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Qualitative analysis : the chemical analysis that detect the presence of substance in a sample
Quantitative analysis : is the chemical analysis that determines the concentration of a substance in a
sample
Volumetric analysis (titrimetric analysis) : is the quantitative chemical analysis carried out by
determining the volume of a solution of accurately known concentration which is required to react
quantitatively with a measured volume of a solution of the substance to be determined
Gravimetric Analysis is a quantitative analysis is based on the measurement of the weight of a substance
of precisely known composition that is chemically related to the analyte. Most often the unknown is
precipitated from solution by a reagent and, after separation and drying, is weighed
Instrumental analysis is a field of Analytical chemistry which investigates the analyte via devices or
machinery techniques. Like atomic absorption
Redox titration (Oxidation-Reduction titration) is a titration in which the reaction between the analyte
and titrant is an oxidation/reduction reaction
Redox reaction (oxidation-reduction reaction) is a reaction that involves transfer of electrons from one
substance to another
Complexometric titration is a titration in which the reaction between the analyte and titrant is a
complexation reaction
Precipitation titration is a titration in which the reaction between the analyte and titrant involves a
precipitation
Concentration is a general measurement unit stating the amount of solute present in a known amount
of solution
Strength of solution (S) is the number of grams of solute per one liter of solution
Weight percent (% w/w) is the number of grams of solute per 100 g of solution
Volume percent (% v/v) is the number of milliliters of solute per 100 ml of solution
Weight-to-volume percent (% w/v) is the number of grams of solute per 100 ml of solution
Part per million (ppm) is the number of micrograms of solute per gram of solution; for aqueous solutions
the units are often expressed as the number of milligrams of solute per liter of solution
Part per billion (ppb) is the number of nanograms of solute per gram of solution; for aqueous solutions
the units are often expressed as the number of micrograms of solute per liter of solution
Molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights of atoms in the molecular formula
Equivalent weight is the atomic weight of an element or radical divided by its valence; the molecular
weight of a compound divided by its combining power in a specific reaction
Dilution the process of preparing a less concentrated solution from a more concentrated solution
Molar solution is the solution that contains one mole of solute in each one liter of it
Normal solution is the solution that contains one gram equivalent of solute in each one liter of it
Molal solution is the solution that contains one mole of solute dissolved in each one kilogram of
solvent
Titrant is the substance that quantitatively reacts with the analyte in a titration. The titrant is usually a
standard solution added carefully to the analyte until the reaction is complete. The amount of analyte is
calculated from the volume of titrant required for complete reaction
Back titration is a titration in which we add a known excess of one standard reagent to the analyte. Then
we titrate the excess reagent with a second standard reagent. A back titration is useful when its end
point is clearer than the end point of the direct titration or when an excess of the first reagent is
required for complete reaction with analyte
Blank titration is a titration in which we carry out the same procedure without analyte
End point is the point at which the indicator changes color. It is the experimental estimate of the
equivalence point in a titration
equivalence point: the moment at which; the Rx is completely and stoichiometric between indicator &
unknown
example: all moles HCl reacted with same moles of NaOH as Rx. ratio is 1:1
Indicator is a colored compound whose change in color indicates the end point of a titration
Titration curve is a graph showing the progress of a titration as a function of the volume of titrant added
Neutralization Titrations (acidbase titration) A titration in which the reaction between the analyte and
titrant is an acidbase reaction
Acid
Base
Lewis : a molecule or ion that donates an electron pair to form a chemical bond
Strong acid is an acid that completely dissociates into hydrogen ions and anions in solution
External indicator : it's detection of the end point outside conical flask
Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion
Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion
Oxidizing agent is a substance which oxidize other substance and it self is reduced. - e.g. KMnO4,
K2Cr2O7 and I2
Reducing agent is a substance which reduce other substance and it self is oxidized. - e.g. C2O2H4, FeSO4
and Na2S2O3
Redox indicators are highly colored dyes that are weak reducing or oxidizing agents that can be
oxidized or reduced; the colors of the oxidized and reduced forms are different
Self indicator is the indicator in which the titrant or analyte itself act as indicator (i.e. change their color
at end point
Solubility Product : it's the product of the ion concentration of a sparingly soluble electrolyte
Post Precipitation : secondary precipitation of a foreign substance on the particles of the primary
precipitation
Co-Precipitation : Contamination of the precipitate with substance which are normally soluble under the
precipitation condition , due to adsorption or occlusion
Adsorption : a phenomena which forms when a gas or vapor is brought in contact with an evacuated
solid
Double Salt : two simple salt have a properties in aquas state and have another properties in solid state
Mole fraction : the number of moles of a component of a mixture divided by the total number of moles
in mixture
Co-ordination bond : transfer of lone pair of electrons from non metal atom ( ligand ) to metal atom
Co-ordination number : the number of Co-ordination bond around the central metal in Co-ordination
sphere
Order of reaction : it's sum of all power of the conc. of the reactant
rate of reaction : decrease of concentration per unit time of one of the reactant
Ka( acid ionization const. ) : is equilibrium const. of chemical reaction involving weak acid in aqueous
solution
Ksp( solubility product const. ) : is the equilibrium const. for a solid substance dissolving in aqueous
solution
viscosity : resistance of flow of liquid due to power between the layer of liquid
Titrant is the substance that quantitatively reacts with the analyte in a titration. The titrant is
usually a standard solution added carefully to the analyte until the reaction is complete. The
amount of analyte is calculated from the volume of titrant required for complete reaction
Types of titration
3. Precipition titration :
4. Complexometrictitration :.
Acid-base indicator (Neutralization indicator) is a weak acid or a weak base. The undissociated
form of the indicator has a color different from the color of its ionized part. These substances
change their color according to variation of pH of medium
Neutralization Titrations (acidbase titration) A titration in which the reaction between the
analyte and titrant is an acidbase reaction
When we titrate the sample by standard soln. of base in burrete is called (acidity test )
When we titrate the sample by standard soln. of acid in burrete is called (alkalinity test )
End point is the point at which the indicator changes color. It is the experimental estimate of the
equivalence point in a titration
Indicator is a colored compound whose change in color indicates the end point of a titration
No indicator gives correct result in the titration of weak acids against weak acids against bases
Strong acid is an acid that completely dissociates into hydrogen ions and anions in solution
The chemical Rx,in which occur transfer of electron(loss or gain of electrons)among the reacting
ions in aqeous soln.
Some these titrations are named after the reagent used as (permanganate KMnO4,dichromate
K2Cr2O7,iodimetric by I2 ,iodometric by Na2S2O3)
Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion
Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion
Oxidizing agent is a substance which oxidize other substance and it self is reduced. - e.g. KMnO4,
K2Cr2O7 and I2
Reducing agent is a substance which reduce other substance and it self is oxidized. - e.g.
C2O2H4, FeSO4 and(sodium thiosulphate ) Na2S2O3
Redox indicators are highly colored dyes that are weak reducing or oxidizing agents that can be
oxidized or reduced; the colors of the oxidized and reduced forms are different
1. Precipition titration :
Based on formation of insoluble ppt,when soln. of 2 reacting substances are contact with each
other .
AgNo3+NaCl =AgCl+NaNo3
When AgNo3 is reacted with NaCl; thus White ppt. of AgCl is formed
1. Complexometric titration
These titrations are superior to precipitation titrations as there is No error due to co-
precipitations (Co-Precipitation : Contamination of the precipitate with substance which are
normally soluble under the precipitation condition , due to adsorption or occlusion)
EDTA(ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid ) is useful reagent that forms complexes with metals
In the form of disodium salt; its used to estimate Ca ions& Mg ions in presence of (Eriochrome
black-T)(EBT)indicator.
EDTA is considered as a Ligand : anion or natural molecule which contain unpaired electrons
Co-ordination bond : transfer of lone pair of electrons from non metal atom ( ligand ) to metal
atom
Co-ordination number : the number of Co-ordination bond around the central metal in Co-
ordination sphere
NOTES:
End point is the point at which the indicator changes color. It is the experimental estimate of the
equivalence point in a titration
example: all moles HCl reacted with same moles of NaOH as Rx. ratio is 1:1
Back titration is a titration in which we add a known excess of one standard reagent to the
analyte. Then we titrate the excess reagent with a second standard reagent. A back titration is
useful when its end point is clearer than the end point of the direct titration or when an excess
of the first reagent is required for complete reaction with analyte
Blank titration is a titration in which we carry out the same procedure without analyte
Titration curve is a graph showing the progress of a titration as a function of the volume of
titrant added
Indicator is a colored compound whose change in color indicates the end point of a titration
Disadvantages of indicators :
1-visual error
*Acid
Lewis : a molecule or ion that donates an electron pair to form a chemical bond
In presence of resistance wire ; electron pass from cathode to anode & electric current from
anode to cathode .
In absence of resistance wire ; we replace it by liquid soln. that is called electrolyte that have 2
types :
Strong electrolyte: the soln. have completely ionized .e.g: HCL that dissociated into H+& CL-
ions
Weak electrolyte: the soln. have partially ionized . e.g: NH4OH that dissociated into NH4+&
OH- ions
The resistance in resisrance wire depend on length & area surface.
The resistance in electrolyte soln. depend on ions movement that opposite to each other as +ve
ions go to ve electrode and the ve ions go to +ve electrode .thus +ve ions will face ve ions
thus occur resistance to each other .
In presence of electrolyte; ions carry electrons from +ve electrode to ve electrode ;
Firstly,CL-ions around +ve electrode (Anode)to give electrons into this electrode by(Redox)to go
to the cathode electrode and CL- ions turns into CL- ions turns into CL2 gas in the soln. by loss of
electrons that is carried on ions , then H+ ions around the ve electrode cathode to gain
electrons from the cathode by redox and turn into H2 gas
PHmeter:
Use for measuring the PH that is either the conc. or activity of H+ ions in aqueous soln.
PH indicate if the soln. is acidic or basic ; but isnt a measure of acidity or alkalinity.
PH meter consists of glass electrode connected to electronic meter that measure the PH
reading.
NOTE:
Glass electrode: is electrode contain reference electrode &working electrode in the
same set.
PH of water is (5-7) at 250C
PH=-log{H+}
Because water have Ca+2,Mg+2 ions that make water hardness ; where the Ca+2 ions attract the Oxygen
from H2 to make strong &nearthus occur small bond between (Ca&O)but make the bond of O with each
H atom is long &weak , thus each H ions will be free in the medium thus the water become acidic .
Conductivitymeter:
Potentiometer:
1. Precipitation
2. Digestion
3. Filteration&washing
4. Drying,ignition&weighting
5. Calculation
1-precipition:
Contamination of precipitation
2-Digestion:leaving the ppt in contact with the mother soln. of period of time
3-Filteration:isolation of ppt from the mother soln. by (ashless filter paper Buchner system )
Note:
Dessicator(dry box)
-it is charger with drying agent as silica gel or anhydrous Caso4&anhydrous CaCL2
%Ash=(Aw/Sw)*100
H2SO4 conc. is used in Sulfated ash test ;H2SO4conc.is not used inResidue
on iginition
Chromatography theory: solutes to be separated depend on distribution between 2 phases
(mobile phase &stationary phase)
For Example in HPLC; sample is complex mix. Of organic compound that is dissolved in organic solvent by
HPLC that make separation & determination of this mix. quantitative or qualitatitve
- is the time that each component takes to come off the column
Types of resolution:
1. Base line resolution: occur complete separation (each component have a peak refers to
indicate it )
2. Partial resolution:(each peak of each component is very nearly to each other )
3. Zero resolution:(each peak of each component is found in one peak in the chromatogram)
Column of st.phase have large number of separate layers that called theoretical plates(when
no. of the theoretical plates increase; there occur perfect efficiency of chromatography )
The Theoretical plates (N):
1. To measure column efficiency
2. To measure of peak sharpness which is important for detection of trace component
peak sharpness is preferred than peak broadening due to occur overlapping of peak broadening
thus peak sharpness is apprear fast
types of liquid chromatography: (NPLC,RPLC)
1. NPLC: Normal Phase Liquid Chromatography (polar st. phase as silica particles &non
polar m.phase as hexane)
2. RPLC: Reversed Phase Liquid Chromatography(polar m. phase as silica particles &non
polar st.phase as hexane)
Displacementer:
The substance that found in m.phase ;and have the ability to react with st. phase than
all types of solutes
It replace the solute that found in column; whereas one component which has weaker
interaction with column and strong interaction with m. phase while elute firstly,while
one component which has strong interaction with column and weak interaction with
m.phase will be eluted later
Disadvantage of displacementer ; there is problem in analytical scale ; because No
complete elution of each component of mix (presence of mixed zones ) that called Tail
region{its conc. contain mix of 2 adjacent solutes components}
Tail region: (if there is peak A & peak B , the peak A may be mixed with peak B;
because there are remain amount of peak A But B>A )
Frontal analysis: in which; dilute soln. of mix.(m.phase) is continuously added on one
column;solutes get out from that have st. phase based on interaction between solutes
&st.phase
Elution types
a) Isocreaticeution.(composition of m.phase doesnt change during one separation
process)
i. Stepwise m.phase(in which; different m.phase are used at different times)
ii. Only one m.phase(used,not changed in composition during process)
b) Gradient elution (composition of m.phase change during one separation process, can
changing from polar to non polar or opposite is right )
Shapes of st.phase:
A. Column- chromatography (st.phase is inside a tube;andm.phase moves through the
column by influence of gravity or pressure )
i. Packed column (st.phase is solid; it completely packed in column and m.phase is
as inert matter)
ii. Open tubular column (st.phase coats inside the wall in the tube leaving empty
path for m.phase)
B. Planar- chromatography (st.phase is inside a plat TLC or paper;andm.phase moves
through the plate or paper by influence of capillary action through the plate or paper
by influence of capillary action; Examples: paper chromatography ;TLC thin layer
chromatography plate )
Separation mechanism types:
1. Affinity chromatography
Separation depend on interaction between solute &st.phase
2. Ion-exchange chromatography
Separation depend on difference in the charge of solute
St.phase is resigns or polymer with acid or basic group
3. Chiral chromatography
Is used for separation of chiral compounds
If solutes&st.phaseare chiral compounds and m.phaseisnt chiral compound
If solutes&st.phasearent chiral compounds and m.phaseis chiral compound
St.phase is cellulose ,amaylase derivatives, protiens , peptids , cyclodextrin
4. Size exclusion chromatography:Ex: (LSC)Liquid Solid Chromatography
Separation depends on difference in size of the solute(small size get out down;but large
size remains)
Examples;(gel filteration):aqueous liquid m.phase -gel permation):organic liquid
m.phase
St.phase is polymer or porous silica
5. Adsorption chromatography:Ex: (LSC)Liquid Solid Chromatography
Separation depends on difference in adsorption affinities of mix. components to
st.phase
St.phase is silica
6. Partition chromatography:Ex: (LLC)Liquid Liquid Chromatography
Separation depends on difference in distribution of mix. components between 2 liquid
phases (liquid m.phase&liquid st. phase )
It is used for
1) For separating mixtures either to analyze the mix. or to separate a required
product from others in a reaction mixture
2) To find the relative amounts of different components in a mixture.
In which; how fast each one moves depends on its relative affinity for the m.phase in
the st.phase ;or example , if m.phase is more polar than st.phase ;the more polar
components of mix. will tend to move more quickely than the less polar ones
Components of HPLC :(mobile phase,pump. Injection port or autosampler,column,
detector,display,waste bottles)
There are pumps; they produce a pressure 150 times that of the atmosphere ,hence the
name high pressure liquid chromatography
If single sample is to be run, it is injected into the solvent stream, here in the injection
port via a hypodermic syringe
If several samples can be run by loading them into autosamplers that will run them in
order without any human intervention.
The pumps force the mixed solvents through the column. The solvent emerging from
the column & carrying the separated components of the mix. passes into the detector .
By the detector; electromagnetic reaction between st.phase& solutes by moving
m.phase acc. to polarity
Parameter for HPLC : temp.,pressure,wave length, flow rate (ml. per min. )
Types of column :
1) Length 150 mm ,diameter 4.6 mm , pore size 5 micro meter
2) Length 250 mm ,diameter 4.6 mm , pore size 5 micro meter
3) Length 300 mm ,diameter 4.6 mm , pore size 5 micro meter
Types of st.phase in the column
1) L1: C18
2) L7:C8
3) L10:CN
Factors on retention time :
1) Length of column :( when length of column increase; the retention time
increase )
2) Flow rate: (when flow rate increase ; the retention time decrease )
NOTE: buffer soln. are used to prevent crystllisation of salts
Some troubleshooting are : temp.,flow rate, PH, degassing m.phase, mixing m.phase ,
column fouling ,sample injection overloading acc. to number of volume
factors of choice for separation &quantitation by column chromatography :
1. stationary phase
a. cross section shape &size
b. length
c. morphology of stationary phase
d. material composition
2. mobile phase
a. composition
b. flow rate
3. temp.
4. detector
5. sample size(volume,concentration)
General Factors Increasing Resolution
Increase column length
Decrease column diameter
Decrease flow-rate
Pack column uniformly
Use uniform stationary phase (packing material)
Decrease sample size
Select proper stationary phase
Select proper mobile phase
Use proper pressure
Use gradient elution
Solubility:
1gm in 1ml=very soluble
1gm in 10ml=free soluble
1gm in 30ml= soluble
1gm in 100ml=slightly soluble
1gm in 300ml=spraingly soluble
1gm in 10,000ml=very slightly soluble
1gm in 100,000ml=practically insoluble
Polarimeter:
Principle of polarimeter:
It measure the optical rotation angle of polarized light as it passes through an optically
active fluid.
The measured rotation can be used to calculated the value of soln. conc.
Light is in all direction & introduce into the polarizer (filter-like) that polarize the light group in
one direction only . so give us plane polarized light enter the sample tube show us if the
molecule has stereochemistry involved or not :
Once the light come through the sample tube in the organic compounds that was up , down
in & basically still up ,down in the end.(so No rotation of light , molecule dont have Dextro or
Levo; these molecules are achiral )
Once the light come through the sample tube in the organic compounds that was up ,down in
but changing as rotates ;it will be such as like right hand rotated;(molecules do rotation of
light , molecules have Dextro,Levo; these molecules are chiral compound as rotated left hand or
right hand rotated )
Polarimeter advantages:
It is used for analysis of optically , active fluids like sugars, lactic acid , tartaric.
This method gives information on chemical structure , chirality, and conc. of sample by
measuring the analyte through a ray of ploarised light
Application of polarimeter:
Sugar industry
Food ,drink &agriculture
Pharmaceutical industry
Chemical industry
Optical rotation=angle rotation /length of sample tube
Specific Optical rotation=angle rotation /(length of sample tube*conc.)
Where :conc.=Wt(gm)/(Vml)
UV
NOTES:
UV-Visible are run on solution, light doesnt normally pass through solid samples
To run the spectrum we place some of the solvent in a sample cuvette to act as a blank , a reference
.(there are 2 cuvettes type )
-glass or plastic cuvettes is required for work in the visible region of the spectrum.
-Quartz cuvettes are needed for work in the UV-range region.
Water tests:
1. Appearance:
Clear,colourless liquid by visually
2. Conductivity:
Result:1.3 S at 250C
3. PH:
Result:(5-7) at 250C
4. Total organic carbon:
Result:less or equal 0.5 mg/ml
5. Acidity/alkalinity:
Method: 10 ml boiled then cooled then 0.05 ml of methyl red soln.
Result: soln. is not red color
Method: 10 ml boiled then cooled then 0.1 ml of bromothymol blue soln.
Result: soln. is not blue colour
6. Oxidizable test:
Method: 100ml of sample then add 10 ml H2SO4(1M) then add 0.1ml of (0.02M) KMnO4 then
boil for 5min.
Result: the soln. remaining faintly pink .
7. Nitrate test:
Method:
I. Prepare 2 tubes (test tube & STD tube )
II. Add 4.5 ml purified water STD in the STD tube
III. Add 5 ml of sample in the test tube
IV. Add 0.4 ml KCL 10% at each tube
V. Add 0.5 ml Nitrate STD 2ppm at STD tube
VI. Add 5 ml of H2SO4 conc. At each tube
VII. Add 0.1 ml diphenylamine at each tube
Result: blue colour at STD tube &colourless at test tube .
8. Ammonium test:
Method:
I. Prepare 20 ml of sample then add 1ml of potassium tetraiodomercurate in tube (A)
II. Prepare 4ml of NH4 (1ppm STD)+16ml of ammonium -free water+1ml of potassium
tetraiodomercurate in tube (B)
Result: (A) tube is not more intensely coloured than tube (B)
9. Heavy metal:
Method:
I. Heat 20ml to evaourate till volume reach to 20 ml
II. Prepare 4 tubes (test tube,STD tube, blank tube,another tube)respectively.
III. Put 12ml of test soln. in the test tube.
IV. Put 2ml of test soln. in the test tube + 10ml of standard lead (10ppm) in STD tube
V. Put 2ml of test soln. in the test tube+ 10 ml of H2O in blank tube
VI. Put 5ml of (heavy metal mix. Reagent)that is to Add 1 mL of a mixture of 15 mL of 1M
sodium hydroxide, 5 mL of water and 20 mL of glycerol (85%) , heat in a water bath for
20 seconds, cool and use immediately.+1ml of thioacetamide reagent in the another
tube.
VII. Then add 2 ml of (buffer PH3.5) in the first 3tubes
VIII. Add 1ml from tube 4 in each first 3 tubes
Result:the STD tube is more than test tube in brown colour.
10. Calcium & magnesium:
Method: 10ml sample then add 2ml ammonium chloride buffer soln.(PH10)then add 50mg of
EBT indicator then add0.5ml of( 0.01M) EDTA
Result: pure blue colour
11. Residue on evapouration:
Method:
i. Evapourate 100ml on water bath and dry
ii. Bring a beaker and wt it empty dreied,then put 100 ml of sample an evapourate thus wt
this same beaker after cooled in the dessicator.
iii. Residue water soluble = Gross wt - Tare wt
iv. Tare wt=wt of empty dried beaker
v. Gross wt = wt of this beaker after evapouration of its sample.
Result: Maximum 0.001%
12. Chloride:
Method: 10ml of sample then add 1ml (2N) HNO3 then 0.2 ml AgNO3 in test tube
Result: No change at 15min
13. Sulphate:
Method: 10ml of sample then add 0.1ml HCL(1N) then add 0.1ml (BaCL2)
Result: No change at least 1hour
14. Iron test:
Method:
i. Prepare 2 Nessler tubes (test tube ,STD tube)
ii. Prepare citric soln.(5gm citric acid in 25 ml of H2O)
iii. Add 10 test soln. in the test tube then add 2ml citric soln.
iv. Add 10 standard iron reagent (10ppm) in the test tube then add 2ml citric soln.
v. Then add 0.1 ml thioglycolic acid
vi. Then add 5ml NH3 conc.
vii. Result: (the STD is more than test in pink colour)
Heavy Metals:
Definition:
In general, metallic type of impurities are detected by standard procedure of inorganic qualitative
analysis which involve colour and precipitation reaction.
It detects elements with insoluble sulfides [lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), bismuth (Bi), arsenic (As), antimony
(Sb), tin (Sn), cadmium (Cd), silver (Ag), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo)], it does not identify which is
element is present.
This test is based on principle that traces of lead salts if present are converted to lead sulphide by the
addition of Na2S to a slightly alkaline solution buffered by a high concentration of ammonium acetate.
The brown colour obtained due to the presence of colloidal PbS in the sample solution is compared with
that obtained from a known amount of lead.
Method:
Result : the STD tube is more than test tube in brown colour.
Result : the STD tube is more than test tube in white ppt .
Iron test:
Flame photometer:
Is a device used in inorganic chemical analysis to determine the conc. Of certain metal ions,
among them sodium,potassium,calcium,Group 1&Group2 metals are quite sensitive to flame
photometry due to their low excitation energies.
Solutions preparation
Solution
Solute
Solvent
Saturation
Supersaturation
It refers to a solution that contains more of the dissolved material than
could be dissolved by the solvent under normal circumstances.
Types of solutions
Percentage solution
Molar solution
Normal solution
Percentage solution
Example:
An example of a correct designation for this type of solution is as follows:
10 g/100 g (w/w), which indicates that there are 10 grams of solute for
every 100 grams total
Weight/volume solution % (w/v)
Example:
Preparation of 10% (W/V) NaCl solution
C
Caallccuullaattiioonnss:
P
Prroocceedduurree::
g/L unite
ppm unite
Example:
Preparation of 30% (V/V) sulfuric acid
C
Caallccuullaattiioonnss::
P
Prroocceedduurree::
Why?
Molar solution
Molecular weight
It is the sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule. Also
called formula weight
Mo l e
A mole is also called gram-molecular weight and defined as number of
particles whose total mass in grams was numerically equivalent to the
molecular weight or it is the amount of substance containing the Avogadro
number (6.022 1023)
Molarity
Molar solution
Units of molarity
The units for molar concentration are mol/L. These units are often denoted
by a capital letter M (pronounced "molar").
1 mmol/ml = 1 mol/l
1 mol/ml = 1 mmol/l
Name Abbreviation Concentration
Example:
Preparation of 1M NaCl solution in 1000 ml
C
Caallccuullaattiioonnss::
% X density X 10
Molarity (M) =
M.wt
32 1.18 36.5
Example2:
98 1.83 98
Example3:
30 1.44 34.01
Normal solution
Equivalent weight
An equivalent weight is equal to the molecular weight divided by the
valence (replaceable H ions).
Normal
Normality
Normality is the total no of gram equivalents of the solute present per liter of the
solution
Normal solutions
Units of Normality
The units for normal concentration are Eq/L. These units are often denoted
by a capital letter N (pronounced "normal").
Examples:
M.wt of salt
Eq.wt =
No of cations X valency or No of anions X valency
Examples:
Examples:
Preparation of 1N NaOH solution
Preparation of 1N Ca(OH)2 solution
Preparation of 1N KCL solution
C
Caallccuullaattiioonnss::
% X density X 10
Normality (N) =
Eq.wt
Example1:
32 1.18 36.5
Example2:
98 1.83 98
Dilution of solutions
Simple Dilution
The dilution factor is the total number of unit volumes in which your material
will be dissolved. The diluted material must then be thoroughly mixed to
achieve the true dilution.
Example:
Serial Dilution
The source of dilution material for each step comes from the diluted
material of the previous.
In a serial dilution the total dilution factor at any point is the product of the
individual dilution factors in each step up to it.
Example:
Combines 1 unit volume of the first tube (500 ml) with the 500 ml distilled
water in the second tube
Combines 1 unit volume of the second tube (500 ml) with the 500 ml
distilled water in the third tube and so on until the last tube
V1C1=V2C2
Example:
V1 = (V2 x C2) / C1
V1 = 0.05 ml, or 50 ml
So, we would take 0.05 ml stock solution and dilute it with 150 ml of solvent
to get the 200 ml of 25 mg/ ml solution needed
"X" units
Where n =
g/l = M X Molecular wt
M = Molecular wt / g/l
g/l = M X Equivalent wt
M = Equivalent wt / g/l
Examples: