Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
ublished by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc 345 East 47th Street, New York, N Y 10017, USA
cember 1 4 , 1978 SH07203
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IEEE
Std 62-1978
(Revision of
IEEE Std 62-1958)
Sponsor
Power System Instrumentation and Measurement Committee
of the
IEEE Power Engineering Society
Copyright 1978 by
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Foreword
(This Foreword is n o t a part of IEEE Std 62-1978, Guide for Field Testing Power Apparatus Insulation,)
Factory tests assure the initial quality and condition of power apparatus insulation. During ship-
ment, installation, and service, the apparatus is subject to influences that may affect the insulation
and shorten its useful life. As a result, apparatus insulation is tested in the field from time to time
t o determine its suitability for continued service and to detect deterioration which often can be
checked or corrected by suitable maintenance procedures.
The variety of test methods and equipment used for the assessment of insulation quality neces-
sitates the restriction of this guide to a general description of the more commonly used methods.
An attempt has been made to supply sufficient information to identify those tests more applicable
to a given situation and to provide references to a more detailed coverage.
This guide was first published in April 1958 as AIEE Std 62, Recommended Guide for Making
Dielectric Measurements in the Field. This revision is the first since that time. Withstand tests have
been given greater coverage and the material on measurement of insulation characteristics reflects
experience gained in the intervening years.
This revision has been prepared by a Working Group under the sponsorship of the High Voltage
Testing Techniques Subcommittee of the IEEE Power Systems Instrumentation and Measurements
Committee. The assistance of A. F. Rohlfs, Chairman, and other members of the High Voltage Test-
ing Techniques Subcommittee, is gratefully acknowledged.
At the time of approval of this standard the membership of the Working Group was as follows:
E. H. Povey, Chairman J. R . Johnston, Secretary
L. Bucklew 0. Petersens
E. B. Curdts E. F. Rodia
H. E. Foelker B. F. Slingduff
J . T. LaForte G . M. L. Sommerman
A. L. McKean L. R. Sharpe
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Contents
SECTION PAGE
1. Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 . Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3. Withstand Voltage Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Elementary Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4 Comparison of Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.5 Environmental Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.6 TestEquipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4 . Potential-Distribution Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.4 Comparison of Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.5 Environmental Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5 . Partial-Discharge (Corona) Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.2 Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3 Measuring Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.4 Environmental Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6 . Measurement of Dielectric Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.2 Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.3 Insulation Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.4 Polarization Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.5 Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.6 Dielectric Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.7 Power Factor, Dissipation Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.8 Environmental Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.9 TestEquipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7 . Tests on Specific Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.1 Rotating Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.2 Transformers, Regulators, and Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7.3 Insulated Conductors (Cables). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7.4 Switchge ar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
7.5 Lightning Arresters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7.6 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7.7 Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7.8 Bushings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7.9 Insulating Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
8. Applicable Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8.1 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8-.2 Withstand Voltage Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8.3 Partial-Discharge (Corona) Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8.4 Dielectric Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8.5 Rotating Machinery Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
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SECTION PAGE
8.6 Transformer Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8.7 Conductor (Cable) Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
8.8 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
8.9 Liquid Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
FIGURES
Fig 1 Effect of Time on Withstand Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Fig 2 Effect of Absorption on Measured Insulation Resistance .......................... 12
Fig 3 Effect at Frequency on Loss Factor and Dielectric Constant ....................... 12
APPENDIXES
Appendix A . Shielding of Equipment for the Measurement of Insulation Characteristics. . . . . . . .24
A 1 . General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
A2 . Basic Shielding Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Appendix B. Measurement Techniques for the Analysis of Complex Insulation Systems . . . . . . . . 28
B1 . Simple and Complex Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
B2 . Determination of the Characteristics of an Individual Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
B3 . MethodA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
B4 . MethodB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
B5 . MethodC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
APPENDIX FIGURES
Fig A1 Elementary Measuring Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fig A2 Grounded-Guard Shield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fig A 3 Hot-Guard Shield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fig A4 Cold-Guard Shield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fig A5 Double-Shielded Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Fig A6 Shielded Bridge Circuit with Guard Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
APPENDIX TABLES
TableB1 . MethodA .......................................................... 29
TableB2 . MethodB .......................................................... 30
TableB3. MethodC .......................................................... 31
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IEEE Guide for Field Testing
Power Apparatus Insulation
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IEEE
POWER APPARATUS INSULATION Std 62-1978
jects an insulation for a restricted period of ing atom of molecule. When the gradient is
time to a voltage stress greater than that en- strengthened beyond a critical value, called the
countered under normal service conditions. intrinsic dielelectric strength of the material,
The magnitude of the test voltage used in the collisions occur with sufficient impact t o free
field is generally based on the factory accept- more electrons than are captured, and disrup-
ance test voltage, reduced by a factor t o allow tive breakdown follows.
for the effects of transportation, installation, 3.3.2 Practical Dielectric Strength. Most in-
and in-service degradation. sulating materials are not entirely homogeneous
3.1.2 Type of Voltage. The voltage specified and so contain some regions having less than
for a withstand test may be alternating at average dielectric strengths. Under test there
power frequency or some other frequency, will be a tendency for breakdown t o occur in
may be direct (having a specified polarity in a path which includes regions of lower dielec-
respect t o ground), may be a pulse having a tric strength. The actual dielectric strength
specified polarity and wave shape, or may be a of an insulating material in practice is usually
pulse-generated transient. substantially lower than its intrinsic strength.
3.1.3 Duration of Voltage Application. For 3.3.3 Time and Temperature Effects. Con-
alternating or direct test voltages, the duration tinued application of a voltage gradient below
of application is specified, commonly 1 min the value required to cause immediate break-
after the desired test value has been reached. down will cause temperature rises in local weak
Voltage applications are made at a prescribed regions. The temperature rise further reduces
rate or in scheduled increments. the dielectric strength of these regions, and
3.1.4 Impulse Voltage. For an impulse, the consequently the overall dielectric strength of
voltage-time relation (wave shape) is specified. the material, and may result in eventual failure
A standard lightning impulse wave is denoted without further increase in the applied voltage.
by two figures: 1.2/50. The first figure is the As an example of the time dependence in with-
virtual rise time in microseconds of the pulse; stand testing, Fig 1 illustrates the general be-
the second is the virtual time t o half value in havior of oil-impregnated pressboard in terms
microseconds. of withstand voltage versus time of voltage
3.1.5 Pulse-Generated Voltage. For pulse- application.
generated transients, the peak voltage and os- Materials which are normally lossy under
cillation frequency are specified. If repetitive, voltage stress are subject t o destruction from
the repetition rat.e is also specified.
3.2 Significance. The withstand voltage test is Fig 1
a demonstration that an insulation can with- Effect of Time o n
stand a specified overvoltage for a specified Withstand Voltage
length of time and is essentially a go-no-go
type of test. Successful completion of the test
I,u sec I sec I hour I year
gives some assurance that no gross defect is I I I I
present in the insulation structure. However, I
the ability of a withstand voltage test to expose I I
I 1
incipient faults is less certain. For this reason
the test is often supplemented by measure-
ments of insulation characteristics, made dur-
ing or at the completion of the withstand test.
3.3 Elementary Theory
3.3.1 Intrinsic Dielectric Strength. As op-
posed to a conductor, in which electrons move
with little restriction, an insulator is a material I I
in which t h e electrons are tightly bound t o
atoms or molecules. When an insulator is sub-
jected to a moderate potential gradient, some 10- IO0 lo4 IO8
electrons may be pulled free from their bonds, TIME, SECONDS
but are recaptured in collision with a neighbor-
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JEEE
Std 62-1978 IEEE GUIDE FOR FIELD TESTING
thermal runaway. Runaway occurs when the voltage of very low frequency (for example,
applied stress is high enough t o generate more 0.1 Hz) t o obtain the advantage of reduced
heat in the material than can be dissipated into weight and reduced partial discharge damage
the environment. The voltage at which termal while providing an approximately normal stress
runaway occurs is therefore not only a func- pattern. The weight of very low frequency test
tion of the material but also of the effective- equipment is less than the usual power-fre-
ness of provisions for dissipating the generated quency test equipment and approximately the
heat. same as power-frequency equipment when
resonant methods are employed.
3.4 Comparison of Tests
3.4.4 High-Frequency Withstand Test. With-
3.4.1 Power-Frequency Withstand Test. A
stand test voltages at higher than normal fre-
power-frequency withstand test is generally
quency are used for testing the insulation of
considered t o subject the insulation under test
t o a stress pattern most closely resembling that windings on magnetic cores, as in transformers
occurring in service. The disadvantages of the and reactors. The higher frequency permits an
power-frequency test are possible damage t o overvoltage to be applied across the winding
corona-sensitive insulation and the massive without the problem of core saturation. This
equipment necessary t o energize high-capac- type of test applies overvoltage on turn-to-
itance specimens. The latter disadvantage turn insulation as well as on the insulation
may be partially alleviated by the use of between winding and ground.
resonant methods. 3.4.5 Impulse Test. Impulse tests may be
3.4.2 Direct-Voltage Withstand Test. The made on insulation systems subject t o voltage
direct-voltage withstand method requires rela- surges in service. Such systems include turn-
tively light-weight equipment. Partial discharge to-turn insulation of coils or windings. Im-
damage is less than with power-frequency tests. pulse testing of apparatus insulation in the
There is the possibility, under certain condi- field is usually restricted t o low-voltage ap-
tions, of predicting and thus avoiding break- paratus because high-voltage impulse gen-
down of weak insulation. The prediction pro- erators are not readily portable.
cedure involves the application of the test volt- 3.5 Environmental Influences. The voltage
age in steps in accordance with a predetermined withstand capability of insulation struc-
schedule, with a measurement of current or tures designed for field service is affected to
resistance made at each step. some extent by normal variations in the field
A disadvantage of the direct-voltage with- environment. Low barometric pressure, surface
stand test for a composite insulation system dirt, and moisture are conditions which tend t o
designed t o operate under alternating-voltage lower surface flashover voltages and thus inter-
stress is that the test may not produce a fere with the conduct of a withstand test. In
normal stress pattern in the insulation. With general, however, the reduction in test voltage
time of voltage application, the direct-voltage levels allowed for field testing is usually suf-
stress pattern tends t o conform more to the ficient to permit tests t o be succesfully con-
resistive characteristics of a composite system ducted.
then t o the combined resistive and capacitive
3.6 Test Equipment. Commercial equipment is
characteristics which determine the alternating-
available for all types of withstand tests. Im-
voltage stress pattern. This disadvantage is
portant specifications which must be con-
particularly apparent for systems where resis-
sidered include:
tive-capacitive stress grading is employed, since
with an applied direct voltage the stress will (1)Type of voltage output - impulse, direct,
not be graded in the designed manner. Pro- alternating (include frequency)
longed direct-voltage withstand tests are not (2) Voltage range
recommended for oil-immersed equipment be- ( 3 ) Voltage control facilities including rate-
cause contaminating particles in the oil tend of-rise capability
t o line up and form a breakdown path. (4)Power output - real and reactive power
3.4.3 Very Low Frequency Withstand Tests. capability for ac tests, output current range for
Withstand tests on high-capacitance speci- dc tests, energy discharge capability for im-
mens may be made using an alternating test pulse tests
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IEEE
POWER APPARATUS INSULATION Std 62-1978
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IEEE
Std 62-1978 IEEE GUIDE FOR FIELD TESTING
potential gradient exceeds a critical value. The Measurement of Energy and Integrated Charge
discharge effectively short-circuits the cavity, Transfer Due t o Partial Discharges).
dissipating stored energy into the surrounding 5.3.2.2 Power Factor. Using the preceding
insulation and causing a momentary increment assumption, the measured power factor of an
in the capacitance of the system. insulation should remain constant with increas-
ing test voltage if no discharges are present.
5.2 Significance
The observed power factor increase between a
5.2.1 Reduction of Insulation Life. Partial
voltage below the discharge inception and some
discharges in an insulation system at operating
higher test voltage has been used as a measure
voltage may result in a significant reduction in
of discharge activity at the higher voltage.
the life of the insulation. Some insulations are
5.3.3 Measurement of Individual Pulses
more susceptible t o this type of damage than
5.3.3.1 General. Measurement of individual
others.
partial-discharge pulses may be desirable for
5.2.2 Cavities. The presence of partial dis-
insulation systems which are vulnerable to
charges in an insulation system may be an
attack by partial discharges. Proper measure-
indication of the presence of cavities, particu-
ments of individual pulses can be made only
larly in composite or wound insulations.
when the pulses are sufficiently separated in
5.2.3 Electromagnetic Radiation. Partial dis-
time t o make superposition improbable. Indi-
charges in an insulation system may be a source
vidual pulse measurements may be applicable
of electromagnetic radiation which interferes
when the total discharge power loss is too
with communication systems.
small t o be accurately measured.
5.3 Measuring Methods 5.3.3.2 Test Circuit. The usual circuit
5.3.1 Test Voltage. Although some measure- for the measurement of individual discharge
ment of discharge activity is possible on ap- pulses in an insulation system includes an
paratus while connected t o the power system, impedance coupled t o the terminal of the
in general it is preferable t o disconnect the system through a filter which removes the
apparatus under test from the system and en- power frequency component of the volt-
ergize it by a test transformer. A separate test age. The pulse voltages appear across the im-
voltage supply minimizes interference from pedance where they can be observed by an
sources in the system and reduces the hazard oscilloscope or measured by a peak-reading
t o test personnel from accidental contact with voltmeter. The peak-reading voltmeter indi-
system voltage. An adjustable supply permits cates the maximum pulse.
observation of discharge activity as a function 5.3.3.3 Calibration Circuit. A calibration
of test voltage. The test transformer and its circuit including a pulse generator may be
connections must be free of partial discharge. added to the test circuit so that the detected
5.3.2 Power Loss pulses can be quantitatively evaluated. Oscillo-
5.3.2.1 General. Measurement of partial- scope deflections due t o pulses are usually
discharge power losses are usually based on the interpreted in terms of picocoulomb charges
asumption that normal insulation losses vary as at the system terminals. The peak-reading volt-
the square of the applied voltages. By measur- meter can also be calibrated in terms of charge.
ing the loss in an insulation (see 6.6) at some 5.3.3.4 RIV Method. Discharge pulses may
voltage below the discharge inception voltage be measured by the radio influence voltage
and calculating the loss at some higher test (RIV) method. The measuring circuit consists
voltage according to the voltage-squared rela- of a filter as described in 5.3.3.2, with the
tion, the partial-discharge power loss at the pulses appearing across a noninductive resistor.
higher test voltage is found as the difference A narrow band of high-frequency components
between the observed and calculated losses. of the pulses, usually centered about 1 MHz, is
The assumption is often valid, but in some amplified and measured. The measurement is
cases other nonlinear voltage effects may add commonly expressed as the peak (or quasi-
to the loss increase. peak) voltage of the highest recurrent pulse.
A special bridge circuit may be used to pre- Calibration is based on the sine-wave output
sent the discharge losses on an oscilloscope of a standard signal generator.
as the area of a pattern approximating a 5.3.4 Electromagnetic Field Methods, Probes.
parallelogram (see ASTM Method D 3382-75, Many insulation systems are not completely
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-
example of the time dependence of insulation and Dielectric Constant
resistance measurements, Fig 2 shows the
change in measured resistance with time after
applying a constant direct test voltage to an -
*
4
ATOMC
ELECTRONIC
I -7
DIPOLE---------------CI I
I
'
insulation specimen which exhibits absorption. -INTERFACIAL-
The horizontal line indicates the true insulation
resistance which the measured resistance is ap-
proaching.
6.4 Polarization Index
6.4.1 Determination. The polarization index
(PI) of an insulation structure is found from
insulation resistance measurements made at 1
and 10 min after application of the test volt-
age. The index is the ratio of the 1 0 min to L
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POWER APPARATUS INSULATION Std 62-1978
6.5.3 Determination. Capacitance is com- frequency, and for power apparatus insulation
monly determined using an alternating test it is preferable to use a frequency at or near the
voltage and bridge techniques or charging cur- power frequency.
rent measurements. 6.7.2 Definition. The power factor and dissi-
pation factor are the casine and cotangent,
6.6 Dielectric Loss respectively, of the phase angle between the
6.6.1 General. Measurable dielectric losses
applied test voltage and the resulting current
occur in all solid and liquid insulating ma-
through the insulation. Correspondence be-
terials, and in general, good insulating ma-
tween these factors may be found by reference
terials have low losses.. Increased losses are
to trigonometric tables. For most insulations
usually caused by deterioration factors such
these factors fall in the range of 0 to 0.1 (or
as mentioned in 6.2.2.
0 t o 10 percent). In this range the two factors
6.6.2 Ionization. Dielectric losses in gaseous
are often used interchangeably, since they dif-
insulations are insignificant unless the applied
fer by less than 0.005 (0.5 percent).
voltage stress reaches or exceeds the critical
6.7.3 Interpretation. Power factor, or dissipa-
value at which ionization of the gas is initiated.
tion factor, is the most widely used altemating-
A possible source of ionization losses occurs in
current characteristics for assessing the condi-
nominally solid insulation structures due t o
tion of insulation. The interpretation of insula-
inadvertent gas inclusions in the structure.
tion condition primarily depends on compari-
6.6.3 Polarization. A substantial portion of
son of a measured value with a previously es-
the normal dielectric losses in solid and liquid
tablished normal value. Exceptions are insulat-
materials under alternating voltage stress is
ing structures of very low capacitance, such as
due to polarization processes. The effect of the
rods or tubes, where surface losses can have an
frequency of the applied voltage on the loss
exorbitant effect on the measured power
factor (product of dissipation factor and dielec-
factor.
tric constant) is illustrated in the lower section
6.7.4 Measurement. Power factor or dissipa-
of Fig 3.
tion factor can be obtained directly from many
6.6.4 Alternating Stress. The loss under
types of bridges. For test instruments that read
alternating stress is always greater than under
out in terms of volts, current, and watts loss,
direct stress because of polarization losses and
power factor may be calculated using the fol-
also because deteriorated areas of insulation
lowing formula:
which may not provide the continuous path
necessary for a direct leakage current can re- watts
power factor =
flect losses into an alternating voltage mea- (volts) (amperes)
surement through capacitive coupling. 6.8 Environmental Influences
6.6.5 Measurement. Losses under alternating 6.8.1 Temperature
voltage stress may be measured by use of a 6.8.1.1 General. Temperature has a marked
wattmeter, although for low-loss materials effect on the insulation resistance of most in-
(power factor less than 0.5 percent) good sulating materials. In some cases the insulation
wattmeter accuracy is difficult to obtain. resistance decreases by a factor of 2 for each
Losses may be calculated as the product of the 10C rise in temperature. When the resistance-
applied voltage and the in-phase component of temperature characteristic of an insulating
the resulting current (component separation
material or structure is known, the measured
method). Losses may also be calculated from
resistance value can be corrected to a standard
measurements of capacitance and dissipation
temperature base for comparison purposes.
factor, or power factor, as found by bridge
6.8.1.2 Polarization. The temperature ef-
techniques.
fect on alternating-voltage loss characteristics
6.7 Power Factor, Dissipation Factor is greatly influenced by various polarization
6.7.1 General. Power factor and dissipation processes in the insulating material. Increasing
factor are dimensionless and can be used to temperature appears to decrease the relaxation
compare the loss characteristics of insulation time of a process, increasing the frequency at
structure regardless of their geometry or size. which the polarization effect peaks. Thus an
All measurements used for comparisons should increase in temperature tends t o move the loss
be made with test voltages having the same factor curve of Fig 3 to the right, in the direc-
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tion of increasing frequency. Thus, depending the phase of the test voltage is shifted by 180
on which side of a polarization peak the mea- (for example, by interchanging leads to the
surement is made, the losses may increase or primary of the test voltage transformer) and a
decrease due to an increase in temperature. second measured value obtained. The desired
Loss-temperature characteristics for many ma- value is the average of the two measured
terials and structures have been recorded. values.
6.8.1.3 Water. Characteristics of insulation
6.9 Equipment. Commercial equipment is avail-
structures subject t o the adsorption of water
should be tested at temperatures above 0C. At able for all types of dielectric characteristic
measurements. Some of the most important
lower temperatures any ice which forms will
features which must be considered are listed
have a far different effect on the measurements
below.
than the water existing at higher temperatures.
6.8.2 Humidity. High humidity (above 50 Features applicable to all test sets are:
percent RH) or surface moisture can have a (1)Test voltage range
significant effect on surface losses and con- (2) Ability t o measure grounded specimens
sequently on the measured insulation resistance ( 3 )Ability to measure ungrounded speci-
and loss characteristics of the insulation struc- mens
ture. Surface guarding techniques t o remove (4) Guard circuit for specimen analysis
the effect of surface losses are usually effective, (5) Ability to function in presence of inter-
especially for tests using direct test voltages. ference
6.8.3 Interference (6) Portability
6.8.3.1 ElectridMagnetic Fields. Measure-
Features particularly applicable to direct-
ments of insulation characteristics made in the
voltage test sets are:
field are generally subject t o interference from
electric and magnetic fields originating in (1)Test voltage stability
(2) Test voltage rate-of-rise capability
neighboring energized equipment. The test
( 3 ) Output current range
equipment and connecting leads can be suit-
( 4 ) Measurement accuracy (voltage and cur-
ably designed and shielded t o be immune from
rent)
such fields (see Appendix A). The specimen
itself, however, can seldom be shielded, and Features particularly applicable to alternating-
when in an electric field an interfering current voltage test sets are:
will be introduced in any measuring circuit (1)Test voltage frequency
connected t o it. (2) Capacitance or output current range
6.8.3.2 Switch. An important source of ( 3 ) Ability to make accurate measurements
interference occurs at the switch which discon- in the presence of interference
nects the test specimen from the energized
system. The open switch constitutes a coupling
capacitor through which the system voltage 7.Tests on Specific Apparatus
produces an interfering current in any measur-
ing equipment connected to the test specimen. 7.1 Rotating Machinery
Such interference can be greatly reduced by 7.1.1 Withstand Voltage Tests
grounding the specimen side of the switch and 7.1.1.1 General. Withstand voltage tests on
providing a second disconnection between the rotating machinery insulation in the field are
switch and the specimen. The second discon- usually made at the time of installation or after
nection need only withstand the test potential repairs. They may be made when there is some
to be applied to the specimen. This procedure, reason t o expect damage, as after involvement
in addition to reducing interference, enhances of a machine in a system fault, or after several
safety (see 2.1.2). years of normal operation. Withstand tests are
6.8.3.3 Power Frequency. The effect of usually confined t o the ground wall insulation
power-frequency interference on a power- of the stator and rotor windings.
frequency measurement of dielectric loss or 7.1.1.2 Alternating Versus Direct Voltage.
capacitance (or, less precisely, charging cur- N o consensus exists in the choice of alternating
rent) can be nullified by a reversal pro- or direct voltage for withstand tests on rotating
cedure. A first measured value is obtained, then machinery insulation. There are advantages and
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POWER APPARATUS INSULATION Std 62-1978
disadvantages t o either method, and the choice by many of the methods listed in 5.3.
is often a matter of convenience. The very low 7.1.2.4 Inception Voltage and Pulse Magni-
frequency test is an attempt t o combine some tude. The partial-discharge inception voltage
advantages of both methods. and pulse magnitude measurements may be
7.1.1.3 Turn-to-Turn Tests. Turn-to-turn used t o monitor the condition and the tight-
insulation tests may be made by application ness of mica-insulated stator bars in the ma-
of a high-frequency test voltage t o a coil or chine slots. When a large number of pulses per
winding. The voltage may be in the form of cycle are encountered, the accuracy of indi-
repetitively pulsed wave trains. The turn- vidual pulse magnitude measurements may be
to-turn test voltage should not exceed the questionable because of the possibility of pulse
ground wall withstand value, so that it may be superposition.
necessary t o limit a test t o one or more coils 7.1.2.5 Probe Method. Probe methods t o
of a winding. If direct connection t o coils is indicate sites of severe partial-discharge activ-
not feasible, the test voltage may be induced ity as locations of incipient failures have met
in the coils. Detection of failure is often dif- with limited success.
ficult and is usually accomplished by compar- 7.1.3 Dielectric Characteristics
ing voltage or current waveforms on similar 7.1.3.1 General. Insulation resistance and
coils or windings. polarization index measurements are often
7.1.1.4 Rotor Winding Exception. Turn- used to indicate the surface condition of ma-
to-turn withstand voltage tests of rotor wind- chine insulation. Thus, these measurements
ing insulation are seldom made. Tests are may be used t o determine when the surfaces
made, however, t o determine if there are any need cleaning o r drying before they become a
shorted turns in a rotor winding. These tests flashover hazard. The measurements are also
involve impedance or flux measurements used during the drying of machine insulation
which are not considered dielectric tests and which has been flooded o r otherwise exposed
hence are not within the scope of this guide. t o excessive water.
7.1.2 Partial-Discharge Measurements 7.1.3.2 Insulation Resistance. Insulation re-
7.1.2.1 General. Partial-discharge measure- sistance measurements may be made to ascer-
ments on rotating machine stator insulation are tain that a machine insulation is in suitable
usually made t o indicate the amount of ioniza- condition for a withstand voltage test. Re-
tion energy available t o deteriorate the stator sistance measurements may be combined with
insulation. Mica, the major ground wall insula- direct-voltage withstand tests t o provide pos-
tion for high-voltage machines, is highly re- sible warning of impending breakdown (see
sistant to all but very concentrated discharges 3.3.2).
such as slot discharges (see 7.1.2.3).Other ma- 7.1.3.3 Periodic Measurements. Periodic
terials used, however, including those for measurements of insulation resistance, using a
strand and turn insulation, may be more sus- direct test voltage, o r of capacitance and power
ceptible t o ionization damage. Failure of such factor, using an alternating test voltage, may be
insulation can develop into a ground wall made t o monitor the overall condition of the
failure. insulation. Alternating-voltage tests should be
7.1.2.2 Dissipation or Power Factor. An made at the operating voltage level t o include
indicator of partial-discharge energy is the in- ionization losses.
crement in dissipation factor or power factor 7.1.4 Analysis by Phases
(power factor tip-up) as the test voltage is 7.1.4.1 General. For a three-phase machine
raised from below the ionization inception more information on the condition of machine
voltage to the operating voltage. The indicator insulation can be obtained if the individual
may be affected by materials in the insulation phases can be tested one at a time rather than
system which have nonlinear loss character- all together. Separation of phases requires the
istics with voltage, such as some voltage-grad- opening of the neutral connection.
ing paints used in the end turn area. 7.1.4.2 Withstand Test. Dielectric withstand
7.1.2.3 Slot Discharge. Slot discharge is a tests may be made on each phase in turn, with
special type of partial discharge which occurs the other two phases grounded. This procedure
when a coil side does not make intimate con- subjects the phase-to-phase (interphase) insula-
tact with a slot. Slot discharge may be detected tion t o the test voltage.
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POWER APPARATUS INSULATION Std 62-1978
7.2.4.2 Bushings. The terminal bushings are ity of the condition causing the decomposition.
an important but often small part of the total Continuous or periodic checking for decompo-
insulation system of a transformer. A separate sition products in oil or gas is becoming a com-
test may be made on each bushing t o deter- mon practice for very large transformers.
mine its characteristics. Bushing tests are facili- 7.2.5.2 Core Grounds. Core-to-ground in-
tated where the bushings are equipped with sulation on core-type transformers may be
capacitance taps, test taps, or insulated draw checked for accidental grounds, particularly
leads (see 7.8). after shipment.
7.2.4.3 Oil. The oil in an oil-filled trans- 7.2.5.3 Others. A description of tests
former is often sampled on a routine basis which indicate situations leading t o insulation
and its dielectric characteristics measured in failure, but which are not tests on the insula-
a special test cell (see 7.9). tion itself, is outside the scope of this guide.
7.2.4.4 Temperature. The measured dielec- Some of these tests are listed by name only:
tric characteristics of transformer insulation winding resistance, tums ratio, and low-
can be greatly influenced by the temperature voltage impulse tests ( t o detect displacement
of the insulation at the time of measurement. of windings due t o short circuits).
The effect of temperature varies greatly with
different insulation systems; in general, the 7.3 Insulated Conductors (Cables)
older systems are more greatly affected than 7.3.1 General. Power cable is subject t o bend-
modem systems. For comparison purposes ing, tensile, and compression stresses during
the measurements should be converted t o a installation. Improper handling may result in
common temperature base. damage t o the cable insulation and its shield-
7.2.4.5 Components. The insulation system ing systems. Insulation tests are often made on
of a multiwinding transformer can be separated a cable after installation t o reveal any such
into components and the characteristics of damage.
A complete cable assembly includes joints,
each component found as described in Ap-
when necessary, and terminations. Termina-
pendix B. The tank and core usually form the
tions and joints are generally assembled on
ground electrode. Each separate winding forms
site. Tests t o check the insulation quality of
an additional electrode. A tapped winding, as
termination or joint assemblies must therefore
in an autotransformer, must be treated as a
usually be made in the field.
single electrode. In the measurement or cal-
Periodic tests may be made on the insula-
culation of the components, it is sometimes
found that a shield or winding placement is tion of the cable during its service life. Cable
such as t o practically eliminate one or more insulation is exposed t o several deteriorating
of the interwinding components. When the influences in service including the effect of
results indicate that a component has a near- transient overvoltages and circuit overloads.
zero capacitance, any calculated character- Cable systems are subject t o physical stresses
istic values should be discounted because of due t o load (temperature) cycling, and t o
accuracy limitations (see B2.2, Appendix B). damage from hostile environmental conditions
7.2.4.6 Interpretation. The interpreta- including erosion by stray earth currents, as
tion of the results of individual component well as chemical, bacteriological, and rodent
characteristics may sometimes be facilitated attacks.
by noting that the components involving the 7.3.2 Withstand Voltage Tests. Withstand
ground electrode include bushing insulation voltage tests are generally considered the most
while the interwinding components include reliable tests for exposing defects which origi-
only the internal insulation of the trans- nate during the installation of the cable, in-
former. cluding those in joint and termination assem-
blies.
7.2.5 Special Tests 7.3.2.1 Alternating Versus Direct Voltage.
7.2.5.1 Chemical. A chemical analysis may Withstand tests on cable insulation may be
be made on a sample of oil or the overlying made with either alternating or direct test
gas in the oil-filled transformer t o detect prod- voltages. Because of the high capacitance of
ucts of insulation deterioration. The composi- the average cable run, direct test voltages are
tion and concentration of these products furn- often used t o avoid the high reactive power
ish information regarding the nature and sever- required by an altemating-voltage test. Reso-
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general discussion of their insulating structures, ages open the circuit by a series of gaps, usual-
as they affect insulation testing, can be given in ly in an environment of air of SF, a t high pres-
this guide. sure. The voltage to be interrupted is distributed
7.4.2 Tests. Tests on switch insulation are among the gaps by grading capacitor assemblies.
usually confined t o the measurement of dielec- Such switches are usually designed in a module
tric characteristics such as insulation resistance, arrangement which permits each grading capaci-
power factor, or dielectric loss. Many other tor t o be measured separately. Capacitance
types of tests are made t o check the operation measurements on these assemblies are of par-
of a switch, including mechanism-motion ticular value in locating deteriorated capaci-
analysis and contact-resistance measurements, tors, since the measured capacitances may be
but these tests are beyond the scope of this compared with each other and with the design
guide. value which is generally known.
7.4.3 Terminals. A switch must have two 7.4.7 Oil Circuit Breaker. A common type of
terminals across which a circuit is closed or switch is the oil circuit breaker in which the
opened by the switching mechanism. Each circuit is broken within a tank of oil. The tank
terminal must be insulated for system voltage. may be dead (at ground potential), in which
When the switch is open, the terminals must be case the circuit is brought into the tank by
insulated from each other for a higher voltage bushings similar t o those of a transformer. A
in the event that there are system voltages a t contact assembly, including an arc suppression
the two terminals that are not in phase or in device, is fastened t o the lower end of each
synchronism. The basic test procedure for bushing, and a conducting crosspiece is lifted
switch insulation requires a test or measure- or rotated by an insulated operating member to
ment t o be made on each terminal of the open engage the contacts and complete the circuit.
switch, with the other terminal at or near Insulation in the tank in addition t o the bush-
ground potential. Each of these tests, there- ings, arc suppressor, operating member, and
fore, involves both insulation t o ground and oil may include guides for the operating
insulation between terminals. A supplementary member and a tank liner. Information on the
test with the switch closed removes the direct condition of the tank insulation may be de-
effect of insulation between terminals and is duced from open- and closed-breaker tests.
helpful in the analysis of test results. Separate tests may be made on the bushings
7.4.4 Opening and Closing. The opening and by techniques described in 7.8. Also, oil
closing of a switch requires mechanical force, samples may be taken from the tank for tests
which is usually generated at ground potential. specifically applicable t o oil (see 7.9).
Insulation is required in transmitting this 7.5 Lightning Arresters
force t o the switching element. A common 7.5.1 General. Withstand tests, in the usual
means for transmitting this force is an insulat- meaning of the term, cannot be made on a
ing rod or a column of insulating fluid con- lightning arrester, since the protective func-
fined in an insulating tube. This insulating rod tion of the arrester inhibits overvoltages be-
or tube may be included in the test of one or yond a specified value. The application of over-
both terminals, but in some switches the in- voltages t o check the operation of an installed
sulation is not directly in the test circuit unless arrester is not generally practiced, although
the switch is closed. For such switches, a some testing has been done a t lower transmis-
closed-switch test is particularly important.
sion voltages for which impulse generators are
7.4.5 Operating Means. Switches designed
more easily transportable. The energy output
to open a circuit under load may use an insulat-
of any impulse generator used for lightning-
ing structure designed t o quench the arc. This
arrester tests should not be sufficient to dam-
structure is usually associated with a switch
age the arrester.
contact and in some cases extends t o a grounded
-
support. Arc products and moisture may affect 7.5.2 Insulation Measurements. Measure-
the insulation characteristics of these structures, ments of the insulation characteristics of an ar-
and the condition of the insulation is reflected rester may be made t o assess the ability of the
in measurements made at the switch terminals. arrester t o withstand continued normal system
7.4.6 Arc-Quenching Structure. Switches for voltage. Such measurements have also revealed
use on the higher range of power-system volt- conditions which could affect the protective
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POWER APPARATUS INSULATION
4When the following documents are completed, ap- IEEE Standards Project P400 (in preparation) High
proved and published, they become a part of this Potential Direct Voltage Dielectric Tests o n Insulated
listing. Conductors
IEEE Guide for Installation of Oil-Immersed Trans- IEEE Standards Project P510 (in preparation), Recom-
formers (10 000 kVA and larger, 69-287 kV Voltage mended Safety Practices in High-Voltage
Rating) ( T o be published in ANSI C57 Series).
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Appendixes
(These Appendixes are not a part of IEEE Std 62-1978, Guide for Field Testing Power Apparatus Insulation.)
Appendix A
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POWER APPARATUS INSULATION Std 62-1978
along with the test specimen current. The A2.1.5 Cold-Guard Shield. A more con-
meter then does not give a true indication of venient circuit when one terminal of the test
the current through the specimen. specimen is grounded is shown in Fig A4. The
A2.1.2 Elimination of Leakage Path. The shield is connected to conductor B as in Figure
leakage path Ra, can be eliminated by means A2, but extends in the opposite direction to
of the guard shield shown by broken lines in enclose the voltage source and conductor A.
Fig A2. With the path eliminated, the meter The shield is slightly' above ground potential
now reads only the leakage current through by the voltage drop across the meter, which is
the test specimen. Leakage from conductor A conveniently in the ground circuit. In this case
to the shield adds to that through Rab of Fig the shield may be called a cold-guard shield.
A 1 and returns to the voltage source without
passing through the meter. In Fig A2 the com- A2.2 Ground Shields
bined leakage path is represented by Zab. For A2.2.1 Safety Use. In the circuits of Fig A2
alternating-current measuring circuits, charging and A3, the addition of ground shields is
currents due t o capacitance as well as to leak- necessary only for safety. Any currents picked
age currents must be considered (see A2.3). up by the measuring circuit due t o capacitive
A2.1.3 Grounded-Guard Shield. Conductor coupling with external voltage sources will flow
C in the shielding system of Fig A2 cannot be to ground either directly or through the low-
grounded, or the shielding system would theo- impedance voltage source without passing
retically have to cover the entire earth. A through the meter.
ground can be placed on conductor B as A2.2.2 Protection of Guard Shield. In the cir-
shown, which restricts the circuit t o the mea- cuit of Fig A4, currents from external sources
surement of ungrounded test specimens. The picked up on the guard shielding system will
ground on conductor B puts the meter con- flow to ground through the meter and thus
veniently in the ground circuit, and also puts cause erroneous readings. To prevent the error,
the shield at ground potential. In this case the the guard shield must be entirely covered by a
shield may be called a grounded-guard shield. ground shield. The circuit with both shields is
A2.1.4 Hot-Guard Shield. Conductor A of shown in Fig A5. Note that the test voltage
Fig A2 can be grounded instead of conductor source is shown as a transformer and that the
B, as shown. If one terminal of the test speci- primary winding is treated as an external
men is grounded, the test specimen is placed voltage source. The ground shield is interposed
in the circuit with its grounded terminal con- between the primary winding and the guard
nected to conductor A. Fig A 3 is an inversion shield.
of Fig A2 to show the connections in a more
conventional manner. Both the meter and the A2.3 Effect of Shielding System Capacitance
shield are at test potential, and in this case the A2.3.1 Phase Shift. For measurements using
shield may be called a hot-guard shield. There an alternating test voltage, the effect which
is an obvious difficulty in reading or adjusting test circuit capacitances have on the measure-
a meter which is inside a shield at test poten- ment must be considered in addition t o the
tial. effect of the resistances discussed in A2.1. The
TEST TEST
VOLTAGE SPEC I MEN
SOURCE Roc (Rx)
Rbc
B C
v v METER V
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IEEE
Std 62-1978 IEEE GUIDE FOR FIELD TESTING
r 4 I
1- VOLTAGE
SPECIMEN
I
METER
Fig A2
Grounded-Guard Shield
Fig A3
Hot-Guard Shield
Fig A4
Cold-Guard Shield
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POWER APPARATUS INSULATION Std 62-1978
Fig A5
Double-Shielded Circuit
capacitance which shunts the meter or measur- acteristic measurement due t o the effect of
ing element is that between conductors B and capacitance shunting the measuring element
C of Fig A1 and is enhanced by the shielding is proportional t o the resistance of the mea-
system of Figs A2, A3, A4, or A5. The effect suring element. The error will be insignificant
of this capacitance on a resistive measuring if the resistance of the measuring element is
element is to shift the phase of the current sufficiently low.
through the element and thus cause an error A2.3.4 Guard Balance. In bridge circuits,
in the measured loss characteristic, for ex- when the capacitance shunting the measur-
ample, dielectric loss, or power factor or dis- ing element is that between the guard and
sipation factor. ground shields, the effect of the capacitance
A2.3.2 Shunting Capacitance. Additional on the measurement may be nullified by
shunting capacitance may be present when bringing the potential of the guard shield
measuring components of a complex insula- to ground. The procedure is referred t o as a
tion system by method B or C described in guard balance. A bridge circuit incorporating
Appendix B. The test connections required by a guard balance feature is shown in Fig A6.
these methods place the capacitance of one or In this circuit, Z2 is the measuring element,
more of the components of the insulation sys- Z3 and Z4 are the standard arms used in the
tem in shunt with the measuring element. main balance of the bridge, and Z, and Z6
A2.3.3 Loss Error. The error in a loss char- are the guard balance arms.
Fig A6
Shielded Bridge Circuit with Guard Balance
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Appendix B
B1. Simple and Complex Systems accomplishing the determinations are de-
scribed in the following subsections, and for
convenience in this Appendix they are de-
B1.1 Simple System. A Simple insulation SYS- noted methods A , B, and C. The choice of
tem consists of two electrodes separated by method is limited by the facilities provided by
insulation, and can be represented as a single the measuring equipment.
capacitor. An example of a simple system is an B2.2.1 Method A. Method A requires calcu-
apparatus bushing, with its center conductor lation involving three or more measurements
and mounting flange as the two electrodes. t o determine the characteristic of any one
component. Method A may be used by measur-
B1.2 Complex System. A complex insulation
ing equipment capable of measuring insulation
system has three or more electrodes insulated
t o ground.
from each other. Capacitance may exist be-
B2.1.2 Method B. Method B permits a direct
tween any pair of terminals. A three-electrode
measurement on each component represent-
system may therefore be represented by a
ing insulation t o ground. The characteristics
network of three capacitors, a four-electrode
of the remaining components are found by cal-
system by six capacitors, and an N-electrode
culation similar t o that of method A. Method
system by Yd(N-1)capacitors. An example of
a complex system is a multiconductor belted
B requires the measuring equipment t o have
cable, in which each conductor and the lead the additional facility of a usable guard circuit,
sheath are electrodes. that is, a guard circuit t o which some com-
ponents of the insulation system can be con-
B1.3 Grounded Electrode. In a practical sys- nected with no appreciable effect on the mea-
tem, one of the electrodes is at ground po- surement accuracy.
tential. Thus in an N-electrode system there B2.1.3 Method C. Method C permits a direct
are N-1 ungrounded electrodes, each insulated measurement of any component. In addition
from ground. Consequently, there are N-1 t o facilities required by method B, method C
component capacitors representing insulation requires the further facility of adapting the
from ground. The remainder of the Yfl(N-1) measuring circuit to measure between un-
components represent insulation between un- grounded electrodes. In the ungrounded mea-
grounded electrodes. surement mode it must have a usable guard
circuit at ground potential.
B2.2 Direct Measurement. In general, greater
B2. Determination of the Characteristics accuracy is afforded by direct measurement.
of an Individual Component The accuracy of a determination calculated
from several readings is subject t o cumulative
B2.1 Methods of Measurement. The deter- error and is poor when the result represents a
mination of the characteristics of the indi- small difference between two large quantites.
vidual components of a complex insulation
system is of value in the detection and loca-
tion of defective insulation within the sys- B3. Method A
tem. The characteristics of any component
may be determined from measurements made B3.1 Individual Components. A characteristic
at the electrode terminals. Three methods for of an individual component cannot be directly
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POWER APPARATUS INSULATION Std 62-1978
Table B1
Method A
Three-Electrode System
~ ~~
A B,G I K m = 0.5 ( K 1 + K2 - K 3 )
B
A,B
A,G
G
II KAG = 0.5 ( K 1 + K3 - K 2 )
K , = 0 . 5 ( K 2 + K3 - K I )
Four-Electrode System
,,KAC
I
~~ ~~
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Std 62-1978 IEEE GUIDE FOR FIELD TESTING
Table B2
Method B
Three-Electrode System
KAG A B G -
B A G -
K AG
K1 (= KAG + KAB) A - B,G K, = K1 -KAB
Four-Electrode System
grounded. It may be noted that the measure- P is calculated from a simultaneous measure-
ment is on the parallel combination of com- ment of capacitance and dissipation factor for
ponents KAG and KAB . a given component or combination of com-
ponents. For example, P I = C I D l .
B3.4 Measurable Characteristics. The char-
acteristic K in Table B 1 is restricted t o capaci- B3.5 Power Factor or Dissipation Factor.
tance or a quantity generally proportional t o Power factor or dissipation factor of an indi-
capacitance. A list of characteristics which K vidual component cannot be directly calculated
can represent includes: from Table B1, since these characteristics are
C capacitance independent of capacitance. I t is necessary t o
A charging current at a specified voltage use the table twice f o r - t h e same component,
I leakage current at a specified voltage once with K = C or A , and again with K = W
G insulation conductance or P.
W loss (watts) at a specified voltage B3.5.1 Power Factor. If W and A (at speci-
P product of capacitance and dissipation fied voltage V ) have each been calculated for a
factor. certain component according t o the appropri-
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Table B3
Method C
Three-Electrode System
Four-Electrode System
,,KAC
KAB A B C, G - -
KAC A C B,G - -
KBC B C A, G - -
K AG A - - B,C G
- -
KBG B A,C G
- -
KCG G A,B G
ate component formula, the power factor of CAB of a threeelectrode system, DAB =
that component can then be calculated as PAB/CAB. Expanding,
PF = W/VA D AB = 0.5 (Pi + P, - P 3 )/0.5 (C, + C2 - C 3 )
and
B3.5.2 Dissipation Factor. If P and C have
each been calculated for a certain component D A B =(CID1 + c 2 D 2 - - c 3 D 3 ) / c 1 +c2-c3)
according to the appropriate component form- B3.6 Insulation Resistance. The determination
ula, the dissipation factor of that component of the insulation resistance of a component
can then be calculated as requires that the calculations be made with K
representing conductance (the inverse of re-
D = P/C sistance), or the leakage current at a specified
As an example, having calculated PAB and test voltage. The insulation resistance in ohms
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Std 62-1978 IEEE GUIDE FOR FIELD TESTING
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