UNIT-2

CELLULAR CONCEPTS

The immense potential of conventional telephone cannot be exploited to its maximum due to the
limitation imposed by the connecting wires. But this restriction has been removed with the advent of
the cellular radio.

Frequency Scarcity Problem

If we use dedicated RF loop for every subscriber, we need larger bandwidth to serve even a limited
number of subsc in a single city.

Example
A single RF loop requires 50 kHz B/W; then for one lakh subscribers we need 1,00,000 x 50 kHz =
5 GHz.

To overcome this B/W problem, subscribers have to share the RF channels on need basis, instead of
dedicated RF loops. This can be achieved by using multiple access methods FDMA, TDMA, or
CDMA. Even then the number of RF channels required to serve the subscribers, works out to be
impracticable.

Example
Consider a subs density of 30Sq.Km., Grade of service as 1%, Traffic offered per mobile sub as
30m E. Then number of RF channels required are

Radius(km) Area in Sq.km Subs RF Channels

1 3.14 100 8

3 28.03 900 38

10 314 10000 360

For 10,000 subs to allot 360 radio channels we need a B/Wof 360 50 KHz = 18 MHz. This is
practically not feasible.

Cellular Approach
With limited frequency resource, cellular principle can serve thousands of subscribers at an
affordable cost. In a cellular network, total area is subdivided into smaller areas called cells. Each

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cell can cover a limited number of mobile subscribers within its boundaries. Each cell can have a
base station with a number of RF channels.

Frequencies used in a given cell area will be simultaneously reused at a different cell which is
geographically separated. For example, a typical seven-cell pattern can be considered.

Total available frequency resources are divided into seven parts, each part consisting of a number of
radio channels and allocated to a cell site. In a group of 7 cells, available frequency spectrum is
consumed totally. The same seven sets of frequency can be used after certain distance.

The group of cells where the available frequency spectrum is totally consumed is called a cluster of
cells.

Two cells having the same number in the adjacent cluster, use the same set of RF channels and
hence are termed as Co-channel cells. The distance between the cells using the same frequency
should be sufficient to keep the co-channel (co-chl) interference to an acceptable level. Hence, the
cellular systems are limited by Co-channel interference.

Hence a cellular principle enables the following.

More efficient usage of available limited RF source.

Manufacturing of every piece of subscriber's terminal within a region with the same set of
channels so that any mobile can be used anywhere within the region.

Shape of Cells
For analytical purposes a Hexagon cell is preferred to other shapes on paper due to the following
reasons.

A hexagon layout requires fewer cells to cover a given area. Hence, it envisages fewer base
stations and minimum capital investment.

Other geometrical shapes cannot effectively do this. For example, if circular shaped cells are
there, then there will be overlapping of cells.

Also for a given area, among square, triangle and hexagon, radius of a hexagon will be the
maximum which is needed for weaker mobiles.

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In reality cells are not hexagonal but irregular in shape, determined by factors like propagation of
radio waves over the terrain, obstacles, and other geographical constraints. Complex computer
programs are required to divide an area into cells. One such program is Tornado from Siemens.

Operating Environment
Due to mobility, the radio signals between a base station and mobile terminals undergo a variety of
alterations as they travel from transmitter to receiver, even within the same cell. These changes are
due to

Physical separation of transmitter and receiver.

Physical environment of the path i.e. terrain, buildings, and other obstacles.
Slow Fading
In free space conditions (or) LOS, RF signal propagation constant is considered as two i.e. r
= 2. This is applicable for static radio systems.

In mobile environment, these variations are appreciable and normally r is taken as 3 to 4.

Rayleigh Fading
The direct line of sight in mobile environment, between base station and the mobile is not ensured
and the signal received at the receiver is the sum of a number of signals reaching through different
paths (multipath). Multipath propagation of RF waves is due to the reflection of RF energy from a
hill, building, truck, or aero plane etc.; the reflected energy undergoes a phase change also.

If there are 180 out-of phase with direct path signals, they tend to cancel out each other. So the
multipath signals tend to reduce the signal strength. Depending upon the location of the transmitter
and receiver and various reflecting obstacles along the path length, signal fluctuates. The
fluctuations occur fast and it is known as Rayleigh fading.

In addition, multipath propagation leads to pulse widening and Inter symbol Interference.

Doppler Effect
Due to the mobility of the subscriber, a change occurs in the frequency of the received RF signals.
Cellular mobile systems use following techniques to counter these problems.

Channel coding
Interleaving
Equalization
Rake receivers
Slow frequency hopping
Antennae diversity

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Co-Channel Interference and Cell Separation
We assume a cellular system having a cell radius R and Co-channel distance D and the cluster
size N. Since the cell size is fixed, co-channel interference will be independent of power.

Co-chl interference is a function of q = D/R.

Q = Co-chl interference reduction factor.

Higher value of q means less interference.

Lower value of q means high interference.

q is also related to cluster size (N) as q = 3N

q = 3N = D/R

For different values of N, q is

N = 1 3 4 7 9 12

Q = 1.73 3 3.46 4.58 5.20 6.00

Higher values of q

Reduces co-channel interference,

Leads to higher value of N more cells/cluster,
Less number of channels/cells,
Less traffic handling capacity.
Lower values of q

Increases co-channel interference,

Leads to lower value of n fewer cells / cluster,
More number of channels / cells,
More traffic handling capacity.
Generally, N = 4, 7, 12.

C/I Calculations and q

The value of q also depends on C/I. C is the received carrier power from the desired transmitter
and I is the co-channel interference received from all the interfering cells. For a seven-cell reuse
pattern, the number of co-channel interfering cells shall be six in number.
I = m2bMz1 Im
Loss of signal is proportional to (distance) r

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R Propagation constant.

c R-r

R = Radius of cell.

I 6 D-r

D= Co-channel separation distance

C/I = R r / 6D r = 1/6 Dr / Rr = 1/6 (D/R) r

C/I = 1/6 q r since q = D/R and q r = 6 C/I

Q = [6 C/I]1/r

Based upon the acceptable voice quality, the value of C/I has been found to be equal to 18 dB.

Assuming,

A seven-cell reuse pattern

Omni directional antennae
Value of q can be typically around 4.6.

Value r is taken as 3.

This is an ideal condition, considering the distance of the mobile units from the interfering cells to
be uniformly equal to D in all cases. But practically mobile moves and distance D reduces to D-
R when it reaches the boundary of the cell, and C/I drops to 14.47 dB.

Hence freq reuse pattern of 7 is not meeting C/I criteria with omni directional antennae.

If N = 9 (or) 12,

N = 9q = 5.2C/I = 19.78 dB

N = 12q = 6.0C/I = 22.54 dB

Hence, either 9 or 12 cell pattern is to be with omni directional antennae, but traffic handling
capacity is reduced. Hence they are not preferred.

In order to use N = 7 (or lower), directional antennas are used in every cell site. A cell having 3
sectors is very popular and will be like the figure shown below.

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Antennas font back coupling phenomenon reduces number of potential interferers.

For example if N = 7.

With omni directional antennae, number of interfering cells shall be six. With directional antennae
& 3 sectors the same is reduced to two. For N = 7 and three sectors, the C/I improves from 14.47 dB
to 24.5 dB even in worst conditions. Then C/I meets the requirement of 18dB. For N = 7 and six
sectors, the C/I improves to 29 dB.

For Urban applications, N = 4 and a three sector cell is used so that more number of carriers per cell
are obtained than N = 7. Also the C/I becomes 20 dB in worst cases.

DAMPS Uses 7/21 cell pattern

GSM Uses 4/21 cell pattern

Advantages of sectoring

Decrease co-channel interference

Increase system capacity
Disadvantages of sectoring

Large number of antennas at the base station.

Increase in the number of sectors/cell reduces the trunking efficiency
Sectoring reduces the coverage area, for a particular group of channels.
Number of Hand offs increases.
Hand Off
When the mobile unit travels along a path it crosses different cells. Each time it enters into a
different cell associated with f = different frequency, control of the mobile is taken over by the other
base station. This is known as Hand off.

Hand off is decided based on

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 Received signal strength information if it is below a threshold value.
Carrier to interference ratio is less than 18 dB.
Adjacent Channel Interference
A given cell/sector uses a number of RF channels. Because of imperfect receiver filters, which
allow nearby frequencies to leak into pass band, adjacent channel interference takes place.

It can be reduced by keeping the frequency separations between each RF channel in a given cell as
large as possible. When the reuse factor is small, this separation may not be sufficient.

A channel separation, by selecting RF frequencies, which are more than 6 channels apart, is
sufficient to keep adjacent channel interferences within limits.

For example, in GSM which follows 4/12 pattern, N = 4

Sectors = 3/cell

IA will use RF Carr. 1, 13, 25,..

IB will use RF Carr 5, 17, 29,

IC will use RF Carr. 9, 21, 33,.. and so on.

Trunking
Cellular radios rely on trunking to accommodate a large number of users in a limited radio
spectrum. Each user is allocated a channel on need/per call basis and on termination of the cell, the
channel is returned to the common pool of RF channels.

Grade of Service (GOS)

Because of trunking, there is likelihood that a call is blocked if all the RF channels are engaged.
This is called Grade of Service GOS.

Cellular designer estimates the maximum required capacity and allocates the proper number of RF
channels, in order to meet the GOS. For these calculations, ERLANG B table is used.

Cell Splitting

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When the number of users reaches saturation in a start-up cell (initial design) and no more spare
frequency is available, then the start-up cell is split, usually in four smaller cells and traffic
increases by four and more number of subscribers can be served.

After n splits, the traffic will be

T2 = T0 42

Power will be reduced

P2 = P0 n 12 db

Hence cell splitting improves the capacity and lowers the transmission power.

FREQUENCY REUSE
Frequency reuse is the process of using the same radio frequencies on radio transmitter sites within
a geographic area that are separated by sufficient distance to cause minimal interference with each
other. Frequency reuse allows for a dramatic increase in the number of customers that can be served
(capacity) within a geographic area on a limited amount of radio spectrum (limited number of radio
channels).
A cellular network or mobile network is a communication network where the last link is wireless.
The network is distributed over land areas called cells, each served by at least one fixed-
location transceiver, but more normally three cell sites or base transceiver stations. These base
stations provide the cell with the network coverage which can be used for transmission of voice, data
and others. A cell typically uses a different set of frequencies from neighbouring cells, to avoid
interference and provide guaranteed service quality within each cell.[1]
When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. This enables a
large number of portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, tablets and laptops equipped with mobile
broadband modems, pagers, etc.) to communicate with each other and with fixed transceivers and
telephones anywhere in the network, via base stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving
through more than one cell during transmission.
Cellular networks offer a number of desirable features:[1]

More capacity than a single large transmitter, since the same frequency can be used for multiple
links as long as they are in different cells
Mobile devices use less power than with a single transmitter or satellite since the cell towers are
closer
Larger coverage area than a single terrestrial transmitter, since additional cell towers can be
added indefinitely and are not limited by the horizon
Major telecommunications providers have deployed voice and data cellular networks over most of
the inhabited land area of the Earth. This allows mobile phones and mobile computing devices to be
connected to the public switched telephone network and public Internet. Private cellular networks
can be used for research[2] or for large organizations and fleets, such as dispatch for local public
safety agencies or a taxicab company

Concepts
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 Example of frequency reuses factor or pattern 1/4

In a cellular radio system, a land area to be supplied with radio service is divided into cells, in a
pattern which depends on terrain and reception characteristics but which can consist of roughly
hexagonal, square, circular or some other regular shapes, although hexagonal cells are conventional.
Each of these cells is assigned with multiple frequencies (f1 f6) which have corresponding radio
base stations. The group of frequencies can be reused in other cells, provided that the same
frequencies are not reused in adjacent neighbouring cells as that would cause co-channel
interference.
The increased capacity in a cellular network, compared with a network with a single transmitter,
comes from the mobile communication switching system developed by Amos Joel of Bell
Labs[4] that permitted multiple callers in the same area to use the same frequency by switching calls
made using the same frequency to the nearest available cellular tower having that frequency available
and from the fact that the same radio frequency can be reused in a different area for a completely
different transmission. If there is a single plain transmitter, only one transmission can be used on any
given frequency. Unfortunately, there is inevitably some level of interference from the signal from
the other cells which use the same frequency. This means that, in a standard FDMAsystem, there
must be at least a one cell gap between cells which reuse the same frequency.
In the simple case of the taxi company, each radio had a manually operated channel selector knob to
tune to different frequencies. As the drivers moved around, they would change from channel to
channel. The drivers knew which frequency covered approximately what area. When they did not
receive a signal from the transmitter, they would try other channels until they found one that worked.
The taxi drivers would only speak one at a time, when invited by the base station operator. This is, in
a sense, time-division multiple access (TDMA).
The first commercially automated cellular network, the 1G generations, was launched in Japan
by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) in 1979, initially in the metropolitan area of Tokyo.
Within five years, the NTT network had been expanded to cover the whole population of Japan and
became the first nationwide 1G network.

Frequency reuse

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The key characteristic of a cellular network is the ability to re-use frequencies to increase both
coverage and capacity. As described above, adjacent cells must use different frequencies, however
there is no problem with two cells sufficiently far apart operating on the same frequency, provided
the masts and cellular network users' equipment do not transmit with too much power.[1]
The elements that determine frequency reuse are the reuse distance and the reuse factor. The reuse
distance, D is calculated as

,
where R is the cell radius and N is the number of cells per cluster. Cells may vary in radius from
1 to 30 kilometres (0.62 to 18.64 mi). The boundaries of the cells can also overlap between
adjacent cells and large cells can be divided into smaller cells.[5]
The frequency reuse factor is the rate at which the same frequency can be used in the network. It
is 1/K (or K according to some books) where K is the number of cells which cannot use the same
frequencies for transmission. Common values for the frequency reuse factor are 1/3, 1/4, 1/7, 1/9
and 1/12 (or 3, 4, 7, 9 and 12 depending on notation).[6]
In case of N sector antennas on the same base station site, each with different direction, the base
station site can serve N different sectors. N is typically 3. A reuse pattern of N/K denotes a
further division in frequency among N sector antennas per site. Some current and historical reuse
patterns are 3/7 (North American AMPS), 6/4 (Motorola NAMPS), and 3/4 (GSM).
If the total available bandwidth is B, each cell can only use a number of frequency channels
corresponding to a bandwidth of B/K, and each sector can use a bandwidth of B/NK.
Code division multiple access-based systems use a wider frequency band to achieve the same
rate of transmission as FDMA, but this is compensated for by the ability to use a frequency reuse
factor of 1, for example using a reuse pattern of 1/1. In other words, adjacent base station sites
use the same frequencies, and the different base stations and users are separated by codes rather
than frequencies. While N is shown as 1 in this example that does not mean the CDMA cell has
only one sector, but rather that the entire cell bandwidth is also available to each sector
individually.
Depending on the size of the city, a taxi system may not have any frequency-reuse in its own
city, but certainly in other nearby cities, the same frequency can be used. In a large city, on the
other hand, frequency-reuse could certainly be in use.
Recently also orthogonal frequency-division multiple access based systems such as LTE are
being deployed with a frequency reuse of 1. Since such systems do not spread the signal across
the frequency band, inter-cell radio resource management is important to coordinate resource
allocation between different cell sites and to limit the inter-cell interference. There are various
means of Inter-Cell Interference Coordination (ICIC) already defined in the
[7]
standard. Coordinated scheduling, multi-site MIMO or multi-site beam forming are other
examples for inter-cell radio resource management that might be standardized in the future
CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT STRATEGIES

For efficient utilization of the radio spectrum, a frequency reuse scheme that is consistent with the
objectives of increasing capacity and minimizing interference is required. A variety of channel

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assignment strategies have been developed to achieve these objectives. Channel assignment
strategies can be classified as either fixed or dynamic. The choice of channel assignment strategy
impacts the performance of the system, particularly as to how calls are managed when a mobile user
is handed off from one cell to another.
In a fixed channel assignment strategy, each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channels.
Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the unused channels in that particular cell. If
all the channels in that cell are occupied, the call is blocked and the subscriber does not receive
service. Several variations of the fixed assignment strategy exist. In one approach, called
the borrowing strategy, a cell is allowed to borrow channels from a neighbouring cell if all of its own
channels are already occupied. The mobile switching centre (MSC) supervises such borrowing
procedures and ensures that the borrowing of a channel does not disrupt or interfere with any of the
calls in progress in the donor cell.
In a dynamic channel assignment strategy, voice channels are not allocated to different cells
permanently. Instead, each time a call request is made, the serving base station requests a channel
from the MSC. The switch then allocates a channel to the requested cell following an algorithm that
takes into account the likelihood of future blocking within the cell, the frequency of use of the
candidate channel, the reuse distance of the channel, and other cost functions.
Accordingly, the MSC only allocates a given frequency if that frequency is not presently in use in the
cell or any other cell which falls within the minimum restricted distance of frequency reuse to avoid
co-channel interference. Dynamic channel assignment reduces the likelihood of blocking, which
increases the trunking capacity of the system, since all the available channels in a market are
accessible to all of the cells. Dynamic channel assignment strategies require the MSC to collect real-
time data on channel occupancy, traffic distribution, and radio signal strength indications (RSSI) of
all channels on a continuous basis. This increases the storage and computational load on the system
but provides the advantage of increased channel utilization and decreased probability of a blocked
call.

HAND OFF STRATEGIES

In cellular telecommunications, the terms handover or handoff refer to the process of transferring an
ongoing call or data session from one channel connected to the core network to another channel.
In satellite communications it is the process of transferring satellite control responsibility from
one earth station to another without loss or interruption of service.

Types
In addition to the above classification of inter-cell and intra-cell classification of handovers, they
also can be divided into hard and soft handovers:[1]
Hard handover
Is one in which the channel in the source cell is released and only then the channel in the
target cell is engaged. Thus the connection to the source is broken before or 'as' the
connection to the target is madefor this reason such handovers are also known as break-
before-make. Hard handovers are intended to be instantaneous in order to minimize the
disruption to the call. A hard handover is perceived by network engineers as an event during
the call. It requires the least processing by the network providing service. When the mobile is
between base stations, then the mobile can switch with any of the base stations, so the base
stations bounce the link with the mobile back and forth. This is called 'ping-ponging'.

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 Soft handover
Is one in which the channel in the source cell is retained and used for a while in parallel with
the channel in the target cell. In this case the connection to the target is established before the
connection to the source is broken, hence this handover is called make-before-break. The
interval, during which the two connections are used in parallel, may be brief or substantial.
For this reason the soft handover is perceived by network engineers as a state of the call,
rather than a brief event. Soft handovers may involve using connections to more than two
cells: connections to three, four or more cells can be maintained by one phone at the same
time. When a call is in a state of soft handover, the signal of the best of all used channels can
be used for the call at a given moment or all the signals can be combined to produce a clearer
copy of the signal. The latter is more advantageous, and when such combining is performed
both in the downlink (forward link) and the uplink (reverse link) the handover is termed
as softer. Softer handovers are possible when the cells involved in the handovers have a
single cell site.
Handover can also be classified on the basis of handover techniques used. Broadly they can
be classified into three types:

1. Network controlled handover

2. Mobile phone assisted handover
3. Mobile controlled handover

Inter and Intra System Handoff

Inter System Handoff

If during ongoing call mobile unit moves from one cellular system to a different cellular system
which is controlled by different MTSO, a handoff procedure which is used to avoid dropping of
call is referred as Inter System Handoff.
An MTSO engages in this handoff system. When a mobile signal becomes weak in a given cell
and MTSO cannot find other cell within its system to which it can transfer the call then it uses
Inter system handoff.
Before implementation of Inter System Handoff MTSO compatibility must be checked and in
Inter System Handoff local call may become long distance call.
Intra System Handoff

If during ongoing call mobile unit moves from one cellular system to adjacent cellular system
which is controlled by same MTSO, a handoff procedure which is used to avoid dropping of call
is referred as Intra System Handoff.
An MTSO engages in this handoff system. When a mobile signal becomes weak in a given cell
and MTSO finds other cell within its system to which it can transfer the call then it uses Intra
system handoff.
In Intra System Handoff local calls always remain local call only since after handoff also the call
is handled by same MTSO.

INTERFERENCE AND SYSTEM CAPACITY

Interference and System Capacity

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Interference is the major limiting factor in the performance of cellular radio systems.

Sources of interference:

There are two types of sources of interference:

a. Active
b. Passive

a. Active

Active interference sources that emits a radio signals on the same frequency.

1. another mobile in the same cell.

2. a call in progress in a neighbouring cell.
3. other base stations operating in the same frequency band, or any no cellular system which
inadvertently leaks energy into the cellular frequency band.

b. Passive

Passive source of wireless interference is any substance that restricts to degrade a wireless signal that
attempt to pass through it.
Examples of such substances are metal, concrete, paper, fabric, glass, stone wood, bricks, etc..

Problems because of interference:

1. Interference on voice channels causes cross talk, where the subscriber hears interference in the
background due to an undesired transmission.
2. On control channels, interference leads to missed and blocked calls due to errors in the digital
signalling.

Interference is more severe in urban areas, due to the greater RF noise floor and the large number of
base stations and mobiles. Interference has been recognized as a major bottleneck in increasing
capacity and is often responsible for dropped calls.

Types of interference:

The two major types of system-generated cellular interference are co-channel

interference and adjacent channel interference.

Even though interfering signals are often generated within the cellular system, they are difficult to
control in practice (due to random propagation effects). Even more difficult to control is interference
due to out-of-band users, which arises without warning due to front end overload of subscriber
equipment or intermittent intermediation products. In practice, the transmitters from competing

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cellular carriers are often a significant source of out-of-band interference, since competitors often
locate their base stations in close proximity to one another in order to provide comparable coverage
to customers.

1. Co-channel Interference and System Capacity

Frequency reuse implies that in a given coverage area there are several cells that use the same set of
frequencies. These cells are called co-channel cells, and the interference between signals from these
cells is called co-channel interference. Unlike thermal noise which can be overcome by increasing
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), co-channel interference cannot be combated by simply increasing the
carrier power of a transmitter. This is because an increase in carrier transmit power increases the
interference to neighbouring co-channel cells. To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cells
must be physically separated by a minimum distance to provide sufficient isolation due to
propagation.

When the size of each cell is approximately the same and the base stations transmit the same power,
the co-channel interference ratio is independent of the transmitted power and becomes a function of
the radius of the cell (R) and the distance between centers of the nearest co-channel cells (D). By
increasing the ratio of D/R, the spatial separation between co-channel cells relative to the coverage
distance of a cell is increased. Thus, interference is reduced from improved isolation of RF energy
from the co-channel cell. The parameter Q, called the co-channel reuse ratio, is related to the cluster
size (see Table1 and Equation1. For a hexagonal geometry

Equation 1

N= I2 + ij+j2

Where i and j are non-negative integers. To find the nearest co-channel neighbors of a particular cell,
one must do the following:

(1) move i cells along any chain of hexagons and then

(2) turn 60 degrees counter-clockwise and move j cells.

Read Frequency reuse, to know more, how N is calculated

Table 1. Co-channel Reuse Ratio for Some Values of N

Cluster Size (N) Co-channel Reuse Ratio (Q)

i = 1, j = 1 3 3

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 Table 1. Co-channel Reuse Ratio for Some Values of N

Cluster Size (N) Co-channel Reuse Ratio (Q)

i = 1, j = 2 7 4.58

i = 2, j = 2 12 6

i = 1, j = 3 13 6.24

A small value of Q provides larger capacity since the cluster size N is small, whereas a large value
of Improves the transmission quality, due to a smaller level of co-channel interference. A trade-off
must be made between these two objectives in actual cellular design.

Let i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells. Then, the signal-to-interference ratio (S/I or SIR)
for a mobile receiver which monitors a forward channel can be expressed as

Equation 2

Where S is the desired signal power from the desired base station and Ii is the interference power
caused by the ith interfering co-channel cell base station. If the signal levels of co-channel cells are
known, then the S/I ratio for the forward link can be found using Equation 2.

Equation 2 also can be written as: (less complicated and simple to understand)

S = Desired signal power from desired base station

I Total received power from co-channel cells

Propagation measurements in a mobile radio channel show that the average received signal strength
at any point decays as a power law of the distance of separation between a transmitter and receiver.
The average received power Pr at a distance d from the transmitting antenna is approximated by

Equation 3

or

Equation 4

Where

P0 is the power received at a close-in reference point in the far field region of the antenna at a small
distance d0 from the transmitting antenna

d0 is the distance from transmitting antenna, where power is P0

n is the path loss exponent.

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In the study of wireless communications, path loss can be represented by the path loss exponent,
whose value is normally in the range of 2 to 4 (where 2 is for propagation in free space, 4 is for
relatively lossy environments and for the case of full specular reflection from the earth surfacethe
so-called flat-earth model). In some environments, such as buildings, stadiums and other indoor
environments, the path loss exponent can reach values in the range of 4 to 6. On the other hand, a
tunnel may act as a waveguide, resulting in a path loss exponent less than 2.

Path loss is usually expressed in dB.

Now consider the forward link where the desired signal is the serving base station and where the
interference is due to co-channel base stations. If Di is the distance of the ith interferer from the
mobile, the received power at a given mobile due to the ith interfering cell will be proportional to
(Di)n. The path loss exponent typically ranges between two and four in urban cellular systems.

When the transmit power of each base station is equal and the path loss exponent is the same
throughout the coverage area, S/I for a mobile can be approximated as

Equation 5

Considering only the first layer of interfering cells, if all the interfering base stations are equidistant
from the desired base station and if this distance is equal to the distance D between cell centers,
then Equation 5 simplifies to

Equation 6

Equation 6 relates S/I to the cluster size N, which in turn determines the overall capacity of the
system. For example, assume that the six closest cells are close enough to create significant
interference and that they are all approximately equidistant from the desired base station. For the
U.S. AMPS cellular system which uses FM and 30 kHz channels, subjective tests indicate that
sufficient voice quality is provided when S/I is greater than or equal to 18 dB. Using Equation 6, it
can be shown in order to meet this requirement, the cluster size N should be at least 6.49, assuming a
path loss exponent n = 4. Thus a minimum cluster size of seven is required to meet
an S/I requirement of 18 dB. It should be noted that Equation 6 is based on the hexagonal cell
geometry where all the interfering cells are equidistant from the base station receiver, and hence
provides an optimistic result in many cases. For some frequency reuse plans (e.g., N = 4), the closest
interfering cells vary widely in their distances from the desired cell.
Using an exact cell geometry layout, it can be shown for a seven-cell cluster, with the mobile unit at
the cell boundary, the mobile is approximately D R from the two nearest co-channel interfering
cells and approximately D + R/2, D, D R/2, and D + R from the other interfering cells in the first
tier. Using the approximate geometry shown in Figure 1, Equation 5, and assuming n = 4, the signal-
to-interference ratio for the worst case can be closely approximated as

Equation 7

Equation 7 can be rewritten in terms of the co-channel reuse ratio Q, as

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Equation 3.11

Figure 1. Illustration of the first tier of co-channel cells for a cluster size of N = 7. An approximation
of the exact geometry is shown here, whereas the exact geometry is given in. When the mobile is at
the cell boundary (point X), it experiences worst case co-channel interference on the forward channel.
The marked distances between the mobile and different co-channel cells are based on approximations
made for easy analysis.

Interference and System Capacity

Interference and System Capacity Interference is one of the major factors affecting the performance
of cellular radio systems. Sources of interference consist of another mobile inside the same cell, an
ongoing call in a neighboring cell, other base stations transmitting signal in the same frequency band,
or any non-cellular system which accidentally transmits energy into the cellular frequency band.
Interference on voice signals could give rise to cross talk, where the caller hears interference in the
background due to the presence of an unwanted transmission. The presence of interference in control
channels, gives rise to missed and blocked calls. Interference is very dangerous in urban areas, due to
the presence of larger base stations and mobile with greater RF noise. Interference has been accepted
as a major obstruction in increasing the capacity of a system and is largely responsible for dropped
calls in a network. The two major types of interferences that are taken consideration while allocating
channels to the calls are co-channel and adjacent channel interference. While interfering signals are
generated inside the cellular system by cellular transmitters, but they are difficult to control. The
interference due to out-of-band users is very difficult to control, which happens without any word of
warning, because of front end overload of subscriber equipment or intermittent inter-modulation
products.

Co-channel Interference and System Capacity:

The channel reuse approach is very useful for increasing the efficiency of radio spectrum utilization
but it results in co-channel interference because the same radio channel is repeatedly used in different
co-channel cells in a network. In this case, the quality of a received signal is very much affected both
by the amount of radio coverage area and the co-channel interference. Co-channel interference takes
place when two or more transmitters located within a wireless system, or even a neighboring wireless
system, which are transmitting on the same radio channel. Co-channel interference happens when the
same carrier frequency (base station) reaches the same receiver (mobile phone) from two different
transmitters.

This type of interference is generally generated because channel sets have been allocated to two
different cells that are nor far enough geographically, and their signals are strong enough to cause
interference to each other. Thus, co-channel interference can either modify the receiver or mask the
particular signal. It may also merge with the particular signal to cause severe distortions in the output
signal. The co-channel interference can be evaluated by picking any particular channel and
transmitting data on that channel at all co-channel sites. In a cellular system with hexagonal shaped
cells, there are six co-channel interfering cells in the first tier. Fig. 2.12 shows a Test 1 which is set-
up to calculate the co-channel interference at the mobile unit, in this test mobile unit is not stationary
but is continuously moving in its serving cell.

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 Fig. : Co-channel Interference Measurement at the Mobile Unit

In a small cell system, interference will be the major dominating factor and thermal noise can be neglected.

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PINKU MAURYA B.TECH (E&C.E) ~ 19 ~