GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 62, NO. 4 (JULY-AUGUST 1997); P. 10871096, 7 FIGS.
Comparison of induced polarization and
controlled-source audio-magnetotellurics
methods for massive chalcopyrite
exploration in a volcanic area
A. T. Basokur , T. M. Rasmussen , C. Kaya ,
Y. Altun , and K. Aktas
ABSTRACT
In this paper, we compare and contrast the results
of field experiments with the dipole-dipoleinduced
polarization (IP) and controlled-source audio-magneto-
tellurics (CSAMT) methods, along the same survey pro-
files, at a test area that was subject to extensive drilling
and detailed geological investigation. The ore bodies
are interbedded between two series of dacitic tuff. The
depth and thickness of the massive chalcopyrite-pyrite-
sphalerite body vary between 25 and 100 m and 0.5 and
16 m, respectively. Resistivity and IP phase measure-
ments on the core samples collected from the test area
provide some idea of the relative differences between
the background rock units and the target. The resistiv-
ity of the chalcopyrite samples varies between 0.6 to
2 ohm-m and provides sufficient resistivity contrast with
surrounding volcanic rock units for target detection.
The results of dipole-dipole IP profiling with a 50-m
dipole length conducted along two profiles are presented
in the form of apparent resistivity and phase pseudo-
sections. CSAMT measurements were made at 13 fre-
quencies from 2 Hz to 8192 Hz along three profiles. The
INTRODUCTION
Several chalcopyrite-pyrite-sphalerite deposits occur within
volcanogenic sediments in the eastern Black Sea region of
Turkey. Many ore deposits have been found by the applica-
tion of the conventional induced polarization (IP) method but
some attempts to locate sulfide bodies have been unsuccessful.
Manuscript received by the Editor May 22, 1995; revised manuscript received October 10, 1996.
Ankara Universitesi, Fen Fa, Jeofizik Muh B. Besevler, 06100, Ankara, Turkey. E-mail: basokur@science.ankara.edu.tr.
Formerly University of Uppsala, Solid Earth Physics, Villavagen 16, S-752 36, Uppsala, Sweden; presently Geological Survey of Sweden, Box 670,
S-751 28, Uppsala, Sweden.
MTA Genel Mudurlugu, Jeofizik Etudleri Dairesi, Eskisehir Yolu, 06520, Ankara, Turkey.
Demir Export A.S., Izmir Cad., Koc Han 25/7, Kizilay, Ankara, Turkey.
c 1997 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.
1087
receiver dipole length was 25 m. The CSAMT data are
presented in the form of pseudosections using conven-
tional and new definitions of apparent resistivity. The
elliptical contours of low apparent resistivity generated
by the transition-field notch can be misleading with re-
spect to the real anomaly of the ore body. These artificial
anomaly patterns are suppressed by making use of an al-
ternative apparent resistivity definition derived from the
frequency-normalized impedance. The qualitative inter-
pretation based on the IP and CSAMT pseudosections
shows that the location and the extension of the ore body
are indicated better in the CSAMT apparent resistivity
data computed from the alternative definition. The qual-
itative interpretation of the IP data is difficult because of
the 3-D effect arising from the neighboring thicker parts
of the ore body and pyrite particles within the basement.
At the final stage, the far-field range of the CSAMT
apparent resistivity and phase data is identified by the vi-
sual inspection of the individual sounding diagrams. The
models derived from the 2-D Occam inversion carried
out on the far-field data are compared with the drill-hole
information and are found to describe the actual geolog-
ical situation.
The problems in locating sulfide bodies are caused mainly by
the fact that some of the clay minerals in the alteration zones of
the volcanic covers (especially montmorillonite) and any pyrite
particles disseminated in the host rock produce a moderate IP
response that is difficult to distinguish from the anomaly of the
massive chalcopyrite-pyrite-sphalerite bodies. Since the con-
ventional IP method is diagnostic selectively as it gives a good
1088
response to all types of polarizable material, the spectral in-
duced polarization method (Pelton et al., 1978) has been tested
by Mineral Research and Exploration Institute of Turkey as a
possible tool in overcoming the problem. The discrimination
between the pyrite and chalcopyrite minerals was possible from
the measurements made on core samples in the laboratory, but
the field trials were found to be unsuccessful.
The controlled-source audio-magnetotellurics (CSAMT) me-
thod is becoming increasingly popular as an exploration tool
for massive sulfide deposits (e.g., Boerner et al., 1973; Kellett
et al., 1993). Since the method is quite sensitive to the conduc-
tive targets, it becomes feasible to test and compare the results
of IP and CSAMT methods for the detection of conductive
massive chalcopyrite-pyrite-sphalerite bodies occurring in the
Black Sea region. In this way, an exploration flow chart can be
constructed to optimize the cost and to increase the success
of the detection of unknown bodies. The selected test site
was the Lahanos deposit that has been subjected to extensive
drilling and detailed geological investigations. Our paper
compares and contrasts the results of field experiments with
the dipole-dipole IP and CSAMT methods along the same
survey profiles at this test site.
First, we briefly review the geology of the test area before
examining the geophysical results. The core sample measure-
ments are particularly useful for understanding the electrical
properties and the geophysical responses of the weathered
layer, rock units, and target mineralization. The pseudosections
derived from the IP and CSAMT data are compared in view
of the lateral resolution. In particular, we examine whether
the location of the ore bodies is better delineated from the
CSAMT data by making use of the alternative definition of
the apparent resistivity. Finally, we present the results of 2-D
Occam inversion based on CSAMT Cagniard (1953) apparent
resistivity and phase data and evaluate the results in view of
the actual geological situation.
GEOLOGY
The copper deposits in the central part of the East Pontid
belt within volcano-sedimentary units of Upper Cretaceous age
are formed in submarine environments as products of island
arc volcanism. The volcano-sedimentary units in the investi-
gation area consist of dacitic tuff, purple tuff-tuff breccia, and
dacite and andesitic tuff in that order from the bottom to the
top. The host rock of the mineralization dacitic tuff, shows hy-
drothermal alteration mainly argillic, sericitization and weakly
silicification, and it contains scattered pyrite grains. Dacitic tuff
forms anticlinal and synclinal structures and the slopes change
rapidly over short distances.
The origin of the ore body is assumed to be hydrothermal.
The massive ore deposition occurred at the seawater-volcanic
rock (dacitic tuff) contact in water depths of less than 200 m.
The vein-type mineralization within dacitic tuff is weakly devel-
oped and has no economical value. The massive chalcopyrite-
pyrite-sphalerite ore body always overlies dacitic tuff and the
geometry of the ore is related to the anticlinal and synclinal
structures of the decitic tuff. The main ore minerals are pyrite
and chalcopyrite. Sphalerite constitutes a minor part of the ore
body. Pyrite can be observed throughout the ore body but it
is dominant at the bottom. Sphalerite is observed at the up-
per part and chalcopyrite is observed at the central part and
dominates in the upper parts of the ore body.
Basokur et al.
The ore reserve is estimated as 1.7 million tons excluding
uneconomical pyrite mineralization. The depth of the chalco-
pyrite-pyrite-sphalerite ore varies between 25 and 100 m be-
cause of the irregularities both of surface topography and the
top of the ore body. The thickness of the chalcopyrite body
varies between 1 and 16 m (Figure 1).
The upper volcanogenic series consists of purple tuff-tuff
breccia, dacite and andesitic tuff breccia in that order from the
bottom to the top. The structure of the upper volcanogenic se-
ries deposited after mineralization indicates that the folding
has been continuous throughout the phases of volcanic activ-
ities. These series have dacitic origin and show variable thick-
nesses. The purple tuff-tuff breccia always overlies either the
ore body or the basement dacitic tuff. Dacite generally over-
lies purple tuff-tuff breccia and occasionally it is interbedded
between two purple tuff-tuff breccia series. The thickness of
dacite varies between 3 and 5 m and 70 and 80 m. Biotitic
dacite is observed in the northwestern part of the area. Three
geological cross-section and geophysical data measured over
them will be presented in the next sections (Figures 4a, 5a, 6a).
LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
The region has a rainy climate and a high degree of humidity.
Because of the climate and the tendency of the rock types to
be susceptible easily to hydrothermal/geochemical alteration, a
relatively deep weathering zone is present in the test area. Thus,
low resistivity values of the upper volcanic series are expected.
To investigate whether the contrast in resistivity between the
target mineralization and the volcanic cover was sufficiently
large to allow a discrimination between these units in terms of
electrical properties, representative rock samples from the test
site were analyzed in the laboratory.
Resistivity and IP phase measurements have been carried
out on some core samples collected from the test area and
neighboring mines. These data do not directly reflect the in-
trinsic resistivity or phase value of a certain type of rock unit
over the investigation area because of different degree of al-
teration and groundwater content. They do however give some
idea as to the relative variations between rock units and min-
eralization.
Figure 2 shows an example for these measurements. The
dacitic tuff core sample was taken at a depth of 77.5 m. The
resistivity and phase spectra are measured between 1/8 and
64 Hz. The resistivity and phase values are 213 ohm-m and
13.6 mrad at 1/8 Hz, respectively, for this sample. The maxi-
mum value of phase is 17 mrad at about 1 Hz. The measured
percent frequency effect (PFE) is 2.2. The main cause of this
moderate phase and PFE values is probably the pyrite particles
in the dacitic tuff. This indicates that vein type mineralization
or pyrite particles within the basement may produce a moder-
ate IP anomaly that may cause misinterpretation. In view of
the other similar resistivity and IP measurements on core sam-
ples (not shown here), it may be concluded that the basement
dacitic tuff has resistivity values between 100 and 700 ohm-m.
The resistivity of core samples representing the cover vol-
canics varies between 5 and 30 ohm-m. It may be concluded
that the upper volcanics have lower resistivity values than that
of the basement. The resistivity of the pyrite is about 10 ohm-m,
which is on the same order as the resistivity of the upper vol-
canics. The resistivity of samples taken from the massive
 Massive Sulfide Exploration by IP and CSAMT 1089

chalcopyrite body, the target of the survey, varies from 0.6 to
2 ohm-m. We concluded that this provided sufficient resistiv-
ity contrast with surrounding volcanic units and pyrite to be
optimistic about the results of CSAMT exploration during the
planning of the survey.
SURVEY DESIGN, DATA PROCESSING,
AND PRESENTATION
Three profiles along existing geological cross-sections have
been selected to compare the results of IP and CSAMT meth-
ods. The original numbering system of geological sections has
been kept for consistency and easy correlation. The distance
between the survey lines is 100 m. The survey lines are Line 200,
Line 300, and Line 400 with each being 600 m long. Figure 1
shows the position of the survey lines chosen on the basis of the
isopach map of chalcopyrite thickness deduced from the results
of drillings. The survey lines and consequently the electric field
dipoles were selected to be perpendicular to the known di-
rection of strike that corresponds to the H-polarization (TM)
mode for the scalar CSAMT measurements. The purpose was
to delineate the lateral extent of the ore body.
Dipole-dipole IP profiling was conducted on Line 200 and
Line 300. The length of the current and potential dipoles was
50 m. The potential dipole was moved six times along the sur-
vey line for one position of the current dipole and the appar-
ent resistivity and phase were measured at five frequencies for
levels n = 1 to n = 6. The current dipole was then shifted
to a new current dipole location by 50 m and the measure-
ments repeated for each of six locations of the potential dipole.
The apparent resistivity and phase pseudosections have been
constructed by plotting the measured data at the intersection
points of 45 sloping lines drawn from midpoints of current and

FIG. 1. Isopach map of the thickness (in meters) of the chalcopyrite-pyrite-sphalerite body and the location of measurement profiles.
The distance between two consecutive stations is 25 m.
1090 Basokur et al.

corresponding potential dipoles (see Fig. 4b, 5b, 6b). Only the case, the apparent resistivity represents an overestimate of the
apparent resistivity and phase data at 1 Hz are presented for true resistivity. The behavior of the apparent resistivity in the
the sake of brevity and because it is generally expected that the transition-field zone is more complicated. Cagniards (1953)
telluric noise is minimum for the frequencies close to 1 Hz. It definition frequently generates a notch in the transition-field
should be noted that the direction of the dipole-dipole spread zone (Zonge and Hughes, 1991) which is termed the under-
is opposite to the numbering sequence in Figures 4, 5, and 6 for shoot effect (Yamashita, 1987). Figure 3 shows an example of
the IP pseudosections. the near-field and undershoot effects in the apparent resistivity
The scalar CSAMT measurements at each station were made data measured at station 14 on Line 300. The near-field effect
at 13 frequencies from 2 to 8192 Hz with binary steps. The trans- characterized by a curve with a 45 slope is seen at frequencies
mitter dipole length was 1.5 km, and it was oriented parallel to lower than 32 Hz. The undershoot effect is observed at 64 Hz.
the survey lines. The distance between the transmitter dipole In our field experience, this effect is often observed when the
and the closest survey line (Line 400) was 3.8 km. Line 300 frequency range of the transition-field zone coincides with the
and Line 200 were, respectively, 3.9 and 4 km from the cur- transition of the apparent resistivity from a decreasing part to
rent dipole. Attempts to locate the transmitter dipole at far an increasing part. As in Figure 3, the undershoot effect can
distances to satisfy the far-field condition proved abortive be- be identified easily on a plot of the individual sounding curve.
cause of a low signal-to-noise ratio. A consistent data set was
obtained by establishing the current dipole about 4 km away
from the receiver site. The receiver dipole length was 25 m and
each survey line consisted of 24 measurement stations (see
Figures 4c, 5c, and 6c). The reason for the selection of such
short dipole lengths was to increase the lateral resolution, a
survey design parameter controlled by the electric field dipole
length. The scalar CSAMT recordings involved measuring four
magnetic fields at the centers of four electric field dipoles using
eight channel CSAMT equipment. The simultaneous measure-
ments of four magnetic and four electric fields provided a fast
survey.
The CSAMT interpretation is usually carried out by using
standard MT processing techniques. This is only possible by
assuming that the data are collected in the far-field zone where
the plane-wave situation is satisfied. The plot of the appar-
ent resistivity values versus frequency on bilogarithmic paper
FIG. 3. A comparison of the Cagniard (1953) apparent resistiv-
using Cagniards (1953) definition generates a curve that in- ity aC (+) and the apparent resistivity a F computed from the
creases with a slope of 45 in the near-field segment, because the equation (1) (o) in the far-, transition-, and near-field zones for
electric and magnetic fields are frequency independent. In this station 14 on Line 300.

FIG. 2. The amplitude and phase response of the IP impedance for a dacitic tuff core sample taken at a depth of 77.5 m. The
resistivity and phase values are 213 ohm-m and 13.6 mrad at 1/8 Hz, respectively.
 Massive Sulfide Exploration by IP and CSAMT 1091

However, pseudosection plotting is usually preferred when the
number of measurement stations is sufficiently high. Lateral
variations and main geological features can often be outlined
before the application of computer modeling and more com-
plicated inversion methods. The transition-zone notch creates
some problems in the pseudosection presentation of the ap-
parent resistivity data. In our case, the undershoot effect oc-
curred at frequencies corresponding to the transition from the
upper volcanics to the basement yielding elliptical contours of
low resistivity that can be misinterpreted easily as the anomaly
of the ore body by a nonspecialist. In addition, the low re-
sistivity contours of the real anomaly region becomes ellip-
soidal along the survey line. On the other hand, field geophysi-
cists and especially the nonspecialists need simple forms of
data presentation capable of providing a digestible overview
of such CSAMT data. To overcome the undershoot problem,
we decided to try other forms of the apparent resistivity defini-
tions (see Spies and Eggers, 1986; Basokur, 1994a and 1994b)

FIG. 4. Geological cross-section (a) and pseudosections for Line 200. Panels (b) and (c) are the IP apparent resistivity and phase
results. Panels (d) aC and (e) a F are the MT apparent resistivities. Legend: dacite (1), purple tuff-tuff breccia (2), chalcopy-
rite-pyrite-sphalarite (3), massive pyrite (4), and dacitic tuff (5).
1092 Basokur et al.

instead of attempting to correct the transition-field notch from where Yr and Yi represent the real and imaginary parts, respec-
all of the measurement stations since this correction is difficult tively, of the frequency-normalized impedance function (FNI)
(Yamashita, 1987). defined by
The following apparent resistivity definition has been se- p
lected among the possible definitions for representing the pseu-
Y = Z / i,
dosections: where Z denotes the MT impedance, is the magnetic per-
2 meability of free space, and is the angular frequency. The
a F = Yr2 + sign(Yi ) Yi2 Yr + Yi , (1) definition (1) is equivalent to the resistivity approximation

FIG. 5. Geological cross-section (a) and pseudosections for Line 300. Panels (b) and (c) are the IP apparent resistivity and phase
results. Panels (d) aC and (e) a F are the MT apparent resistivities. Legend: biotitic dacite (1), dacite (2), purple tuff-tuff breccia
(3), chalcopyrite-pyrite-sphalarite (4), massive pyrite (5), and dacitic tuff (6).
 Massive Sulfide Exploration by IP and CSAMT 1093

of Schmuckers (1970) z transformation (Szarka, 1994). the imaginary part as the result of the structure of equation (1).
However, an examination of systematic behaviors of the real
and imaginary parts of the FNI function provides an efficient
tool in understanding the different responses of the apparent
resistivity definitions (Basokur 1994a, 1994b).
The differences between the conventional and the above
definition can be seen easily on an individual sounding curve
(Figure 3). The absolute values of the real and imaginary parts
of the FNI function are the same in the near-field zone, but the
imaginary part is negative in sign in the near- and transition-
field zones. Since the denominator (Yr + Yi ) approaches zero,
the definition a F produces infinitely high apparent resistivity
values that are not useful for any purpose. Although the far-
field effect is observed at the same frequency range for both
of the apparent resistivity definitions, the meaning of the far-
field zone is different in view of the information obtained from
the deeper part of the geoelectric section. In Figure 3, the con-
ventional definition shows a descending-type two-layer curve
behavior, while the a F tends to be a bowl-type three layer
curve that indicates the effect of the resistive basement.
The real part of the FNI function reaches a minima showing
a slight oscillation before the near-field zone starts. The imagi-
nary part has numerical values less than unity in this frequency
range. The square of the real part becomes dominant in the
Cagniard (1953) apparent resistivity definition. Consequently,
the slight oscillation of the real part is magnified by the conver-
sion of the FNI function to the apparent resistivity giving the
transition-field notch. The a F definition does not produce such
a notch since the oscillation of the real part is compensated by
As a result, we may consider that the transition-field notch is a
product of the type of apparent resistivity definition employed
rather than a physical phenomenon. Then, the ellipsoidal con-
tours on the Cagniard (1953) apparent resistivity pseudosec-
tions created by the transition-field notch can be diminished
by making use of the a F definition.
QUALITATIVE INTERPRETATION OF IP
AND CSAMT DATA
Line 200
The examination of the pseudosection in Figure 4b obtained
by the dipole-dipole apparent resistivity measurements indi-
cates two anomalous regions with apparent resistivity values
less than 15 ohm-m. The anomaly between stations IP5 and IP7
is shallow and it is more probably related to the alteration zone
of the upper volcanics. The other deep and wide anomaly zone
between stations IP8 and IP10 may correspond to the mineral-
ization where the thickness of the ore body reaches 16 m. The
general shape of the apparent resistivity contours gives a rough
picture of the geological situation.
The apparent IP phase pseudosection indicates a deep
anomaly zone between stations IP4 and IP6 characterized by
phase values higher than 15 mrad and it may be correlated with
ore mineralization (Figure 4c). However, this anomaly is still
questionable because the core sample measurements of vol-
canics produce phase values as high as 15 mrad (see Figure 2)
and the apparent resistivity anomaly does not coincide with the

FIG. 6. Geological cross-section (a) and pseudosections for Line 400. Panels (b) aC and (c) a F are the MT apparent resistivities.
Legend: dacite (1), purple tuff-tuff breccia (2), chalcopyrite-pyrite-sphalarite (3), massive pyrite (4), and dacitic tuff (5).
1094 Basokur et al.
phase anomaly. However, any drilling proposals based upon
this phase anomaly over stations IP5 and IP9 would have in-
tersected the ore body. If we consider that the location of the
ore body is normally unknown before the geophysical survey,
one may suppose that the IP survey would give promising
results.
The wide anomaly region in Cagniards (1953) apparent
resistivity pseudosection between CSAMT stations 7 and 15
correlates with the known massive chalcopyrite ore (Figure 4d).
The elliptical contours along the 64 Hz level are caused by
the transition-field notch. This effect also generates a pseudo
anomaly beneath station 5 that can be misinterpreted easily
by the nonspecialist. However, the pseudosection (Figure 4e)
generated using the a F definition suppresses the anomaly pat-
terns caused by the transition-field notch by increasing the ap-
parent resistivity values. Furthermore, the sample values of the
apparent resistivity are smaller than that of the conventional
definition if the data are related with a subsurface conductor as
in the case of station 15 (Figure 4e). Consequently, the anoma-
lies corresponding to the thickest parts of the ore body are
represented better in the a F pseudosection than the conven-
tional one. It is obvious that any recommendation for drilling
based on the a F pseudosection will yield successful results.
However, it may be noted that the thick and relatively deep
massive chalcopyrite-pyrite-sphalerite ore body beneath sta-
tions from 16 to 19 is not seen directly on the CSAMT pseudo-
sections. Interestingly, this part of the ore body becomes visible
after the 2-D inversion as will be described in the next section
(see Figure 7a).
Line 300
As in the case of Line 200, IP apparent resistivity pseudo-
section (Figure 5b) indicates a wide low resistivity anomaly
between stations IP7 and IP9, which corresponds to CSAMT
stations 14 and 17, respectively. The left-hand side of the sec-
tion is represented by relatively high values of resistivity. The
low resistivity anomaly zone can be considered as correlating
with the mineralized zone. In fact, there is no chalcopyrite min-
eralization between stations IP8 and IP9 on Line 300. The situ-
ation may be explained by 3-D effects. An examination of the
isopach map of the chalcopyrite ore body will reveal that the
thickness of the ore body increases in the region close to these
stations (see Figure 1).
Two anomalous regions can be identified in the phase pseu-
dosection where the phase values exceed 20 mrad (Figure 5c).
These relatively high values of the phase are much easier to cor-
relate with the ore body than the phase anomaly on Line 200,
and although the apparent resistivity anomaly agrees with the
phase anomaly between stations IP8 and IP9, any proposed
drill holes at these locations will be unsuccessful because of
the 3-D effect arising from the neighboring, thicker part of the
ore body.
In the conventional apparent resistivity pseudosection of
CSAMT shown in Figure 5d, the anomaly between stations
6 and 15 is well correlated with the chalcopyrite ore body. The
lateral resolution is high and the boundaries of the ore body
are clearly identified. The 10-ohm-m contour clearly delineates
the mineralization. The sample values of apparent resistivity
decrease to 1 ohm-m within the anomalous region. The pseu-
dosection generated using the a F definition gives better lateral
variation than that of the conventional one because the ellipti-
cal contours caused by the transition-field notch diminish, and
a substantial decrease of the apparent resistivity values is ob-
tained (Figure 5e).
Without regard to which definition is used for the data pre-
sentation, the lateral resolution of the CSAMT method is bet-
ter than that of the IP method. As in the case of Line 300, any
drilling based on the qualitative interpretation of the IP data
may not intersect the ore body caused by intensive 3-D effects
and poor lateral resolution.
Line 400
Figure 6 shows the geological section on Line 400 and cor-
responding apparent resistivity pseudosections obtained from
the CSAMT data by using the conventional and a F defini-
tions. The conventional pseudosection (Figure 6b) indicates
two low resistivity anomaly centers beneath stations 10 and 15.
The shape of the anomaly zone gives the impression that the
ore body extends to station 5 because of the transition-field
notch. The a F pseudosection gives better lateral resolution
and it clearly indicates the thick parts of the ore body beneath
stations 9 and 15. The qualitative interpretation of the a F data
is sufficient to suggest drill holes to intersect the thickest parts
of the ore body.
QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATION OF CSAMT DATA
Since the qualitative interpretation of the CSAMT data
proved to be more informative than that of the IP data, we
only took into consideration the CSAMT data to make a quan-
titative interpretation. The high-frequency part of the Cagniard
(1953) apparent resistivity and the phase data between 4096 Hz
and 64 Hz corresponding to the far-field range were selected
for a 2-D Occam inversion (deGrooth-Hedlin and Constable,
1990). The basic principle in the Occam inversion is to search
for the smoothest model among many possible models having a
prescribed value of the root-mean-square (rms) misfit function
defined by
" #1/2
1 X N
rms = (di di )2 i2 ,
N i =1
where d and d denote the measured data and model response
[Cagniard (1953) apparent resistivity and phase] respectively,
is the standard error, and the summation is done for all sam-
ple values entering the inversion. Unfortunately, no error es-
timates are available for our data and a calculation of the rms
misfit function is prohibited. Thus, the procedure described by
deGrooth-Hedlin and Constable (1990) is not directly appli-
cable to the present data set. To proceed, we have applied a
relative data error to our measured data (relative error based
on the norm of the impedance) which is equal for all data points.
After performing an initial inversion in which we searched for
the smallest possible rms misfit value, a new inversion was per-
formed with a requested rms misfit value 2.5% higher than
the minimum rms value. Inverting for rms misfit value slightly
above the minimum rms value is a choice made to avoid fit-
ting noise in the data. The minimum rms misfit value obtained
when referring to a 1% relative error for the impedance is
around 8 for the three profiles. Thus, an average relative error
of 8% on the impedance is required for the models to explain
 Massive Sulfide Exploration by IP and CSAMT 1095

the data from a statistical point of view, assuming a zero-mean
Gaussian error distribution. The rather high value for the misfit
function is related in part to some difficulties in fitting the very
high-frequency part at some stations. A systematic deviation
between the measured data and model response are seen for
the same stations. Most probably this discrepancy is related to
a too coarse parameterization of the upper part of the two-
dimensional models and deviations from two-dimensionality.
Although some problems remain in fitting the measured data,
the gross features of the response functions are explained by
the models, and a comparison with drill-hole information shows
that the models are describing the actual geological structures
very well.
The models obtained along the three profiles display rather
similar features (Figure 7). The dominating structure defined
by low resistivity values is found in the central part of the pro-
files at a depth around 50 m to 75 m. It should be emphasized
that the Occam inversion tends to give a smooth picture of the
actual structures (Constable et al., 1987; deGroot-Hedlin and
Constable, 1990), and usually we should expect that the model

FIG. 7. Models obtained from the 2-D Occam inversion of the CSAMT data along Lines 200 (a), 300 (b), and 400 (c).
1096
conductive structure can be confined within a much narrower
zone and still explain the data as long as the vertically inte-
grated conductivity is kept unchanged.
CONCLUSIONS
The IP method is very sensitive to a small amount of polariz-
able particles in the medium. However, in our case, this sensi-
tivity becomes disadvantageous for the method because of the
clay minerals in the shallow alteration zones and the vein type
mineralization in the host rock. Therefore, the IP method did
not perform as well as CSAMT in this particular environment.
The IP data will give more consistent results in a different ge-
ological condition. Our purpose is to indicate that the success
of the geophysical survey depends on the careful examination
of the physical response of an individual method using the re-
sults of core sample measurements or forward modeling and
depends on understanding the relation between these factors
and the geological situation.
In this field example, the apparent resistivity pseudosections
derived from the CSAMT data gives a better picture of the
target ore body in comparison with the IP apparent resistivity
and phase pseudosections. This is because the scattered pyrite
particles in the host rock and vein type mineralization cause
moderate anomalies that cannot be distinguished from the IP
response of the conductive massive ore body. However, the
CSAMT method is very sensitive to the conductive zones and
can help obtain better localization of the highly conductive
massive sulfide ore bodies. Second, the lateral extension of the
target can be outlined better using the CSAMT method be-
cause the method permits us to use a smaller dipole length.
Without considering the effect of the subsurface resistivities,
the depth of investigation is a function of the signal wavelength
in the CSAMT method. The lateral resolution is related to the
size of the electric field dipole and the signal wavelength. An
optimal choice can be made by taking these factors into ac-
count. In the IP method, the depth of investigation is a function
of the distance between the transmitter and the receiver dipoles
and consequently the lateral resolution has to be decreased if
one attempts to investigate the deeper part of geological sec-
tion.
The main problem of the CSAMT method is the near-
field effect that limits the depth of investigation. Also, the
transition-field notch generates elliptical contours of low re-
sistivity that can be misinterpreted easily with the anomaly of
the ore body. This problem may be encountered by making
use of the alternative definitions of apparent resistivity that
give more information about the deeper part of the geoelec-
tric section. Interpretation of the far-field response functions is
Basokur et al.
clearly improved using a 2-D inversion technique. The models
obtained from applying the 2-D Occam inversion are found to
give a very good description of the ore bodies.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the management and direc-
tors of Demir Export A. S. for permission to use the data and for
financing the field survey. We gratefully acknowledge Mineral
Research and Exploration of Turkey for acquiring the data.
One of us (ATB) would like to thank The Swedish Institute
for a scholarship provided which made a visit to the Univer-
sity of Uppsala possible. We would like to thank Geophysics
Department of Uppsala University for providing computing fa-
cilities for the 2-D inversions. The data processing part of this
work is also supported by the Scientific and Technical Research
Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) under grant no. YBAG-102
and YDABCAG-230/G. We are grateful to Dr. Maxwell Meju
of Leicester University for critically reading the manuscript.
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