-11

Copyright 2015 by SOFiSTiK AG, Oberschleissheim, Germany.

HQ Oberschleissheim Office Nuremberg

T +49 (0)89 315878-0 T +49 (0)911 39901-0

This manual is protected by copyright laws. No part of it may be translated, copied or

2 Theoretical Principles 2-1

3 Input Description 3-1

3.19 AREA Free Area Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-73

4 Dynamic Loads 4-1

5 Train Loading 5-1

5.3 GAX Geometry of an Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4

6 Wind Loading 6-1

7 Wave Loading 7-1

SOFiSTiK 2016 iii

7.3 Regular Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 7-2

8 Snow Loads 8-1

9 Output Description 9-1

SOFiLOAD generates loading for all SOFiSTiK-Modules.

The loads can be defined independently of a FEM-mesh. SOFiLOAD will handle

As an special extension we have provided or intended load generators to deal

SOFiSTiK 2016 1-1

of the basic program version however.

1-2 SOFiSTiK 2016

2.1 Equivalent Nodal Loads

Figure 2.1: Equivalent nodal loads for mesh refinement

SOFiSTiK 2016 2-1

2.2 Equivalent Nodal Loads

For beams, by contrast, prestress is defined as an equilibrium state of stress

Due to the shear forces it is strongly recommended not to combine different

2-2 SOFiSTiK 2016

[1] ATC-40. Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Concrete Buildings. Applied

SOFiSTiK 2016 2-3

[17] P. Fajfar. A nonlinear analysis method for performance-based seismic de-

2-4 SOFiSTiK 2016

SOFiSTiK 2016 2-5

2-6 SOFiSTiK 2016

3.1 Input language

Input is defined within blocks of CADINP-Input language, separated by the

There are the following possibilities:

Only definition of LC with a number

Three categories of units are distinguished:

mm Fixed unit. Input is always required in the specified unit.

[mm] Explicit unit. Input defaults to the specified unit. Alternatively, an

SOFiSTiK 2016 3-1

3.2 Input records

3-2 SOFiSTiK 2016

SOFiSTiK 2016 3-3

3-4 SOFiSTiK 2016

SOFiSTiK 2016 3-5

3.3 GRP Selection and Properties of Groups

Item Description Unit Default

WIND Option for Windloading LT LIT

3-6 SOFiSTiK 2016

Surface Frictional value cfr

SOFiSTiK 2016 3-7

3.4 ACT Definition of an Action

See also: ACT, LC

Item Description Unit Default

PART Partition to which the action belongs: LT *

TITL Designation of action LT24 *

3-8 SOFiSTiK 2016